Bronze Age Europe (Archaeology)

The consumption of olives, figs, and grapes in El Argar territory (2200–1550 CAL BC) has been suggested through carpological analysis. Currently, there are 22 settlements with archaeobotanical studies of seeds and fruits; most of them present parallel anthracological analyses. There is a lack of wood finds of the mentioned species in some of the analysed sites, with only fruits present, while at other sites wood finds are reported but fruit remains are missing. If these absences are meaningful, one could aim to define production sites and exchange networks within this unique socio-political context of El Argar area. This paper aims to compare different series of archaeobotanical data to define fruit management and circulation in El Argar during the Bronze Age. The information provided by charcoal analysis circumscribes each settlement in a specific environment, which is directly related to the orography of the landscape. The results show a clear zoning of settlements participating in the circulation of edible fruits between the coast and the high plateau. The interpretation of exchange, redistribution and probable trade of fruit products between different El Argar sites adds new information about Argaric society.

Settlements and landscape of the Únětice Culture in Saxony-Anhalt – the settlement components, their structure and location: Over the past approximately twenty years, Saxony-Anhalt has become another area where settlement features from the Únětice Culture are discovered with some regularity and in significant numbers. Aside from the known settlement pits, a multitude of individual components of the settlement and economic fabric have now come to light. The ground-plans of long houses as they have now become known represent the domestic and probably also the stabling areas and thus the cores of the settlements. Features including hearth, wells and loam extraction pits – together with special finds and possibly associated graves – have provided us with initial insights into the structure of the settlements and their access to important everyday resources. Components of an overarching organisation and communication, such as features linked with logistics and boundaries, can also be reconstructed. The overview that we have now gained thanks to large-scale open-area excavations and excavations along traffic routes has finally allowed us to make statements on the Early Bronze Age settlement landscape. The standard types of settlements were self-sufficient farmyards, homesteads and hamlets located quite close to each other in topographically favourable locations with access to water. We are gradually gaining a picture of an open, decentralised and relatively dense rural settlement system, which stands in stark contrast to the outstanding finds and princely graves characteristic of this culture.

le casteddu de cucuruzzu est implanté à 711 m d'altitude sur un éperon dominant la partie septentrionale du plateau de levie, au coeur de l'Alta rocca, dans le sud de la corse. il s'agit d'un complexe dominé par une torra retranchée derrière une imposante enceinte. un habitat léger est dispersé au pied de cette muraille et plusieurs villages et sépultures sous abri sont connus dans un rayon de quelques centaines de mètres autour de la fortification. l'ensemble est fouillé à partir des années 1960 par r. Grosjean puis f. de lanfranchi. Dans le cadre d'un programme de conservation et de valorisation mené par la collectivité de corse, une fouille préventive y a été réalisée par l'inrAP en 2015. ces recherches ont permis de confirmer et compléter le schéma chronologique de structuration du casteddu. la torra est élevée au Bronze moyen alors que l'enceinte est en fonction au moins dès le début du Bronze final. Au cours du premier âge du fer, le complexe subit quelques modifications architecturales et est trans-formé en zone sépulcrale alors que les habitats ouverts (nuciaresa, Saparaccia, riccu, cruci) se développent autour de la vieille forteresse. l'état des connaissances sur ce casteddu en fait l'un des principaux jalons de définition de ce type de site pour le sud de la corse durant la seconde moitié de l'âge du Bronze. Abstract : The casteddu (hillfort) of Cucuruzzu is located on a 711 m high spur dominating the Northern part of the Levie plateau, in the heart of Alta Rocca, Southern Corsica. The focal point of this architectural complex consists of a torra (tower) entrenched within impressive walls. A few light structures are scattered at the bottom of the walls, while several villages and rock shelter graves have been discovered within a radius of a few hundred meters around the hillfort. From the 1960s on, several excavations took place ; at first, they were directed by R. Grosjean, who was later succeeded by BSShnc n° 764-765 (2018) Patrimoine architectural civil et militaire de la Corse: histoire, technique, conservation. 17 novembre 2017, Bastia.

I request you to kindly browse the blogpost and academia.edu monographed posted today on Indus Script (Links provided below). I offer this as my homage and tribute to my guru -- the late Iravatham Mahadevan ji whose contributions to the study of Indus Script are par excellence.

I request that Roja Muthiah Centre, Chennai founded by him should celebrate that his life mission has been accomplished. Sign 342 the most frequent sign exquisitely orthographed in the late Iravatham Mahadevan Concordance (ASI 1977) has been conclusively deciphered.

The challenge is for Roja Muthiah Centre (RMC) dedicated to the study of Indus Script and civilization; it is for RMC scholars to debate the decipherment.

All related signs ligaturing this sign are easily explained.

Sign 342 karaṇaka 'rim of jar'; detailed rebus reading:
Meluhha: bhāṭi kaṇḍa karaṇa sāla 'furnace equipment writers' workshop'.

Ligatures to Sign 342:

Sign 343 खांडा khāṇḍā A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool' Rebus:khaṇḍa 'implements'
Sign 344 sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop'
Sign 345 kolom 'three' rebus:kolimi 'smithy, forge'
Sign 346 dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS kolom 'three' rebus:kolimi 'smithy, forge' PLUS sal 'splinter' rebus: sal 'workshop'
Sign 342 rebus readings PLUS Sign 12
kuṭi 'water-carrier' (Telugu) Rebus: kuṭhi. 'iron smelter furnace' (Santali) kuṭhī factory (A.)(CDIAL 3546)
Sign 418 (Mahadevan Concordance, 1977)
Sign 418 = Sign 15 rebus readings PLUS aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' (Gujarati) ayas 'alloy metal' PLUS maĩd ʻrude harrow or clod breakerʼ (Marathi) rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Santali.Munda) PLUS gōṭī 'round pebble; Rebus: goṭi = silver (Gujarati)

Sign 328 Sign 342 rebus readings PLUS څرخ ṯs̱arḵẖ, s.m. (2nd) ( P چرخ ). 2. A wheeled-carriage, a gun-carriage, a cart. Pl. څرخونه ṯs̱arḵẖūnah. څرخ ṯs̱arḵẖ, s.m. (2nd) A wheel (Pashto) Rebus: arka 'copper, gold' eraka 'metal infusion, moltencast'; arka sala 'goldsmith workshop' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS maĩd ʻrude harrow or clod breakerʼ (Marathi) rebus: mẽṛhẽt, meḍ 'iron' (Santali.Munda)



