One planet, many people: atlas of our changing environment

Book One Planet Many People: Atlas of Our Changing Environment SINGH, Ashbindu, et al. Reference SINGH, Ashbindu, et al. One Planet Many People: Atlas of Our Changing Environment. United Nations Environment Programme, 2005 Available at: http://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:32650 Disclaimer: layout of this document may differ from the published version. ONE PLANET MANY PEOPLE Atlas of Our Changing Environment i Copyright฀2005,฀United฀Nations฀Environment฀Programme ISBN:฀92-807-2571-8 This฀publication฀may฀be฀reproduced฀in฀whole฀or฀in฀part฀and฀in฀any฀form฀for฀educational฀or฀non-profit฀purposes฀without฀special฀permission฀from฀the฀copyright฀holder,฀provided฀acknowledgement฀of฀the฀source฀is฀made.฀UNEP฀and฀the฀authors฀would฀appreciate฀receiving฀a฀copy฀of฀any฀publication฀that฀uses฀this฀ report฀as฀a฀source. No฀use฀of฀this฀publication฀may฀be฀made฀for฀resale฀or฀for฀any฀other฀commercial฀purpose฀whatsoever฀without฀prior฀permission฀in฀writing฀from฀฀ the฀United฀Nations฀Environment฀Programme. United฀Nations฀Environment฀Programme PO฀Box฀30552,฀Nairobi,฀Kenya Tel:฀+254฀20฀621234 Fax:฀+254฀20฀623943/44 http://www.unep.org http://www.unep.net United฀Nations฀Environment฀Programme Division฀of฀Early฀Warning฀and฀Assessment-North฀America 47914฀252nd฀Street,฀USGS฀National฀Center฀for฀Earth฀Resources Observation฀and฀Science฀(EROS) Sioux฀Falls,฀SD฀57198-0001฀USA Tel:฀1-605-594-6117 Fax:฀1-605-594-6119 [email protected] www.na.unep.net For฀bibliographic฀and฀reference฀purposes฀this฀publication฀should฀be฀referred฀to฀as: UNEP฀(2005),฀“One฀Planet฀Many฀People:฀Atlas฀of฀Our฀Changing฀Environment.” Division฀of฀Early฀Warning฀and฀Assessment฀(DEWA) United฀Nations฀Environment฀Programme฀(UNEP) P.O.฀Box฀30552฀ Nairobi,฀Kenya This฀book฀is฀available฀from฀Earthprint.com,฀http://www.earthprint.com. DISCLAIMER The฀views฀expressed฀in฀this฀publication฀are฀not฀necessarily฀those฀of฀the฀agencies฀cooperating฀in฀this฀project.฀The฀designations฀employed฀and฀the฀presentations฀do฀not฀imply฀the฀expression฀of฀any฀opinion฀whatsoever฀on฀the฀part฀of฀UNEP฀or฀cooperating฀agencies฀concerning฀the฀legal฀status฀of฀any฀country,฀territory,฀city,฀or฀area฀of฀its฀authorities,฀or฀the฀delineation฀of฀its฀frontiers฀or฀boundaries. Mention฀of฀a฀commercial฀company฀or฀product฀in฀this฀report฀does฀not฀imply฀endorsement฀by฀the฀United฀Nations฀Environment฀Programme.฀The฀use฀of฀ information฀from฀this฀publication฀concerning฀proprietary฀products฀for฀publicity฀or฀advertising฀is฀not฀permitted.฀Trademark฀names฀and฀symbols฀are฀used฀in฀ an฀editorial฀fashion฀with฀no฀intention฀of฀infringement฀on฀trademark฀or฀copyright฀laws. We฀regret฀any฀errors฀or฀omissions฀that฀may฀have฀been฀unwittingly฀made. Reprinted฀by฀Progress฀Press฀Company฀Limited,฀Malta. Distribution฀by฀SMI฀(Distribution฀Services)฀Ltd.฀UK. This฀publication฀is฀printed฀on฀chlorine฀free,฀acid฀free฀paper฀made฀of฀wood฀pulp฀from฀sustainable฀managed฀forests. ii ONE PLANET MANY PEOPLE Atlas of Our Changing Environment United Nations Environment Programme 2005 iii Editorial and Production Team UNEP Ashbindu฀Singh,฀Team฀Coordinator USGS Thomas฀R.฀Loveland,฀Writer SAIC,฀TSSC฀to฀the฀USGS Mark฀Ernste,฀Remote฀Sensing/GIS฀Scientist Kimberly฀A.฀Giese,฀Design฀and฀Layout Rebecca฀L.฀Johnson,฀Editor Jane฀S.฀Smith,฀Editorial฀Assistant/Support John฀Hutchinson,฀Cartographer Eugene฀Fosnight,฀Writer Consultant฀ H.฀Gyde฀Lund,฀Lead฀Writer Tejaswi฀Giri,฀Project฀Manager Jane฀Barr,฀Writer Eugene฀Apindi฀Ochieng,฀Remote฀Sensing/GIS฀Analyst UNEP–Nairobi Audrey฀Ringler,฀Cover฀Design To฀obtain฀a฀copy฀of฀this฀publication,฀please฀contact: Ashbindu฀Singh,฀Regional฀Coordinator UNEP/GRID฀-฀Sioux฀Falls USGS฀National฀Center฀for฀Earth฀Resources฀฀ Observation฀and฀Science(EROS) 47914฀252nd฀Street Sioux฀Falls,฀SD฀57198 Phone:฀1฀605฀594-6117 Fax:฀1฀605฀594-6119 E-mail:฀[email protected]฀ iv United฀Nations฀Environment฀Programme Regional฀Office฀for฀North฀America Division฀of฀Early฀Warning฀and฀Assessment-North฀ America 1707฀H.฀Street,฀N.W.,฀Suite฀300 Washington,฀DC฀20006 Tel:฀1-202-785-0465 Fax:฀1-202-785-2096 www.rona.unep.org Credit:฀Busakorn฀Burana/UNEP/Topfoto Table of Contents FOREWORD฀฀................................................................................................................................................................................vi฀ PREFACE฀.................................................................................................................................................................................... vii 1 Introducing the Planet – A Story of Change฀.......................................................................................................................... 1฀ ฀ References฀..................................................................................................................................................................... 