Volcanology

Mount Sinabung is an active volcano after no activity (dormant) for more than 400 years. Mount Sinabung to this day performs volcanic activity. It makes people around the Mount Sinabung’s slopes are worried. This research purposed to relocate the hypocenter to get a model of the velocity of 1-D wave P and S wave at Mount Sinabung which can be used as reference data of subsurface condition. This study uses the input data magnitude, hypocenter parameters, and the arrival time of P wave and S wave. This data is obtained from BMKG EQ (Earthquakes) Repository. The occurrence of earthquakes used in the time span from 1 January 2017 to 28 February 2017 and at coordinates of 3,0931 °N-3,3543 °N and 98.2928 °E-98.6202 °E. In this, processing also uses the parameter location of the station (sensor). The data is relocated using VELEST 3.3 software with IASP91's global speed model as the initial speed model. The result of the relocation is the correction of the station position (sensor), the final hypocenter parameters, the seismic wave timing, and the 1-D wave model P and S waves. The results obtained for the 1-D wave velocity model P at a depth of 0 km is 5.58 km/s and for a depth of 210 km, the deepest layer in this data processing amounted to 8.30 km/s.

JAMES MATKIN
The amounts of Co2 are measured in Gt and obviously the are just estimates with a great deal of annual variability. Think about the key sources of volcanoes and wildfires and how easy it is to err.
There is no actual observation of the three primary different sources of Co2. Numbers are simply statistical estimates from data. This is a significant problem for the alarmist theory of human caused global warming.


Written by James E. Kamis on November 6, 2018

Recent research shows that the volume of volcanic CO2 currently being emitted into Earth’s atmosphere is far greater than previously calculated, challenging the validity of the man-made global warming theory. 