Lid and pot (Not listed as a Sign) Appears on one side of a tablet m478 Sign 342 rebus reading PLUS ḍhaṁkaṇa 'lid' rebus dhakka 'excellent, bright, blazing metal article'
Inline imageFor a full decipherment of m478 inscription on both sides of the tablet, see:
Decipherment of Narrative on Mohenjo-daro seal m478; Rtvij on Bactria vase uddhama उद्धम 'blows trumpet' rebus dhamaka 'blacksmith, bellows-blower'
https://tinyurl.com/ty5euuh

Here is a link:https://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2020/05/archaeological-evidence-for-karana-sala.html

Archaeological evidence for a karaṇa sāla 'scribes' workshop' which explains the most frequent sign 342 of Indus Script Corpora
Mirror:
https://tinyurl.com/ycahokcy

Thanking you for your consideration and with the best regards,

S. Kalyanaraman, Ph.D., D. Litt.
https://srinivasankalyanaraman.academia.edu
https://taksha.org/advisors/kalyanaraman
https://sites.google.com/site/kalyan97/national-water-grid
Indian Ocean Community

This volume presents the finds from an Early Bronze Age necropolis in the Južna Morava Basin in the heart of the Balkans holding exclusively incinerated deceased. A total of 21 deceased were registered in the same number of graves, distributed in three segments. The remains of the deceased, along with grave goods, were covered by a small circular stone construction (c. 1 m) and then with a bigger circular stone structure between 1.5 and 3 m. The grave goods comprised fragmented or completely preserved vessels of which ember containers were the most specific. Besides a traditional archaeological approach to the topic, such as studies of necropolis architecture, burial rites, grave goods, and absolute dates, the book contains two analytical reports which approach the topic from a multidisciplinary perpspective. The first one (Filipović, Filatova) analyses the remains of wood from the pyre and the second one (Gajić et al.) deals with the physical-chemical composition of pottery from the necropolis.

m6 sealIndus Script deciphered. Mlecchita vikalpa, 'meluhha cipher ...m6 seal impression



Field symbol: one-horned young bull AND standard device: singhin 'forward-thrusting, spiny-horned' rebus: singi 'ornament gold' khōṇḍa 'A young bull' rebus: कोंद kōnda 'kiln, furnace'; thus, ornament gold furnace PLUS kunda 'lathe' rebus: kunda 'fine gold' PLUS kammata 'portable gold furnace' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'; thus, fine gold furnace and mint. Together, the field symbol reads: singi 'ornament gold' कोंद kōnda 'kiln, furnace';kunda 'fine gold' kammaṭa 'mint'. Ear is a vivid hieroglyph on the animal: kāra ʻ ear ʼ. [Connexion with kárṇa -- is not clear]Wg. kār ʻ ear ʼ (← Kho. kār), Kt. kōr, Dm. kâar Morgenstierne FestskrBroch 150, NTS xii 173; -- Ash. karmuṭäˊ ʻ ear ʼ, Kt. karmútə ʻ lobe of ear ʼ, Gaw. kumtak ʻ ear ʼ NTS ii 261 (or poss. all three < karṇapattraka -- ).Kho. kār ʻ ear ʼ certainly not ← Wg. BKhoT 69 (CDIAL 3056).Together with the ear, the animal signifies: kundakara m. ʻ turner ʼ W. [Cf. *cundakāra -- : kunda -- 1, kará -- 1]A. kundār, B. kũdār, °ri, Or. kundāru; H. kũderā m. ʻ one who works a lathe, one who scrapes ʼ, °rī f., kũdernā ʻ to scrape, plane, round on a lathe ʼ.(CDIAL 3297). Thus the expression is kundakāra 'turner' and also singi कोंद kōnda 'ornament gold furnace'. Thus, turner working with ornament gold furnace and in a fine gold mint..



The dotted circles embellishing the portable furnace signify: *pōttī ʻ glass bead ʼ.

Pk. pottī -- f. ʻ glass ʼ; S. pūti f. ʻ glass bead ʼ, P. pot f.; N. pote ʻ long straight bar of jewelry ʼ; B. pot ʻ glass bead ʼ, puti, pũti ʻ small bead ʼ; Or. puti ʻ necklace of small glass beads ʼ; H. pot m. ʻ glass bead ʼ, G. M. pot f.; -- Bi. pot ʻ jeweller's polishing stone ʼ rather than < pōtrá -- 1.(CDIAL 8403). Thus, the portable furnace is a kunda puti kammaṭa 'fine gold, bead mint'

Sign 83 is a hypertext composed of hieroglyphs Sign 59, One long linear stroke, wings.

Sign 59 aya 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'alloy metal' PLUS 'one' ligature koḍa 'one' rebus: koḍ 'workshop' PLUS 'wings' ligature which is a hieroglyph: kambha 'wing' rebus: kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'.

Thus Sign 83 is a composition of hieroglyphs constituting a hypertext which reads: aya kammaṭa koḍ 'alloy metal mint workshop'



Sign 23 variants

Hypertext composed of 1. hieroglyph,'notch': खांडा  khāṇḍā .A jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon). A rough furrow, ravine, gully. (Marathi) rebus: khāṇḍa 'tools, pots and pans and metal-ware' (Marathi) PLUS 2. sloping stroke hieroglyph: ḍhāḷiyum = adj. sloping, inclining (Gujarati) The ligatured glyph is read rebus as: ḍhālako 'a large metal ingot' (Gujarati). Thus, the hypertext reads: khāṇḍa ḍhālako 'equipment, ingots'

Sign 286 is a hypertext formed of Sign 267 (with all cour corners of the rhombus or bun shape marked) and Sign 391 infixed.