9฀ 2 People and Planet – Human Influences on the Planet฀........................................................................................................ 13 ฀ ฀ 2.1฀World฀Population฀฀................................................................................................................................................. 16฀ ฀ 2.2฀Culture฀฀.................................................................................................................................................................. 21฀ 2.3฀Land฀Use฀and฀Degradation฀.................................................................................................................................. 25฀ ฀ ฀ ฀ 2.4฀Ecoregions฀and฀Ecosystems฀฀................................................................................................................................. 32 2.5฀Biodiversity,฀Invasive฀Species,฀and฀Protected฀Areas฀฀฀.......................................................................................... 35฀ ฀ 2.6฀Energy฀Consumption฀and฀Resource฀Extraction฀.................................................................................................. 43฀ ฀ References฀................................................................................................................................................................... 62฀ ฀ 3 Human Impacts on the Planet – Visualising Change over Time฀......................................................................................... 67฀ ฀ ฀ 3.1฀Atmosphere฀........................................................................................................................................................... 72฀ ฀ 3.2฀Coastal฀Areas฀฀........................................................................................................................................................ 90฀ 3.3฀Water฀.................................................................................................................................................................... 118฀ ฀ 3.4฀Forests฀.................................................................................................................................................................. 156฀ ฀ 3.5฀Cropland฀.............................................................................................................................................................. 194฀ ฀ 3.6฀Grasslands฀............................................................................................................................................................ 216 ฀ 3.7฀Urban฀Areas฀฀........................................................................................................................................................ 230฀ ฀ 3.8฀Tundra฀and฀Polar฀Regions฀.................................................................................................................................. 260฀ ฀ References฀................................................................................................................................................................. 280฀ ฀ 4 Natural and Human-induced Extreme Events฀................................................................................................................... 289฀ ฀ ฀ 4.1฀Geo-hazards฀฀........................................................................................................................................................ 291฀ ฀ 4.2฀Climatic฀Hazards฀฀................................................................................................................................................ 300฀ 4.3฀Industrial฀Hazards฀............................................................................................................................................... 307฀ ฀ References฀................................................................................................................................................................. 314฀ ฀ EPILOGUE฀................................................................................................................................................................................ 316฀ ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS฀........................................................................................................................................ 318฀ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS฀.......................................................................................................................................................... 320฀ v Foreword P eople฀affect฀the฀environment฀as฀they฀ interact฀with฀it,฀using฀it฀for฀food,฀ shelter,฀and฀recreation฀and฀making฀ changes฀to฀better฀suit฀their฀needs,฀purposes,฀and฀inclinations.฀฀Through฀our฀ability฀ to฀adapt฀natural฀resources฀to฀our฀use,฀we฀ have฀altered฀the฀environment฀in฀ways฀that฀ can฀now฀be฀objectively฀measured.