Anatomy

Sistem Otot adalah sistem organ pada hewan dan manusia yang mengizinkan makhluk tersebut bergerak. Sistem otot pada vertebrata dikontrol oleh sistem saraf, walaupun beberapa otot (seperti otot jantung) dapat bergerak secara otonom. Manusia sendiri memiliki sekitar 650 jenis otot rangka.

The most complete and continuous fossil record of armadillos is composed mostly by isolated osteoderms, frequently found in paleontological and archaeological sites that bear continental South American mammals. Their external morphology has been used to define several species. In the last decade, many authors have focused on the internal structure of vertebrate osteoderms using histological and paleohistological studies. These studies allowed identification of useful features in systematic and phylogenetic contexts. In armadillos,
osteoderms are constituted by compact bone tissue (primary and secondary osteons, and concentric layers or lamellae) that delimits cavities, which could contain different soft tissues (adipose tissue, hair follicles, bone marrow, and sweat and sebaceous glands). Traditional paleohistological techniques have allowed the recognition of  homologous cavities to those found in osteoderms of current species and from comparison deduce which kind of tissue could had occupied them.We have recently utilized 3D reconstructions in osteoderms of extant species of armadillos to analyze the micromorphology, disposition, and the relationship of different cavities and understand them in depth. Here, we present the results of the application of
paleohistology and microtomography in osteoderms of representatives of diferent taxa of extinct Dasypodidae (Astegotheriini, Stegotheriini, Utaetini, Euphractini, Eutatini), which allowed us to compare homologous structures based on their three-dimensional reconstruction. The results,
added to the previous external morphology studies, have allowed us to define morphological patterns (consistent within each linage). The variation of the volume and extension of cavities associated with different tissues could be strongly associated with changes in the climate and environmental conditions of the species distribution areas.

A partire da una prospettiva legata agli studi di cultura visuale, si illustra come nella NH di Plinio, il passaggio da una trattazione specie per specie del mondo animale alla trattazione incentrata sulle singole parti del corpo di XI 121 ss. costituisca un allontanamento dal modello adottato da Aristofane di Bisanzio e, al contempo, un ritorno all'impianto moriologico della biologia aristotelica. Nella seconda sezione del contributo si mostra però come questo "ritorno ad Aristotele" sia filtrato da una prospettiva di stampo "stoicheggiante"

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus(SLE) and systemic sclerosis(SSc) are systemic inflammatory autoimmune disorders characterized by a large spectrum of clinical and laboratory features.The aim of the present study was to investigate the possible use of serum level of soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1(sICAM-1) and soluble interleukin-2 receptor (sIL-2Ra) as biomarkers for monitoring of SLE and SSc disease activity.Moreover,it aimed to compare the specificity and sensitivity as well as cutoff value of both biomarkers in a sample of Egyptian patients.50 SLE patients, 30 SScpatients and 60 age and sex matched healthy controls were enrolled in our study. sICAM-1and sIL-2Ra were measured in serum samples obtained from all participants. In addition toErythosedimentation rate(ESR), complete blood count (CBC),Antineuclearantibodies (ANA) estimation,disease activity of both diseases were also assessed.sICAM-1and sIL-2Ra levels were higher in SLE and SSc patients versus control.Both parameters are correlated with each other as well as the activity parameters.A cutoff levels of 455.59 (ng/ml) &2525935(pg/ml) in both SLE & SSs respectively was observed with the highest specificity and sensitivity.It could be concluded that sICAM-1 and sIL-2Ra are noninvasive biomarkers for SLE and SScthat could play a pathophysiologic role in development and progression of both diseases. Moreover, sICAM-1 and sIL-2Ra are correlated with the disease activity at cutoff values of 455.59 (ng/ml) &2525935(pg/ml) respectively.

The reproductive ability of male animal is dependent to a great extent on the effective functions of the genital glands. The present study was carried on the pelvic urethra of 32 sexually mature male donkeys. 5μm sections were prepared from the samples and stained with different stains to show the different structures of the pelvic urethra. Scanning electron microscopic studies were performed on the lumen of the pelvic urethra to show the different shape of the urethral gland opening on the surface layer of the lamina epithelialis of the pelvic urethra. The pelvic urethra of donkey is formed of prostatic and membranous parts. The lamina epithelialis of the pelvic urethra varied at its different regions. The urethral glands were observed along the entire length of the pelvic urethra within the lamina propria submucosa. They were mostly of the branched tubulo-alveolar glands lined by high cuboidal or pyramidal-shaped epithelial cells. The activity of the urethral glands in donkey varied throughout the year. It was more pronounced during spring, which was manifested by increased epithelial height, decreased nuclear/cell ratio, decreasing interstitial connective tissue/glandular tissue ratio and increased cellular secretory activity. This activity decreased gradually during the summer and autumn to reach its minimal level during winter.