Sign 267 is oval=shape variant, rhombus-shape of a bun ingot. Like Sign 373, this sign also signifies mũhã̄ 'bun ingot' PLUS kanac 'corner' rebus: kancu 'bell-metal'.kaṁsá1 m. ʻ metal cup ʼAV., m.n. ʻ bell -- metal ʼ Pat. as in S., but would in Pa. Pk. and most NIA. lggs. collide with kāˊṁsya -- to which L. P. testify and under which the remaining forms for the metal are listed. 2. *kaṁsikā -- .1. Pa. kaṁsa -- m. ʻ bronze dish ʼ; S. kañjho m. ʻ bellmetal ʼ; A. kã̄h ʻgong ʼ; Or. kãsā ʻ big pot of bell -- metal ʼ; OMarw. kāso (= kã̄ -- ?) m. ʻ bell -- metal tray for food, food ʼ; G. kã̄sā m. pl. ʻ cymbals ʼ; -- perh. Woṭ. kasṓṭ m. ʻ metal pot ʼ Buddruss Woṭ 109.2. Pk. kaṁsiā -- f. ʻ a kind of musical instrument ʼ;  A. kã̄hi ʻ bell -- metal dish ʼ; G. kã̄śī f. ʻ bell -- metal cymbal ʼ, kã̄śiyɔ m. ʻ open bellmetal pan ʼ. (CDIAL 2756)
Sign 284Variants of Sign 284
Circumscript: four short strokes: gaṇḍā 'four' rebus: kaṇḍa 'fire-altar'. Sign 285 is a composite of hieroglyphs: Sign 267  four corners, four short linear strokes as circumscript.  kaṇḍa kancu mũh khāṇḍā 'bell-metal ingot, implements (from) fire-altar'.



The rebus readings of the hieroglyphs embedded in Sign 286 are:

Sign 286Variants of Sign 286
Sign 286 is a composite of Sign 284 with infixed spoked wheel. The reaiding of hypertext of Sign 286 is:
āra kaṇḍa arka kancu mũh khāṇḍā  'fire-altar (for) brass, gold, moltencast copper, bell-metal ingot, implements.'
The rebus reading of hieroglyph spoked-wheel is:    څرخ ṯs̱arḵẖ 'potter'swheel' (Pashto) rebus: arka 'copper, gold' arā 'spoke' rebus: āra 'brass' PLUS eraka 'nave of wheel' rebus: eraka 'moltencast,copper, metal infusion'. I suggest that together with the spokes, the wheel signifies arka śāˊlā : tsarkh 'wheel' PLUS The spokes of the wheel signify grooves, track: Ta. cāl furrow in ploughing, track of a sower while passing and repassing in sowing; cālai street, avenue, road. Ma. cāl furrow, channel, track, line, direction. Ko. ca·l furrow. To. so·l id. Ka. sāl a continuous line, a furrow. Koḍ. ca·llï line, furrow, one complete ploughing of a field, people related in any way by descent. Tu. sālů line, row, furrow. Te. cālu id., groove, track; cālupu line, row, series. Ga. (S.3) sālu furrow made by plough. Go. (Ko.) āl furrow (< Te.; Voc. 140). Konḍa (BB, 1972) sāl id. (DEDR 2471) Rebus:  śāˊlā f. ʻ shed, stable, house ʼ AV., śālám adv. ʻ at home ʼ ŚBr., śālikā -- f. ʻ house, shop ʼ lex.Pa. Pk. sālā -- f. ʻ shed, stable, large open -- sided hall, house ʼ, Pk. sāla -- n. ʻ house ʼ; Ash. sal ʻ cattleshed ʼ, Wg. šāl, Kt. šål, Dm. šâl; Paš.weg. sāl, ar. šol ʻ cattleshed on summer pasture ʼ; Kho. šal ʻ cattleshed ʼ, šeli ʻ goatpen ʼ; K. hal f. ʻ hall, house ʼ; L. sālh f. ʻ house with thatched roof ʼ; A. xāl, xāli ʻ house, workshop, factory ʼ; B. sāl ʻ shed, workshop ʼ; Or. sāḷa ʻ shed, stable ʼ; Bi. sār f. ʻ cowshed ʼ; H. sāl f. ʻ hall, house, school ʼ, sār f. ʻ cowshed ʼ; M. sāḷ f. ʻ workshop, school ʼ; Si. sal -- a, ha˚ ʻ hall, market -- hall ʼ.

  څرخ ṯs̱arḵẖ, s.m. (2nd) (P چرخ). 2. A wheeled-carriage, a gun-carriage, a cart. Pl. څرخونه ṯs̱arḵẖūnah.    څرخ ṯs̱arḵẖ, s.m. (2nd) A wheel (particularly a potter's, or of a water-mill or well). 2. A grindstone. 3. Circular motion, turn, revolution, the act of turning. 4. Fortune, chance. 5. The heavens, the sphere, the celestial globe. 6. A kind of hawk or falcon, an eagle. 7. A stab, a puncture, a prick, a wound produced by a spear, an arrow, or the like. Pl. څرخرنه ṯs̱arḵẖ-ūnah; 8. adj. Punctured, pricked, pierced, stabbed; (Fem.) څرکه ṯs̱arkaʿh. څرخیدل ṯs̱arḵẖedal, verb intrans. To revolve, to turn round, to wheel. 2. To dance. Pres. څرخبږي ṯs̱arḵẖej̱ẕī (W.) or څرخیګي ṯs̱arḵẖegī (E.); past ؤ څرخیده wu-ṯs̱arḵẖedah or ؤ څرخیدَ wu-ṯs̱arḵẖeda; fut. ؤ به څرخیږي wu bah ṯs̱arḵẖej̱ẕī or ؤ به څرخیګي wu bah ṯs̱arḵẖegī; imp. ؤ څرخیږه wu-ṯs̱arḵẖej̱ẕah or ؤ څرخیګه wu-ṯs̱arḵẖegah; act. part. څرخیدونکيَ ṯs̱arḵẖedūnkaey or څرخیدونيَ ṯs̱arḵẖedūnaey; past part. څرخید ليَ ṯs̱arḵẖedalaey; verb. n. څرخیدنه ṯs̱arḵẖedanaʿh. څرخول ṯs̱arḵẖawul, verb trans. To turn, to make revolve, to wheel round. 2. To sharpen. Pres. څرخوي ṯs̱arḵẖawī; past ؤ څرخاوه wu-ṯs̱arḵẖāwuh or ؤ څرخاوو wu-ṯs̱arḵẖāwo; fut. ؤ به څرخوي wu bah ṯs̱arḵẖawī; imp. ؤ څرخوه wu-ṯs̱arḵẖawah; act. part. څرخوونکيَ ṯs̱arḵẖawūnkaey or څرخوونيَ ṯs̱arḵẖawūnaey; past part. څرخوليَ ṯs̱arḵẖawulaey; verb. n. څرخونه ṯs̱arḵẖawunaʿh. (P چرخ).
  څرخ کول ṯs̱arḵẖ kawul, verb trans. To pierce, to stab, to puncture. څرخ کیدل ṯs̱arḵẖ kedal, verb intrans. To enter (as a pointed instrument), to penetrate, to stab, to pierce.
  څرخه ṯs̱arḵẖaʿh, s.f. (3rd) A spinning-wheel, a large reel. Pl. يْ ey. (P چرخه).
  څرخيَ ṯs̱arḵẖaey, s.m. (1st) A kind of reel for winding cotton on, a ball of cotton, silk, etc. 2. A species of falcon. Pl. يِ ī. See څاښي
  څرخلګيَ ṯs̱arḵẖal-gaey, s.m. (1st) A piece of wood, stone, etc., on which thread is wound, a reel. Pl. يِ ī. Also څرخلرګيَ ṯs̱arḵẖ- largaey. Pl. يِ ī.
  څرخندوکيَ ṯs̱arḵẖandūkaey, s.m. A tee-totum, a child's top. Pl. يِ ī. See لاډو ,چرلندي and چلخئِي (Pashto)