฀฀Our฀ presence฀on฀the฀Earth฀can฀be฀seen฀through฀ changes฀on฀the฀landscape,฀as฀viewed฀from฀ space.฀฀This฀publication฀presents฀images฀ from฀space฀that฀portray฀the฀nature฀and฀ extent฀of฀our฀impact฀on฀the฀planet. Change฀is฀inevitable฀and฀an฀integral฀ part฀of฀our฀planet,฀our฀environment,฀and฀ even฀us.฀฀฀Our฀ability฀to฀adapt฀to฀diverse฀ surroundings฀has฀allowed฀us฀to฀overcome฀ many฀environmental฀constraints฀and฀tailor฀ the฀planet฀to฀our฀benefi฀t.฀฀We฀harnessed฀ fi฀re,฀cultivated฀plants฀and฀domesticated฀animals.฀฀We฀built฀homes,฀then฀villages,฀and฀ then฀cities.฀฀We฀became฀“hewers฀of฀wood฀ and฀drawers฀of฀water.”฀฀We฀built฀tools฀and฀ discovered฀how฀to฀quarry฀rocks฀and฀later฀ metals.฀฀Each฀advance฀allowed฀us฀to฀further฀ adapt฀to฀and฀affect฀the฀environment฀that฀ shaped฀us.฀฀ Our฀ability฀to฀act฀positively฀to฀safeguard฀ our฀heritage฀and฀natural฀wealth฀may฀be฀ Klaus฀Töpfer,฀Ph.D. Executive฀Director United฀Nations฀Environment฀Programme vi affected฀by฀the฀consequences฀of฀our฀success,฀however.฀฀As฀our฀numbers฀have฀ increased,฀we฀have฀also฀evolved฀socially฀ and฀culturally,฀applying฀different฀beliefs฀ and฀practices฀to฀living฀in฀and฀using฀the฀ environment.฀฀What฀we฀do฀affects฀those฀far฀ away฀from฀us,฀even฀those฀separated฀from฀ us฀by฀mountains,฀deserts,฀and฀oceans.฀฀Our฀ activities฀change฀the฀planet฀in฀ways฀that฀ affect฀our฀health฀as฀well฀as฀the฀health฀of฀the฀ plants฀and฀animals฀upon฀which฀we฀depend.฀฀ We฀harvest฀the฀seas,฀consume฀water฀and฀ energy฀resources,฀and฀convert฀forests฀into฀ pasture฀and฀cropland.฀฀We฀must฀be฀ever฀ conscious฀of฀the฀potential฀to฀overuse฀ the฀land฀and฀stress฀it฀in฀ways฀that฀it฀ cannot฀bear. Our฀growing฀populations฀and฀settlements฀make฀life฀easier฀in฀some฀ways,฀but฀ also฀make฀us฀more฀vulnerable฀to฀massive฀ earthquakes,฀volcanic฀eruptions,฀and฀other฀ disasters.฀฀Imagine฀what฀would฀happen฀in฀ Italy฀today฀if฀Vesuvius฀erupted฀on฀the฀same฀ scale฀it฀did฀when฀it฀destroyed฀Pompeii.฀฀ We฀have฀gravitated฀to฀the฀shores,฀making฀ourselves฀more฀vulnerable฀to฀storms฀ and฀hurricanes.฀฀We฀have฀settled฀along฀ rivers,฀making฀ourselves฀more฀vulnerable฀ to฀fl฀oods.฀฀We฀have฀spread฀into฀marginal฀ Ghassem฀Asrar,฀Ph.D. Science฀Deputy Associate฀Administrator National฀Aeronautics฀ and฀Space฀Administration climates,฀making฀ourselves฀more฀vulnerable฀to฀drought.฀฀Wildfi฀res฀threaten฀some฀ of฀our฀cities฀and฀settlements,฀just฀as฀they฀ do฀our฀forests฀and฀croplands.฀฀Each฀of฀ these฀events฀can฀affect฀hundreds฀of฀thousands฀of฀people,฀and฀the฀cost฀of฀protecting฀ ourselves฀and฀reducing฀the฀risk฀of฀disaster฀ continues฀to฀increase.฀฀Our฀own฀activities฀ can฀also฀lead฀to฀disasters฀such฀as฀oil฀spills฀ and฀nuclear฀and฀industrial฀accidents฀that฀ can฀devastate฀as฀much฀as฀any฀natural฀event. Our฀dilemma฀is฀to฀avoid฀the฀most฀problematic฀consequences฀without฀constraining฀ our฀need฀and฀ability฀to฀provide฀the฀world’s฀ inhabitants฀with฀the฀environment฀and฀ resources฀that฀will฀enable฀every฀person฀to฀ pursue฀an฀equitable฀life฀with฀all฀that฀such฀a฀ life฀entails. The฀images฀presented฀here฀show฀both฀ the฀positive฀and฀negative฀impacts฀of฀human฀life฀on฀Earth.฀฀We฀hope฀also฀they฀will฀ provide฀food฀for฀thought,฀as฀we฀seek฀ways฀ to฀balance฀our฀use฀of฀the฀Earth’s฀resources฀ with฀the฀need฀to฀sustain฀the฀environments฀ that฀produce฀them฀and฀support฀the฀living฀ systems฀that฀we฀value฀so฀highly. Charles฀G.฀Groat,฀Ph.D. Director United฀States฀Geological฀Survey John฀Townshend,฀Ph.D. University฀of฀Maryland Chair,฀Advisory฀Committee UNEP/DEWA–North฀America Preface O ur฀population฀is฀growing,฀yet฀our฀ land฀base฀is฀currently฀fi฀xed.฀With฀ each฀new฀inhabitant฀comes฀a฀ need฀to฀make฀more฀modifi฀cations฀to฀the฀ Earth’s฀environment.฀The฀impacts฀of฀these฀ modifi฀cations฀may฀be฀both฀detrimental฀ and฀benefi฀cial.฀For฀example,฀we฀estimate฀ that฀the฀Earth฀is฀losing฀15฀million฀hectares฀ of฀tropical฀forest฀land฀per฀year,฀a฀loss฀that฀ has฀a฀negative฀effect฀on฀biodiversity.฀At฀the฀ same฀time,฀much฀of฀this฀deforested฀land฀ is฀being฀converted฀to฀agricultural฀land฀to฀ feed฀our฀growing฀population;฀this฀is฀a฀positive฀effect. In฀the฀past฀30฀years—since฀the฀United฀ Nations฀Conference฀on฀the฀Human฀Environment฀in฀Stockholm฀in฀1972—we฀have฀ made฀a฀concerted฀effort฀to฀understand฀the฀ limits฀of฀the฀Earth’s฀bountiful฀resources฀ and฀have฀taken฀actions฀to฀preserve฀and฀ sustain฀them.฀This฀publication฀illustrates฀ some฀of฀the฀changes฀we฀have฀made฀to฀the฀ environment฀in฀the฀recent฀past.฀It฀serves฀ both฀as฀an฀early฀warning฀for฀things฀that฀ may฀come฀and฀as฀a฀basis฀for฀developing฀ policy฀decisions฀that฀can฀help฀sustain฀the฀ Earth’s฀and฀our฀own฀well-being. The฀fi฀rst฀chapter฀of฀this฀atlas฀provides฀a฀ short฀environmental฀history฀of฀the฀world,฀ one฀that฀illustrates฀how฀we฀got฀to฀where฀we฀ are.฀Chapter฀2฀looks฀at฀the฀people฀and฀the฀ planet฀today,฀covering฀status฀and฀trends฀ over฀the฀last฀30฀years.