Medication or Magic? Mantras in Early Āyurveda

Medication or Magic? Mantras in Early Āyurveda Vitus Angermeier, University of Vienna, 13 May 2022 Talk delivered at the Workshop on Mantras: Sound, Materiality, and the Body, 12-14 May 2022, Vienna Abstract The seminal 1989 study “Mantra in Ayurveda” by Kenneth G. Zysk describes four areas in which mantras were used in early Āyurveda: the treatment of wounds and swellings/tumours, of poisoning, of mental disorders, and the collection and prepara- tion of certain medicines. Although this article is a highly important contribution to the study of the significance of Vedic concepts in āyurvedic medicine, it leaves much room for further investigation into the role of mantras in early South Asian medical history. Mantras appear in many more contexts than those mentioned by Zysk. Vedic and post-Vedic mantras are also mentioned in prescriptions on general prevent- ive measures, preparation of food, intake of medicines, after-care of surgical proced- ures, pregnancy, childbirth and childcare, initiation of medical students, and other top- ics. Apart from their mere appearance, their medical use raises several more concrete questions such as: Who is in charge of pronouncing the mantras? Are they taken from the Vedic corpus or other sources, and are there original “āyurvedic” mantras? To what extent and in what way are the prescribed mantras connected to the medical cir- cumstances? In this talk, I would like to update and complement Zysk’s list, provide an overview of the importance and prevalence of mantras in the various āyurvedic schools and discip- lines, and provide a perspective on what still needs to be done to thoroughly under- stand the role of mantras in Āyurveda. 1 Introduction In his seminal 1989 study “Mantra in Ayurveda”, Kenneth G. Zysk describes four areas that show employment of mantras in early Āyurveda: the treatment of swellings/tumours (śotha) and wounds/sores (vraṇa), the treatment of poison, the treatment of mental disorders, and the col- lection and preparation of certain medicines. Though this article was a highly important contri - This research was funded in part by the Austrian Science Fund FWF (P 35301-G: „ Epidemics and Crisis Management in Pre-modern South Asia“). I have to thank Christian Ferstl and Dominik Haas, who read the paper before submission and made various valuable suggestions for improvement. Mantras in early Āyurveda 2/22 Vitus Angermeier bution to the examination of the significance of Vedic concepts in āyurvedic medicine, it leaves a lot of space for further investigation regarding “mantra in Āyurveda”. On one side the study occasionally refrains from putting the findings into their wider context, making the importance of mantras within the frame of the selected topics appear bigger than it is. Of course Zysk mentions in his conclusions that they “assumed a subordinate, if not anomalous, place in the medical treatments” (p. 133), but if one reads his account on the treatment of mental disorders one could get the impression that the use of mantras was quite central in the treatment of insanity and epilepsy, because he does not explicate that these diseases were generally seen as caused by imbalances of the morbific factors bile, wind, and phlegm and in consequence treated by efforts to harmonize this imbalance. On the other side, though actually of subordinate importance, mantras show up in many more contexts than those mentioned by Zysk. Additionally, Zysk focuses on vedic mantras, because he is especially interested in the connections and differences between the Veda, vedic medical thoughts, and Āyurveda. That means that he is less interested in apparently later mantras and only treats them in an appendix dedicated to the use of verse recitation in the treatment of various childhood diseases as described in the Suśrutasaṃhitā (SS 6.27–36). Therefore, in this paper, I would like to provide an exemplary context-sensitive assessment of the role of mantras in certain medical disciplines, broadly survey the importance and distribution of mantras in the various āyurvedic schools, and give an outlook on what still has to be done to understand the role of mantras in Āyurveda thoroughly. 1 2 Medical schools Earlier research in the history of early Āyurveda often only includes the two most popular foundational works, i.e. the Carakasaṃhitā (CS) and the Suśrutasaṃhitā (SS), and in many cases blends the findings as general āyurvedic theories despite the fact that these compilations definitely represent different schools with differing foci. Furthermore, as their name tells, these works are saṃhitās – compilations, assembling the achievements of earlier treatises now lost. These treatises apparently covered various medical disciplines and applied different theories and methods. Therefore, I would like to survey the relevance of mantras with awareness of the different medical disciplines that apparently existed in the early history of Āyurveda. We have extant works specifically dedicated to three such disciplines, namely internal medicine (kāyacikitsā), surgery (śalya), and paediatrics (kaumārabhṛtya). However, as these works were vivid compilations, they absorbed contents from each other and from other sources now lost, providing 1 For this purpose I consider all extant works composed before the compilations ascribed to Vāgbhaṭa (700 CE) that are more interested in representing an integrated medical science. These are the Carakasaṃhitā (CS), the Bhelasaṃhitā (BhS), the Hārītasaṃhitā (HS), the Suśrutasaṃhitā (SS), and the Kāśyapasaṃhitā (KS). All of them probably originated in the time around 150 CE, building on material from older treatises. All of them underwent major revisions in the following centuries, especially around 500 CE in the era of the Gupta empire. CS, BhS and HS all focus on the discipline of internal medicine, the CS and the fragmentary transmitted BhS sharing more similarities while the HS seems to belong to a separate tradition. The SS is the only early compilation focusing on surgery, the fragmentary KS is dedicated to paediatrics. Mantras in early Āyurveda 3/22 Vitus Angermeier us with information of further disciplines like toxicology (viṣatantra), demonology and treatment of possession (bhūtavidyā), as well as rejuvenation and aphrodisiac therapy (rasāyana and vājī- karaṇa). Several of the chapters discussing these topics have a distinctive style suggesting that they are either based on earlier independent treatises composed by specialists of these fields , or specially composed and directly added to the compilation. 2 Due to the given restraints, I will discuss here only the use of mantras in two of these medical disciplines, namely internal medicine and demonology. 2.1 General statements First of all it is important to stress that mantras do not play a very big role in early āyurvedic literature. For example, the CS has around twenty-five passages mentioning terms like mantra or mantrita; in the case of the Bhelasaṃhitā (BhS) there are only five relevant passages. This means that in many chapters where mantras play no visible role at all. Their main medical field of application is the treatment of exogenous (āgantuka) diseases. There seems to be a consensus throughout the examined works that endogenous (nija) diseases are always caused by some derangement of the morbific factors (doṣas) bile, wind, and phlegm that has to be treated with remedies working on these factors, while in the case of exogenous afflictions the application of mantras, amulets and certain rituals is the best choice. However, we will have to review this dichotomy at the end of this part of the paper (cf. section 2.2.5). Besides cases that reveal the use of mantras as healing agents there are several passages that insinuate widespread application of mantras in more mundane functions, like during eating, procreation and birth, as well as in various initiation rituals.3 Thus, while physicians in many cases did not rely on them, medical practice was apparently conducted in a world that relied on mantras in many daily pursuits. Therefore, we can assume that, from a certain time onwards, in several circumstances the employment of mantras was so habitual that the authors did not even care to mention it. However, in most cases this would concern medical less relevant issues. One such example would be the common consecration of food and medicinal substances (cf. section 2.2.4). 2.2 Kāyacikitsā – Internal medicine There are three early āyurvedic compendia that clearly focus on internal medicine (kāyacikitsā): the Carakasaṃhitā, the Bhelasaṃhitā, and the Hārītasaṃhitā (HS). However, taking into account that most of their contents are dedicated to internal medicine, mentions of mantras in portions on this discipline are not too frequent. The term mantra is repeatedly listed in categorizations of types of 2 Examples for the first kind are the rasāyana and vājīkaraṇa chapters of the CS (4.1 and 2) or the segment on pos- sessions of children in the SS (6.27–37). In the case of the SS the whole final Uttarasthāna is probably of later date, added to transform a work on surgery into a comprehensive āyurvedic compilation. Cf. Meulenbeld 1999, I A: 347–450. 