Astrobiology/Exobiology

It is no science fiction, No star wars, or 2012, If you have seen these films and movies; image the possibilities of living in an extra-terrestrial world.  Yes the reality is closer as space exploration, human evolution, existence and astrobiology is answering the possibilities of living on mars.

The use of symbols in Fraternal lodges, esoteric groups and society is held in common. They differ in the shared values of these symbols. Part of this is likely due to time depth shared in liminal space with these symbol sets within the context of the motifs and stories held in common and developed in common. Many of these differences in usage can be attributed to the time depth spent  with the symbol sets.

Astrobiology is defined as the study of the origin, evolution,
distribution, and future of life in the universe (NASA’s definition;
Des Marais et al. 2008). Astrobiology seeks to answer
fundamental questions about the beginning and evolution of
life on Earth, possible existence of extraterrestrial life, and
the future of life on Earth and beyond. Astrobiology scope is
delineated in the NASA’s astrobiology roadmap (Des Marais
et al. 2008). Specific goals include understanding the emergence
of life on Earth, determining how the early life on
Earth interacted and evolved with its changing environment,
understanding the evolutionary mechanisms and environmental
limits of life, exploring habitable environments in our solar
system and searching for life, understanding the nature and
distribution of habitable environments in the universe, and
recognizing signatures of life on the early Earth and on other
worlds. The NASA’s astrobiology map is being updated as
the astrobiology field advances. A similar roadmap has been
developed for astrobiology research in Europe (Horneck et al.
2015, 2016). The topic of these roadmaps is further discussed
and updated in Section 1 of this handbook.
Astrobiology is a young science that acquired its name
only in 1995 (named by Wes Huntress from NASA; Catling
2013). Astrobiology evolved from its predecessor, exobiology,
which is the study of the origin of life and of possible
life outside Earth (Dick and Strick 2004; Dick 2007). The
term exobiology was coined in 1960 (by Joshua Lederberg).

The difference between the two fields is that astrobiology is
broader and notably includes the evolution of life on Earth.
The exobiology era coincided with the space missions, notably
the Viking mission on Mars in 1976, which followed a
series of reconnaissance missions in the 1960s and early
1970s.
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Table.of.Contents

Preface......Page.12
Editor......Page.14
Contributors......Page.16

SECTION.I:.Astrobiology:.Definition,.Scope,.and.Education......Page.22
Chapter.1.1.Astrobiology:.Definition,.Scope,.and.a.Brief.Overview......Page.24
Chapter.1.2.Astrobiology.Goals:.NASA.Strategy.and.European.Roadmap......Page.36
Chapter.1.3.Online,.Classroom.and.Wilderness.Teaching.Environments:.Reaching.Astrobiology.Learners.of.All.Ages.Around.the.World......Page.48
Chapter.1.4.Astrobiology.as.a.Medium.of.Science.Education......Page.66
Chapter.1.5.Astrobiology-as-Origins-Story:.Education.and.Inspiration.across.Cultures......Page.70

SECTION.II:.Definition.and.Nature.Of.Life......Page.76
Chapter.2.1.Defining.Life:.Multiple.Perspectives......Page.78
Chapter.2.2.A.Generalized.and.Universalized.Definition.of.Life.Applicable.to.Extraterrestrial.Environments......Page.86
Chapter.2.3.Synthetic.Cells.and.Minimal.Life......Page.96
Chapter.2.4.Communication.as.the.Main.Characteristic.of.Life......Page.112

SECTION.III:.Origin.of.Life:.History,.Philosophical.Aspects,.and.Major.Developments......Page.128
Chapter.3.1.Philosophical.Aspects.of.the.Origin-of-Life.Problem:.Neither.by.Chance.Nor.by.Design.....Page.130
Chapter.3.2.Charles.Darwin.and.the.Plurality.of.Worlds:.Are.We.Alone?......Page.146
Chapter.3.3.An.Early.History.from.Buffon.to.Oparin......Page.158

SECTION.IV:.Chemical.Origins.of.Life:.Chemicals.in.the.Universe.and.Their.Delivery.on.the.Early.Earth;.Geology.and.Atmosphere.on.the.Early.Earth......Page.166
Chapter.4.1.Interstellar.Molecules.and.Their.Prebiotic.Potential......Page.168
Chapter.4.2.Formation.and.Delivery.of.Complex.Organic.Molecules.to.the.Solar.System.and.Early.Earth.....Page.186
Chapter.4.3.Organic.Molecules.in.Meteorites.and.Their.Astrobiological.Significance.....Page.198
Chapter.4.4.Ancient.Life.and.Plate.Tectonics......Page.216
Chapter.4.5.Atmosphere.on.Early.Earth.and.Its.Evolution.as.It.Impacted.Life......Page.228