฀Chapter฀3฀examines฀ common฀issues฀regarding฀the฀Earth’s฀land฀ cover฀and฀provides฀examples฀that฀illustrate฀environmental฀status,฀trends,฀causes฀ and฀consequences฀of฀change฀in฀the฀atmosphere,฀oceans฀and฀coastal฀zones,฀fresh- water฀ecosystems,฀forests,฀cropland,฀grasslands,฀urban฀areas,฀and฀tundra฀including฀ polar฀regions.฀Chapter฀4฀illustrates฀changes฀ that฀are฀the฀result฀of฀extreme฀events,฀both฀ natural฀and฀human-induced. These฀examples฀raise฀many฀questions.฀ What฀is฀our฀likely฀environmental฀future?฀ Are฀we฀better฀or฀less฀prepared฀for฀environmental฀change?฀What฀can฀people฀do฀to฀ create฀a฀better฀future?฀The฀answers฀depend฀ on฀the฀actions฀we฀choose฀to฀take. Steve฀Lonergan,฀Ph.D. Director United฀Nations฀Environment฀Programme Division฀of฀Early฀Warning฀and฀Assessment Photo฀Credits฀(left฀to฀right): Kern฀Khianchuen/UNEP/Topfoto Dirk฀Heinrich/UNEP/Topfoto Aimen฀Al-Sayya/UNEP/Topfoto vii Topographic Map of the World Credit: UNEP/NASA–GTOPO30 viii ix Credit:฀Mark฀Ernste/UNEP/UNEP-GRID฀Sioux฀Falls x 1 Introducing the Planet A Story of Change I฀ n฀our฀solar฀system,฀a฀single฀planet—the฀Earth—supports฀human฀life.฀ World฀population฀is฀increasing.฀Yet฀ for฀the฀moment,฀the฀Earth฀remains฀ the฀only฀home฀for฀the฀human฀species.฀The฀ way฀in฀which฀we฀care฀for฀this฀planet฀will฀ affect฀our฀future฀and฀the฀future฀of฀our฀children฀for฀generations฀to฀come. Seen฀from฀space,฀the฀Earth฀is฀largely฀a฀ blue฀planet฀around฀which฀swirls฀of฀white฀ clouds฀constantly฀move.฀The฀Earth’s฀blue฀ areas฀are฀its฀oceans.฀Oceans฀account฀for฀ approximately฀70฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀Earth’s฀ total฀surface฀area;฀the฀remaining฀30฀per฀ cent฀is฀land.฀The฀total฀size฀of฀the฀terrestrial฀ surface฀is฀approximately฀149฀million฀km2฀ (59.6฀million฀square฀miles)฀(McNeill฀2000; Grace฀n.d.).฀ The฀Earth’s฀land฀surface฀is฀rich฀in฀its฀ variety.฀The฀highest฀point฀on฀the฀Earth’s฀ land฀surface฀is฀Mount฀Everest,฀a฀breathtak- ing฀8฀850฀m฀(29฀035฀ft)฀above฀sea฀level.฀ The฀lowest฀point฀is฀the฀Dead฀Sea,฀which฀is,฀ on฀average,฀about฀400฀m฀(1฀312฀ft)฀below฀ sea฀level.฀Terrestrial฀surfaces฀gain฀and฀lose฀ heat฀much฀more฀quickly฀than฀oceans฀and฀a฀ region’s฀distance฀from฀the฀equator฀dramatically฀affects฀its฀climate.฀Lands฀ nearest฀the฀equator฀tend฀to฀be฀ the฀warmest.฀Those฀that฀lie฀in฀ the฀middle฀latitudes฀typically฀ have฀cooler฀climates,฀but฀are฀ not฀as฀cold฀as฀lands฀near฀the฀ poles.฀Some฀20฀per฀cent฀of฀ the฀Earth’s฀terrestrial฀surface฀is฀covered฀by฀ snow.฀Another฀20฀per฀cent฀is฀mountainous.฀ Just฀30฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀Earth’s฀land฀surface฀ is฀suitable฀for฀farming.฀ ฀Most฀people฀are฀accustomed฀to฀seeing฀the฀world฀around฀them฀as฀a฀relatively฀ stable฀place,฀a฀generally฀nurturing฀environment฀that฀has฀allowed฀the฀human฀race฀to฀ expand฀and฀develop฀in฀countless฀ways.฀In฀ fact,฀the฀Earth฀is฀constantly฀changing,฀as฀ is฀our฀understanding฀of฀it฀(Figure฀1.1).฀ Some฀changes฀to฀the฀Earth’s฀surface฀occur฀ on฀microscopic฀levels.฀Other฀changes฀take฀ place฀on฀a฀scale฀so฀large฀as฀to฀be฀almost฀ “The only thing permanent is change.” — The฀Buddha฀(Siddartha฀Gautama) inconceivable.฀Some฀types฀of฀change฀are฀ instantaneous,฀while฀other฀types฀occur฀ slowly,฀unfolding฀over฀centuries,฀millennia,฀ and฀even฀eons.฀Some฀changes฀are฀caused฀ by฀the฀actions฀of฀people.฀Many฀others฀are฀ part฀of฀natural,฀inexorable฀cycles฀that฀can฀ only฀be฀perceived฀when฀cataclysmic฀events฀ occur฀or฀through฀painstaking฀research. Credit:฀Blue฀Marble/UNEP/NASA฀(2002) Figure฀1.1:฀The฀Earth’s฀surface฀has฀changed฀dramatically฀ over฀time—as฀has฀our฀understanding฀of฀it.฀Early฀ideas฀ about฀the฀shapes฀and฀locations฀of฀the฀continents,฀for฀ example,฀were฀far฀different฀from฀what฀is฀known฀about฀the฀ land฀surface฀today.฀ Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/Tapestries&More 1 Table฀1.1฀–฀Approximate฀change฀of฀the฀Earth’s฀global฀vegetative฀cover฀in฀relation฀to฀human฀population฀ (Adapted฀from฀McNeill฀2000). ฀ ฀ Year฀ ฀ ฀ ฀ Per฀cent฀of฀the฀Earth’s฀Vegetated฀Land฀Area฀ Forest฀and฀฀ ฀ ฀ ฀ Woodland฀ Grassland฀ Pasture฀ Cropland฀ ฀ ฀ Human฀Population (Billions) 8000฀B.C.฀ 51฀ 49฀ 0฀ 0฀ 0.005 1700฀A.D.฀ 47฀ 47฀ 4฀ 2฀ 0.6 1900฀ 43฀ 40฀ 10฀ 6฀ 1.6 1920฀ 43฀ 38฀ 12฀ 7฀ 1.9 1940฀ 41฀ 35฀ 16฀ 8฀ 2.3 1960฀ 40฀ 31฀ 20฀ 9฀ 3.0 1980฀ 38฀ 26฀ 25฀ 11฀ 4.4 1990฀ 36฀ 27฀ 26฀ 11฀ 5.3 Credit:฀Paul฀Fusco/UNEP/NRCS Credit:฀Chatree฀Wanasan/UNEP/Topfoto Agents฀of฀Environmental฀Change In฀order฀to฀survive,฀every฀organism฀must฀ From฀the฀Earth’s฀earliest฀beginnings,฀forces฀ either฀adapt฀to฀its฀environment฀or฀modify฀ the฀environment฀to฀make฀it฀more฀hospisuch฀as฀climate,฀wind,฀water,฀fi฀re,฀earthtable.฀Humans฀are฀particularly฀adept฀at฀ quakes,฀volcanic฀eruptions,฀and฀the฀immodifying฀their฀environments.฀By฀their฀acpacts฀of฀meteors฀and฀comets฀have฀shaped฀ the฀Earth’s฀terrestrial฀environments.฀These฀ tions฀and฀interactions฀with฀the฀landscape,฀ same฀forces฀are฀at฀work฀today฀and฀will฀con- for฀example,฀people฀can฀increase฀the฀range฀ tinue฀far฀into฀the฀future.