BACKGROUND:
Allowance for the positional changes of the sciatic nerve is important when considering the safest position of the leg to perform hip operations, specifically the ischial osteotomy during a pelvic triple or periacetabular osteotomy. As for its proximity to the osteotomy site the sciatic nerve can be injured during these operations with the consequence of severe functional impairment. This is the first in-vivo study that demonstrates the effect of hip position upon the location of the sciatic nerve.
METHODS:
We determined how altering the position of the hip moves the nerve toward or away from the infracotyloid groove, the desired starting point of the ischial osteotomy site just inferior to the acetabulum when performing a pelvic triple or periacetabular osteotomy. Magnetic resonance imaging scans of the left hip in 3 different positions (neutral/supine, 30 to 45 degrees flexion, 30 to 45 degrees flexion/abduction/external rotation) were performed in 11 healthy children (5 boys and 6 girls, age 7 to 17 y) without prior hip surgery. The distance between the sciatic nerve and the infracotyloid groove was measured on the magnetic resonance images. Distance ratios based on the neutral position were calculated for flexion and flexion/abduction/external rotation for each of the participants.
RESULTS:
The sciatic nerve moves toward the ischium osteotomy site in hip flexion without abduction (mean flexion: neutral ratio 0.79, P<0.01). However the nerve moves away from the osteotomy site when the hip is 30 to 45 degrees flexed, abducted, and externally rotated (mean flexion/abduction/external rotation: neutral ratio 1.34), meaning the distance from nerve to infracotyloid groove increases significantly (P<0.01). The mean distances were 14.8 mm (11 to 20 mm) in neutral, 11.8 mm (9 to 16 mm) in flexion, and 20.0 mm (9 to 30 mm) in flexion/abduction/external rotation.
CONCLUSIONS:
The likely safest position of the hip/leg to perform the ischium osteotomy as part of a pelvic triple or periacetabular osteotomy is in flexion, abduction, and external rotation. In this position the osteotomy can be performed via a medial or anterior approach with the nerve the furthest away from the osteotomy site.

This book is part of a series that is designed to help medical student to study via solving questions, to get the maximum benefit, one shall study from a rich and knowledgeable textbook first; the questions in this book are grouped into four sections: • Section One: MCQs (Type-A): covers the level of recall in the cognitive domain. • Section Two: Scenario-Based Questions: the questions are primary MCQs based on given scenarios (Cases) to cover the level of comprehension in the cognitive domain. • Section Three: Extended Matching Questions EMQs to cover the level of the application of knowledge in the cognitive domain. • Section Four: Medical Imaging: questions about normal X-ray and CT scan images are provided in this section

Ultrasonography is a method of choice for imaging visceral organs in animals. The aim of the study was to determine the ultrasonographic characteristics of the thyroid gland in healthy dogs and to correlate the relationships of thyroid gland size and volume with body weight. A total of 24 apparently healthy dogs of different breeds were grouped into four groups (each with 6 animals) based on their body weight viz., less than 7 Kgs, 7-15 kgs, 15-30 kgs, and more than 30 kgs. Each thyroid lobe was ultrasonographically observed in both transverse and longitudinal planes. The maximal length, width, and height of each lobe and thyroid volume were measured. The data were analyzed statistically. In all the groups, thyroid lobes were round to oval in transverse images and fusiform or elliptical in longitudinal images with the smooth capsule. The parenchyma of the thyroid lobes had a homogenous echogenic pattern. There was no significant difference observed between the mean height, length, width and volume of both the lobes of the thyroid gland with body weight among the four groups at a 5% level of significance (p< 0.05).

The emergence of malarial drug resistance drives the search for new agents against the disease. Eucalyptus camaldulensis leaf extract was tested for antiplasmodial activity. Swiss albino mice were intraperitoneally infected with Plasmodium berghei NK65. The level of parasitaemia was monitored daily and treatment began 72 hours post-infection. Doses administered orally to the different groups were 100mg/kg, 200mg/kg and 300mg/kg extract, 25mg/kg Chloroquine (CQ) to the positive control. The negative control were infected and untreated, while the Normal control were uninfected untreated. The animals were treated daily for ten days after sighting parasites in the blood film and then observed. Pack cell volume (%PCV), bodyweight change and survival time were monitored. The extract exerted a dose dependent effect on parasitaemia, with the 300mg/kg group expressing the best effect. Phytochemicals present were flavonoids, tannins, anthraquinones, steroids, saponins, cardiac glycoside and carbohydrates. For PCV, 12% and 4% decrease was observed in the negative and positive control groups; while 8%, 7%, 7% decrease in the 100, 200, and 300mg/kg groups respectively. The normal control expressed a 1% increase in PCV. The mean body weight was compared before and after infection and the result showed a 2.5g, 0.9g, 1.3g, 0.17g, 0.63g decrease in the 100, 200, 300mg/kg, 25mg/kg CQ and negative control groups respectively. A 4.63g weight increased in the normal control. All animals in test groups survived beyond the experimental period. It is obvious that the methanol leaf extract of Eucalyptus camadulensis has antiplasmodial properties that could be exploited as alternative therapy for malaria.

&amp;amp;amp;quot;International anatomical nomenclatures date from the end of the 19th century. They appeared at a time when the plethora of terms hampered communication among experts, which made implementation of these nomenclatures difficult. Translation plays a fundamental role in this dynamic, but the relationship between the international nomenclature and its national adaptations or rivals is complex, and finding an Ariadne’s thread to guide us through this labyrinth of terms can be difficult. We therefore propose a typology of the major problems of both French and international nomenclatures, as well as a working strategy that could be applied to all language pairs.&amp;amp;amp;quot;