SECTION.V:.Chemical.Origin.of.Life:.Prebiotic.Chemistry......Page.238
Chapter.5.1.Prebiotic.Chemistry.That.Led.to.Life.....Page.240
Chapter.5.2.Prebiotic.Chemical.Pathways.to.RNA.and.the.Importance.of.Its.Compartmentation......Page.256
Chapter.5.3.The.Hydrothermal.Impact.Crater.Lakes:.The.Crucibles.of.Life’s.Origin......Page.286
Chapter.5.4.Prebiotic.Chemistry.in.Hydrothermal.Vent.Systems......Page.318
Chapter.5.5.Prebiotic.Reactions.in.Water,.“On.Water,”.in.Superheated.Water,.Solventless,.and.in.the.Solid.State......Page.352
Chapter.5.6.The.Origin.and.Amplification.of.Chirality.Leading.to.Biological.Homochirality......Page.362
Chapter.5.7.Phosphorus.in.Prebiotic.Chemistry—An.Update.and.a.Note.on.Plausibility......Page.376
Chapter.5.8.Phosphorylation.on.the.Early.Earth:.The.Role.of.Phosphorus.in.Biochemistry.and.Its.Bioavailability......Page.382
Chapter.5.9.Silicon.and.Life......Page.392

SECTION.VI:.RNA.and.RNA.World:.Complexity.of.Life’s.Origins......Page.398
Chapter.6.1.Transitions:.RNA.and.Ribozymes.in.the.Development.of.Life......Page.400
Chapter.6.2.Three.Ways.to.Make.an.RNA.Sequence:.Steps.from.Chemistry.to.the.RNA.World......Page.416
Chapter.6.3.Coevolution.of.RNA.and.Peptides......Page.430
Chapter.6.4.Role.of.Cations.in.RNA.Folding.and.Function.....Page.442
Chapter.6.5.The.Origin.of.Life.as.an.Evolutionary.Process:.Representative.Case.Studies......Page.458
Chapter.6.6.The.Complexity.of.Life’s.Origins:.A.Physicochemical.View.....Page.484

SECTION.VII:.Origin.of.Life:.Early.Compartmentalization—Coacervates.and.Protocells......Page.502
Chapter.7.1.Oparin’s.Coacervates......Page.504
Chapter.7.2.Protocell.Emergence.and.Evolution......Page.512

SECTION.VIII:.Origin.of.Life.and.Its.Diversification..Universal.Tree.of.Life..Early.Primitive.Life.on.Earth..Fossils.of.Ancient.Microorganisms..Biomarkers.and.Detection.of.Life......Page.540
Chapter.8.1.The.Progenote,.Last.Universal.Common.Ancestor,.and.the.Root.of.the.Cellular.Tree.of.Life......Page.542
Chapter.8.2.Horizontal.Gene.Transfer.in.Microbial.Evolution.....Page.548
Chapter.8.3.Viruses.in.the.Origin.of.Life.and.Its.Subsequent.Diversification.....Page.556
Chapter.8.4.Carl.R..Woese.and.the.Journey.toward.a.Universal.Tree.of.Life.....Page.576
Chapter.8.5.Fossils.of.Ancient.Microorganisms...Page.588
Chapter.8.6.Biomarkers.and.Their.Raman.Spectral.Signatures:.An.Analytical.Challenge.in.Astrobiology...Page.618
Chapter.8.7.Fossilization.of.Bacteria.and.Implications.for.the.Search.for.Early.Life.on.Earth.and.Astrobiology.Missions.to.Mars......Page.630

SECTION.IX:.Life.under.Extreme.Conditions—Microbes.in.Space......Page.654
Chapter.9.1.Extremophiles.and.Their.Natural.Niches.on.Earth......Page.656
Chapter.9.2.Microbes.in.Space......Page.682
Chapter.9.3.Virus.Evolution.and.Ecology:.Role.of.Viruses.in.Adaptation.of.Life.to.Extreme.Environments......Page.698