฀In฀addition,฀every฀ of฀certain฀plant฀species,฀either฀by฀modifyliving฀thing฀infl฀uences฀its฀environment฀and฀ ing฀existing฀environments฀or฀by฀dispersis฀infl฀uenced฀by฀it.฀One฀species฀may฀lessen฀ ing฀seeds฀into฀new฀ones.฀Environmental฀ the฀chances฀for฀survival฀of฀the฀organisms฀it฀ modifi฀cations฀made฀by฀people฀may฀be฀ benefi฀cial฀or฀detrimental฀to฀a฀few฀or฀many฀ consumes฀for฀food.฀That฀same฀species,฀in฀ other฀species.฀Large-scale฀environmental฀ turn,฀is฀affected฀by฀the฀actions฀of฀ changes฀may฀not฀benefi฀t฀or฀be฀to฀the฀liking฀ other฀organisms. of฀people฀themselves฀(Nott฀1996).฀As฀world฀ Five฀Major฀Events฀in฀the฀History฀of฀the฀Earth Throughout฀the฀Earth’s฀history,฀events฀have฀occurred฀that฀dramatically฀impacted฀life฀on฀our฀ planet.฀Five฀of฀those฀events฀stand฀out฀as฀having฀resulted฀in฀widespread฀extinctions,฀in฀some฀cases฀ destroying฀more฀than฀90฀per฀cent฀of฀all฀living฀things฀(Eldredge฀2001): •฀Around฀440฀million฀years฀ago,฀a฀relatively฀severe฀and฀sudden฀global฀cooling฀caused฀a฀ mass฀extinction฀of฀marine฀life฀(little฀terrestrial฀life฀existed฀at฀that฀time).฀An฀estimated฀25฀ per฀cent฀of฀the฀existing฀taxonomic฀families฀were฀lost.฀(A฀family฀may฀consist฀of฀a฀few฀to฀ thousands฀of฀species.) •฀Near฀the฀end฀of฀the฀Devonian฀Period,฀some฀370฀million฀years฀ago,฀a฀second฀major฀ extinction฀occurred.฀Roughly฀19฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀existing฀taxonomic฀families฀were฀ wiped฀out.฀It฀is฀uncertain฀whether฀climate฀change฀was฀a฀driving฀factor. •฀About฀245฀million฀years฀ago,฀a฀third฀major฀extinction฀took฀place.฀Scientists฀ estimate฀that฀more฀than฀half฀(54฀per฀cent)฀of฀all฀taxonomic฀families฀were฀lost.฀ Climate฀change฀may฀have฀played฀a฀role,฀and฀that฀change฀may฀have฀been฀caused฀ by฀a฀comet฀or฀meteor฀impacting฀the฀Earth. •฀At฀the฀end฀of฀the฀Triassic฀Period,฀around฀210฀million฀years฀ago,฀roughly฀23฀ per฀cent฀of฀existing฀taxonomic฀families฀suddenly฀became฀extinct.฀This฀event฀ occurred฀shortly฀after฀the฀appearance฀of฀the฀fi฀rst฀dinosaurs฀and฀mammals.฀Its฀ causes฀are฀not฀yet฀fully฀understood. •฀The฀fi฀fth฀major฀extinction฀is฀the฀most฀well-known.฀It฀occurred฀about฀65฀million฀years฀ago฀at฀the฀end฀of฀the฀Cretaceous฀Period.฀The฀event฀led฀to฀the฀extinction฀of฀all฀terrestrial฀dinosaurs฀and฀marine฀ammonites,฀along฀with฀many฀ other฀species฀occupying฀many฀different฀habitats.฀All฀told,฀approximately฀17฀ per฀cent฀of฀all฀taxonomic฀families฀vanished฀in฀a฀very฀short฀time.฀Currently,฀ the฀most฀widely฀accepted฀hypothesis฀to฀explain฀this฀mass฀extinction฀is฀that฀a฀ comet฀or฀other฀large฀extra-terrestrial฀object฀struck฀the฀Earth.฀Another฀view฀ proposes฀that฀a฀great฀volcanic฀event,฀or฀series฀of฀events,฀disrupted฀ecosystems฀so฀severely฀worldwide฀that฀many฀terrestrial฀and฀marine฀species฀rapidly฀ succumbed฀to฀extinction. Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/Bigfoto 22 population฀has฀increased฀and฀the฀scope฀ and฀nature฀of฀technology฀has฀changed,฀ people฀have฀brought฀about฀environmental฀ changes฀that฀may฀seriously฀impact฀their฀ future฀well-being฀and฀even฀survival. ฀Humans฀began฀modifying฀their฀environment฀a฀long฀time฀ago฀(Table฀1.1).฀Evidence฀of฀the฀existence฀of฀our฀fi฀rst฀humanoid฀ancestors฀dates฀to฀the฀Pliocene฀Epoch,฀ which฀extended฀from฀roughly฀5฀million฀ to฀1.8-1.6฀million฀years฀ago฀(Wikipedia฀ n.d.).฀These฀protohumans฀sought฀protection฀from฀the฀elements฀and฀from฀predators฀in฀natural฀shelters฀such฀as฀caves฀and฀ rock฀overhangs.฀Over฀time—and฀possibly฀ Fire—A฀Tool฀for฀Humankind For฀thousands฀of฀years฀humans฀have฀used฀fi฀re฀for: Hunting By฀setting฀fi฀re฀to฀parts฀of฀the฀landscape,฀people฀were฀able฀to฀drive฀game฀ animals฀into฀smaller,฀more฀confi฀ned฀areas฀that฀made฀hunting฀easier.฀Fire฀ was฀also฀used฀to฀drive฀animals฀into฀impoundments,฀chutes,฀river฀or฀lakes,฀or฀ over฀cliffs.฀Fires฀also฀helped฀maintain฀open฀prairies฀and฀meadows฀by฀killing฀ bushes฀and฀trees฀and฀encouraging฀rapid฀growth฀of฀grasses.฀ Improving฀plant฀growth฀and฀yields Setting฀fi฀res฀was฀a฀way฀to฀improve฀grass฀for฀grazing฀animals,฀both฀wild฀and฀ domestic,฀and฀to฀promote฀the฀growth฀of฀certain฀desirable฀plant฀species. Protection Fire฀was฀used฀to฀protect฀human฀habitations. Collecting฀insects Some฀tribes฀used฀“fi฀re฀surrounds”฀to฀collect฀and฀roast฀crickets,฀grasshoppers,฀ and฀moths.฀People฀also฀used฀fi฀re฀smoke฀to฀quiet฀bees฀while฀collecting฀honey. Managing฀pests Fire฀was฀a฀handy฀tool฀for฀reducing฀or฀driving฀away฀insect฀pests฀such฀as฀fl฀ies฀ and฀mosquitoes฀as฀well฀as฀rodents.฀Fire฀was฀also฀effective฀for฀eliminating฀ undesirable฀plants. Warfare฀and฀signaling Fire฀was฀both฀an฀effective฀defensive฀and฀offensive฀weapon.฀Offensively,฀it฀was฀ used฀to฀deprive฀enemies฀of฀hiding฀places฀in฀tall฀grasses฀or฀underbrush.฀Used฀ defensively,฀fi฀re฀could฀provide฀cover฀during฀an฀escape.฀Smoke฀signals฀helped฀ alert฀tribes฀to฀the฀presence฀of฀possible฀enemies฀or฀to฀gather฀forces฀to฀combat฀ a฀foe.฀Large฀fi฀res฀were฀set฀to฀signal฀a฀tribal฀gathering. ฀ Clearing฀areas฀for฀travel ฀ Fires฀were฀sometimes฀started฀to฀clear฀trails฀through฀dense฀vegetation.