3 Cf. for example CS 1.8.20, SS 1.46.448 (eating and preparation of food); HS 3.52.23–28, SS 3.10.15, 25–27, and 4.15.5–8, KS 8.6.80 (birth); SS 1.2.5 (initiation of medical students), KS 9.12.4–5, 6, and 15–17 (developmental stages of children). Mantras in early Āyurveda 4/22 Vitus Angermeier medicines.4 The first passage of this sort in the CS (1.11.54), included in a lesson discussing various tripartite concepts, differentiates remedies as follows: The tripartite remedy consists in those depending on the supernatural, those depen- ding on logical principles, and those consisting in victory over the mind. Among these • [the remedy] depending on the supernatural consists in mantras, herbs, gems, auspicious acts/objects, tribute offerings, oblations (to the gods), fire sa- crifices, austerities, atonement, fasting, blessings, prostrations, pilgrimages, etc., • [the remedy] depending on logical principles, on the other hand, consists in the application of substances in the form of food and medicine, • [the remedy] consisting in the victory over the mind, however, is the restraint of the intellect from unwholesome sense objects.5 A similar analysis, listing only the first two kinds of remedies, can be found in CS 3.8.87. 6 These two passages are somehow connected because the list of remedies depending on the supernatural (daivavyapāśraya) is completely identical in both passages. Finally the HS also contains the same categorization, so similar to the one in CS 1.11.54 that we can understand it as an interpolation imported from the CS.7 A list very similar to that of the supernatural remedies can be found in CS 1.30.21, where a physician, asked about the relation of Āyurveda to the Veda, is advised to refer to his personal reverence regarding the Atharvaveda, for the Veda of the Atharvans proclaims medi- cal treatment because it includes donations, blessings, oblations, auspicious acts/objects, fire sacri- fices, austerities, atonement, fasting, mantras etc. Already the discussion of this question, and even more so the way in which the answer is formulated, suggests that this connection between Āyurveda and Atharvaveda was not quite firmly established. This suspicion is reinforced by the fact that these remedies are prescribed much less often than those of the second group, i.e. reme- dies in the form of therapies, food and medicines working according to logical principles (yuktivyapāśraya). Consequently, the passage immediately following the categorization from CS 1.11.54, provides an alternative scheme only relying on this second group. Here, in CS 1.11.55, again three types of remedy are suggested, but this time explicitly for bodily afflictions by the 4 Cf. CS 1.11.54, CS 3.8.87, and HS 3.3.3. 5 CS 1.11.54: trividham auṣadham iti daivavyapāśrayaṃ yuktivyapāśrayaṃ sattvāvajayaś ca. tatra daivavyapāśrayaṃ mantrauṣadhimaṇimaṅgalabalyupahārahomaniyamaprāyaścittopavāsasvastyayanapraṇipātagamanādi, yuktivyapāśrayaṃ punar āhārauṣadhadravyāṇāṃ yojanā, sattvāvajayaḥ punar ahitebhyo' rthebhyo manonigrahaḥ. 6 CS 3.8.87: […] tatra daivavyapāśrayaṃ mantrauṣadhimaṇimaṅgalabalyupahārahomaniyamaprāyaścittopavāsasvastyaya- napraṇipātagamanādi, yuktivyapāśrayaṃ saṃśodhanopaśamane ceṣṭāś ca dṛṣṭaphalāḥ. […] CS 3.8. is a chapter officially “dealing with with the curing of diseases” (rogabhiṣagjitīya). Cf. Preisendanz 2007, 653–655 on the title of the chapter, 657–660 on its structure and 638–642 on its contents and development. 7 HS 3.3.3: tac ca daivapathāśrayaṃ yuktipathāśrayaṃ sattvāvajayañ ca. mantrauṣadhamaṇimaṅgalabalyupahārahoma- niyamaprāyaścittopavāsasvastyayanapraṇidhānādīti daivapathāśrayam. āhāravyavahārauṣadhadravyāṇāṃ yojaneti yukti- pathāśrayam. ahitebhyo 'rthebhyo manonigraha iti sattvāvajayañ ca. The chapter 3.3 in the HS is actually dedicated to the treatment of diarrhoea but starts with two categorizations, one of substances (3.3.2) and the other on remedies (3.3.3). The first one – also a quote from the CS (1.1.67) – differentiates substances (dravya) into those that are pacifying the morbific factors (doṣasaṃśamana), others that corrupt the bodily constituents (dhātudūṣaṇa) and those that provide well-being (svasthavṛtti). The second, on the categorization of remedies is provided above. Mantras in early Āyurveda 5/22 Vitus Angermeier morbific factors bile, wind and phlegm. These afflictions can be treated by internal cleansing (antaḥparimārjana), external cleansing (bahiḥparimārjana) or surgical operation (śastrapraṇidhāna). The descriptions of these types leave no room for remedies functioning in supernatural ways. Other kinds of afflictions are not discussed in the passage. 8 However, there are certain subtypes of a few diseases, in which the application of mantras and similar measures is actually recommended as a remedy. This concerns afflictions caused by exoge- nous factors, especially in the case of insanity (unmāda), epilepsy (apasmāra), and fever (jvara).9 Before we go into this it is important to stress that generally these diseases are depicted as caused by a derangement of the morbific factors and therefore treated with remedies working according to logical principles. Only in certain cases external causation by supernatural beings is assumed. 2.2.1 Insanity The chapter on the causation of insanity (unmāda) in the CS (2.7) first describes all the types of endogenous insanity (caused by wind, by bile, by phlegm and by all of them combined) before adding that there is a different kind of insanity caused by exogenous factors but in fact going back to one’s own earlier deeds. In these cases mantras and similar remedies are prescribed – curiously, again with almost the same wording as in CS 1.11.54. 10 This list was apparently eagerly duplicated and inserted into all suitable text passages in order to augment the employment of such remedies. It is not unlikely that the whole passage on exogenous insanity (CS 2.7.10–16) was added during a later revision of the CS. For every chapter on the causation of a disease the CS has in its 6th section, called Cikitsāsthāna, a chapter on its treatment. There, the chapter dedicated to insanity (CS 6.9), after a passage on endogenous insanity (6.9.1–15), contains further information on the exogenous type of this disease (16–23), also mentioning mantras. The exogenous type is described here as resulting from insulting gods, sages, Gandharvas, Piśācas, etc., from austerities, vows, etc. executed in a wrong way, and from deeds from a previous birth.11 According to 6.9.18 the mentioned creatures enter the body of their victim (puruṣasya dehaṃ … viśanty …); therefore, we can understand this type of insanity as a kind of possession and will come back to this passage when we discuss the use of mantras in demonology (bhūtavidyā) in section 2.3.3. Nevertheless (probably because there are also other causative factors than possession), the use of mantras and similar measures is not the only treatment for exogenous insanity. For the curable 8 CS 1.11.55: śarīradoṣaprakope khalu śarīram evāśritya prāyaśas trividham auṣadham icchanti – antaḥparimārjanaṃ, bahiḥparimārjanaṃ, śastrapraṇidhānaṃ ceti. tatrāntaḥparimārjanaṃ yad antaḥśarīram anupraviśyauṣadham āhārajāta- vyādhīn pramārṣṭi, yat punar bahiḥsparśam āśrityābhyaṅgasvedapradehapariṣekonmardanādyair āmayān pramārṣṭi tad- bahiḥparimārjanaṃ, śastrapraṇidhānaṃ punaś chedanabhedanavyadhanadāraṇalekhanospāṭanapracchanasīvanaiṣaṇa- kṣārajalaukasaś ceti. 9 As noted before and already stated by Zysk (1989, 126), mantras are also listed among the remedies against exo- genous types of swellings/tumours (śotha) and wounds/sores (vraṇa) in CS 1.18.5 and 6.25.8 respectively. 10 CS 2.7.16: tayoḥ sādhanāni mantrauṣadhimaṇimaṅgalabalyupahārahomaniyamavrataprāyaścittopavāsasvastyayanapraṇi- pātagamanādīni. The only difference in comparison to the list in CS 1.11.54 and 3.8.87 is the addition of vrata after niyama. The very same list (without vrata) can also be found in CS 3.3.36. 11 CS 6.9.16: devarṣigandharvapiśācayakṣarakṣaḥpitṝṇām abhidharṣaṇāni / āgantuhetur niyamavratādi mithyākṛtaṃ karma ca pūrvadehe //. Mantras in early Āyurveda 6/22 Vitus Angermeier cases the CS suggests that they “should be treated with prescriptions including mantras and drugs (bhaiṣajya), together with corresponding oblations and tribute offerings.” 12 The following treatment methods, dedicated to all kinds of insanity, contain no reference to mantras and related curative measures but rather rely on so-called pañcakarma methods like emesis and purgation, on snuffs, collyriums and various kinds of shock therapies including beating and terrifying in various manners (24–32). However, the more aggressive methods were apparently not deemed appropriate against exogenous insanity as 33ab concludes: “In exogenous cases drinking of ghee etc. and mantras etc. is the preferable method.” 13 This leads to the representation of several recipes for medicated ghee (33cd–63ab) that seem to be the preferable medication for mild cases. If these recipes don’t work, various kinds of collyrium, anointments and snuffs are suggested, culminating again in the employment of shock therapies (64–86). Then, there is again the restriction that patients maddened by supernatural beings should be treated more gently, i.e. not with intensive collyriums etc. (añjanādīni tīkṣṇāni) and rough treatment (krūrakarma): Here, in these cases, one should undertake mild medical treatment like drinking of ghee etc., worship, tribute offerings and oblations,14 as well as the use of mantras and collyrium.15 One should also employ pacificatory rites, offerings and fire sacrifices, soft recitation and blessings, also austerities mentioned in the Veda and acts of atonement. 