SECTION.X:.Habitability:.Characteristics.of.Habitable.Planets.....Page.704
Chapter.10.1.The.Evolution.of.Habitability:.Characteristics.of.Habitable.Planets......Page.706

SECTION.XI:.Intelligent.Life.in.Space:.History,.Philosophy,.and.SETI.(Search.for.Extraterrestrial.Intelligence)......Page.720
Chapter.11.1.Mind.in.Universe:.On.the.Origin,.Evolution,.and.Distribution.of.Intelligent.Life.in.Space.....Page.722
Chapter.11.2.Where.Are.They?.Implications.of.the.Drake.Equation.and.the.Fermi.Paradox......Page.738
Chapter.11.3.SETI:.Its.Goals.and.Accomplishments......Page.748
Chapter.11.4.Humanistic.Implications.of.Discovering.Life.Beyond.Earth......Page.762

SECTION.XII:.Exoplanets,.Exploration.of.Solar.System,.the.Search.for.Extraterrestrial.Life.in.Our.Solar.System,.and.Planetary.Protection......Page.778
Chapter.12.1.Exoplanets:.Methods.for.Their.Detection.and.Their.Habitability.Potential......Page.780
Chapter.12.2.Solar.System.Exploration:.Small.Bodies.and.Their.Chemical.and.Physical.Conditions......Page.796
Chapter.12.3.Solar.System.Exploration:.Icy.Moons.and.Their.Habitability......Page.808
Chapter.12.4.Searching.for.Extraterrestrial.Life.in.Our.Solar.System......Page.822
Chapter.12.5.Planetary.Protection.....Page.840
Index......Page.856

This article presents possible determinants of an extraterrestrial intelligence (ETI) intentions towards the Earth. These determinants have then been organized in a model of pathways, that proposes in output the most likely ETI intention: destruction, domination, subordination, cohabitation, collaboration, or silent observation. The model of pathways aims mainly to illustrate the possible influence of these determinants and to contribute to the discussions about ETI contact risks assessment.

This paper outlines hypotheses relevant to the evolution of intelligent life and encephalization in the Phanerozoic. If general principles are inferable from patterns of Earth life, implications could be drawn for astrobiology. Many of the outlined hypotheses, relevant data, and associated evolutionary and ecological theory are not frequently cited in astrobiological journals. Thus opportunity exists to evaluate reviewed hypotheses with an astrobiological perspective. A quantitative method is presented for testing one of the reviewed hypotheses (hypothesis i; the diffusion hypothesis). Questions are presented throughout, which illustrate that the question of intelligent life's likelihood can be expressed as multiple, broadly ranging, more tractable questions.

The objective is to find the dynamic structure in artificial intelligence and in biological life and if there is a connection between the two so we we can find the path to biological life by looking at the path to artificial intelligence. Clearly, humans assemble AI, but the materials from which it is made are naturally occurring elements and their compounds. I would like to suggest that biological life came into existence by way of an activation function that turned on prebiotic chemistry that disappeared after it did this because no new life seems to be coming into existence on Earth. In this sense, it might be like a limiting reactant that depletes completely before leaving behind what is left of the prebiotic chemistry. We start by looking at the molar masses of the elements and their compounds, as well as their ratios, because they are their relative weights, which are key to their properties. The golden ratio and its conjugate (PHI and phi) comes up when considering these because, more than likely, for one, they are associated with closest packing, or efficient packing.

