Threats

This paper 2 extends a proposed theory on information security using pilot data to further refine and elaborate. We argue that the goal of information security is imperfectly understood and aim to bring about an altered understanding of why efforts are made to engage in information security. The goal of information security is widely recognized as the confidentiality, integrity and availability of information however we argue that the goal is actually to create business resources. This paper responds to calls for more theory in information systems and challenges our thinking. In a phenomenological grounded theory study, this paper identifies the core concepts of information security, and describes the relationships between these concepts. The paper provides the theoretical base for understanding why information is protected, in addition to theoretical and practical implications, and future research suggestions.

This paper proposes a theory on information security. We argue that information security is imperfectly understood and aim to bring about an altered understanding of why efforts are made to engage in information security. The goal of information security is widely recognised as the confidentiality, integrity and availability of information however we argue that the goal is actually to simply create resources. This paper responds to calls for more theory in information systems, places the discussion in philosophical context and compares various definitions. It then identifies the key concepts of information security, describes the relationships between these concepts, as well as scope and causal explanations. The paper provides the theoretical base for understanding why information is protected, in addition to theoretical and practical implications and suggestions for future research.

Background: Hate speech is a very important problem nowadays. One can meet it in one’s immediate surroundings (conversations with friends), the media, the Internet, or in the so-called public space (for example, inscriptions on the walls). One form of hate speech is online hate speech, which, together with certain other phenomena, is referred to as hejt in the Polish language. The authors of the article focus on presenting online hate speech in relation to various age and social groups. Objectives: The aim of the article is to present the phenomenon of hate speech on the web and its impact on the safety of Internet users. Methods: The article uses basic theoretical and empirical methods. Content published on the Internet is analyzed and case studies are described. Interviews with experts (psychologists, police officers, sociologists, media and hate speech specialists) were also conducted and their views are presented. Conclusions: In the discussion about hate speech, prevention is e...

We examined the outcomes of an extinction threat (possible discontinuation of a group’s symbolic or actual existence) to one’s nation on global citizenship identification and related prosocial values. In Study 1, participants showed a drop in global citizenship identification when America was threatened (vs. absence of threat). In Study 2, participants reported lower global citizenship identification when America was threatened (vs. absence of threat) and the perception that one’s normative environment did not support a global citizen identity mediated the relationship between threat and identification. Furthermore, the threat was shown to indirectly predict lower endorsement for prosocial values and behaviors (e.g., intergroup empathy and helping). Together, the results highlight threats to subgroups as a potential barrier to viewing oneself as a global citizen.

We examined the outcomes of an extinction threat (possible discontinuation of a group’s symbolic or actual existence) to one’s nation on global citizenship identification and related prosocial values. In Study 1, participants showed a drop in global citizenship identification when America was threatened (vs. absence of threat). In Study 2, participants reported lower global citizenship identification when America was threatened (vs. absence of threat) and the perception that one’s normative environment did not support a global citizen identity mediated the relationship between threat and identification. Furthermore, the threat was shown to indirectly predict lower endorsement for prosocial values and behaviors (e.g., intergroup empathy and helping). Together, the results highlight threats to subgroups as a potential barrier to viewing oneself as a global citizen.

"Vorrei dedicaste la stessa attenzione con la quale seguite le mie vicende anche alla situazione degli altri avvocati e difensori dei diritti umani ingiustamente perseguitati in Iran e nel mondo". Nasrin Sotoudeh, 22 novembre 2020. Sommario. 1. Lo statuto internazionale della tutela della professione forense-2. Le fonti degli attacchi alla funzione difensiva-3. Il caso Azerbaigian-4. La Corte di Strasburgo e gli attacchi alla professione forense in Azerbaigian-4.1. I procedimenti di sospensione e radiazione dall'albo dell'Ordine degli Avvocati dell'Azerbaigian-4.2. I casi di sospensioni e radiazioni pendenti avanti la Corte Europea dei Diritti dell'Uomo comunicati alle parti-4.3. Il rifiuto della richiesta di essere iscritti all'albo tenuto dall'Ordine degli Avvocati dell'Azerbaigian-4.4. I procedimenti penali nei confronti degli avvocati impegnati nelle Organizzazioni non governative-4.5. Il problema dell'esecuzione delle sentenze della Corte di Strasburgo da parte dell'Azerbaigian-5. Conclusioni: il valore della solidarietà nell'Avvocatura.