  అగసాలి or అగసాలెవాడు agasāli. [Tel.] n. A goldsmith. కంసాలివాడు.(Telugu)





अर्क  'the sun, copper, m. ( √ अर्च्) , Ved. a ray , flash of lightning RV. &c; fire RV. ix , 50 , 4 S3Br. Br2A1rUp. (Monier-Williams) arká1 m. ʻ flash, ray, sun ʼ RV. [√arc]Pa. Pk. akka -- m. ʻ sun ʼ, Mth. āk; Si. aka ʻ lightning ʼ, inscr. vid -- äki ʻ lightning flash ʼ.(CDIAL 624) *arkavarta ʻ a sort of ornament ʼ. [Cf. arkapuṭikā -- f. ʻ a silver ornament consisting of a round disk like the sun ʼ lex.: arká -- 1, *varta -- 3]G. akɔṭī f. ʻ earring ʼ.(CDIAL 628) (Note:the Pashto word ṯs̱arḵẖ may explain the various semantic expressions listed in Annex. Cakra and examples of semantic expansions).

This is an addendum to:

Meluhha words of metals wealth of deciphered Indus Script cognate with Indic and PIE https://tinyurl.com/spmhjyu
Mleccha, Meluhha have documented over 8000 Indus Script inscriptions in the Corpora. These inscriptions are documentation of wealth-creating activities of artisans, smiths, lapidaries and seafaring merchant guilds in over 2600 archaeological sites of Sarasvati-Sindhu Civiization.They had contacts and settlements along the Persian Gulf and in Ancient Near East in sites such as Susa, Mari.

Who are mleccha and dasyu? -- Manu calls all mleccha speakers as dasyu.

In Aitareya Brahmana (vii.18), dasyu are recognized as descendants of Vis’vamitra; they are called दस्यूणाम् भूयिष्ठाः (शाङ्खायन-श्रौत-सूत्र XV,26,7)

In Manu, dasyu signify ‘uncivilized people’ (Manu v,131; x.32.45) Thus, mleccha and dasyu are attributes of Aryan people who have neglected the essential rites of pious people.

म्लेच्छवाचश्चार्यवाचः सर्वे ते दस्यवः स्मृताः (Manu smrti.10.45). mleccha speakers are dasya. दस्युः dasyuḥ [दस्-युच्] 1 N. of a class of evil beings or demons, enemies of gods and men, and slain by Indra, (mostly Vedic in this sense). -2 An outcast, a Hindu who has become an outcast by neglect of the essential rites; cf. Ms.5.131;10.45; दस्यूनां दीयतामेष साध्वद्य पुरुषा- धमः Mb.12.173.20. -3 A thief, robber, bandit; नीत्वोत्पथं विषयदस्युषु निक्षिपन्ति Bhāg.7.15.46; पात्रीकृतो दस्यु- रिवासि येन Ś.5.20; R.9.53; Ms.7 143. -4 A villain, miscreant; दस्योरस्य कृपाणपातविषयादाच्छिन्दतः प्रेयसीम् Māl.5.28. -5 A desperado, violator, oppressor (Apte) दस्यु m. ( √ दस्) enemy of the gods (e.g. श्/अम्बर , श्/उष्ण , च्/उमुरि , ध्/उनि ; all conquered by इन्द्र , अग्नि , &c ) , impious man (called अ-श्रद्ध्/अ , अ-यज्ञ्/अ , /अ-यज्यु , /अ-पृनत् , अ-व्रत्/अ , अन्य-व्रत , अ-कर्म्/अन्) , barbarian (called अ-न्/आस् , or अन्-/आस् " ugly-faced " , /अधर , " inferior " , /अ-मानुष , " inhuman ") , robber (called धन्/इन्) RV. AV. &c; any outcast or Hindu who has become so by neglect of the essential rites (Manu); Name of a man RV. viii , 51 ; 55 f ; द्/अस्यवे स्/अहस् n. violence to the दस्यु (N. of तुर्वीति) , i , 36 , 18)(Monier-Williams)

RV 1.36.18 Griffith translation:  We call on Ugradeva, Yadu, Turvasa, by means of Agni, from afar;

Agni, bring Navavastva and Brhadratha, Turviti, to subdue the foe.