In this article, anoxic and oxic hydrolyses of rocks containing Fe (II) Mg-silicates and Fe (II)-monosulfides are analyzed at 25 °C and 250-350 °C. A table of the products is drawn. It is shown that magnetite and hydrogen can be produced during low-temperature (25 °C) anoxic hydrolysis/oxidation of ferrous silicates and during high-temperature (250 °C) anoxic hydrolysis/oxidation of ferrous monosulfides. The high-T (350 °C) anoxic hydrolysis of ferrous silicates leads mainly to ferric oxides/hydroxides such as the hydroxide ferric trihydroxide, the oxide hydroxide goethite/lepidocrocite and the oxide hematite, and to Fe(III)-phyllosilicates. Magnetite is not a primary product. While the low-T (25 °C) anoxic hydrolysis of ferrous monosulfides leads to pyrite. Thermodynamic functions are calculated for elementary reactions of hydrolysis and carbonation of olivine and pyroxene and E-pH diagrams are analyzed. It is shown that the hydrolysis of the iron endmember is endothermic and can proceed within the exothermic hydrolysis of the magnesium endmember and also within the exothermic reactions of carbonations. The distinction between three products of the iron hydrolysis, magnetite, goethite and hematite is determined with E-pH diagrams. The hydrolysis/oxidation of the sulfides mackinawite/troilite/pyrrhotite is highly endothermic but can proceed within the heat produced by the exothermic hydrolyses and carbonations of ferromagnesian silicates and also by other sources such as magma, hydrothermal sources, impacts. These theoretical results are confirmed by the products observed in several related laboratory experiments. The case of radiolyzed water is studied. It is shown that magnetite and ferric oxides/hydroxides such as ferric trihydroxide, goethite/lepidocrocite and hematite are formed in oxic hydrolysis of ferromagnesian silicates at 25 °C and 350 °C. Oxic oxidation of ferrous monosulfides at 25 °C leads mainly to pyrite and ferric oxides/hydroxides such as ferric trihydroxide, goethite/lepidocrocite and hematite and also to sulfates, and at 250 °C mainly to magnetite instead of pyrite, associated to the same ferric oxides/hydroxides and sulfates. Some examples of geological terrains, such as Mawrth Vallis on Mars, the Tagish Lake meteorite and hydrothermal venting fields, where hydrolysis/oxidation of ferromagnesian silicates and iron(II)-monosulfides may occur, are discussed. Considering the evolution of rocks during their interaction with water, in the absence of oxygen and in radiolyzed water, with hydrothermal release of H2 and the plausible associated formation of components of life, geobiotropic signatures are proposed. They are mainly Fe(III)-phyllosilicates, magnetite, ferric trihydroxide, goethite/lepidocrocite, hematite, but not pyrite.

I would like to give my thanks to Inge Loes ten Kate for writing this excellent analysis named “Organic molecules on Mars” and I would also like to thank Science for publishing it. The author is correct when he says that the recent findings of Curiosity rover are “breakthroughs in astrobiology”. But I have some disagreements when he states the following concerning NASA’s 1976 Viking mission: “However, neither signs of life nor organic compounds were detected in the regolith samples analyzed during this mission”.

A fundamental question in the field of social studies of science is how research fields emerge, grow and decline over time and space. This study confronts this question here by developing an inductive analysis of emerging research fields represented by human microbiome, evolutionary robotics and astrobiology. In particular, number of papers from starting years to 2017 of each emerging research field is analyzed considering the subject areas (i.e., disciplines) of authors. Findings suggest some empirical laws of the evolution of research fields: the first law states that the evolution of a specific research field is driven by few scientific disciplines (3-5) that generate more than 80% of documents (concentration of the scientific production); the second law states that the evolution of research fields is path-dependent of a critical discipline (it can be a native discipline that has originated the research field or a new discipline emerged during the social dynamics of science); the third law states that a research field can be driven during its evolution by a new discipline originated by a process of specialization within science. The findings here can explain and generalize, whenever possible some properties of the evolution of scientific fields that are due to interaction between disciplines, convergence between basic and applied research fields and interdisciplinary in scientific research. Overall, then, this study begins the process of clarifying and generalizing, as far as possible, the properties of the social construction and evolution of science to lay a foundation for the development of sophisticated theories.

Recently, an exoplanetary system containing seven Earth-sized terrestrial planets, three of which orbit the central
M-dwarf star in its habitable zone, was discovered. Such systems may be common, as this type of star makes up
almost 80% of all stars. Based on a critical literature review, this paper defines the criteria for exoplanet habitability

and adopts the habitable zone criterion as the most basic one for use in absence of data and the novel Statistical-
likelihood Exo-Planetary Habitability Index as the presently most suited for assessing M-dwarf exoplanets. It further

describes the feasible methods employed for the detection of this type of exoplanets (the transit and radial velocity

method), provides an account of the environmental condition constraints imposed by their close orbit around an M-
dwarf star, and evaluates these conditions against those deemed suitable for the development and survival of life.

The details of the known and suspected population of exoplanets in the habitable zone of M-dwarf stars are then
compared to the adopted habitability criteria, and it is concluded that the frequency with which any such planets
can indeed be said to be habitable cannot currently be estimated due to the small sample size. The prospects of
further characterising this subset of exoplanets in the future, identifying them as habitable and possibly detecting
any bio-signatures are subsequently discussed. In order to accelerate the quest for habitable and inhabited
exoplanets, aggressive, focused searches and targeted studies directed at planets in the habitable zone of M-dwarf
stars are proposed.