16 This is further explicated in four partly redundant verses recommending the worship of Śiva/Ru- dra, various kinds of rites and sacrifices, worship of gods, cows, brahmins and teachers, as well as the use of mantras and drugs (auṣadha). We can conclude that, while mantras are never mentioned as useful against endogenous insanity, the treatment of exogenous cases never relies on remedies depending on the supernatural (daivavyapāśraya) alone but always combines them with remedies depending on logical principles (yuktivyapāśraya) like the use of medicated ghee and collyrium. Of the chapter on the causation of insanity in the BhS (2.7) only a fragment survived. In contrast to the CS this text actively rejects the possibility of insanity caused by supernatural beings in a quite surprising verse: “As is well known, spirits do not attack, neither do ghosts, nor demons and also the gods, who have a righteous character and are indifferent against men.” 17 Nevertheless, the final sentence of the chapter on the treatment of insanity (BhS 6.8), which generally focuses on shock therapy, advises the witch doctor (bhūtacikitsaka) to perform certain rituals (pacificatory 12 CS 6.9.23: ratyarcanākāmonmādinau tu bhiṣagabhiprāyācārābhyāṃ buddhvā tadaṅgopahārabalimiśreṇa mantrabhaiṣajya- vidhinopakramet. 13 CS 6.9.33ab: sarpiḥpānādir āgantor mantrādiś ceṣyate vidhiḥ. 14 The compound balyupahāra could also denote only one item: “making offerings”, but CS 6.9.23 has both terms in reverse order, suggesting that the words denote two different kinds of oblations (cf. fn. 70). For the meaning of bali, cf. Angermeier 2007, 31, n. 135. 15 Or “the use of collyrium supported by mantras”. As the use of intensive collyrium was banned in the previous sentence it is possible that the collyrium is here qualified by the mantras, making the collyrium more agreeable. 16 CS 6.9.89–90: sarpiṣpānādi tasyeha mṛdu bhaiṣajyam ācaret / pūjāṃ balyupahārāṃś ca mantrāñjanavidhīṃs tathā. // (89) śāntikarmeṣṭihomāṃś ca japasvastyayanāni ca / vedoktān niyamāṃś cāpi prāyaścittāni cācaret. // (90) 17 BhS 2.7.10: na hi satvāni hiṃsanti na piśācā na rākṣasāḥ / devās tathā dharmaśīlāḥ madhyasthā manujān prati. // Mantras in early Āyurveda 7/22 Vitus Angermeier rites, fire sacrifice), because they destroy insanity. 18 It is noteworthy that this is the only occur- rence of the term bhūtacikitsaka in the whole BhS; additionally there is one occurrence of the synonymous term bhūtavaidya that we will encounter in section 2.2.3. Elsewhere, the chapter on the treatment of insanity refers to the physician simply as vaidya (6.8.26). Thus, considering the information from BhS 2.7.10 it is very likely that this sentence refers to a specialist of another school – probably demonology (bhūtavidyā) – not really included in the system taught in the BhS. Altogether, it seems that the less popular BhS, due to reduced general interest, was more immune to brahmanical ideas and demands then the prominent CS and nearly managed to keep possession out of the analysis of insanity. The situation in the HS differs from that in the CS and the BhS, inasmuch as this work treats cau- sation and treatment of diseases in single chapters. Furthermore, it discusses epilepsy before insanity. Therefore, the very short chapter on insanity (HS 3.19), in its final verse, simply advises the same treatment as explicated in the preceding chapter on epilepsy (3.18), and additionally re- fers to the chapter on demonology (3.55). 19 Both will be discussed here later, respectively in the sections 2.2.2 and 2.3.3. The surgery-focused SS has no chapter on the causation of insanity and its discourse on the treat- ment of this disease (SS 6.62) is located very near the end of its final section, called Uttarasthāna. This hints at a later addition of this chapter. Here insanity is not endogenous or exogenous but of six kinds: caused by bile, wind or phlegm, by all of them, mental, and caused by poison. 20 The treatment methods all belong to the yuktivyapāśraya class. However, contrary to the CS the SS contains several chapters on demonology that we will discuss later in section 2.3.1. Apparently this compilation clearly differentiates between (endogenous) insanity and (exogenous) possession by supernatural beings. In conclusion we can say that insanity was generally seen as a disease caused by derangement of the morbific factors and consequently treated with methods pacifying these factors. Some works in some cases accepted external factors, including supernatural beings as agents inducing insanity by possession. This applies especially for the CS that has no separate chapters on demonology. In these cases mantras are important for treatment, however no specific mantras are provided. 2.2.2 Epilepsy Epilepsy (apasmāra) in Āyurveda is generally seen as a disease closely related to insanity. Conse- quently, a later addition of the concept of exogenous causation by possession is similarly likely for the chapter on the causation of epilepsy in the CS (2.8). There, the introduction only lists the four endogenous types caused by the morbific factors. Later, after a concluding sentence on epilepsy (CS 2.8.8), exogenous epilepsy is introduced. A short sentence, summarizing the treatment of all 18 BhS 6.8.33: śāntikarmāṇi homāṃś ca kuryād bhūtacikitsakaḥ / iṣṭayaḥ śāntikarmaṇi homāḥ svastyayanāni ca / vedoktāḥ karmavidhayaḥ kāryāś conmādanāśanāḥ. // 19 HS 3.19.7: tasyāpasmārakaṃ karma karttavyaṃ bhiṣajāṃ varaiḥ / viśeṣeṇa bhūtavidyāmadhye vakṣyāmi cāgrataḥ. // 20 The HS features a similar classification in 3.19.2, listing eight kinds of insanity: caused by a single morbific factor (1–3), caused by two of them (4–6), caused by all of them (7) and caused by poison (8). Mantras in early Āyurveda 8/22 Vitus Angermeier kinds of epilepsy prescribes mantras etc. for this exogenous type. 21 The chapter on the treatment of epilepsy (CS 6.10) only deals with the types caused by the morbific factors and thus does not mention mantras. The relevant chapters in the BhS (2.8 and 6.9, the second one only preserved fragmentary) mention neither exogenous types of the disease nor mantras or similar remedies. The HS deals with epilepsy before insanity, resulting in a slightly more detailed account (chapter 3.18). Here too the disease is understood as caused by the three morbific factors and to be treated by respective methods like orally and nasally absorbed medical preparations, collyrium and ointments, as well as shock therapy via cauterization of the forehead with heated iron rods for more severe cases. Again, neither exogenous types of the disease nor mantras or similar remedies are mentioned. Also in the SS the chapter on epilepsy (6.61) precedes the chapter on insanity. Again, the disease is presented as caused by the morbific factors, but then a dissenting doctrine is presented: Some say that because it disappears without treating, and because of its representation in traditional sources (āgama) it is not caused by the morbific factors. However this opinion is refuted by the author in favour of the usual āyurvedic understanding.22 Consequently the recommended treat- ment is again similar to that of insanity, however at least in one stanza it is suggested that “one should worship Rudra and his retinues constantly”23 – probably with fitting mantras. Like in the case of insanity the overall situation clearly shows that epilepsy was understood as a somatic disease caused by the morbific factors. Only the CS reluctantly accepts an exogenous cau- sation but does not elaborate on its treatment. The citation and refutation of an alternative theory in the SS reveals that there circulated other takes on the causation of the disease, however without much success in the domain of Āyurveda. 2.2.3 Fever Like insanity, fever is again a disease already mentioned in the Atharvaveda, making the use of ritualistic procedures for its treatment more likely. In his examination of fever Zysk cites several verses from the BhS that describe its ritualistic treatment by remedies depending on the super- natural (daivavyapāśraya). For the convenience’s sake, I reproduce here Zysk’s translation (foot- notes are my own): 46. Fever, arising from the anger of the Great Lord (Śiva), has been previously mentioned by the great sages. Therefore, for the sake of liberation from fever, one should worship Ṛṣabhadhvaja (Śiva). 47. Ritual ablutions, appeasements, burnt offerings, solemn vows, penance, restraint, ve- getal oblations, [proper] intentions and the destroyers of fever (jvaranāśana) men- tioned in the Veda [all] kill [fever]. 48. Overlord of disease, extremely powerful, the fever [is] the origin of disease; fatal to all beings, sublime, the fever is declared [to be] characteristic of fire. 21 CS 2.8.10: hitāny apasmāribhyas tīkṣṇāni saṃśodhanāny upaśamanāni ca yathāsvaṃ mantrādīni cāgantusaṃyoge. 22 Cf. SS 6.61.17–21. 23 SS 6.61.26ab: pūjāṃ rudrasya kurvīta tadgaṇānāṃ ca nityaśaḥ. / Mantras in early Āyurveda 9/22 Vitus Angermeier 49. Occasional, arising from evil, [it] should be difficult to cure by physicians; therefore, one should check [it] by mantras proclaimed in the Veda and by burnt offerings. 