History of Race and Ethnicity

Az alábbi tanulmányban arra keressük a választ, hogyan éltek Buda legnépesebb külvárosában az először az 1690. évi Arsenije Čarnojevic-féle betelepüléssel, majd több hullámban ideköltöző ortodox rácok, hogy különültek el topográfiailag a katolikus lakosságtól, milyen volt a viszonyuk egymással, milyen a környezet, amelyben éltek.

The Special Relationship Between People and Trees.
People and trees have far more things in common than many of us realize. Below we share some interesting and wonderful things people and trees have in common and why the relationship between people and trees is so special and important. This includes the fact that both humans and trees are mostly water, we share similar physical characteristics, and each one of us are completely unique. In addition, humans and trees are interdependent - we breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide, while trees take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen. This extraordinary connection between people and trees is evolving even further as more and more people are electing to use a tree urn after they pass. With this, families can grow a beautiful living memorial tree from a Living Urn containing cremated ashes to honor a loved one and give back.
What People and Trees Have in Common
Physical Characteristics
Both, people and trees, stand upright with a crown on top and limbs stemming from a central trunk. In addition, the tubular branching pattern of our lungs resembles the root system of many trees.
Uniqueness and Beauty
Every person and every tree is unique and no two are exactly alike. With trees colors can vary, branches can grow and bend at different angles, and buds and flowers occur at different places. Similar to people, trees have different growth rates, with variation in height and volume. Some grow tall while others are short.  Some remain skinny and others grow wide. The uniqueness and diversity evident in both trees and people helps to make the world a more interesting and beautiful place!
Reliance on Water
Both people and trees are comprised of mostly water and rely on this resource to survive. Most trees are made up of more than 50% water. Similarly, an adult person is made up of approximately 60% water.  Without water, life as we now it would not be possible for people, trees, and everything else.
Reliance on Others
Did you know that there are just as many microbes on the human body as actual human cells?  Even though these microbes are not part of the body, they perform functions important to human life.  Similar to people, trees also rely on other living organisms for survival and reproduction. For example, many trees rely on certain fungi to stick to their roots and to enable them to sufficiently extract water from the soil. In addition, many trees and shrubs (including the cherry tree, serviceberry, plum, among others) rely on pollinating insects to exchange pollen from their flowering blooms to regenerate.
Live in Communities
According to an article in the Smithsonian in March 2018, researchers have compiled evidence that trees of the same species are actually communal organisms (like humans) and can even form alliances with trees of other species. The researchers also found that forest trees have evolved to live in interdependent and cooperative relationships that are sustained by communication and a collective intelligence similar to an insect colony or a city.
The Symbiotic Relationship Between People and Trees
Trees and people have an interdependent relationship. One example is we breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide. Trees, on the other hand, take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen into the atmosphere. The role trees play in the ecosystem is vital for human and other life on earth. In addition, trees support us by providing shade and shelter, preventing soil erosion, serving as wind breaks, cleaning the groundwater, and by providing food.
Trees and Spirituality
The special connection between people and trees can be seen in cultures all over the world, even going back to ancient times. As we admire trees today and understand the importance of their role for life on earth, so did early man. This is evident in the  symbolism of trees recorded throughout history. In addition to providing needs such as food, shelter, healing, and protection, trees have also played an important part in the spirituality of various groups of people and religions.
The Tree of Life or trees used as a symbol can be found throughout various religious texts. This includes the Tree of Knowledge and Tree of Life in the Bible, the Tree of Immortality in the Quran, the Assyrian Tree of Life in Ancient Mesopotamia, and the Bo or Bodhi Tree in Buddhism, among others. In addition, ancient people in Greece, Persia and other regions commonly used the world tree motif symbol, which shows the roots of the tree wrapped around Earth and its branches in the heavens. This symbol represents a tree which supports the heavens and connecting the heavens to the terrestrial world, and, with its roots, the underworld.’
Trees and a Sense of Place
Trees connect us to where we live. Our eyes are often drawn to them when we go outdoors and they can serve as landmarks and help us find our way.  Many people consciously or subconsciously remember a place they visited by what trees were present and can have a feeling or memory come to mind when they see a tree. For example, people who are from or lived in coastal areas of California, Florida, or Hawaii can remember memorable times in their life and at those moments palm trees being present. If you’re from Ohio or Pennsylvania, many will remember a childhood filled with maple trees and the beautiful fall colors they displayed. Other people can remember the scent of orange or cherry blossoms from a nearby grove growing up , or the majestic pine and spruce trees from vacations in the mountains.
The Future: Mankind and Trees
According to a recent study by Yale University, there are over 3 trillion trees on earth. However, these numbers are declining by over 15 billion per year and we’ve lost over 45 percent of the trees on earth since mankind began cutting them down. On the other hand, there are over 7.6 billion people on earth and this number is growing at approximately 80 million per year.
The good news is many people are aware of this issue and are working hard to preserve and protect ecosystems and trees for future generations. Organizations like the Arbor Day Foundation and others are focused on replanting our precious forests that have suffered from fires, insect infestation and human destruction.
In addition, the concept of The Living Urn is growing in popularity and contributes to these preservation efforts in a truly personal way. The idea of a tree burial connects with so many people because of the special relationship that exists between people and trees. What better way to honor a loved one and give back to the ones left behind than to plant a Living Urn biotree urn and create a tree memorial. In addition, for every Living Urn planted, the company donates to plant a second tree in an area in the U.S. in need of reforestation (doubling the impact!).