In my view, the detailed essay on Dasyu in the Vedic Index is the most comprehensive presentation of textual evidence related to an understanding the attributes of dasyu as a group of people.
म्लेच्छ अपशब्दे वा चु० उभ० पक्षे भ्वा० पर० अक०सेट् । म्लेच्छयति ते म्लेच्छति अमम्लेच्छत् त अम्लेच्छीत्

म्लेच्छ पु० म्लेच्छ--घञ् । १ अपशब्दे “म्लेच्छोह वा नामयदप्रशब्द” इति श्रुतिः । कर्त्तरि अच् । २ पामरजातौ,३ नीचजातौ च पुंस्त्री० स्त्रियां ङीष् “गोमांसखादकोयस्तु विरुद्धं बहु भाषते । सर्चाचारविहीनश्च म्लेच्छइत्यभिधीयते” बौधायनः । ४ पापरते त्रि० मेदि० ।५ हिङ्गुले न० राजनि० ।म्लेच्छजाति स्त्री म्लेच्छाभिधा जातिः । मांसादिभक्षकेकिरातादिजातिभेदे अमरः ।म्लेच्छदेश पु० म्लेच्छाधारो देशः । चातुर्वर्ण्याचाररहितेदेशे अमरः । “चातुर्वर्ण्यव्यवस्थानं यस्मिन् देशे नविद्यते । म्लेच्छदेशः स विज्ञेय आर्य्यावर्त्तस्ततःपरम्” ।म्लेच्छभोजन न० म्लेच्छैर्भुज्यते भुज--कर्मणि ल्युट् ।१ यावके अन्नभेदे शब्दर० । २ गोधूमे पु० त्रिका० ।म्लेच्छमण्डल न० ६ त० । म्लेच्छदेशे हेमच० ।म्लेच्छमुख न० म्लेच्छानां मुखमिव रक्तत्वात् । ताम्रे अमरः ।म्लेच्छास्यमप्यत्र हारा० ।म्लेच्छित न० म्लेच्छ--क्त । अपशब्दे असंस्कृतशब्दे हारा० ।

https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/वाचस्पत्यम्/

The dancer of Harappa is a statuette of grey stone. The two dancing girls of Mohenjo-daro are made using cire perdue technique (lost-wax casting) in bronze.

The most frequently used hypertext on Indus Script Corpora is Sign 342: káraṇa bāṭī =  karaṇa + splinter hieroglyph = śalá m. ʻ staff ʼ TBr., ʻ dart, spear ʼ lex. [~ śará -- 1: cf. śilī -- ]S. sarī f. ʻ a stick forming part of a waterwheel ʼ; Or. saḷa ʻ pin, thorn ʼ; Bi. sar ʻ sticks used in setting up the warp ʼ, Mth. sarkā; H. sal m. ʻ stake, spike, splinter, thorn, difficulty ʼ; G. saḷī f. ʻ small thin stick ʼ, saḷiyɔ m. ʻ bar, rod, pricker ʼ; -- Kho. šoḷ ʻ reed ʼ < *śōṭha2 -- rather than X noḷ < naḍá -- .(CDIAL 12343) Rebus: śāˊlā f. ʻ shed, stable, house ʼ AV., śālám adv. ʻ at home ʼ ŚBr., śālikā -- f. ʻ house, shop ʼ lex.(CDIAL 12414)

Pa. Pk. sālā -- f. ʻ shed, stable, large open -- sided hall, house ʼ, Pk. sāla -- n. ʻ house ʼ; Ash. sal ʻ cattleshed ʼ, Wg. šāl, Kt. šål, Dm. šâl; Paš.weg. sāl, ar. šol ʻ cattleshed on summer pasture ʼ; Kho. šal ʻ cattleshed ʼ, šeli ʻ goatpen ʼ; K. hal f. ʻ hall, house ʼ; L. sālh f. ʻ house with thatched roof ʼ; A. xāl, xāli ʻ house, workshop, factory ʼ; B. sāl ʻ shed, workshop ʼ; Or. sāḷa ʻ shed, stable ʼ; Bi. sār f. ʻ cowshed ʼ; H. sāl f. ʻ hall, house, school ʼ, sār f. ʻ cowshed ʼ; M. sāḷ f. ʻ workshop, school ʼ; Si. sal -- a, ha˚ ʻ hall, market -- hall ʼ.


All the three statues and Sign 342 are Indus Script hypertexts or composed hieroglyphs of:

1) two dancing girls, male dancer with dance poses & girls with wick-lamp; -- bāṭī 'wick' (WPah.) karaṇa 'dance pose'; PLUS  calācalá 'movement' rebus: sāla 'workshop'; together, the expression is: bhāṭi karaṇa sāla 'furnace writers' workshop'

and

2) rim-of-jar with projecting handle (Sign 342, the most frequently used sign on Indus Script Corpora) vatti 'projecting rim'; kárṇa, kárṇikā 'handle of a vessel, round protuberance' .The orthography of Sign 342 rendering 'rim-of-jar' and sculptural renderings signify the same words with the same rebus readings in Meluhha: Rebus: bhāṭi 'furnace', bhaṭṭī 'forge' AND kárṇa 'scribe', kārṇī 'supercargo of a ship'; kanahār 'helmsman'  kárṇasāla 'writers' workshop'

Constant motion is signified by the dancers: calācalá ʻ evermoving ʼ Pāṇ. [~ carācará -- Pāṇ., Pa. carācara -- ʻ moveable ʼ. -- √cal)Pa. Pk. calācala -- ʻ in constant motion, unsteady ʼ; Paš. čolāˊl ʻ belongings, property ʼ IIFL iii 3, 44 with (?); M. ċaḷāḷ m. ʻ excessive trembling through fear ʼ, ċaḷāḷṇẽ ʻ to flow copiously ʼ (CDIAL 4719) Rebus: sāḷ f. ʻworkshop, school'; together, the expresion is: bhāṭi karaṇa sāla 'furnace writers' workshop'

Harappa.com - Home | FacebookDancing Girl (sculpture) - Wikipedia
DANCING GIRL FOUND IN MOHENZA DARO - YouTubeFigure of the "dancing girl" from Mohenjo-daro. After Harlen 1992 ...
Both the dancing girl bronze statues found in Mohenjo-daro carry a lamp and strike a dance pose. The dance pose is used as a hieroglyph on a Kalibangan potsherd.
Bhirrana potsherd. Dance posture
The rebus Meluhha readings of the hieroglyphs are:
karaṇa  'dance step, dance posture' rebus: karaṇa 'scribe'
meṭṭu 'step' meḍ iron, मेधा, धन, मेधः' yajna