50. Fever, therefore, does not enter the man [when the prescribed method of] warding off fever, which [involves] violent action occurring in [the rites of] demonology, is properly executed by a witch doctor (bhūtavaidya).24 51. Moreover, the ancient cure of fever is to be employed by the physician who worships Rudra, who is pure, who practices asceticism and who is prudent, [in his duties]. 25 Zysk refers to several connections between this passage and atharvavedic accounts on fever (takmán) and points out that Śiva/Rudra, mentioned here repeatedly “is inextricably connected with the demon takmán” in the Atharvaveda.26 It is however important to note that also in the case of fever, this is only the very last kind of treatment for fever, mentioned in the chapter on the treatment of fever in the BhS (6.1) 27 after various measures all aiming at the pacification of the morbific factors. Probably this treatment relying on supernatural mechanisms was only suggested for fevers that could not be linked to a causation by bile, wind, or phlegm. Furthermore, as the chapter ends after these six verses that are ill-connected to the preceding topic (recurring fever) we cannot rule out that they have been added to the chapter at a later stage. The BhS has an addi- tional chapter on fever, dedicated exclusively to irregular types. It starts with a discussion about the causation of these fevers, presenting differing opinions. Some say, they are simply caused by (1) single morbific factors, others trace them to (2) a combination of these factors (saṃnipāta), others again argue that they come from (3) evil spirits or from (4) the stellar constellation during birth. Ātreya, the preceptor in the BhS, endorses the second opinion. 28 Nevertheless, ritual treat- ment (tribute offerings, pacificatory rites, fire sacrifices, etc.) and the worship of Rudra/Śiva is admitted at the end of the chapter as a treatment for irregular fevers. 29 The chapter on the causation of fever in the CS (2.1) lists an exogenous type of fever, caused by physical attack (abhighāta), contact [with evil spirits] (abhiṣaṅga), enchanting (abhicāra) or cursing (abhiśāpa). However, also this kind is assumed to work on the morbific factors and therefore should be treated in the usual manner.30 The connection between Śiva and fever is repeated in the CS several times, most elaborately in the chapter on the treatment of fever (CS 4.3.14–25). 31 Still this connection does not result in treatment with mantras or the like. On the contrary, though this chapter on treatment is quite long and contains countless recipes it never includes remedies of the daivavyapāśraya class. 24 Cf. the use of bhūtacikitsaka in BhS 6.8.33 (fn. 18). 25 Cf. Zysk 1989, 30–31 and BhS 6.1.46–51. 26 See Zysk 1989, 131. 27 The chapter discussing the causation of fever (2.1), is missing in the surviving manuscript of the BhS. 28 BhS 6.2.1–3. 29 Cf. BhS 6.2.39–41. 30 CS 2.1.30: abhighātābhiṣaṅgābhicārābhiśāpebhya āganturhi vyathāpūrvo 'ṣṭamo jvaro bhavati. sa kiṃcitkālam āgantuḥ kevalo bhūtvā paścād doṣair anubadhyate. tatrābhighātajo vāyunā duṣṭaśoṇitādhiṣṭhānena, abhiṣaṅgajaḥ punar vāta- pittābhyām, abhicārābhiśāpajau tu sannipātenānubadhyete. This is repeated with more details in CS 4.3.111cd–129ab. 31 Cf. also HS 3.2.39–40. Mantras in early Āyurveda 10/22 Vitus Angermeier The HS chapter on fever also focuses on the types caused by the morbific factors but near the end it adds two untypical treatment concepts we have not encountered up to now. First, it suggests an invocation to the monkey king Sugrīva, known from the epic Rāmāyaṇa, and even provides a prayer to him: The divine face of the monkey king, having the glow of the newly risen sun, kills the horrible daily fever instantly. Having sketched the figure of the monkey with chalk, listen again. The best physicians worship him with incense, flowers, unbroken grain and smoke. „Oṃ hrāṃ hrīṃ klīṃ to Sugrīva of great strength and prowess, the son of the sun, with infinite glow; the daily fever, the fever recurring every second day, the great fever recurring every fourth day, the fever caused by evil spirits, the fever caused by fear, the fever caused by anger, the seasonal fever and many more fevers, burn burn, cook cook, promote promote, o king of the monkeys, tie tie the fevers! hrāṃ hrīṃ hrūṃ phaṭ svāhā. Fever does not exist.“ It will protect someone who is free of fever and also someone who has strong fever.32 This prayer is not designated as a mantra here, but it is clear from similar prayers in the HS that this kind of invocation was definitely understood as a mantra. 33 The second new concept provided in this chapter is a classification of fever based on the four classes of society. Disregarding all earlier systematizations of fever the passage 3.2.220–234 lists fevers belonging to the four social classes, their symptoms and treatment. For the fever connected with the first three classes the treatment includes bathing, soft recitation (japa) and fire sacrifices – very likely including the use of mantras –, while the Śūdra fever cannot be overcome. While in the compilations of internal medicine fever is a prominent disease, the SS only treats it in chapter 39 of its final Uttarasthāna. 34 Nevertheless it is a long treatise containing many recipes against many kinds of fever. It begins by connecting fever with Śiva/Rudra (6.39.8–13ab) and lists eight types of the disease, seven of them being caused by the morbific factors and the eighth labelled as exogenous (āgantu). Among the exogenous causes it also mentions affliction by stellar constellations (nakṣatrapīḍā), enchanting (abhicāra), cursing (abhiśāpa), and mental fear of evil spirits (manobhūtābhiśaṅkā).35 Among the countless recipes, therapeutic measures and dietetic pre- 32 HS 3.2.217–219: vānarendramukhaṃ divyaṃ taruṇādityatejasam / jvaram ekāhikaṃ ghoraṃ tatkṣaṇād eva naśyati. // (217) vānarākṛtim ālikhya khaṭikāyāḥ punaḥ śṛṇu. / gandhapuṣpākṣatair dhūpair arcayanti bhiṣagvarāḥ. // (218) “oṃ hrāṃ hrīṃ klīṃ sugrīvāya mahābalaparākramāya sūryaputrāyāmitatejase ekāhikadvyāhikatryāhikacāturthikamahājvara- bhūtajvarabhayajvarakrodhajvaravelājvaraprabhṛtijvarāṇāṃ daha daha paca paca avata avata vānararāja jvarāṇāṃ bandha bandha hrāṃ hrīṃ hrūṃ phaṭ svāhā. nāsti jvaraḥ.” jvarāpagamanasamarthajvaras trāsyate. 33 Cf. for example HS 3.52.23 (easy delivery), 3.55.26cd–27 (possession, see note 74), or 3.56.7–8 (poisoning). 34 Interestingly, it is is introduced by a request of the pupils of Divodāsa (the preceptor of the SS), to also instruct them about the diseases taught in the discipline of kāyacikitsā, now after he has said everything about surgery (SS 6.39.3–7). All but one of the following chapters till the end are dedicated to topics of internal medicine. Very likely this whole segment was added to transform the SS from a treatise on surgery into a general compilation on Āyurveda. 35 The final item most probably contains a misspelling, abhiśaṅka for abhiṣaṅga (contact/possession), because later, in SS 6.39.265, for fever arisen due to bhūtābhiśaṅgā (contact with evil spirits) treatment with binding (bandha), Mantras in early Āyurveda 11/22 Vitus Angermeier scriptions in this chapter only one ghee recipe contains a vague reference to the use of mantras. The so-called “great, auspicious ghee” (mahākalyāṇakaghṛta) should be consecrated with mantras by Brāhmaṇas (brāhmaṇair abhimantritam) before administered to the patient.36 Lastly, the Kāśyapasaṃhitā (KS), a work dedicated to pregnancy and paediatrics (kaumārabhṛtya), similarly to the BhS contains a chapter on irregular fevers. While the BhS rejected the causation of such fevers by evil spirits the KS considers them possible and advises a physician who desires success to “remove evil by tribute offerings, pacificatory rites and fire sacrifices, as well as by accomplished mantra lines. He should resort to the lord of the beings, the one with the blue throat, to him who has a bull as his sign.”37 This examination shows that there circulated ideas that connected fever with the possession by evil spirits. This is not surprising as this connection is well established in the Atharvaveda. How- ever, it is clear that the school of internal medicine had quite a different position and also defended it as shown in the BhS. Consequently, mantras play an inferior role in the treatment of fever. Only in the two cases where exogenous causation by evil spirits was accepted, they are employed as countermeasures (BhS 6.1.46–51, SS 6.39.265). Both passages emphasize that these are measures taught in the domain of demonology (bhūtavidyā).38 And even the acting physician is called a witch doctor (bhūtavaidya) in one case, making it quite clear that these are concepts borrowed from another science or discipline. A noteworthy feature, accepted by all examined compilations, is the strong connection between Śiva and the origin of fever. 2.2.4 Ritualized preparation and intake of drugs As noticed already by Zysk, mantras are also used during the collection and preparation of medicines.39 He quotes a passage from a rasāyana40 chapter of the SS prescribing the uttering of specific mantras during the uprooting of medicinal plants. 