This book offers a historical approach to the topics of ›race‹ and ›blood‹ in the Spanish Atlantic world, with extended comparative glances toward other Iberian imperial contexts (Portuguese India) and periods (the modern). Max S. Hering Torres (Universidad Nacional de Colombia – Bogotá) proposes to analyze processes of racialization in plural before the modern period. María Eugenia Chaves (Universidad Nacional de Colombia – Medellín) addresses the question of whether it is analytically appropriate to apply the concept of ›race‹ to early modern Spanish and Spanish American contexts. David Graizbord (The University of Arizona) examines the intricate dynamics of ›race‹ and ›blood‹ in Iberian discourses of otherness. Karoline P. Cook (University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign) analyzes the discourse of limpieza de sangre in relation to Spain’s Muslims and moriscos in New Granada. Laura A. Lewis (James Madison University) probes the meanings of the Spanish notions of race and its relationships with gender in colonial Mexico. Ângela Barreto Xavier (Universidade de Lisboa) explains what casta, raza, and limpieza de sangre meant in Goa. Tamar Herzog (Stanford University) discusses the place of Gypsies, indigenous people, and blacks within discourses of citizenship and nativeness. Focusing on Cuba, David Sartorius (University of Maryland) analyses the discussions about how to transform colonial subjects into citizens. Thomas C. Holt’s (University of Chicago) explores the works of two scientists of the interwar period whose research in different ways contributed to what he calls ›blood science‹.

This article highlights the origins and constitution of the black power elites who would come to serve as the bearers of ideological and linguistic domination for black people the world-over in the age of neoliberal globalization. The work puts forth the argument that people of African descent in the age of neoliberal globalization are under the ideological and linguistic domination of two identities, the negro, i.e., black bourgeoisie, or African Americans, on the one hand, under the leadership of educated professionals and preachers; and the “my nigga,” i.e., the black underclass, on the
other hand, under the leadership of street and prison personalities, athletes, and entertainers vying for ideological and linguistic domination of black America. These two social class language games were historically constituted by different ideological apparatuses, the church and education on the one hand and the streets, prisons, and the athletic and entertainment industries on the other, of the global capitalist racial-class structure of inequality under American hegemony, which replaced the African ideological apparatuses of Vodou, peristyles, lakous, and agricultural production as found in Haiti. Contemporarily, given both groups’ overrepresentation in the ideological superstructures of the American empire, they, antagonistically, have
become the bearers of ideological and linguistic domination for all black youth the world-over.