bāṭī 'wick' (WPah.): várti1 (and vartí -- ) f. ʻ wick ʼ MBh., ʻ small compress ʼ Suśr., ʻ lamp ʼ lex., ˚ikā -- f. ʻ wick ʼ KālP. [√vr̥t1]Pa. vaṭṭi -- , ˚ikā -- f. ʻ wick ʼ, Pk. vaṭṭĭ̄ -- , ˚ṭiā -- , vatti -- f.; Sh. batīˊ ʻ unlit native lamp, candle, wick of European lamp ʼ (← H.?); S. vaṭi f. ʻ wick ʼ; L. vaṭṭ f. ʻ roll of grass, wick ʼ, awāṇ. vaṭ ʻ wick ʼ, P. vaṭṭī, ba˚, battī f.; N. bāti ʻ lamp ʼ (bati ← H.), A. bāti; B. bāti ʻ wick, lamp, candle ʼ; Or. bati ʻ lamp ʼ (← H.), Bi. Mth. Bhoj. bātī; OAw. bātĭ̄ ʻ wick ʼ, H. bātī, battī f. (→ N. Or. and prob. Sh.); G. vāṭ f. ʻ lamp ʼ, vātī f. ʻ perfumed match or taper ʼ; M. vāt f. ʻ wick ʼ, Ko. vāti; Si. väṭ -- a ʻ lamp ʼ, väṭi -- ya ʻ wick ʼ; Md. vo' ʻ lamp ʼ; -- with -- o as from an orig. masculine: Ku. bāto m. ʻ wick, lamp ʼ; N. bāto ʻ rope of twisted cane (to tie down thatch) ʼ.dīpavarti -- , *pādavarti -- , *saṁdhyāvartikā -- .Addenda: várti -- 1: S.kcch. batī, bhatī f. ʻ lamp, torch ʼ ← H.; WPah.kṭg. batti, kc. baṭe f. ʻ wick, lamp, light ʼ, J. bāṭī f.(CDIAL 11359)  ବତି (p. 5327) Bati ...A wick. [ଦ୍ର—ସୂତା, ତୁଳା ବା କନାକୁ ବଳି ବତି ପ୍ରସ୍ତୁତ କରାୟାଏ; କାଚର ଲାମ୍ପ୍ ଓ ଲଣ୍ଟନ ଆଦିରେ ଜଳିବାପାଇଁ ମୋଟ ଫିତା ଆକାରର ବତି କଳରେ ବୁଣାୟାଏ।] 2। ମହମ ବତୀ (Oriya)

Rebus: bhāṭi 'smelter'
Statuette of grey stone from Harappa
[Original 1931 text] "And now we come to two small statuettes which are more surprising even than the masterly engraving of the bull . . . .. When I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that they were prehistoric; they seemed to so completely upset all established ideas about early art. Modelling such as this was unknown in the ancient world up to the Hellenistic age of Greece . . .." (Marshall, Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization, Vol. I, p. 45)

"It is the figure of a dancer standing on his right leg, with the body from the waist upwards bent well round to the left, both arms thrown out in the same direction, and the left leg raised high in front. . .. Although its contours are soft ane effeminate, the figure is that of a male, and it seems likely that it was ithyphallic, since the membrum virile was made in a separate piece. I infer, too, from the abnormal thickness of the neck, that the dancer was three-headed or at any rate three-faced, and I conjecture that he may represent the youthful Siva Nataraja." (ibid., p. 46)

https://www.harappa.com/slide/statuette-grey-stone-harappa

Sign 342 is hieroglyph 'rim of jar', 'projecting rim'. The Meluhha speech forms of words which signify this hieroglyph are:  vaṭṭi 'circumference, rim, brim' and kárṇa, kárṇikā 'handle of a vessel, round protuberance' .

Rebus readings of both these words are: Rebus: bhāṭi 'furnace', bhaṭṭī 'forge' AND kárṇa 'scribe', kārṇī 'supercargo of a ship'; kanahār 'helmsman'

The dancing male and the dancing girls holding a wick-lamp on their hands signify these two hypertexts: káraṇa 'dance pose' and  bāṭī 'wick' (WPah.)

The Sign 342 'rim-of-jar' hieroglyph also signifies two similar sounding words: kárṇa, kárṇikā 'handle or rim of a vessel' and  vatti 'projecting rim'
kárṇa 'scribe', kārṇī 'supercargo of a ship'; kanahār 'helmsman': kāraṇika m. ʻ teacher ʼ MBh., ʻ judge ʼ Pañcat. [kā- raṇa -- ]Pa. usu -- kāraṇika -- m. ʻ arrow -- maker ʼ; Pk. kāraṇiya -- m. ʻ teacher of Nyāya ʼ; S. kāriṇī m. ʻ guardian, heir ʼ; N. kārani ʻ abettor in crime ʼ; M. kārṇī m. ʻ prime minister, supercargo of a ship ʼ, kul -- karṇī m. ʻ village accountant ʼ.(CDIAL 3058)karṇadhāra m. ʻ helmsman ʼ Suśr. [kárṇa -- , dhāra -- 1]Pa. kaṇṇadhāra -- m. ʻ helmsman ʼ; Pk. kaṇṇahāra -- m. ʻ helmsman, sailor ʼ; H. kanahār m. ʻ helmsman, fisherman ʼ.(CDIAL 2836)

varti2 f. ʻ projecting rim ʼ. [√vr̥t1]Pa. vaṭṭi -- , ˚ikā -- f. ʻ circumference, rim, brim ʼ; Pk. vatti -- f. ʻ edge, limit ʼ; Si. väṭi -- ya ʻ edge of bank or river ʼ.(CDIAL 1136)

Rebus: bhrāṣṭra m. ʻ gridiron ʼ Nir., adj. ʻ cooked on a grid- iron ʼ Pāṇ., ˚ka -- m. (n.?) ʻ frying pan ʼ Pañcat. [NIA. forms all < eastern MIA. *bhāṭha -- , but like Pk. none show medial aspirate except G. with -- ḍ -- poss. < -- ḍh -- . -- bhráṣṭra -- , √bhrajj]Pk. bhāḍa -- n. ʻ oven for parching grain ʼ; Phal. bhaṛ<-> ʻ to roast, fry ʼ (NOPhal 31 < bhr̥kta -- with ?); L. bhāṛ ʻ oven ʼ; Ku. bhāṛ ʻ iron oven, fire, furnace ʼ; Bi. bhār ʻ grain -- parcher's fireplace ʼ, (N of Ganges) bhaṛ -- bhū̃jā ʻ grain -- parcher ʼ; OAw. bhārū, pl. ˚rā m. ʻ oven, furnace ʼ; H. bhāṛ m. ʻ oven, grain -- parcher's fireplace, fire ʼ; G. bhāḍi f. ʻ oven ʼ, M. bhāḍ n.