฀ Burning฀helped฀to฀improve฀visibility฀in฀forests฀or฀grasslands฀for฀hunting฀ and฀warfare. Felling฀trees Singed฀or฀charred฀trees฀were฀easier฀to฀fell฀and฀to฀work฀with. Clearing฀riparian฀areas Fire฀was฀used฀to฀clear฀vegetation฀from฀the฀edges฀of฀lakes฀and฀rivers. Managing฀crops Burning฀was฀later฀used฀to฀harvest฀crops฀and฀collect฀grass฀seeds.฀Fire฀also฀ helped฀prevent฀abandoned฀fi฀elds฀from฀becoming฀overgrown฀and฀was฀employed฀to฀clear฀areas฀for฀planting.฀ Credit:฀Jeff฀Vanuga/UNEP/NRCS infl฀uenced฀by฀the฀onset฀of฀colder฀weather฀ during฀the฀Ice฀Ages—they฀created฀dwelling฀ places฀for฀themselves฀in฀locations฀that฀had฀ no฀natural฀shelter. The฀oldest฀surviving฀traces฀of฀such฀a฀ human-made฀habitation฀date฀to฀about฀ 2฀million฀years฀ago฀from฀Olduvai฀Gorge฀ in฀central฀Africa.฀There,฀a฀small฀circle฀of฀ stones฀was฀found฀stacked฀in฀such฀a฀way฀as฀ to฀apparently฀have฀held฀branches฀in฀position.฀This฀early฀example฀of฀modifi฀cation฀ of฀the฀environment฀was฀the฀work฀of฀Homo฀ habilis,฀a฀tool–making฀human฀ancestor฀ (Kowalski฀n.d.). The฀Pleistocene฀Epoch,฀including฀the฀ Paleolithic฀and฀Mesolithic฀Periods฀(Wikipedia฀n.d.),฀is฀usually฀dated฀from฀the฀end฀ of฀the฀Pliocene฀to฀10฀000฀years฀ago.฀The฀ Paleolithic฀Period,฀or฀Old฀Stone฀Age,฀is฀a฀ term฀coined฀in฀the฀19th฀century฀to฀defi฀ne฀ the฀oldest฀period฀in฀the฀history฀of฀humankind.฀It฀lasted฀for฀some฀2.5฀million฀years,฀ from฀the฀time฀human฀ancestors฀created฀ and฀used฀the฀fi฀rst฀stone฀tools฀to฀the฀end฀of฀ the฀last฀glacial฀period฀some฀10฀000฀years฀ ago.฀Homo฀erectus,฀thought฀by฀many฀to฀be฀ the฀direct฀ancestor฀of฀modern฀humans,฀ lived฀from฀approximately฀2฀million฀to฀ around฀400฀000฀years฀ago.฀As฀a฀species,฀ Homo฀erectus฀was฀very฀successful฀in฀developing฀tools฀that฀helped฀in฀adapting฀to฀ new฀environments.฀They฀were฀pioneers฀in฀ developing฀human฀culture,฀ultimately฀moving฀out฀of฀Africa฀to฀populate฀tropical฀and฀ sub-tropical฀environmental฀zones฀in฀the฀ Old฀World,฀possibly฀as฀early฀as฀1.8฀million฀ years฀ago. Homo฀erectus฀may฀also฀have฀mastered฀ the฀use฀of฀fi฀re฀around฀1.6฀million฀years฀ ago฀(Mcrone฀2000).฀฀Fire฀is฀an฀exception- ally฀powerful฀tool.฀Since฀most฀animals,฀ including฀large฀predators,฀are฀afraid฀of฀ fi฀re,฀early฀humans฀quickly฀discovered฀that฀ campfi฀res฀offered฀protection฀from฀attack฀ during฀the฀night.฀Control฀of฀fi฀re฀allowed฀ them฀to฀move฀into฀colder฀regions฀as฀it฀provided฀warmth฀as฀well฀as฀security.฀Fire฀also฀ changed฀the฀way฀food฀was฀prepared.฀Food฀ that฀is฀cooked฀is฀less฀likely฀to฀carry฀disease฀ organisms฀and฀its฀softer฀texture฀makes฀it฀ easier฀to฀eat,฀enhancing฀the฀survival฀of฀ young฀children฀and฀old฀members฀of฀ a฀population.฀฀ The฀use฀of฀fi฀re฀almost฀certainly฀increased฀during฀the฀Paleolithic฀Period.฀At฀ that฀time,฀humans฀were฀primarily฀huntergatherers.฀The฀role฀of฀fi฀re฀in฀modern฀ hunter-gatherer฀cultures฀gives฀us฀some฀idea฀ of฀its฀importance฀during฀the฀Paleolithic฀ and฀how฀people฀then฀most฀likely฀used฀ 3 it฀(Williams฀2001).฀Fire฀was฀an฀important฀ tool฀in฀everyday฀life.฀It฀was฀also฀a฀tool฀with฀ great฀potential฀to฀modify฀and฀change฀฀ the฀environment. ฀The฀transition฀from฀Homo฀erectus฀to฀ Homo฀sapiens—our฀modern฀human฀species—occurred฀approximately฀300฀000฀ to฀400฀000฀years฀ago.฀Throughout฀the฀ Paleolithic฀Period,฀humans฀survived฀by฀ exploiting฀resources฀in฀their฀environment฀ through฀subsistence฀activities฀such฀as฀fishing,฀hunting,฀and฀plant฀gathering.฀From฀ ethnographic฀studies฀of฀modern฀huntergatherers,฀we฀can฀infer฀that฀the฀basic฀social฀ unit฀of฀Paleolithic฀times฀was฀the฀band:฀a฀ loosely฀bound,฀relatively฀small฀group฀(25฀ people฀on฀average)฀formed฀by฀the฀voluntary฀aggregation฀of฀a฀few฀families.฀Bands฀ were฀mobile,฀regularly฀changing฀residence฀ inside฀a฀delimited฀territory฀according฀to฀ fluctuations฀in฀the฀abundance฀of฀different฀ food฀sources.฀Inter-regional฀migrations,฀ such฀as฀those฀within฀the฀Western฀฀ Hemisphere,฀probably฀took฀place฀during฀ this฀time. This฀mobile฀life฀was฀punctuated฀by฀episodes฀of฀reunion,฀when฀several฀allied฀bands฀ would฀meet฀and฀perform฀religious฀ceremonies.฀Such฀occasions฀would฀have฀provided฀ a฀time฀and฀place฀for฀the฀transmission฀of฀ techniques฀and฀artistic฀fashions,฀promoting฀ their฀spread฀across฀vast฀expanses฀฀ of฀territory. Some฀10฀000฀years฀ago,฀a฀new฀geological฀ time฀period,฀the฀Holocene,฀began.฀World฀ sea฀levels฀rose฀about฀35฀m฀(116฀ft)฀in฀the฀ early฀Holocene฀due฀to฀melting฀glaciers.฀As฀ the฀ice฀melted฀and฀glaciers฀receded,฀many฀ land฀areas฀that฀had฀been฀depressed฀by฀ glacial฀weight฀slowly฀rose฀as฀much฀as฀180฀ m฀(594฀ft)฀above฀their฀late-Pleistocene฀and฀ early-Holocene฀levels.฀Both฀sea-level฀rise฀ and฀depressions฀in฀the฀landscape฀allowed฀ temporary฀ocean-water฀incursions฀into฀ regions฀that฀are฀today฀far฀from฀any฀sea.฀ Climatic฀shifts฀also฀were฀very฀large฀during฀ this฀period.฀Habitable฀zones฀expanded฀ northwards.฀Large,฀mid-latitude฀areas฀such฀ as฀the฀Sahara฀that฀were฀previously฀productive฀became฀deserts.