An examination into the lives of Joseph, William, and John Smith broadens our understanding of the colonial Chesapeake while deepening our knowledge of Gypsy history. Doing so allows Gypsies to be written into the historical narrative as discrete actors, rather than mythologized into a timeless landscape. It also provides a fuller picture of the population living in the late colonial Chesapeake. Though sources about these men are scant, contextualizing their experiences reveals their lives and decisions as convict servants to have been fairly typical for the time and place. However, a deeper reading of their runaway advertisement suggests that the local population must have had plenty of experience with either real or imagined Gypsies to have created their own assumptions of what it meant to be Gypsy.

While racism continues to spread, its analysis has been split into a number of different approaches. Generally, their proponents are not profoundly interested in the history of their own concept and are content with a superficial perpetuation of some insufficient references. And yet, getting back to the early development of the semantic field of ›racism‹ can contribute to an understanding of the various interests affecting its shaping and of the diverging infulences determining its later development. It shows that ›racism‹ had a broad-ranging history until its concept was constricted in the course of the rejection of its fascist German form. And it makes clear that its shaping was paralleled by the transformation of the concept of race into an instrument of critique and resistance.

Race theorists have been unable to reach a consensus regarding the basic historical question, "is 'race' modern?" I argue that this is partly because the question itself is ambiguous. There is not really one question that race scholars are answering, but at least six. First, is the concept of race modern? Second, is there a modern concept of race that is distinct from earlier race concepts? Third, are "races" themselves modern? Fourth, are racialized groups modern? Fifth, are the means and methods associated with racialization modern? And sixth, are the meanings attached to racialized traits modern? Because these questions have different answers, the debate about the historical origins of "race" cannot be resolved unless they are distinguished. I will explain the ways in which "race" is and is not modern by answering these questions, thereby offering a resolution to a seemingly intractable problem.

This paper argues that the Chinese concept of harmony is exemplified in the historical process that resulted in the Chinese people and the geographic entity of China itself. The concept of harmony overcomes the dualism between identity and heterogeneity and is best understood through the paradigm of the organic. This paper will first outline the three conventional, dualistic, (mis)understandings of the nature of the Chinese people and China in the mainstream Western academe: (1) in racial terms, that is, as possessing the “essence” of Chinese-ness, (2) the Chinese people were created through “sinicisation” – understood as replacing one culture with another, (3) neither China nor the Chinese people ever existed; what existed was merely heterogeneous particulars without an overall coherence. In place of these dualistic explanations, it will be argued that the concept of the harmony – understood as an organic coherence among particulars – is the most accurate way to understand the Chinese people and China as an entity. An organism maintains coherence among the parts despite constant changes to the particulars that constitute its body. This organic harmony is exemplified in the historical process that produced the Chinese people and China.

Appel à communications. La journée d’études s’inscrit dans le cadre du projet « Dire le racisme » (DIRA) de l’IC MIGRATIONS. Elle rejoint les travaux de l’axe « Processus de racialisation » du département INTEGER, en plaçant la focale sur des enjeux conceptuels et méthodologiques, formalisés à un triple niveau : 1/ Enjeux définitoires, conceptuels et méthodologiques soulevés par les notions de race-racismes-racialisations; 2/ Démarches profanes et politiques de catégorisation du racisme ; 3/ (D)énoncer le racisme autour de questionnements portant sur les figures historiques, ainsi que les logiques ordinaires et plus individuelles de « dire » ou « ne pas dire » le racisme.

This semester the focus of this unit will be on the history, philosophy, and politics of race and racism. Academic race discourse sits at the intersection of overlapping research programs taking place in a number of fields including cultural anthropology, the history of science, sociology, political theory, communication studies, and critical philosophy of race. While the questions being posed by these fields generally start with an analysis of the concept of race-and its various histories as a biological, political, and/or cultural construction-the subsequent investigations cover a wide territory such that analyses of socioeconomic forces, power and oppression in the State, the history and politics of slavery, immigration and asylum, incarceration, and institutional and structural racism, sit alongside separate investigations in black feminism, political phenomenology, standpoint epistemology, and philosophical historiography, to name only a few.

