Functional Anatomy

This book is part of a series that is designed to help medical student to study via solving questions, to get the maximum benefit, one shall study from a rich and knowledgeable textbook first; the questions in this book are grouped into four sections: • Section One: MCQs (Type-A): covers the level of recall in the cognitive domain. • Section Two: Scenario-Based Questions: the questions are primary MCQs based on given scenarios (Cases) to cover the level of comprehension in the cognitive domain. • Section Three: Extended Matching Questions EMQs to cover the level of the application of knowledge in the cognitive domain. • Section Four: Medical Imaging: questions about normal X-ray and CT scan images are provided in this section

Unfortunately the interest in the specific research on the sensitive organ Paratympanic of Vitali (PTO) (1-2-3-4-5-6) , remains as “zero” despite many typologies of open research’s fields over PTO and related questions and still unsolved answers from the Science .

It is basic to say “ PTO is used daily by enormous number of living animals (200-300 billions of birds ) but represents currently one of the major unsolved mysteries and challenges in sensory physiology of vertebrates “ (8) ( Giannessi F. and co-Aut.,2013).

We have explored many items concerning PTO by retroactive and real-time analysis of “evidence based” data from Bibliography,Web-bibliography,Archives and from the field as previously published (35-35-41 ) .

The basic question is as following : “ why 200-300.000 woodpigeons in stop-over started all together in few minutes by a mass-takeoff , continuing transcontinental migration ? “ as happened 31 October 2017 from Mesola forest (Ferrara-Italy) fully documented and by the video https://youtu.be/pGK6z9SY8Cg ( Denis Bianchi -2017) and our forecast 4 days before the event.

Mass-continuing-fly at same altitude (altimetric function) and isobaric corridors as by video 2018 from Pamplona (Spain) https://youtu.be/4Tb5kGRagtg –https://youtu.be/ty6pdmkSdGo



What,where is the finger pushing the bottom of the takeoff , and by what typology of command ?              It happened also in other sites and past years in Italy and Europe . Many elements suggest that the focus must be on PTO and its sensitive barometric altimetric function , as also we supposed by retroactive archives-research on woodpigeons ( and other birds) autumn migration ( 41 ).

The text of our precedent short-paper “ PTO in migratory birds: research’s failure or challenge ? “ (http://www.scienceheresy.com/ornithologyheresy/Cavina2016.pdf 2016 – ) ( 38)seems still valid but -by our personal opinion- the balance is lowering to permanent failure despite so much fascinating topic : the text of mentioned short-paper should be considered as introductive to the present updating and discussion .

When measured as a ratio of mean midshaft diameter to bone length, the OH 8 fossil hominin foot exhibits a metatarsal (Mt) robusticity pattern of 1 > 5 > 3 > 4 > 2, which differs from the widely perceived "common" modern human pattern (1 > 5 > 4 > 3 > 2); African apes generally exhibit a third pattern (1 > 2 > 3 > 4 > 5). Largely because of the relative ranking of Mt2 and Mt5, OH 8 metatarsals structurally resemble the pattern exhibited by bipedal humans more than the pattern of quadrupedal and climbing African apes. Considering only these three phenotypes, however, discounts the potentially important functional implications of variation in modern human (and African ape) metatarsal robusticity patterns, suggesting that they are not useful for interpreting the specific biomechanics of a bipedal gait in fossils (i.e., whether it was modern human-like or not). Using computed tomography scans to quantify metatarsal midshaft cross-sectional geometry in a large sample of Homo (n¼130), Gorilla (n¼44) and Pan (n¼80), we documented greater variation in metatarsal robusticity patterns than previously recognized in all three groups. While apes consistently show a 1 > 2 > 3 > 4 > 5 pattern in our larger sample, there does not appear to be a similarly precise single "common" human pattern. Rather, human metatarsals converge towards a 1 > 4/5 > 2/3 pattern, where metatarsals 4 and 5, and metatarsals 2 and 3, often "flip" positions relative to each other depending on the variable examined. After reassessing what a "common" human pattern could be based on a larger sample, the previously described OH 8 pattern of 1 > 5 > 3 > 4 > 2 is only observed in some humans (<6%) and almost never in apes (<0.5%). Although this suggests an overall greater similarity to (some) humans than to any ape in loading of the foot, the relatively rare frequency of these humans in our sample underscores potential differences in loading experienced by the medial and lateral columns of the OH 8 foot compared to modern humans.