฀At฀the฀start฀of฀the฀ Holocene,฀large฀lakes฀covered฀many฀areas฀ that฀are฀now฀quite฀arid. Animals฀and฀plants฀did฀not฀undergo฀ major฀evolutionary฀changes฀during฀the฀ Holocene,฀but฀there฀were฀significant฀shifts฀ in฀their฀distribution.฀Several฀types฀of฀large฀ mammals฀including฀mammoths,฀mastodons,฀saber-toothed฀cats,฀and฀giant฀sloths฀ went฀extinct฀in฀the฀late฀Pleistocene฀and฀ early฀Holocene.฀Ecological฀“islands”฀of฀isolated฀species฀were฀created฀throughout฀the฀ world,฀including฀high-altitude฀remnants฀฀ of฀cooler,฀previously฀regional฀climate฀฀ ecosystems. The฀period฀from฀10฀000฀to฀5฀000฀or฀฀ 4฀000฀years฀ago฀is฀recognized฀as฀the฀Neolithic฀Period฀(New฀Stone฀Age).฀It฀was฀ preceded฀by฀the฀Mesolithic฀Period฀(Middle฀ Stone฀Age),฀which฀roughly฀corresponds฀ with฀the฀beginning฀of฀the฀Holocene.฀The฀ Mesolithic฀Period฀formed฀a฀transition฀ between฀the฀Paleolithic฀and฀Neolithic฀ Periods,฀that฀is,฀from฀the฀end฀of฀the฀Pleistocene฀to฀the฀introduction฀of฀agriculture฀in฀ any฀given฀geographical฀region฀฀ (Wikipedia฀n.d.). The฀size฀of฀the฀world’s฀human฀population฀10฀000฀years฀ago฀is฀estimated฀to฀have฀ been฀around฀5฀million฀(IPC฀2003a).฀This฀ period฀saw฀the฀beginning฀of฀agriculture฀ and฀the฀domestication฀of฀animals.฀People฀ learned฀to฀cultivate฀crops฀rather฀than฀to฀ simply฀gather฀what฀nature฀provided฀in฀the฀ wild฀and฀to฀tame฀and฀raise฀animals฀such฀as฀ sheep,฀goats,฀cattle,฀horses,฀and฀dogs,฀rather฀than฀hunt฀them.฀These฀activities฀helped฀ ensure฀better฀food฀supplies฀and฀resulted฀ in฀wide-ranging฀cultural฀consequences.฀ Permanent฀communities฀were฀now฀established,฀since฀people฀were฀no฀longer฀dependent฀on฀following฀wild฀animals฀or฀moving฀ with฀the฀seasons.฀Day-to-day฀existence฀ changed฀from฀a฀life฀of฀nomadic฀foraging฀ to฀one฀of฀permanence.฀This฀allowed฀some฀ individuals฀to฀explore฀tool฀production฀to฀ refine฀rude฀stone฀tools฀and฀improve฀implements฀such฀as฀stone-blade฀knives,฀bow฀drills฀ with฀flints฀for฀starting฀fires,฀fish฀hooks,฀ axes,฀and฀plows.฀Other฀people฀found฀time฀ to฀improve฀agricultural฀and฀pastoral฀techniques,฀enabling฀communities฀to฀฀ grow฀more฀food฀and฀tend฀livestock฀฀ more฀effectively. The฀cultivation฀of฀plants฀and฀the฀domestication฀of฀animals฀dramatically฀฀ Credit:฀Pune฀Yanachot/UNEP/Topfoto 4 Credit:฀T.฀Revter/UNEP/Topfoto impacted฀human฀lifestyles฀during฀the฀ Neolithic฀Period.฀People฀left฀their฀temporary฀rock฀and฀wooden฀shelters฀and฀began฀ to฀build฀more฀permanent฀homes฀in฀close฀ proximity฀to฀their฀farms฀and฀gardens,฀ where฀they฀started฀producing฀cereal฀grains฀ which฀became฀an฀important฀part฀of฀their฀ diet฀(Wadley฀and฀Martin฀1993).฀ The฀Neolithic฀Period฀marked฀the฀beginning฀of฀true฀civilization,฀laying฀the฀foundations฀for฀major฀developments฀in฀social฀ evolution฀such฀as฀permanent฀settlements,฀ village฀life,฀formalized฀religion,฀art,฀architecture,฀farming,฀and฀the฀production฀of฀ advanced฀tools฀and฀weapons. Agriculture The฀first฀cultivation฀of฀wild฀grains฀some฀ 12฀000฀to฀10฀000฀years฀ago฀turned฀huntergatherers฀into฀farmers.฀The฀transition฀gave฀ people฀a฀more฀abundant฀and฀dependable฀ source฀of฀food฀and฀changed฀the฀world฀ forever฀(Wilford฀1997).฀The฀practice฀of฀ agriculture฀first฀developed฀in฀the฀Fertile฀ Crescent฀of฀Mesopotamia฀(part฀of฀presentday฀Iraq,฀Turkey,฀Syria,฀and฀Jordan).฀This฀ region,฀which฀was฀much฀wetter฀then฀than฀ it฀is฀today,฀was฀home฀to฀a฀great฀diversity฀of฀ annual฀plants฀and฀32฀of฀the฀56฀largest฀seedproducing฀grasses฀(Primal฀Seeds฀n.d.). Around฀11฀000฀years฀ago,฀much฀of฀the฀ Earth฀experienced฀long฀dry฀seasons,฀probably฀as฀a฀consequence฀of฀the฀major฀climate฀ change฀that฀took฀place฀at฀the฀end฀of฀the฀ last฀Ice฀Age.฀These฀conditions฀favored฀ annual฀plants฀that฀die฀off฀in฀the฀long฀dry฀ season,฀leaving฀a฀dormant฀seed฀or฀tuber.฀ Such฀plants฀put฀more฀energy฀into฀producing฀seeds฀than฀into฀woody฀growth.฀An฀ abundance฀of฀readily฀storable฀wild฀grains฀ Figure฀1.2:฀The฀Earth’s฀climate฀system฀involves฀ complex฀interactions฀among฀many฀elements฀and฀ processes.฀Source:฀http://www.usgcrp.gov/usgcrp/Library/ ocp2004-5/ocp2004-5.pdf฀ 5 and฀other฀edible฀seeds฀enabled฀huntergatherers฀in฀some฀areas฀to฀form฀permanently฀settled฀villages฀at฀this฀time฀(Primal฀ Seeds฀n.d.). Theories฀vary฀as฀to฀how฀agriculture฀ came฀into฀being.฀Some฀scientists฀argue฀that฀ rising฀global฀temperatures฀created฀favorable฀conditions฀for฀agriculture.฀Others฀ propose฀that฀an฀increase฀in฀seasonality฀ after฀the฀last฀Ice฀Age฀encouraged฀people฀to฀ domesticate฀plants.฀Still฀other฀researchers฀ maintain฀that฀ecological฀changes,฀social฀ development,฀or฀a฀growing฀human฀population฀intensifi฀ed฀the฀exploitation฀of฀specifi฀c฀ plant฀species฀(Baldia฀2000). ฀Another฀suggestion฀is฀that฀an฀increase฀ in฀carbon฀dioxide฀(CO2)฀on฀a฀global฀scale฀ may฀have฀played฀a฀critical฀role฀in฀bringing฀ about฀the฀synchrony฀of฀agricultural฀origins฀ around฀the฀globe฀(Sage฀1995).฀Studies฀ have฀shown฀that฀a฀rise฀in฀atmospheric฀CO2฀ levels฀would฀have฀increased฀productivity฀ of฀many฀plants฀by฀as฀much฀as฀50฀per฀cent.