*bhrāṣṭraśālikā -- . *bhrāṣṭraśālikā ʻ furnace house ʼ. [bhrāṣṭra -- , śāˊlā -- ]
H. bharsārī f. ʻ furnace, oven ʼ.(CDIAL 9684, 9685)  9656 bhráṣṭra n. ʻ frying pan, gridiron ʼ MaitrS. [√bhrajj]Pk. bhaṭṭha -- m.n. ʻ gridiron ʼ; K. büṭhü f. ʻ level surface by kitchen fireplace on which vessels are put when taken off fire ʼ; S. baṭhu m. ʻ large pot in which grain is parched, large cooking fire ʼ, baṭhī f. ʻ distilling furnace ʼ; L. bhaṭṭh m. ʻ grain -- parcher's oven ʼ, bhaṭṭhī f. ʻ kiln, distillery ʼ, awāṇ. bhaṭh; P. bhaṭṭh m., ˚ṭhī f. ʻ furnace ʼ, bhaṭṭhā m. ʻ kiln ʼ; N. bhāṭi ʻ oven or vessel in which clothes are steamed for washing ʼ; A. bhaṭā ʻ brick -- or lime -- kiln ʼ; B. bhāṭi ʻ kiln ʼ; Or. bhāṭi ʻ brick -- kiln, distilling pot ʼ; Mth. bhaṭhī, bhaṭṭī ʻ brick -- kiln, furnace, still ʼ; Aw.lakh. bhāṭhā ʻ kiln ʼ; H. bhaṭṭhā m. ʻ kiln ʼ, bhaṭ f. ʻ kiln, oven, fireplace ʼ; M. bhaṭṭā m. ʻ pot of fire ʼ, bhaṭṭī f. ʻ forge ʼ. -- X bhástrā -- q.v.bhrāṣṭra -- ; *bhraṣṭrapūra -- , *bhraṣṭrāgāra -- .Addenda: bhráṣṭra -- : S.kcch. bhaṭṭhī keṇī ʻ distil (spirits) ʼ. *bhraṣṭrapūra ʻ gridiron -- cake ʼ. [Cf. bhrāṣṭraja -- ʻ pro- duced on a gridiron ʼ lex. -- bhráṣṭra -- , pūra -- 2]P. bhaṭhūhar, ˚hrā, bhaṭhūrā, ˚ṭhorū m. ʻ cake of leavened bread ʼ; -- or < *bhr̥ṣṭapūra -- .*bhraṣṭrāgāra ʻ grain parching house ʼ. [bhráṣṭra -- , agāra -- ]P. bhaṭhiār, ˚ālā m. ʻ grainparcher's shop ʼ. (CDIAL 9656 to 9658)

Yaksha? No, गण, kharva 'dwarf, गण' similar to the dwarfs shown on Bhutes'var sculptural friezes.



Indus Script Meluhha hieroglyphs on the sculpture:



kharva, 'dwarf', गण' rebus: karba 'iron'



Hieroglyph hair-knot: kuṇḍa3 n. ʻ clump ʼ e.g. darbha -- kuṇḍa -- Pāṇ. [← Drav. (Tam. koṇṭai ʻ tuft of hair ʼ, Kan. goṇḍe ʻ cluster ʼ, &c.) T. Burrow BSOAS xii 374] (CDIAL 3266) Rebus: kō̃da कोँद 'furnace for smelting':  payĕn-kō̃da पयन्-कोँद । परिपाककन्दुः f. a kiln (a potter's, a lime-kiln, and brick-kiln, or the like); a furnace (for smelting). -thöji - or -thöjü -; । परिपाक-(द्रावण-)मूषाf. a crucible, a melting-pot. -ʦañĕ -। परिपाकोपयोगिशान्ताङ्गारसमूहः f.pl. a special kind of charcoal (made from deodar and similar wood) used in smelting furnaces. -wôlu -वोलु&below; । धात्वादिद्रावण-इष्टिकादिपरिपाकशिल्पी m. a metal-smelter; a brick-baker. -wān -वान् । द्रावणचुल्ली m. a smelting furnace.


āmalaka m. ʻ the small tree Phyllanthus emblica or myrobalan ʼ, n. ʻ its fruit ʼ ChUp.
Pa. āmalaka -- m., ˚kī -- f.; Pk. āmalaya -- m. ʻ the tree ʼ, n. ʻ its fruit ʼ, āmalaī -- f. ʻ the tree ʼ, āmala -- m.n. ʻ its fruit ʼ (cf. āmaṁḍa -- m. ʻ wild myrobalan ʼ)(CDIAL 1247) Rebus: māˊlā f. ʻ wreath, garland ʼ Gr̥S., mālikā -- f. lex. [← Drav., Tam. mālai ʻ wreath ʼ &c. DED 3954, EWA ii 628 with lit. Derivation from *vr̥tman -- (P. Tedesco JAOS 67, 87) is phonet. unacceptable]

Pa. mālā -- f. ʻ garland ʼ, Pk. mālā -- , ˚liā -- f.; Ash. karmalík ʻ ear -- ring ʼ; Wg. mālik ʻ flower ʼ; Kt. mol ʻ garland ʼ, vaċīˊ -- mol ʻ monal pheasant's feather used as ornament for returning warriors ʼ; Dm. khoi -- māˊli ʻ river -- bank ʼ, Paš. nandə -- mālāˊ IIFL iii 3, 132; Kal.rumb. mal ʻ monal pheasant's feather ʼ; K. māl f. ʻ wreath, garland ʼ; Ku.gng. māw, pl. ˚wa ʻ garland ʼ, B. māl; Or. māḷa ʻ garland, necklace ʼ, māḷi ʻ rosary ʼ; Mth. māl ʻ garland ʼ, OAw. māra f., H. māl f., OMarw. māla f., G. M. māḷ f. (G. also ʻ leather or cotton belt connecting two wheels ʼ), Ko. māḷa; Si. mal -- a ʻ flower ʼ, Md. mau, male ʼ. (CDIAL 10092)