For many astronomers, the progressive development of life has been seen as a natural occurrence given proper environmental conditions on a planet: even though such beings would not be identical to humans, there would be significant parallels. A striking contrast is seen in writings of nonphysical scientists, who have held more widely differing views. But within this diversity, reasons for differences become more apparent when we see how views about extraterrestrials can be related to the differential emphasis placed on modern evolutionary theory by scientists of various disciplines. One clue to understanding the differences between the biologists, paleontologists, and anthropologists who speculated on extraterrestrials is suggested by noting who wrote on the subject. Given the relatively small number of commentators on the topic, it seems more than coincidental that four of the major contributors to the evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s are among them. Upon closer examination it is evident that the exobiological arguments of Theodosius Dobzhansky and George Gaylord Simpson and, less directly, of H. J. Muller and Ernst Mayr are all related to their earlier work in formulating synthetic evolution. By examining the variety of views held by nonphysical scientists, we can see that there were significant disagreements between them about evolution into the 1960s. By the mid-1980s, many believed that “higher” life, particularly intelligent life, probably occurs quite infrequently in the universe; nevertheless, some held out the possibility that convergence of intelligence could occur across worlds. Regardless of the final conclusions these scientists reached about the likely prevalence of extraterrestrial intelligence, the use of evolutionary arguments to support their positions became increasingly common.

This book addresses important current and historical topics in astrobiology and the search for life beyond Earth, including the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI). The first section covers the plurality of worlds debate from antiquity through the nineteenth century, while section two covers the extraterrestrial life debate from the twentieth century to the present. The final section examines the societal impact of discovering life beyond Earth, including both cultural and religious dimensions. Throughout the book, authors draw links between their own chapters and those of other contributors, emphasizing the interconnections between the various strands of the history and societal impact of the search for extraterrestrial life.

This interdisciplinary book will benefit everybody trying to understand the meaning of astrobiology and SETI for our human society.

REVIEWS

Selected by Choice magazine as an "Outstanding Academic Title" for 2014

“This book is a very well-balanced, detailed analysis of the subject. … This is one of the best books on the subject; it belongs in all college libraries. Summing Up: Essential. All levels/libraries.” (K. L. Schick, Choice, Vol. 51 (7), March, 2014)

“Are we alone in the universe? If not, then what might that mean? This fascinating volume offers a history of what Western cultures have thought about these questions … . a useful source for scientists, historians, anthropologists, and many other disciplines that concern themselves with these two large questions. … This volume nicely reveals the numerous ways in which anthropological knowledge and methods can help us think about and plan for managing the cultural impact of an eventual first contact.” (James Strick, Journal for the History of Astronomy, Vol. 47 (1), 2016)

“In this book you can find out about the first philosophers, writers and scientists who were interested in the possibility of life on other planets and get to know the reasons why it was considered possible by them and what actually led to their depictions of life elsewhere in literature. … Overall this book makes for really interesting reading if you’re interested in extraterrestrial life and astrobiology.” (Kadri Tinn, AstroMadness.com, December, 2013)

It is obvious that modern astrobiology, being essentially concerned with life, consciousness and intelligence as cosmic phenomena, implies new philosophical and theological ideas. We can even say that astrobiology will trigger new opinions concerning the whole world. These ideas can produce a profound revolution in people's outlook on the whole universe. The authorities of variouschurches are aware of the problem and are beginning to make their theologies more cosmically informed.

When searching for life on potentially habitable worlds it is important to try to minimize the risk of severely disturbing the living systems that we want to study. Since the risk can never be zero we need to make a trade off between protection and research. If the extraterrestrial life also has moral status in its own right, this trade off will be different than if we only have to consider their value for science. The question will be even more complicated when the time comes to use habitable worlds for commercial purposes. In my talk I will try to set the stage for a constructive discussion by identifying potential conflicts between different interests, and indicating how philosophical reasoning can help dealing with them.

When sending missions to other worlds, be they planets, moons or asteroids, there are many problems to consider. One particular type of problem is the problems that have to do with value. Value questions are inherently tricky and it might be tempting to just ignore them. In my presentation I explain why that is a really bad idea. I will also try to explain and throw some light on some of the value problems in connection with space exploration, and present some ideas about how to deal with them.