41 However, it has to be emphasized that this prescription does not necessarily apply to all kinds of medicinal plants but explicitly to soma- like herbs employed in specific rasāyana recipes. Zysk links this to the handling of plants as described in the Atharvaveda and also mentions that a good part of the knowledge on plants in Āyurveda derives from the atharvavedic tradition. Additionally, he quotes a passage from the CS (with a parallel in the SS), where an emetic drug is consecrated with a specific mantra, invoking various Vedic and later gods, and two more cases from the SS that prescribe the recitation of exorcism (aveśana) and worship (pūjana), as taught in demonology is recommended. (bhūtavidyāsamuddiṣṭair bandhāveśanapūjanaiḥ / jayed bhūtābhiṣaṅgotthaṃ.) 36 SS 6.39.234cd–238. 37 KS 9.1.41–42ab: balibhiḥ śāntihomaiś ca siddhair mantrapadais tathā / pāpāpaharaṇaṃ cāsya kartavyaṃ siddhim iccha– tā, // (41) bhūteśvaraṃ nīlakaṇṭhaṃ prapadyeta vṛṣadhvajam. / The deity referred to here is, of course, Śiva. 38 Cf. section 2.3. 39 See Zysk 1989, 131–133. 40 Rasāyanas are therapies and elixirs for a long life and for promoting various of its asp ects, like bodily health, sound intellect, etc. It constitutes one of the eight disciplines of Āyurveda. 41 SS 4.30.26–28ab. Mantras in early Āyurveda 12/22 Vitus Angermeier mantras while preparing a certain rasāyana that promotes sexual desire in old age. 42 While the rasāyana passages could simply reflect the techniques of an originally independent school, the mention of mantras during the preparation of an emetic drug could hint to a widespread use of mantras during the preparation of medicine. And there is more evidence: One passage in the SS refers to the consecration with mantras of a remedy against sweet urine (madhumeha).43 As already mentioned, another does the same for a medicated ghee against fever.44 And also the KS contains references to the consecration of drugs, one in a general context, one regarding a purgative drug and a third to a remedy against a kind of tumours arising out of blood (rakta- gulma).45 From this widespread evidence, one gets the impression that consecration of medicines during their preparation or before intake was so usual that it is only mentioned sporadically. On the other side, the evidence comes mainly from compendia outside the discipline of internal medi - cine (i.e. SS and KS), and there to a good extent from the parts that are probably younger (Uttarasthāna and Khilasthāna). Therefore, the employment of mantras to remedies was probably widespread in the school of internal medicine but not necessarily from earliest time onwards. Probably it was taken over from other disciplines with more affinity to the use of mantras. 2.2.5 Mantras and disease causation As we have seen, apart from their use for consecrating medicine, the employment of mantras is generally connected with the exogenous causation of diseases. Only if the affliction is caused by certain external factors, mantras and ritualistic procedures are the right medicine, while diseases caused by internal factors should be treated by pacifying the morbific factors bile, wind and phlegm. This differentiation of diseases according to their causation is widely accepted in Āyurveda, but at second glance it might be less established than generally assumed. In the case of fever the CS listed an exogenous type but declared that it also works on the morbific factors and should be treated accordingly. Regarding epilepsy, the same work generally only talks about the types caused by the morbific factors, mentioning the exogenous type only very briefly in its chapter on the causation of the disease. Only in the case of insanity the exogenous type is treated with more detail, probably because it was one of the topics, where demonology could be included in the compendium. While the concept of endogenous and exogenous diseases is often implemen- ted only half-heartedly, also its structure was not strictly determined at the time of the formation of the CS. For example, the chapter CS 1.7 contains a description of the exogenous diseases, leaving no space for the employment of mantras as a remedy against them: 42 Cf. CS 7.1.14 (plus the parallel in SS 1.43.4) and SS 4.28.9, 25. 43 SS 4.13.25–26: Of the oil, purified by mantras, he shall drink a measure corresponding to his strength. For this I will declare a mantra, by which it is consecrated: “O essence of the marrow, of great potency, clean all the bodily elements. The firm one, holding a conch, disc and mace in his hand (= Viṣṇu) commands you.” (mantrapūtasya tailasya piben mātrāṃ yathābalam / tatra mantraṃ pravakṣyāmi yenedam abhimantryate. // majjasāra mahāvīrya sarvān dhātūn viśodhaya / śaṅkhacakragadāpāṇis tvām ājñāpayate 'cyutaḥ. //) 44 SS 6.39.237cd–238, cf. the paragraph on the SS in section 2.2.3. 45 Cf. KS 9.3.66, 9.7.2324ab and 9.9.62. Mantras in early Āyurveda 13/22 Vitus Angermeier In the case of human exogenous diseases, that arise through ghosts, poison, wind, fire, beating, etc., judgement goes astray.46 Aberrations of the mind like jealousy, grief, fear, anger, arrogance and hate – all these are also said to be caused by offences against reason. Refraining from offences against reason, pacification of the senses, mindfulness/re- membrance, detailed knowledge of place, time and self, the pursuit of good conduct – this way has been shown regarding the non-emergence of exogenous diseases. 47 And the prudent one should do already in advance what he recognizes to be beneficial for himself. Knowledge coming from the instruction by trustworthy people 48 and its acquisition are the cause for non-emergence of pathological changes 49 and for the pacification of those that have arisen.50 A thorough examination of the concept of endogenous and exogenous causation of diseases would probably bring more clarity into the understanding of mantras in Āyurveda, but is defi- nitely beyond the scope of this paper. 2.3 Demonology and treatment of possession The usual term to denote the knowledge about possession by various supernatural beings and its treatment in Āyurveda is bhūtavidyā (the knowledge of the beings).51 This term already pops up in several lists of knowledge systems in the Chāndogya Upaniṣad but probably has a wider meaning 46 This stanza does not clarify if prajñāparādha is the cause of exogenous diseases or a side effect in the disease cau- sation. The commentator Cakrapāṇidatta states that these phenomena and also those mentioned in the next stanza are caused by prajñāparādha ([…] prajñā buddhis tadaparādho ‘jñānadurjñāne, etanmūlāś caite bhūtābhi- ṣaṅgādaya īrṣyādayaś ca. […]). Stanza 52 also clearly describes jealousy etc. as consequences of prajñāparādha. 47 According to Cakrapāṇidatta this refers to CS 4.1.147: “Mindfulness originates from those qualities beginning with attendance upon the good and ending with firmness. Having considered, keeping in mind the real nature of the beings one is liberated from suffering” (smṛtiḥ satsevanādyaiś ca dhṛtyantair upajāyate, smṛtvā svabhāvaṃ bhāvā- nāṃ smaran duḥkhāt pramucyate). Alternative translation, understanding smṛti as “remembrance”: “Remembrance originates from those qualities beginning with attendance upon the good and ending with firmness. Having remembered, remembering the real nature of the beings one is liberated from suffering.” 48 The instruction by trustworthy people is one of the four valid means of cognition in the CS (cf. CS 1.11.17–33), the others being perception (pratyakṣa), inference (anumāna), and combination (yukti). According to CS 1.11.18–19 “those who have liberated themselves from agitation and darkness by means of the power of austerity and knowledge, whose knowledge is always spotless and not contradictory throughout the three times (past, present and future), those are trustworthy, learned and awakened. Their speech is free from doubt, they speak the truth. How could they speak an untruth, free from agitation and darkness?” (rajastamobhyāṃ nirmuktās tapojñānabalena ye / yeṣāṃ trikālam amalaṃ jñānam avyāhataṃ sadā // āptāḥ śiṣṭā vibuddhās te teṣāṃ vākyam asaṃśayam / satyaṃ vakṣyanti te kasmād asatyaṃ nīrajastamāḥ //) 49 The term vikāra does not denote diseases but disorders or pathological changes, comprising imbalances of bile, wind and phlegm as well as their effects (cf. Meulenbeld 2012, 38–39). 50 CS 1.7.51–55: ye bhūtaviṣavāyvagnisaṃprahārādisaṃbhavāḥ / nṛṇām āgantavo rogāḥ prajñā teṣv aparādhyati. // (51) īrṣyāśokabhayakrodhamānadveṣādayaś ca ye, / manovikārās te 'py uktāḥ sarve prajñāparādhajāḥ. (52) tyāgaḥ prajñāpa- rādhānām indriyopaśamaḥ smṛtiḥ / deśakālātmavijñānaṃ sadvṛttasyānuvartanam, // (53) āgantūnām anutpattāv eṣa mārgo nidarśitaḥ. / prājñaḥ prāg eva tat kuryād dhitaṃ vidyād yad ātmanaḥ. // (54) āptopadeśaprajñānaṃ pratipattiś ca kāraṇam / vikārāṇām anutpattāv utpannānāṃ ca śāntaye. // (55). 