Diversity of reptile fauna, as well as threat factors were investigated during April and May 2019 in the settlement Mareza. Field methodology included active searching and visual observation of species along defined transects. In total, 20 reptile species were recorded, what comprises about 55 % of reptile fauna known for Montenegro. According to obtained results, area of Mareza can be considered as important reptile diversity hotspot in Montenegro. First finding of Xerotyphlops vermicularis in this area contribute to knowledge of its distribution range. Three identified species (Emys orbicularis, Testudo hermanni and Elaphe quatuorlineata) are listed on Annex II of the Habitat Directive. None of identified species are vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered, upon the IUCN Red List. Almost all identified species are protected on national level. Main threat factors for reptile fauna in the area of Mareza are: urbanization, habitat fragmentation and destruction, fires, illegal landfills, direct killing by locals and road killing.

Marine mammals can play important ecological roles in aquatic ecosystems, and their presence can be key to community structure and function. Consequently, marine mammals are often considered indicators of ecosystem health and flagship species. Yet, historical population declines caused by exploitation, and additional current threats, such as climate change, fisheries bycatch, pollution and maritime development, continue to impact many marine mammal species, and at least 25% are classified as threatened (Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable) on the IUCN Red List. Conversely, some species have experienced population increases/recoveries in recent decades, reflecting management interventions, and are heralded as conservation successes. To continue these successes and reverse the downward trajectories of at-risk species, it is necessary to evaluate the threats faced by marine mammals and the conservation mechanisms available to address them. Additionally, there is a need to identify evidence-based priorities of both research and conservation needs across a range of settings and taxa. To that effect we: (1) outline the key threats to marine mammals and their impacts, identify the associated knowledge gaps and recommend actions needed; (2) discuss the merits and downfalls of established and emerging conservation mechanisms; (3) outline the application of research and monitoring techniques; and (4) highlight particular taxa/populations that are in urgent need of focus.

This position paper demonstrates that the global and cumulative cost of dealing with spam is at the level of some natural disasters. Internet email has been a very powerful new technology with enormous social and scientific benefits. However, Internet contamination has currently become a serious social problem. In particular, email spam is a significant irritant and personal stressor which impairs quality of life. Technology solutions, such as filtering tools, are useful but imperfect as they are either too tight or too loose and require their own daily management. Spam volume has impaired daily operations of individual computers and causes servers to crash. It also threatens data integrity as important messages are often filtered along with the unwanted ones. Excessive Internet usage already can threaten mental health and the huge growth of spam only threatens to make the problem intolerable in the very near future. Spam is driven by profit. Social solutions, such as collective action, are needed as spam is a global threat and needs to be prosecuted as a serious threat to security.

The primary objective of the construction of the Digital Database of Hungarian Verbal Charms within the ERC East-West Ethnology of Religion Research Group was to provide access for researchers to formerly published and manuscript verbal charms in a multi dimensional online database and to promote search along multiple aspects. The digitization of the documents of early modern witch trials in Hungary also took place within the framework of the above mentioned ERC project, therefore in the first phase of the construction of the database it was suggested that the moderate historical corpus
of Hungarian verbal charms should be supplemented with early modern texts, for which purpose the testimonies of witch trials seemed to be appropriate. The incantations documented in the testimonies of witch trials offer excellent research opportunities. On the one hand the phenomenon of incantation can be explored in a context that is different from that of folklore collections, on the other hand early modern lay, primarily oral tradition can be investigated, and, finally, the corpus that consists of mainly healing texts can be supplemented with malevolent ones. The author in her paper exploring the testimonies of early modern witch trials in Debrecen and in Bihar county presents what kind of problems and issues have emerged (primarily those related to the genre of texts) in course of creating the corpus. The primary question for which she seeks answer is what kind of texts could be chosen from the malevolent threatening texts recorded in the testimonies of witch trials for the digital database of Hungarian verbal charms. Historical speech act research recently has provided remarkable perspectives for the investigation of early modern written sources preserving spoken language and especially the verbal interactions recorded in the documents of witch hunt. Therefore the author also discusses whether the achievements
of historical pragmatics can provide any help (and if yes, then what kind of help) for the solution of generic problems of verbal magic.