Figure 1: Volcanic gas emissions breakthrough overlying fractured and partially melted glacial ice sheet. (Image credits: Christina Neal, AVO/USGS)
The cornerstone principle of the global warming theory, anthropogenic global warming (AGW), is built on the premise that significant increases of modern era human-induced CO2 emissions have acted to unnaturally warm Earth’s atmosphere.
A warmed atmosphere that directly, or in some cases indirectly fuels anomalous environmental disasters such as ocean warming, alteration of ocean chemistry, polar ice sheet melting, global sea level rise, coral bleaching and most importantly dramatic changes in climate.
There are numerous major problems with the AGW principle.
Identification of Volcanic vs. Man-made CO2
Natural volcanic and man-made CO2 emissions have the exact same and very distinctive carbon isotopic fingerprint.  It is therefore scientifically impossible to distinguish the difference between volcanic CO2 and human-induced CO2 from the burning of fossil fuels (see here).  This major problem with the AGW principle has been rationalized away by consensus climate scientists who insist, based supposedly reliable research, that volcanic emissions are minuscule in comparison to human-induced CO2 emissions (Gerlach 1991).  Terrance Gerlach’s volcanic CO2 calculation was based on just 7 actively erupting land volcanoes and three actively erupting ocean floor hydrothermal vents (seafloor hot geysers).  Utilizing gas emission data from this very limited number of volcanic features, Gerlach estimated that the volume of natural volcanic CO2 emissions is 100 to 150 times less than the volume of man-made CO2 emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and therefore of no consequence.
To put this calculation process into perspective, the Earth is home to 1,500 land volcanoes and 900,000 seafloor volcanoes/hydrothermal vents.  By sampling just an extremely small percent of these volcanic features it is impossible to imagine that the calculation is correct.
Especially knowing that volcanic activity varies greatly from area to area, volcano to volcano, and through time. Utilizing just 0.001 percent (10/901,500) of Earth’s volcanic features to calculate volcanic CO2 emissions does not inspire confidence in the resulting value.
Non-Erupting Volcanoes Can Emit Massive Amounts of CO2 into Earth’s Atmosphere
Recent geological research by the University of Leeds and others proves that non-erupting volcanoes can emit massive amounts of CO2 into Earth’s atmosphere and oceans. The Gerlach calculation and all follow-up calculations utilized volcanic CO2 rates from actively erupting volcanoes.
Lost in the numerous recent media articles concerning the argument of when, or if Iceland’s Katla Volcano will erupt is the discovery that this non-erupting subglacial volcano is currently emitting staggering amounts of CO2 into Earth’s atmosphere!
Researchers from the University of Leeds who studied the Katla Volcano said this.
“We discovered that Katla volcano in Iceland is a globally important source of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) in spite of being previously assumed to be a minor gas emitter. Volcanoes are a key natural source of atmospheric CO2 but estimates of the total global amount of CO2 that volcanoes emit are based on only a small number of active volcanoes. Very few volcanoes which are covered by glacial ice have been measured for gas emissions, probably because they tend to be difficult to access and often do not have obvious degassing vents.  Through high‐precision airborne measurements and atmospheric dispersion modeling, we show that Katla, a highly hazardous subglacial volcano which last erupted 100 years ago, is one of the largest volcanic sources of CO2 on Earth, releasing up to 5% of total global volcanic emissions.  This is significant in the context of a growing awareness that natural CO2 sources have to be more accurately quantified in climate assessments and we recommend urgent investigations of other subglacial volcanoes worldwide.”(see here)
The Number of Volcanoes Emitting CO2 into the Atmosphere at Any One Time
The calculation of the total yearly volume of volcanic CO2 emitted into the atmosphere is based on the presumption that very few volcanoes are erupting at any one time.  Scientists from various worldwide volcano research institutions, most notably the United States Geological Survey, have estimated this number to be 20.  This very low number has been challenged by many scientists including those at NASA.
A  multinational team led by NASA has initiated a high-resolution satellite CO2 monitoring project (see here). This project is focused on determining how many geological features are emitting CO2 at any one time.  This project may eventually give scientists a better idea of how many land volcanoes are emitting CO2 at any one time.  However, it is doubtful the project will properly record ocean CO2 emissions from Earth’s 900,000 deep ocean floor and very difficult to monitor volcanic features.  In any case, this project is certainly a step forward towards achieving a better understanding of the climate influence of volcanic CO2 emissions.
The Amount of CO2 and heat infused into Earth’s Oceans by Seafloor Geological Features
About 71% of Earth’s surface is covered by oceans making it a water, not land, planet. For many years now, scientists have contended that the nearly one million geological features present in these vast ocean regions have played a minimal role in heating and chemically charging ocean seawater.  Instead of contending that man-made atmospheric CO2 was the root cause of changes to our oceans.
http://www.plateclimatology.com/discovery-of-massive-volcanic-co2-emissions-puts-damper-on-global-warming-theory

The Colca Canyon (Central Andes, Southern Peru), about 100 km long and 1–3 km deep, forms a magnificent cross section of the
Earth’s crust giving insight into mutual relations between lithostratigraphical units, and allowing relatively easy interpretation of
the fascinating geological history written in the rocky beds and relief. Current activity of tectonic processes related to the
subduction of the Nazca plate beneath the South American Plate exposed the geological heritage within study area. Welldeveloped
tectonic structures present high scientific values. The volcanic landforms in the Valley of the Volcanoes and around
the Colca Canyon include lava flows, scoria cones and small lava domes. They represent natural phenomena which gained
recognition among tourists, scientists and local people. Studies performed by the Polish Scientific Expedition to Peru since 2003
recognized in area of Colca Canyon and Valley of the Volcanoes high geodiversity, potential for geoturism but also requirements
for protectection. The idea of creating geopark gained recently the approval of regional and local authorities with support from the
local National Geological Survey (INGEMMET). The Geopark Colca and Volcanoes of Andagua would strengthen the relatively
poor system of the protected areas in the Arequipa department, increasing the touristic attractiveness and determine constraints
for sustained regional development.

Menara-menara alami gunung api yang menjulang itu, membentang sepanjang Pulau SUmatera, Jawa, Nusa Tenggara, SUlawesi dan Kepulauan Maluku. Di sara laut pun terdapat gunung api aktif, yang sewaktu-waktu meletus. Namun, sesngguhnya, Indonesia bukan hanya mempunyai gunung api aktif berumur Kuarter, tetapi juga mempunyau gunung api berumur Tersier sampa Pratersier.