What kind of discourse does the interracial dating website and community AfroRomance produce? How does this discourse construct different racialised and gendered groups? How do the discourses on AfroRomance reflect and/or reject various hegemonic beliefs, ideas and attitudes about blac and white 'races', racism and black-white interracial relationships?

The HBO drama, Watchmen, is part of an ever-growing canon of comic books adapted for TV. Taking place 34 years after its print publication, the TV series refocuses the comic’s deconstruction of Cold War anxieties by exploring ongoing racial tensions in Tulsa, Oklahoma... - visit: https://cstonline.net/watchmens-parallax-view-handling-past-traumas-and-present-tensions-by-jack-black/

Colonial Migrants at the Heart of Empire is the first in-depth look at the experiences of Puerto Rican migrant workers in continental U.S. agriculture in the twentieth century. The Farm Labor Program, established by the government of Puerto Rico in 1947, placed hundreds of thousands of migrant workers on U.S. farms and fostered the emergence of many stateside Puerto Rican communities. Ismael García-Colón investigates the origins and development of this program and uncovers the unique challenges faced by its participants.

A labor history and an ethnography, Colonial Migrants evokes the violence, fieldwork, food, lodging, surveillance, and coercion that these workers experienced on farms and conveys their hopes and struggles to overcome poverty. Island farmworkers encountered a unique form of prejudice and racism arising from their dual status as both U.S. citizens and as “foreign others,” and their experiences were further shaped by evolving immigration policies. Despite these challenges, many Puerto Rican farmworkers ultimately chose to settle in rural U.S. communities, contributing to the production of food and the Latinization of the U.S. farm labor force.

Es ist keineswegs selbsterklärend, warum der moderne Massenwohnungsbau in erstaunlich vielen westlichen Gesellschaften bereits um 1970 in Verruf geraten war. Das öffentliche Image der Großsiedlungen etwa, die seit den 1950er Jahren an den Rändern französischer und westdeutscher Städte entstanden, wechselte binnen weniger Jahre von positiv zu negativ. Eben noch Inbegriff für Fortschritt und Vermittelschichtung, waren sie kurz darauf zu einem Inbegriff für soziale Randständigkeit geworden. Diesem Prozess widmet sich der Vortrag. Er geht darauf ein, wie einzelne Großsiedlungen im Rahmen soziologischer und massenmedialer Beobachtungen sowie aktivistischer Interventionen als urbane Problemzonen hergestellt wurden. Denn tatsächlich war die schrittweise Abwertung der Siedlungen nicht nur ein Ergebnis stadtplanerischer Fehlentscheidungen. Sie war auch das Resultat wechselnder Formen der Gesellschaftskritik.

By looking at a canonical article representing academic philosophy’s orthodox view against cultural relativism, James Rachels’ “The Challenge of Cultural Relativism,” this paper argues that current mainstream western academic philosophy’s fear of cultural relativism is premised on a fear of the racial Other. The examples that Rachels marshals against cultural relativism default to the persistent, ubiquitous and age-old stereotypes about the savage/barbarian Other that has dominated the history of western engagement with the non-western world. What academic philosophy fears about cultural relativism, it is argued, is the barbarian of the western imagination and not fellow human beings. The same structure that informs fears of cultural relativism, whereby people with different customs are reduced to the barbarian/savage of the western imagination, can be seen in the genesis of international law which arose as a justification for the domination of the Amerindian (parsed as “barbarians”). It is argued that implicit in arguments against cultural relativism is the preservation of the same right to dominate the Other. Finally, it is argued that the appeal of the fear of cultural relativism is that, in directing moral outrage at others, one can avoid reflecting on the failures of one’s own cultural tradition.