51 On the meaning of bhūta, cf. Arbman 1922, 166–214. Mantras in early Āyurveda 14/22 Vitus Angermeier there, denoting general knowledge of (supernatural) beings.52 In Āyurveda it is clearly connected with possession and its treatment. And while most later āyurvedic literature and also most mo- dern scholars53 include insanity and epilepsy under this discipline, we have seen in the sections 2.2.1 and 2.2.2 that the early Saṃhitās were quite reluctant to do so. We have no specific āyurvedic work on demonology and the early compilations chose different ways to incorporate this knowledge on seizing creatures. The SS in its final section has one chapter on the defence against non-human infestation (amānuṣopasargapratiṣedha, SS 6.60), directly following the chapters on insanity and epilepsy and discussing the possession by so-called seizers (grahas). Additionally, it contains ten chapters on nine types of seizers (navagrahas) who specialize on children (6.27–37 and 60). The HS has a chapter on demonology (bhūtavidyā) – according to the chapter colophon –, however the actual chapter, like the SS, rather speaks of grahas and never mentions the term bhūtavidyā. It is nested between a chapter on childhood diseases and another on toxicology. Finally, the CS and the extant parts of the BhS do not contain chapters specifically dedicated to demonology or possession. The CS includes references to possession only in descrip- tions of the causation and treatment of exogenous fever, insanity and epilepsy. The BhS, as we have seen before in section 2.2.3, refers to demonology in its chapters on fever. 2.3.1 Demonology in the school of surgery Because supernatural causation is generally assumed for all kinds of possession, it is quite logical to take ritualistic measures that address supernatural powers for their treatment. Therefore man- tras play a significant role in the treatment (and sometimes even in the causation) of possession. Though the chapter on the defence against non-human infestation (amānuṣopasargapratiṣedha) in the SS hardly mentions mantras as a remedy against possession, it is quite clear that they were used in the prescribed measures like offerings to the seizers 54 and fire sacrifices55. Ritualistic treatment was apparently the first choice, but not the only one: Those [seizers] who can neither be defeated by the old, customary mantras, presented in the science of demonology nor by tribute offerings, of those one should take care through [medical] practice.56 The sentence is followed by several recipes for fumigation, snuffs, anointments and collyriums. 57 52 Cf. ChU 7.1.2, 4; 7.2.1, and 7.7.1. The passages list various knowledge systems: knowledge of the gods (devavidyā), knowledge of the Veda (brahmavidyā), knowledge of beings (bhūtavidyā), knowledge of power/warfare (kṣatra- vidyā), knowledge of the lunar mansions (nakṣatravidyā), and knowledge of the serpent deities (sarpadevajanavidyā, i.e., acc. to the commentary ascribed to Śaṅkara, arts like the preparation of perfumes, dancing, singing, rhetoric, and mechanical arts). On the meaning of bhūtavidyā in the ChU, cf. Arbman 1922, 175, n. 2. 53 Cf. for example Meulenbeld 1997, 185–186. 54 See SS 6.60.29cd–32ab. 55 See SS 6.60.32–37ab. 56 SS 6.60.37cd–38ab: pūrvam ācaritair mantrair bhūtavidyānidarśitaiḥ // (37) na śakyā balibhir jetuṃ yogais tān samupācaret. / 57 See SS 6.60.38cd–54ab. Mantras in early Āyurveda 15/22 Vitus Angermeier Beside this representation of possession the SS further contains ten short consecutive chapters on nine types of seizers (navagrahas) of children (6.27–37). Children were seen as especially prone to possession. Probably various childhood diseases, difficult to explain otherwise, were ascribed to machinations of evil beings. According to Zysk, who discussed and partly translated the nava- graha-segment of the SS in the appendix of his 1989 article, 58 this treatise is included in the section on childhood diseases. In fact, however, these nine chapters are all there is in the SS on childhood diseases. Thus, the inclusion of the whole section probably serves the double purpose of including or strengthening paediatrics and demonology in the SS, two disciplines that would be poorly represented in the compilation without these chapters. Chapter 27 contains descriptions of the symptoms of possession by each of the nine types of seizers and general directions for treatment including a mantra to Skanda who is addressed as the lord of the seizers. Chapters 28– 36 each begin with plant based recipes for baths, fumigations, ointments, ingested medicine, and bles- sings, and end with descriptions of fitting oblations and a ritual, each including a specific mantra against the responsible deity. As an example I present here Zysk’s translation of only one of these mantras: Let the goddess Pūtanā, who has an awful appearance and a very bad smell, who is dreadful and black like a rain-cloud, and who dwells in dilapidated houses, protect the child.59 The mantras all follow this pattern of describing the deity and asking her/him for protection. Apparently all these deities could either protect or afflict a child. The final chapter in this series, SS 6.37, explains that these beings were created for the protection of children, but additionally got the task to seize children of families (kula) that do not worship gods, ancestors, brahmins, sages, teachers and guests, have lost their behaviour and cleanliness/purity, live on someone else’s food, have given up tribute offerings and alms, or eat from broken vessels.60 2.3.2 Demonology in paediatrics As suggested by the evidence in the SS, the only extant compilation on paediatrics, the KS also contains references to demonology and consequently also employs mantras. In a general chapter on fumigation as a means against possession the substances employed shall be consecrated (abhimantrya) with the recitation of “vidhūrasi” (vidhūrasyanuvākena).61 Afterwards, during fumigation a long soft recitation (japa) identifying all kinds of beings with the smoke should be 58 Zysk 1989, 135–138. Zysk translated the mantras provided in the chapters 27 to 36 plus the preceding verse intro- ducing them, i.e. SS 6.27.18–21 (to all nine seizers), 28.9–14 (to Skandagraha), 29.7–9 (to Skandāpasmāra), 30.9–11 (to Śakunī), 31.8–11 (to Revatī), 32.9–11 (to Pūtanā), 33.7–9 (to Andhapūtanā), 34.7b–9 (to Śītapūtanā), 35.6–9 (to Mukhamaṇḍikā), and 36.10–11 (to Naigameṣa). 59 SS 6.32.11: durdarśanā sudurgandhā karālā meghakālikā / bhinnagārāśrayā devī dārakaṃ pātu pūtanā. // 60 Cf. SS 6.37.17–19: tad yuṣmākaṃ śubhā vr̥ttir bāleṣv eva bhaviṣyati / kuleṣu yeṣu nejyante devāḥ pitara eva ca // brāhma - ṇāḥ sādhavaś caiva guravo 'tithayastathā, / nivr̥ttācāraśauceṣu parapākopajīviṣu // utsannabalibhikṣeṣu bhinnakāṃsyopa- bhojiṣu / gr̥heṣu teṣu ye bālās tān gr̥hṇīdhvam aśaṅkitāḥ. // 61 The word anuvāka could also denote a subdivision of the Veda, however, I could not find any segment that could be called vidhūrasi/ī. Mantras in early Āyurveda 16/22 Vitus Angermeier uttered.62 The next relevant passage, in a chapter on the treatment of the possession by Revatī (and other deities), lists the impairment of a pregnant woman by mantras, bad drugs or bad actions as one of many causes for the possession by a demoness called Jātahāriṇī. 63 Later in the same chapter, we have a second passage, describing a complex ritual called “protective binding” (varaṇabandha) for preventing premature delivery caused by evil spirits. Incorporated in this ritual is the invocation of Mātaṅgī, one of the ten Mahāvidyās, well-known tantric deities,64 and a cryptic, tantric mantra that cannot really be translated: satthava hili mili mahāmili kuruṭṭā aṭṭe mamaṭe tumvipase karaṭe gandhāri keyūri bhujaṅga- mi ojahāri sarṣapacchedani alagaṇilagaṇi paṃsumasi kakikākaṇḍi hili hili biḍi biḍi aṭṭe maṭṭe ajihaṭṭe kukkukukkumati svāhā.65 The passage contains another, more understandable mantra that again mentions Rudra and is denoted as rudramātaṅgīvidyā: Salutation to the venerable Rudra, o Mātaṅgī, red one with the dreadlocks, who is appeasing Rudra – protect, protect this one, let me recognize whoever wants to harm him. Svāhā.66 As the Mahāvidyā cult is generally known to be a medieval phenomenon and such tantric mantras are quite rare in the early āyurvedic compilations, we have to understand this passage, or even the whole chapter, as a rather late addition to the KS. 2.3.3 Demonology in internal medicine The compilations of internal medicine contain little material on the use of mantras against possession. In fact possession is no big issue here and thus, remedies like mantras are rarely mentioned. The CS contains two references to mantras in connection with possession, both in the context of the treatment of insanity (cf. section 2.2.1). In the first case mantras are not part of the treatment, but symptoms of a special kind of possession: Someone who is occupied with loud laughter and dance shall be recognized as maddened by a Brahma-Rākṣasa, due to hatred and disregard for gods, sages and physicians, due to utterances of eulogies, vedic mantras and treatises 67 and due to self- injury with sticks etc.68 62 KS 8.1.58: Many invocations follow this simple pattern: “Agni shall fumigate you, Brahmā shall fumigate you, Śiva shall fumigate you …” (agnis tvā dhūpayatu, brahmā tvā dhūpayatu, śivas tvā dhūpayatu …); others contain con- crete requests such as: “the Aśvins shall fumigate you for health, long life, force and happiness.” ( aśvinau tvārogyāya dīrghāyuṣṭvāya sahase śevase dhūpayatām). 63 KS 8.6.8: “…, or if someone harms her with mantras, bad herbs or actions, …” ([…], mantrāsadauṣadhakarmabhir vainām abhicarati, […]). 64 Cf. Kinsley 1998. 