Examples of small to medium scale fault systems have been mapped in Jurassic sedimentary rocks in north Somerset, England. These examples include contractional and dilational strike-slip oversteps as well as normal faults. These maps form the basis of calculations performed to investigate heterogeneity in natural fracture systems with the aim of predicting fluid flow localisation in different fault styles. As

A field trail was conducted to test the effect of volcanic ash application on some soil properties and potato crop grown in The
Res. Station, Fac. of Agric., Cairo Univ. located at Wadi El-Natron region, El-Behira Governorate, Egypt. The results show that iron
oxides, silica and alumina represented 91.5, 6.0 and 2.5% of the total amorphous materials, respectively. Molar ratio of SiO2
/Al2O3
of
volcanic ash was 2.08. Light minerals are mainly composed of feldspars and quartz and having a specific gravity less than 2.85 g/cm3
.
Opaque, pyroxenes and amphibole heavy minerals represented about 70% of the total heavy minerals. kaolinite predominated the clay
minerals followed by montmorillonite, while cholorite was detected in trace amount. Zeolite of volcanic ash has high alumina content
and low Si/Al ratio (less than 4) which is considered a hydrophilic soil conditioner. The texture of volcanic ash is considered coarse with
bulk density value of 1.36 g/cm3
and total porosity value of 41.25% (65.90 % macro-pores and 34.10 % micro-pores). The electric
conductivity (EC) of volcanic ash was low value (0.45) and reaction value (pH) of 5.9. There was no symptom of nutrients deficit in
potato leaves or tuber as a result of using volcanic ash. Therefore, volcanic ash might be used safely to increase soil fertility and improve
soil properties as soil conditioner. Moreover soil productivity might be augmented by applying volcanic ash to the soil
Keywords: Volcanic ash, soil fertility, soil conditioner, light and heavy minerals, potato crop.

Large volcanic eruptions on Earth commonly occur with a collapse of the roof of a crustal magma reservoir, forming a caldera. Only a few such collapses occur per century, and the lack of detailed observations has obscured insight into the mechanical interplay between collapse and eruption. We use multiparameter geophysical and geochemical data to show that the 110-square-kilometer and 65-meter-deep collapse of Bárdarbunga caldera in 2014-2015 was initiated through withdrawal of magma, and lateral migration through a 48-kilometers-long dike, from a 12-kilometers deep reservoir. Interaction between the pressure exerted by the subsiding reservoir roof and the physical properties of the subsurface flow path explain the gradual, near-exponential decline of both collapse rate and the intensity of the 180-day-long eruption.

Large volcanic eruptions on Earth commonly occur with a collapse of the roof of a crustal magma reservoir, forming a caldera. Only a few such collapses occur per century, and the lack of detailed observations has obscured insight into the mechanical interplay between collapse and eruption. We use multiparameter geophysical and geochemical data to show that the 110-square-kilometer and 65-meter-deep collapse of Bárdarbunga caldera in 2014-2015 was initiated through withdrawal of magma, and lateral migration through a 48-kilometers-long dike, from a 12-kilometers deep reservoir. Interaction between the pressure exerted by the subsiding reservoir roof and the physical properties of the subsurface flow path explain the gradual, near-exponential decline of both collapse rate and the intensity of the 180-day-long eruption.

Large volcanic eruptions on Earth commonly occur with a collapse of the roof of a crustal magma reservoir, forming a caldera. Only a few such collapses occur per century, and the lack of detailed observations has obscured insight into the mechanical interplay between collapse and eruption. We use multiparameter geophysical and geochemical data to show that the 110-square-kilometer and 65-meter-deep collapse of Bárdarbunga caldera in 2014-2015 was initiated through withdrawal of magma, and lateral migration through a 48-kilometers-long dike, from a 12-kilometers deep reservoir. Interaction between the pressure exerted by the subsiding reservoir roof and the physical properties of the subsurface flow path explain the gradual, near-exponential decline of both collapse rate and the intensity of the 180-day-long eruption.