Necklace: dāmā 'rope, garland' (Hindi) Rebus:  dhāˊtu n. ʻ substance ʼ RV., m. ʻ element ʼ MBh., ʻ metal, mineral, ore (esp. of a red colour) ʼ Mn., ʻ ashes of the dead ʼ lex., ʻ *strand of rope ʼ (cf. tridhāˊtu -- ʻ threefold ʼ RV., ayugdhātu -- ʻ having an uneven number of strands ʼ KātyŚr.). [√dhā]Pa. dhātu -- m. ʻ element, ashes of the dead, relic ʼ; KharI. dhatu ʻ relic ʼ; Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); -- Si. dā ʻ relic ʼ; -- S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f.(CDIAL 6773)



The dwarf गण wears two remarkable hypertexts each composed of human face PLUS joined fish-fins. The rebus Meluhha readings are: mũhe ‘face’ (Santali)  Rebus: mũh opening or hole (in a stove for stoking (Bi.); ingot (Santali) mũh metal ingot (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends; kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali) kaula mengro ‘blacksmith’ (Gypsy) mleccha-mukha (Skt.) = milakkhu ‘copper’ (Pali) The Samskritam gloss mleccha-mukha should literally mean: copper-ingot absorbing the Santali gloss, mũh, as a suffix.; aya 'fish' rebus; aya 'alloy metal' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' (Lahnda CDIAL 13640) rebus: Ta. kampaṭṭam coinage, coin. Ma. kammaṭṭam, kammiṭṭam coinage, mint. Ka. kammaṭa id.; kammaṭi a coiner.(DEDR 1236) PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting'.



This catalogue related to metalwork is reinforced by other sculptural friezes found around Mathura Museum archaeological sites. Three sculptural friezes show a smelter (building constructed with bricks) and surrounded by dwarfs. On top of the building an ekamukha s'ivalinga is shown. The mukha on the linga is a hieroglyph: mũhe ‘face’ (Santali)  Rebus: mũh opening or hole (in a stove for stoking (Bi.); ingot (Santali) mũh metal ingot (Santali) kharva 'dwarf' rebus: karba 'iron'. In the background of the building, a tree is shown: kuṭi 'tree' Rebus: kuṭhī 'warehouse, factory, smelter'. Thus, the sculptural friezes signify iron smelters.



The pair of fish-fins is mirrored on Sanchi torana and Bharhut pillars.

Bharatkalyan97: Bharhut stupa toraṇa: Architectural splendour of ...

Bharatkalyan97: Bharhut stupa toraṇa: Architectural splendour of ...

Bharhut torana





Sanchi torana The reading of the hypertext of joined fish-fins is validated by Mahavams'a text: ayo kammaṭa dvāra, 'metals mint workshop entrance' (Mahāvamsa. XXV, 28)



Thus, the hypertext of the dwarf, wearing necklace with beads reads in Meluhha: karba mũh aya kammaṭa 'iron ingot alloymetal mint'.



Image





Carved sculpture, Satvahana period, 
Kundala and Mālā comprise multiple Amalaka like beads.
Image courtes: ASI, http://justrippingg.blogspot.com/2019/07/the-three-yakshis-of-indian-museum.html



Cults and Shrines in Early Historical Mathura (c. 200 BC-AD 200)



File:Worship of Shiva Linga by Gandharvas - Shunga Period ...

Bharatkalyan97: Linga and stupa in relation to metalwork of the ...चित्र:Workship-of-Siva-Linga-by-the-Gandharvas-Mathura-Museum ...




















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Cave 2 : Dancing gana figures on the outer left wall. Badami , Karnataka, India


Viṣṇu Trivikrama and dwarfs. Badami caves.

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Naṭaraja, dwarfs PLUS Gaṇapati doing a karaṇa, 'dance posture' next to a drummer . Badami caves, Karnataka.

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Gaṇa Musicians at Upper Śivālaya, North Badami Fort, Karnataka

File:Gana, dwarfs goblins in Indian temple architecture.jpg
Gana is a dwarf or goblin, usually with big belly found in Indian temple base, pillars and elsewhere. They typically are shown in humorous postures, sometimes with musical instruments or dancing or singing or dressed like a prankster.

Archaeology of Death E-learning

Dear Colleagues,
As the Covid-19 safety measures are limiting our communication, please use the following web link to download presentation of the Archaeology of Death course.
https://cuni.academia.edu/JanTurek/Teaching-Documents
Since the lesson 4, that we have already missed I include much more texts and references, so you can use it as e-learning material.
Let’s hope we are going to have chance to catch up with the lectures later the spring term.
Meanwhile stay safe
and
Good luck!

Sincerely
Jan Turek
Center for Theoretical Study

The lecture provides a basic overview of the theory and methodology of the study of funerary areas, burial contexts and social and symbolic perception of death in prehistoric societies. Through the archaeological evidence of funerary rituals will be presented not only prehistoric people's attitudes toward death and the afterlife but also their culture, social organization, symbolic systems and cosmology. The focus on archaeology of personhood will be targeted mainly on the analysis of age and gender categories. Introductory topics summarize the methodology of field and laboratory research of funerary data in archaeology including application of scientific methods, spatial analysis of burial data and palaeodemography. In the interpretation section of the course an attention is also paid to the social and ritual significance of death and the transformation of human understanding of mortality. We are going to focus on case studies from different periods and locations throughout the world from Palaeolithic to the rise of historical societies. Case studies will further shed light on the social interpretation of burial data and their use in reconstructing social relationships, and will present significant discoveries. The end of the course is devoted to the ethics of the archaeological research of funerary and the political and ethical controversies surrounding human remains. This lecture is designed for audience among archaeologists, anthropologists, historians, and others who have a professional interest in funerary evidence, or general curiosity about past death and burial.

This paper discusses how coastal societies in northwestern Scandinavia were able to rise in power by strategically utilizing the natural ecology and landscape in which they were situated. From two case studies (the Norwegian regions of Lista and Tananger), it is shown that it was possible to control the flow of goods up and down the coast at certain bottlenecks but that this also created an unstable society in which conflict between neighboring groups occurred often. More specifically the paper outlines an organizational strategy that may be applicable cross-culturally.