65 KS 8.6.80. Though untranslatable as a whole one can observe that several word seem to refer to Śiva, like gandhāri (sugandhāra is a name of Śiva), keyūri (with a bracelet), and bhujaṅgami (with the snake). 66 KS 8.6.80: […] namo bhagavato rudrasya, mātaṅgi kapile jaṭile rudraśāme rakṣa rakṣemaṃ, ririkṣum ājñāpayeti svāhā. […]. 67 or: “due to utterances of eulogies, the Veda, mantras and prescriptive texts”. Mantras in early Āyurveda 17/22 Vitus Angermeier Later, after a description of incurable cases and such that should be rejected, mantras are also employed in the treatment of exogenous insanity: The two kinds maddened by desire for pleasure and worshipping however, 69 recognized by their behaviour and by approaching a physician, should be treated with prescriptions including mantras and drugs (bhaiṣajya), together with corresponding oblations and tribute offerings.70 As we can observe here (and as described in more detail in section 2.2.1 on insanity) mantras are always employed together with other remedies (especially medicated ghee) in the treatment of in- sanity caused by possession. The HS has a separate chapter engaged with demonology 71 that lists ten types of seizers (ghrahas) and explains the treatment against possessions. This treatment consists in excessive washing with water (jalasnāna sātiśaya), the practice of tribute offerings (balikarman), and orally expressed worship (pūjā vācyamānā).72 Thereafter, however, the chapter proceeds with recipes for plant- based, orally ingested medicines and fumigations before it ends with a longer mantra – this time not to pacify the evil spirits or ask certain deities for protection, but to terrify the patient(!): With this mantra, o Hārīta, you shall terrify the person afflicted by a seizer: “Om, salutation to the venerable lord of beings, with the kalikali(?)-nails/claws, o terrible one, with a wide opening mouth showing fangs, blazing 73 with three eyes, having a reddish eye on the forehead, with the boundless glow of the fire of intense wrath, … show, show your shape, dance, dance, move, move, bind, bind with your noose, let tremble, make tremble by the sound huṃ, strike, strike with your diamond staff, chop, chop with your sharp sword, pierce, pierce with the tip of your spear, crush, crush with your hammer, make enter, make enter all seizers. Svāhā.” 74 68 CS 6.9.20: […]; prahāsanṛtyapradhānaṃ devavipravaidyadveṣāvajñābhiḥ stutivedamantraśāstrodāharaṇaiḥ kāṣṭhādibhir ātmapīḍanena ca brahmarākṣasonmattaṃ vidyāt; […]. 69 The preceding sentence (CS 6.9.22) explained that violent patients of insanity are incurable and should not be treated. CF. also CS 2.7.15, where three kinds of insanity are differentiated: Patients who aspire to violence are deemed incurable, while those who crave pleasure and worship are curable. 70 CS 6.9.23: ratyarcanākāmonmādinau tu bhiṣagabhiprāyācārābhyāṃ buddhvā tadaṅgopahārabalimiśreṇa mantrabhaiṣajya- vidhinopakramet. 71 The term bhūtavidyā only occurs in the chapter colophon. 72 HS 3.55.20. 73 Unclear. The NWS has “blazing” for dhagadhagāyamānā. 74 HS 3.55.26cd–27: mantreṇa tena hārīta tarjayed grahapīḍitam. // (26) oṃ namo bhagavate bhūteśvarāya kalikalinakhāya raudra daṃṣṭrākarālavaktrāya trinayanadhagadhagitapiśaṅgalalāṭa- netrāya tīvrakopānalāmitatejase pāśaśūlakhaṭvāṅgaḍamarukadhanurbāṇamudgarābhayadaṇḍatrāsasamudrāvyayadasaṃ- yadārdradaṇḍamaṇḍitāya kapilajaṭājūṭārddhacandradhāriṇe bhasmarāgarañjitāvigrahāya ugraphaṇikālakūṭāṭopamaṇḍita- kaṇṭhadeśāya jaya jaya bhūtanāthāmarātmane rūpaṃ darśaya darśaya nṛtya nṛtya cala cala pāśena bandha bandha huṅkāreṇa trāsaya trāsaya vajradaṇḍena hana hana niśitakhaḍgena chinna chinna śūlāgreṇa bhinna bhinna mudgareṇa cūrṇaya cūrṇaya sarvagrahāṇām āveśaya veśaya svāhā. (27) Near the end the text seems to be corrupt: sarvagrahāṇām should be sarvagrahān, and the ā in āveśaya does not fit the pattern followed before. Mantras in early Āyurveda 18/22 Vitus Angermeier Apparently this is not so much a mantra, working in the traditional, protecting way, but em- ployed as part of shock therapy that we have already encountered while discussing the treatment of insanity. 2.3.4 Summary on demonology To sum up, in the domain of demonology, mantras are mentioned under the following circum- stances: SS: One separate chapter on possession and a longer treatise of ten short chapters on possession of children, both in the final section of the work. KS: Two chapters, each mentioning the use of mantras in two occasions, due to the focus of the work all references are connected to the possession of children or pregnant women. Some of them have a strong tantric character, indicating a late date of inclusion. CS: Both relevant passages belong to the chapter on the treatment of insanity. BhS: No relevant passages, but it mentions experts of demonology or witch doctors (bhūta- vaidya/-cikitsaka) two times. HS: Separate chapter on possession, containing only one mantra, used as shock therapy. This leads to the following conclusions: • Taking into account that these compilations all consist of at least one hundred or more chapters, demonology and possession is definitely a minor issue in early Āyurveda, mostly only included as a subtopic of other topics. • The SS and the KS primarily included the topic in the domain of paediatrics, while the CS went for insanity. • The SS and the HS both contain a separate chapter on possession, the SS near the end of its final section, the HS near the end of its third section. In both cases this suggests a later addition. • The way these works speak about bhūtavidyā and bhūtavaidyas/-cikitsakas clearly suggests that there existed a well-developed system of demonology that stood apart from the schools of internal medicine and surgery. It seems to have a closer relationship with paediatrics. • Wherever demonology was included into the examined compilations it also imported or augmented the use of mantras in the treatment methods of the concerned medical schools. 3 Types of mantras and responsibilities While Zysk was especially interested in vedic mantras, my examination took into account all kinds of mantras occurring in the early literary sources of Āyurveda. While many passages only mention mantras unspecifically, others name them or quote them in full length. The following table shows the numbers of passages that mention mantras in the examined medical compilations: CS BhS HS SS KS Mantras in early Āyurveda 19/22 Vitus Angermeier passages referring to mantras 25 5 8 17 10 passages with specific mantras 6 1 5 9 3 number of mantras 7 1 27 ~12 4 identifiable vedic mantras 2 0 13–1875 3 0 without specified mantras 19 4 3 8 7 size of the compilation (CS = 100) 76 100 24 27 86 31 This shows that, from a quantitative perspective, the number of passages roughly corresponds to the size of the respective compilation (e.g., the CS is four times as large as the BhS and contains four times as many passages referring to mantras). All of them refer to mantras similarly often, HS, SS and KS, however, include a higher number of specific mantras than CS and BhS. The high number of specific mantras in the HS results from a single chapter (HS 2.7), describing a fire sacrifice (homa) and referring to eighteen specific mantras. Additionally I have detected the following patterns: • Vedic mantras are never provided in full length but always shortened to their initial words. • Apart from the homa-chapter in the HS, all mantras, cited with their initial words are either found in the Ṛgveda or nowhere in the Veda, but never originally in the Atharvaveda.77 In most cases the cited mantra is ṚV 3.62.10 (the Gāyatrī mantra). 78 • Mantras provided in full length are of various, sometimes mixed types: ◦ Post- or pseudo-vedic mantras (mimicking vedic mantras but not found in the Veda, i.e., in the UVC). ◦ Medical mantras (containing concrete elements, linking them with the medical treatment they are part of). ◦ Tantric mantras (containing magic words, seed mantras (bījamantra), or references to tantric deities). Regarding the question of who was in charge of pronouncing the mantras, the evidence is scarce. In most cases it seems likely that the attending physician simply took care of this task. The SS states that even Śūdras could be educated as physicians, but without initiation and mantras. 79 Accordingly, these Śūdra physicians had to practice Āyurveda without employing mantras in the treatment. On the other side, this shows that at least surgery could perfectly be practiced without 75 These mantras are all mentioned in HS 2.7.4, describing a fire sacrifice. I could tentatively identify 13 of the 18 mentioned mantras, but probably all of them have a vedic origin. 76 According to Meulenbeld 1999, I A: 93, the CS consists of 9.035 verses and 1.111 prose passages. 77 For this purpose I have searched the UVC for all mantras referred to in the āyurvedic compilations. 78 References to the Gāyatrī are found in CS 6.1.3.9 (rasāyana), SS 1.29.72 (dreams), 4.28.25 (rasāyana), 6.28.9 (pos- session). CS 4.8.11 (procreation) refers to RV 10.184.1a (viṣṇur yoniṃ kalpayatu …) and HS 2.7.4 to several vedic mantras, at least four of them present in the Ṛgveda. 