Purpose Hemi-hamate arthroplasty has been described as a viable treatment option for unstable proximal interphalangeal joint fracture-dislocations. The procedure uses a dorsal distal hamate osteochondral graft to recreate the injured volar middle phalanx (MP) proximal base. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the similarity in shape of these articular surfaces using quantitative 3-dimensional methods. Methods Three-dimensional virtual renderings were created from laser scans of the articular surfaces of the dorsal distal hamate and the volar MP bases of the index, middle, ring, and little fingers from cadaveric hands of 25 individuals. Three-dimensional landmarks were obtained from the articular surfaces of each bone and subjected to established geometric morphometric analytical approaches to quantify shape. For each individual, bone shapes were evaluated for covariation using 2-block partial least-squares and principal component analyses. Results No statistically significant covariation was found between the dorsal distal hamate and volar MP bases of the middle, ring, or little digits. Whereas the volar MP bases demonstrated relative morphologic uniformity among the 4 digits both within and between individuals, the dorsal distal hamates exhibited notable variation in articular surface morphology. Conclusions Despite the early to midterm clinical success of hemi-hamate arthroplasty, there is no statistically significant, uniform similarity in shape between the articular surfaces of the dorsal distal hamate and the volar MP base. In addition, there is wide variation in the articular morphology of the hamate among individuals. Clinical relevance The lack of uniform similarity in shape between the dorsal distal hamate and the volar MP base may result in unpredictable outcomes in HHA. It is recommended that the variation in hamate morphology be considered while reconstructing the injured volar MP base in the procedure. (J Hand Surg Am. 2019;44(2):121e128.

Filter feeding fishes possess several morphological adaptations necessary to capture and concentrate small particulate matter from the water column. Filter feeding teleosts typically employ elongated and tightly packed gill rakers with secondary bony or epithelial modifications that increase filtering efficiency. The gill rakers of Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, silver carp, are anatomically distinct from and more complex than the filtering apparatus of other teleostean fishes. The silver carp filtering apparatus is composed of biserial, fused filtering plates used to capture particles ranging in size from 4 to 80 lm. Early in ontogeny, at 15-25 mm standard length (SL), silver carp gill rakers are reminiscent of other more stereotypical teleostean rakers, characterized by individual lanceolate rakers that are tightly packed along the entirety of the branchial arches. At 30 mm SL, secondary epithelial projections and concomitant dermal ossification begin to stitch together individual gill rakers. During later juvenile stages, dermal bone further modifies the individual gill rakers and creates a bony scaffold that supports the now fully fused and porous epithelium. By adult-hood, the stitching of bone and complete fusion of the overlying epithelium creates rigid filtering plates with morphologically distinct faces. The inner face of the plates is organized into a net-like matrix while the outer face has a sponge-like appearance comprised of differently sized pores. Here, we present morphological data from an ontogenetic series of the filtering apparatus within silver carp. These data inform hypotheses regarding both how these gill raker plates may have evolved from a more basal condition, as well as how this novel architecture allows this species to feed on exceedingly small phytoplankton, particles that represent a greater filtering challenge to the typical anatomy of the gill rakers of fishes. K E Y W O R D S filter feeding, gill raker, invasive species, ontogeny

This book serves as a primer for all professionals: doctors, physical therapists, osteopaths, massage therapists, yoga teachers, or fitness professionals, to give them a solid working knowledge of fascia both as a tissue and a system. Lavishly illustrated and with a strong storyline, each chapter logically connects the reader to the next (rather like the fascia itself) and gives the reader a clear understanding of the clinical significance of fascia, the latest in fascia science, and how the fascial system interacts with the other systems of the body from the cellular level on up. This book, while complete unto itself, will also serve as a valuable reference for deeper study.