Terrapins are integral to many freshwater ecosystems, yet are imperilled at a global scale. In Sri Lanka, terrapins are understudied; thus, much of their natural history and distribution status remain unknown. Such paucity of studies impedes conservation. In this study, 79 freshwater habitats located outside the protected area network of southwestern Sri Lanka were surveyed to document current population densities and habitat use of two terrapin species: Indian black terrapin (Melanochelys trijuga thermalis) and flap‐shelled terrapin (Lissemys ceylonensis). Local inhabitants were interviewed to assess human threats towards terrapins. Both species were recorded in low densities: 1–2 individuals ha−1. Indian black terrapin was found in half of the surveyed sites while flap shelled terrapin occurred in one‐third of the surveyed sites. Highly urbanized river basins had the lowest densities for both species while rural basins supported higher numbers. Basking was the predominant behaviour of both species and large woody debris and boulders were preferred as basking substrates, together with sparsecanopy aquatic habitats with intact marshlands. Overharvesting for meat was a major threat for terrapins. Most local inhabitants were unaware of legislation on terrapin conservation and the ecological importance of terrapins. Human threats such as pollution, modification of aquatic and wetland habitats, and loss of riparian forests were frequently observed in surveyed sites. Terrapin populations outside the protected area are at risk as evidenced by lower population densities and a multitude of human threats. A landscape‐scale ecosystem‐based conservation approach is recommended for Sri Lanka's terrapins with incorporation of lands with different management regimes (privately owned, municipality managed) into the protected area network. Current environmental legislation should be revised to support buffer zone delineation for aquatic habitats, wetland restoration, and landscape‐scale connectivity.