79 Cf. SS 1.2.5. Mantras in early Āyurveda 20/22 Vitus Angermeier the use of mantras. Another passage from the SS states that the king should always be protected by both, a physician and a priest: A physician and a priest, who are proficient in tastes and mantras shall always protect the king from deaths originating from morbific factors and exogenous causes.80 The verse is not totally clear about the allocation of the responsibilities but it is more than likely that the physician is expected to be proficient in tastes and is responsible for the morbific factors while the priest is proficient in mantras and should take care of exogenous threats. This would result in a division of work between physician and priest along the line between endogenous and exogenous afflictions – quite strange for a work on surgery. The subsequent verse defines the hierarchy between these two: Brahmā has told the eightfold Āyurveda as a supplement of the Veda, therefore the wise physician shall practice as approved by the priest.81 As the whole statement is not quite in line with most of the teachings on surgery it probably re- flects a brahmanical ideal rather than a generally followed prescription. Or, as the physician is described here as proficient in tastes and responsible for the morbific factors, this passage does not address the royal surgeon, but only the royal internist who in this way was put under the authority of the priest. 4 Limitations, deductions, and outlook In my examinations for this paper I have searched the relevant texts for the string “mantr” and encountered further relevant passages, some of them also containing specific mantras, during my work on the topic. For a comprehensive assessment of the role of mantras in early Āyurveda it will be necessary to carefully go through the texts to find all relevant material. Furthermore, due to the limitations prescribed for this paper, I had to omit various findings that would significantly complement the depiction provided here. There are more mantras and references to their employ- ment in the portions dedicated to paediatrics. To complete this study, I would also add my findings regarding the domain of toxicology, where mantras play an important role in some of the examined texts, and also take into account the disciplines of surgery, as well as rejuvenation and aphrodisiac therapy, all occasionally mentioning mantras. It is noteworthy that Michael Slouber in his monograph on Early Tantric Medicine states about early tantrism that “[t]he medical tradition in this wider religious movement consisted of three main types: the Bhūta, Bāla, and Gāruḍa Tantras.” 82 These (demonology, childcare and toxicology) are actually exactly the domains in Āyurveda, which give the greatest importance to mantras. As the development of this tantric medical tradition falls roughly in the same time as the formation 80 SS 1.34.7: doṣāgantujamr̥tyubhyo rasamantraviśāradau / rakṣetāṃ nr̥patiṃ nityaṃ yattau vaidyapurohitau. // 81 SS 1.34.8: brahmā vedāṅgam aṣṭāṅgam āyurvedam abhāṣata / purohitamate tasmād varteta bhiṣagātmavān. // 82 Slouber 2017, 8. Mantras in early Āyurveda 21/22 Vitus Angermeier of an integrated Āyurveda83 it is quite likely that a precursory medical, proto-tantric tradition focusing on the domains of demonology, childcare and poisoning contributed significantly to the formation this āyurvedic tradition in the fields of its expertise. Additionally the repeated references to Śiva/Rudra in the relevant passages suggest a śivaitic background fitting perfectly with the origins of tantrism. The BhS reference to a witch doctor (bhūtavaidya, bhūtacikitsaka), characterized as a representative of a separate tradition, 84 is a further indicator for the existence of parallel medical systems with different foci, theoretical concepts and treatment theories before the formation of an integrated āyurvedic tradition that was accompanied by the creation of the myth of an age-old origin of Āyurveda. The assumption of two broad medical traditions is also in line with Johannes Bronkhorst’s analysis of a passage from Strabos’s Geography, which declares that the “mountain-dwelling [philosophers] use (i.e., wear) hides of deer and have leather pouches, full of roots and drugs, claiming to practice medicine with sorcery, spells, and amulets.” 85 These philosophers practising medicine are understood by Bronkhorst as brahmins and could very well be the predecessors of the authors of the tantric medical schools discussed by Slouber. Therefore, for a better understanding of mantra in Āyurveda it is also important to consider and better understand the trajectories between atharvavedic medicine and tantric medicine as well as their influence on the formation of Āyurveda. 5 Bibliography 5.1 Primary sources and abbreviations BhS Bhelasaṃhitā: Venkatasubramania Sastri and Raja Rajeswara Sarma. 1977. Bhelasaṁhitā. New Delhi: Central Council for Research in Indian Medicine & Homeopathy. CS Carakasaṃhitā: Jādavaji Trikamji. 1941. The Carakasaṃhitā of Agniveśa, Revised by Charaka and Dṛidhabala. With the Āyurveda-Dīpikā Commentary of Cakrapāṇidatta. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal. ChU Chandogya Upaniṣad: Limaye, Vishnu Prabhakar, and Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. 1958. Eighteen principal Upaniṣads: Gandhi memorial edition. 1, (Upaniṣadic text with parallels from extant Vedic literature, exegetical and grammatical notes). Poona: Vaidika Saṁśodhana Maṇḍala. HS Hārītasaṃhitā: Ravidatta Śāstri. 1950. Hārītasaṃhitā. Śrīmadātreyamaharṣihārītamunisaṃvādarūpā vaidyakagranthaḥ. Mumbai: Gaṃgāviṣṇu Śrīkr̥ṣṇadāsa. http://archive.org/details/b30094951. 83 According to Slouber the Garuḍa Tantras are first mentioned as a class of scriptures in the sixth century AD. Meulenbeld dates the redactors of the CS and the SS (known as Ḍṛḍhabala and Nāgārjuna) around 500 CE and Vāgbhaṭa, the author of the first effectively comprehensive medical compilation around 600 CE. 84 The BhS is the only medical compilation containing these terms but according to the Pali Text Society’s Pali- English Dictionary the Pāli equivalent bhūtavejja can be found in the Vinaya (iv.84), two Jātakas (ii.215; iii.511), in the Milindapañhā (23), always referring to a kind of witch doctor or exorcist. Cf. also Arbman 1922, 176. 85 Bronkhorst 2007, 57. Mantras in early Āyurveda 22/22 Vitus Angermeier NWS Kumulatives Nachtragswörterbuch des Sanskrit. https://nws.uzi.uni-halle.de/ KS Kāśyapasaṃhitā: Hemarāja Śarma. 1953. Kāśyapa Samhitā (or Vṛddhajivakīya Tantra) by Vṛddha Jīvaka, revised by Vātsya. Banaras: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office. http://archive.org/details/kasyapasamhita014944mbp. ṚV Ṛgveda: Nooten, Barend A. van, and Gary B. Holland. 1994. Rig Veda. A Metrically Restored Text with an Introduction and Notes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. SS Suśrutasaṃhitā: Jādavji Trikamji and Rām Nārāyaṇ. 1938. Suśrutasaṃhitā of Suśruta. With the Nibandhasaṅgraha Commentary of Śrī Dalhanāchārya and the Nyāyachandrikā Pañjikā of Śrī Gayadāsāchārya. Bombay: Nirṇaya Sāgar Press. UVC Updated Vedic Concordance: Franceschini, Marco. 2007. An updated Vedic concordance: Maurice Bloomfield’s A Vedic concordance enhanced with new material taken from seven Vedic texts. Two vols. Cambridge: Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies, Harvard University. 5.2 Secondary sources Angermeier, Vitus. 2007. ‘Über die Auslöschung von Land und Leuten. Die Ursachen von Massensterben und Schutzmaßnahmen gegen diese gemäß Carakasaṃhitā, Vi. 3’. Diploma thesis, Wien: Universität Wien. https://phaidra.univie.ac.at/o:1083357. Arbman, Ernst. 1922. Rudra: Untersuchungen zum altindischen Glauben und Kultus. Inauguraldissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde. Uppsala: Appelbergs Boktryckeri Aktiebolag. Bronkhorst, Johannes. 2007. Greater Magadha. Studies in the Culture of Early India. Leiden: Brill. Kinsley, David R. 1998. Tantric Visions of the Divine Feminine: The Ten Mahāvidyās. 1. Indian ed.. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Meulenbeld, Gerrit Jan. 1997. ‘Aspects of Indian Psychiatry’. In History of Psychiatric Diagnoses. Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium on the Comparative History of Medicine— East and West September 1–8, 1991, Susono-Shi, Shizuoka, Japan, edited by Yosio Kawakita, Shizu Sakai, and Yasuo Otsuka, 183–237. Tokyo: Ishiyaku EuroAmerica. ———. 1999. A History of Indian Medical Literature. Vol. I A. Groningen: Egbert Forsten. ———. 2012. ‘The Relationships Between Doṣas and Dūṣyas. A Study on the Meaning(s) of the Root Murch-/Mūrch’. EJIM - EJournal of Indian Medicine 4 (2): 35–135. https://indianmedicine.nl/article/view/24740. Preisendanz, Karin. 2007. ‘The Initiation of the Medical Student in Early Classical Āyurveda: Caraka’s Treatment in Context’. In Pramāṇakīrti. Papers Dedicated to Ernst Steinkellner on the Occasion of His 70th Birthday, edited by Birgit Kellner, Helmut Krasser, Horst Lasic, Michael Torsten Much, and Helmut Tauscher, 629–68. Wien: Arbeitskreis für Tibetologie und Buddhismuskunde. https://phaidra.univie.ac.at/o:474274. Slouber, Michael. 2017. Early Tantric Medicine: Snakebite, Mantras, and Healing in the Gāruḍa Tantras. New York: Oxford University Press. Zysk, Kenneth G. 1989. ‘Mantra in Ayurveda: A Study of the Use of MagicoReligious Speech in Ancient Indian Medicine’. In Understanding Mantras, edited by Harvey P. Alper, 123–43. 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