نقاشی های قطره چکانی جکسون پالک فاقد منطق اسطوره ای و برپایه یافته های ریچارد تیلور با حرکات دستی ناخودآگاه آفریده شده اند که برپایه هندسه برخالی و الگوهای رشد گیاهان است. او را به گزاف "ستاره هنر قرن" نامیده اند اگرچه هنرمندی تراز اول است امّا عواملی چون 1- نیاز ملی گرایانه دهه 30 آمریکا به یک قهرمان هنری 2- جوانمرگی او 3- قدرت رسانه ای بی اندازه آمریکا و 4- سرمایه گذارانی که مایل به نامدارتر شدن او هستند او را بر قله هنر قرن بیستم نشانده است

The structure of developing uniserial оr multiserial bryozoan colonies is related to proxipetal or distopetal development of buds bryozoan. In case of proxipetal budding (Electra crustulenta, Е. pilosa, and Eucratea loricata), distal buds in zooids develop in the first turn, lateral ones develop later on. A row of zooids grows fast in length, and then it branches due to development of lateral buds. New rows grow in the space between those formed earlier and branch as well. This results in developing a uniseńal colony consisting of isolated zooid rows (proxipetal forms). In case of distopetal budding (Cribrilina annulata) the sequence of development of buds is reverse: from the proximal end of each zooid towards the distal end. As a result, the rounded multiserial
colonies consisting of the compactly arranged zooids develop distopetal forms).

It is known that talar shape varies among hominoids related to differences in locomotion and substrate use [1,2,3]. However, less is known about variability in talar morphology within modern humans [4]. Here we apply (semi)landmark-based methods to explore talar morphological variation between groups of modern humans with different subsistence economies and lifestyles. A template consisting of 15 landmarks, 105 curve semilandmarks and 131 surface semilandmarks was digitized on 3D models of 94 left modern human tali (26 hunter-gatherers, 15 mountain dwellers and 53 farmers). Generalized Procrustes superimposition [5] and Principal Component (PC) analysis based on the group mean covariance matrix was used to explore shape variation within talus models. An Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was conducted to identify group differences along each PC. Shape variation related to static allometry was investigated by Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients (r) of shape variables (PCs) against the natural logarithm of centroid size.
The first three PCs describe 78.6% of variation in the sample, with PC1 (56.3%) separating hunter-gatherers from farm- ers/agriculturalists. Positive values along PC1 (hunter-gatherers) reflect mediolaterally wider and dorsoplantarly compressed cor- pora with enlarged talar necks and heads. Negative values along PC1 (sedentary groups) reflect more cuboidal corpora, a less posteriorly-extended flexor hallucis longus groove, and reduced anterior extension of trochleae and smaller talar heads. Results demonstrate that human talar shape may be influenced by loading differences, presumably due to a combination of substrate/terrain use, lifestyle (nomadic vs. sedentary) and subsistence strategy, resulting in different arthrokinematics weight bearing by the talus over the course of stance phase (load bearing). These results could have important implications for the interpretation of fossil spec- imens and inferring likely ranges of joint movements (arthrokinematics) in extinct taxa. Future studies could increase the sample size to test the effects of subsistence economy and different patterns of mobility.

Hopping as a specialized form of bipedal locomotion has
evolved in birds and non-primate mammals on several
occasions. Hopping in birds is confined exclusively to the socalled
perching birds, belonging to the order Passeriformes.
It is definitely related to the hopping from branch to branch
continued to be used by many species on the ground.
Although some of the passerines are running on the ground,
this adaptation should be considered as secondary. All the
passerines have lost a number of hindlimb muscles, used by
other birds while walking or running. They also retain the
enlarged hind toe – a clear adaptation for perching. Bipedal
saltation in rodents evolved in at least five groups. As adaptation
to acquire food and to escape from predators in deserts
and other sparsely vegetated areas, bipedal saltation has
resulted in morphological changes in hindlimbs, partially
convergent to the avian morphological changes. Loss of two
digits and extensive fusion of metatarsalia II-IV, displayed by
the extreme mammalian saltator Jaculus orientalis, cannot
be treated as true convergence to hopping birds. Reduction
and fusion of the mentioned elements in birds have happened
in the cursorial ancestor, prior to the appearance of
perching and hopping forms. Despite the better development
of four extensors of shank in hopping rodents, some
of the extensors from the group are surprisingly underdeveloped.
This strikingly resembles the situation in perching and
hopping birds, when certain muscles, responsible for the
balancing on one leg during walking are reduced or absent
altogether