Militære maktmidler har i lang tid dominert tenkningen omkring hvordan stater sikrer sin suverenitet,
sitt territorium og sin befolkning. Økonomiske kapasiteter og makt har i stor grad blitt holdt adskilt
fra analyser av forsvars- og sikkerhetspolitikk. I nyere tid har det imidlertid blitt større oppmerksomhet på at stater kan bruke sine økonomiske kapasiteter for å oppnå strategiske og politiske mål i
internasjonal politikk. Økonomiske virkemidler har slik potensial for å true andre staters sikkerhetsinteresser. Bekymringer knyttet til utenlandske investeringer i Norge innen strategisk viktige sektorer
som telekommunikasjon og IT har spesielt skutt fart. Investeringer er imidlertid bare ett av mange
økonomiske virkemidler en stat kan benytte seg av for å nå strategiske mål – og de økonomiske
virkemidlene kan på sin side kombineres med ikke-økonomiske virkemidler som cyber- eller påvirkningsoperasjoner. Denne rapporten er et bidrag til å gi norske myndigheter bedre forståelse for de
truslene og utfordringene vi står overfor i møtet med denne nye virkeligheten.
I rapporten studerer vi hvordan andre staters bruk av økonomiske virkemidler kan true nasjonal
sikkerhet. Vi drøfter også hvordan identifiserte utfordringskategorier for sikkerhetstruende virksomhet
kan integreres i en risiko- og sårbarhetsanalyse. Det er imidlertid utenfor denne rapportens omfang å
gjennomføre en full analyse. Rapporten har til formål å avdekke sentrale områder for videre utredning
og forskning om hvordan investeringer og andre økonomiske virkemidler kan true nasjonal sikkerhet
samt politikkutforming innen området. Vi identifiserer flere områder der kunnskapsgrunnlaget er
særlig svakt. Dersom Norge skal lykkes i å beskytte seg mot økonomiske virkemidler, må vi bedre
forstå både truslene som kan ramme oss, våre sårbarheter og hvordan disse henger sammen med
verdiene vi ønsker å beskytte i det norske samfunnet.
Det finnes bred forskningslitteratur om staters bruk av økonomiske virkemidler for å oppnå strategiske
mål, men studiene er sjelden konkrete om hvilke trusler og sårbarheter en småstat som Norge vil ha
overfor stormakter og andre staters bruk av slike midler. Vi identifiserer også flere andre sentrale
kunnskapsgap i litteraturen. Til sammen er det derfor utfordrende å avdekke truslene fra utenlandske
investeringer og andre økonomiske virkemidler mot Norge. For å kunne beskrive de ulike typene
trusler som Norge kan møte, har vi strukturert innsikten fra litteraturen i en morfologisk analyse. På
den måten får vi beskrevet handlinger hvor det er relativt få historiske eksempler, men som likevel er
aktuelle for Norge. Vi identifiserer seks utfordringskategorier hvor økonomiske virkemidler kan utgjøre
sikkerhetstruende virksomhet: tilrettelegge for skjult angrep og sabotasje, statlig påvirkningsaktivitet,
statlig etterretningsaktivitet, omgå ikke-spredningsbestemmelser, beskytte strategiske interesser og
endre styrkeforhold. Det er også mulig å kombinere disse handlingene med andre virkemidler. Slike
kombinasjoner kan gi en dypere forståelse av truslene fra økonomiske virkemidler.
Trusler er én av tre dimensjoner i en risiko- og sårbarhetsanalyse. Det er også viktig å vurdere hva
som er verdifullt for oss og som vi følgelig ønsker å beskytte. Vi diskuterer hvordan grunnleggende
nasjonale funksjoner kan representere verdier samt potensielle utfordringer ved dette. Deretter redegjør vi for relevante aspekter å ta hensyn til langs dimensjonen sårbarheter, inkludert avhengigheter
mellom sektorer og prosesser, kompleksitet, tilstedeværelsen av effektive barrierer og kontekstuelle
og landspesifikke faktorer. Innenfor hver dimensjon gir vi anbefalinger til videre studier og analyser
for å tette kunnskapshull.

Individuals tend to compare themselves with others, and the results of these self-evaluations influence subsequent performance. When individuals perceive an
advantage over their rivals (challenge-type response), they achieve higher levels of performance. According to the biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat,
benefits of favourable appraisals are partly mediated by cardiovascular efficiency, which is increased by challenge and decreased by threat evaluations. In this study,
we tested whether the biopsychosocial model can be extended to predict behavioural outcomes in esports. We expected that challenge-type evaluations would increase performance compared to threat-type evaluations. Eighty-two men were assigned to a challenge or threat group and completed three rounds of Counter-
Strike: Global Offensive – a video game popular in esports. Individuals with the highest scores were awarded cash prizes. Cardiovascular markers of challenge and threat, cognitive appraisals, and game scores were recorded. We manipulated the social challenge and social threat evaluation by informing participants that their
performance in the initial round was superior (challenge) or inferior (threat) compared with other gamers. We found that individuals with more gaming experience,
believed they were better than other gamers, had higher heart rate and, in turn, achieved higher scores. These effects were related to initial situational appraisal at
the baseline and were not boosted by feedback provided during the actual performance. These results are the first to document that social comparisons among gamers
are accurate in the prediction of future physiological and behavioural outcomes. Furthermore, these findings emphasize that physiological responses mediate
relationships between action-related cognitions and performance.