An archaeological survey covering 50 acres was conducted in and around Luatele or Judds Crater, an extinct volcano, on Ta’u Island, Manu'a District, American Samoa. The project identified twenty-four precontact sites comprising 101 archaeological features and a 142 m cave associated with the Samoan legend of Vaatausili. These features include star mounds, oval boulder mounds, platforms, rock walls, and terraces associated with Solo Tagata or “line of people." At the base of the crater is a large mound with small stone mounds and walls surrounding this central edifice. The archaeological features and cultural histories of Luatele suggest ritual and socio-political sources of mana or prestige for the persistent dynasty of the premier chief, Tuimanu'a, complementing other studies citing the intensification of agriculture during the 14th century.

The 1913 volcanic eruption on the island of Ambrym (Vanuatu) struck both groups composing the island’s population at the time, the Islanders and the British Presbyterians who had come to ‘civilise’ them. Through the lens of Peirce’s semiosis, particularly his notion of the ‘indexical sign’, this article examines the chronological development of the two groups’ divergent, and also at times convergent interpretations of the eruption as a sign. This semiotic analysis is then extended into the island’s socio-historical context, from the Presbyterians’ first attempts at missions to the catastrophic upheaval that decimated the island’s population until the 1940s, to study how the two groups interpreted themselves, each other, Western Christianity and the traditional Ambrymese belief and authority system.

This short communication aims at providing an updated report on degassing activity and ground deformation variations observed during the ongoing (2012-2019) Campi Flegrei caldera unrest, with a particular focus on Pisciarelli, currently its most active fumarolic field. We show that the CO 2 flux from the main Pisciarelli fu-marolic vent (referred as "Soffione") has increased by a factor > 3 since 2012, reaching in 2018-2019 levels (>600 tons/day) that are comparable to those typical of a medium-sized erupting arc volcano. A substantial widening of the degassing vents and bubbling pools, and a further increase in CO 2 concentrations in ambient air (up to 6000 ppm), have also been detected since mid-2018. We interpret this escalating CO 2 degassing activity using a multidisciplinary dataset that includes thermodynamically estimated pressures for the source hydrothermal system, seismic and ground deformation data. From this analysis, we show that degassing, deformation and seismicity have all reached in 2018-2019 levels never observed since the onset of the unrest in 2005, with an overall uplift of ~57 cm and ~448 seismic events in the last year. The calculated pressure of the Campi Flegrei hydrothermal system has reached ~44 bar and is rapidly increasing. Our results raise concern on the possible evolution of the Campi Flegrei unrest and reinforce the need for careful monitoring of the de-gassing activity at Pisciarelli, hopefully with the deployment of additional permanent gas monitoring units.

Unravelling the rheological behaviour of magmas is fundamental for hazard assessment. At shallow depth the combined effects of degassing, vesiculation and crystallization are likely to produce dramatic changes in the rheology, hence modulating flow dynamics and eruptive style. The rheological evolution from a low viscosity crystal-poor, bubble-free, water-rich melt to a highly viscous crystal-rich, vesicular magma containing a water-poor melt often occurs in the conduit. To clarify the viscous flow dynamics of rheologically-layered volcanic conduits, we performed decompression experiments using a magma analogue system characterized by a low-viscous Layer L (10 Pa s) at the bottom and a high-viscous particle-bearing Layer H (≥1000 Pa s) at the top. Silicone oils and spherical glass beads are employed as magma and crystal analogues, respectively. Three sets of experiments address the effects of: 1) decompression rate (ca. 10 −2 and 10 4 MPa/s); 2) crystal content in the high viscosity magma (0, 10, 30 and 70 vol.%); and 3) volume ratio of the two rheological layers (0.6 or 0.3). Our results indicate that decompression rate exerts the most dramatic role, yielding changes in timescale of outgassing up to two orders of magnitude, and affecting the style of decompression response (permeable outgassing or fragmentation). The solid fraction 1) strongly modulates gas mobility, 2) influences the pervasiveness of fragmentation and 3) affects the extent of mingling in the experimental conduit. These results demonstrate that the properties of a shallow, partially-crystallized portion of the magmatic column and its response to varying ascent rate are primary controls on eruptive style.