฀ Furthermore,฀the฀water฀effi฀ciency฀of฀cultivated฀plants฀increased,฀giving฀these฀plants฀ a฀competitive฀advantage฀over฀wild฀species. A฀few฀scientists฀have฀proposed฀that฀climatic฀changes฀at฀the฀end฀of฀the฀last฀glacial฀ period฀led฀to฀an฀increase฀in฀the฀size฀and฀ concentration฀of฀patches฀of฀wild฀cereals฀in฀ certain฀areas฀(Wadley฀and฀Martin฀1993).฀ Increased฀availability฀of฀cereal฀grains฀ provided฀people฀with฀an฀incentive฀to฀make฀ a฀meal฀of฀them.฀Those฀who฀ate฀sizable฀ amounts฀of฀cereal฀grains฀inadvertently฀ discovered฀the฀rewards฀of฀consuming฀the฀ various฀chemical฀compounds฀that฀cereal฀ grains฀contain.฀As฀processing฀methods฀ Credit:฀Ed฀Simpson/UNEP/PhotoSpin such฀as฀grinding฀and฀cooking฀made฀cereal฀ grains฀more฀palatable,฀greater฀quantities฀ were฀consumed.฀ At฀fi฀rst฀these฀patches฀of฀wild฀cereals฀ were฀protected฀and฀harvested.฀People฀ began฀to฀settle฀around฀these฀food฀sources.฀ They฀gradually฀abandoned฀their฀nomadic฀ lifestyle฀and฀began฀working฀together฀more฀ cooperatively.฀Later,฀land฀was฀cleared,฀ seeds฀were฀planted,฀and฀seedlings฀tended฀ to฀increase฀the฀quantity฀and฀reliability฀of฀ cereal฀grain฀supply. The฀rise฀of฀more฀permanent฀settlements฀intensifi฀ed฀the฀domestication฀of฀ 6 Credits:฀Michael฀Van฀Woert/UNEP/NOAA animals.฀The฀fi฀rst฀candidate฀for฀domestication,฀around฀11฀000฀years฀ago,฀was฀probably฀the฀dog.฀The฀cow฀was฀domesticated฀ around฀10฀000฀years฀ago.฀Goats,฀sheep,฀and฀ pigs฀were฀added฀to฀the฀growing฀list฀of฀domesticated฀animals฀around฀8฀000฀years฀ago฀ in฀western฀Asia.฀The฀horse฀was฀fi฀rst฀domesticated฀in฀northern฀Russia฀around฀4฀000฀ years฀ago.฀Local฀equivalents฀and฀smaller฀ species฀were฀increasingly฀domesticated฀ from฀2฀500฀years฀ago฀(Wikipedia฀n.d.). Farming฀and฀herding฀facilitated฀the฀ growth฀of฀larger฀settled฀human฀populations฀and฀led฀to฀increased฀competition฀for฀ productive฀lands,฀laying฀the฀foundation฀for฀ organized฀warfare.฀Food฀surpluses฀freed฀ people฀to฀specialize฀in฀various฀crafts,฀such฀ as฀weaving,฀and,฀in฀larger฀communities,฀ supported฀the฀emergence฀of฀a฀privileged฀ elite฀class.฀Archaeologists฀and฀historians฀ agree฀that฀the฀rise฀of฀agriculture,฀including฀ the฀domestication฀of฀animals฀for฀food฀and฀ labor,฀produced฀the฀most฀important฀transformation฀in฀the฀interaction฀between฀the฀ environment฀and฀human฀culture฀since฀the฀ last฀Ice฀Age—perhaps฀the฀most฀signifi฀cant฀ development฀in฀human฀history฀since฀the฀ control฀of฀fi฀re฀(Wilford฀1997).฀ Other฀milestones฀in฀human฀history฀that฀ benefi฀ted฀people฀and฀changed฀the฀environment฀include:฀ Classical฀Greece฀and฀Rome฀(0฀to฀about฀ 500฀A.D.) The฀world฀population฀at฀the฀beginning฀of฀ this฀period฀was฀roughly฀200฀million฀(IPC฀ 2003a).฀During฀this฀period,฀glass฀was฀invented฀and฀map-making฀developed. Middle฀Ages฀to฀the฀Renaissance฀(500฀to฀ about฀1700)฀ By฀this฀point,฀world฀population฀had฀grown฀ to฀about฀250฀million฀(IPC฀2003a).฀The฀ clock,฀compass,฀telescope,฀thermometer,฀ and฀barometer฀were฀developed,฀enabling฀ people฀to฀expand฀their฀knowledge฀of฀the฀ Earth฀and฀the฀Universe. The฀Industrial฀Revolution฀(1700฀–฀present) By฀1700,฀world฀population฀had฀risen฀to฀ about฀600฀million฀(IPC฀2003a).฀This฀period฀witnessed฀the฀development฀of฀mechanization฀and฀the฀beginning฀of฀serious฀air฀ pollution.฀Industrial฀changes฀also฀led฀to฀an฀ agricultural฀revolution. The฀Agricultural฀Revolution฀(1750฀–฀1900) By฀1750,฀world฀population฀had฀risen฀to฀790฀ million฀(IPC฀2003a).฀In฀many฀countries฀the฀ way฀in฀which฀farmers฀produced฀food฀began฀to฀change.฀New฀crops฀were฀exploited฀ using฀new฀technologies฀such฀as฀the฀seed฀ drill฀and฀the฀iron฀plow.฀These฀methods฀of฀ production฀produced฀greater฀quantities฀ The฀Bronze฀and฀Iron฀Ages฀(roughly฀3300฀ of฀more฀nutritious฀foods,฀thereby฀improvB.C.฀to฀0฀A.D.) ing฀peoples’฀diets฀and฀health.฀Better,฀more฀ The฀world฀population฀approximately฀5฀000฀ effi฀cient฀farming฀methods฀also฀meant฀that฀ fewer฀people฀were฀needed฀to฀farm.฀As฀a฀ years฀ago฀is฀estimated฀to฀have฀been฀about฀ 7฀million฀(IPC฀2003a).฀This฀period฀saw฀the฀ result,฀unemployed฀farmers฀formed฀a฀large฀ introduction฀of฀metallurgy฀and฀mining,฀the฀ new฀labor฀force. invention฀of฀the฀wheel,฀and฀the฀domestication฀of฀the฀horse. The฀Green฀Revolution฀(1944฀–฀present) In฀1944,฀world฀population฀reached฀2฀350฀ million฀(Anon฀n.d.).฀A฀breakthrough฀in฀ wheat฀and฀rice฀production฀in฀Asia฀in฀the฀ mid-1960s,฀which฀came฀to฀be฀known฀as฀the฀ Green฀Revolution,฀symbolized฀the฀progress฀of฀agricultural฀science฀as฀it฀developed฀ modern฀techniques฀for฀use฀in฀developing฀ countries.฀The฀Green฀Revolution฀had฀its฀ origin฀in฀Mexico,฀where฀a฀“quiet”฀wheat฀ revolution฀began฀in฀the฀1940s฀฀ (Borlaug฀2000). The฀goal฀of฀the฀Green฀Revolution฀is฀ to฀enhance฀the฀efficiency฀of฀agricultural฀ processes฀in฀order฀to฀increase฀the฀productivity฀of฀crops,฀thereby฀helping฀developing฀ countries฀to฀meet฀the฀needs฀of฀their฀growing฀populations.฀The฀Revolution฀consisted฀ of฀three฀primary฀elements:฀continuing฀ expansion฀of฀farming฀areas,฀double-cropping฀existing฀farmlands,฀and฀using฀genetically฀improved฀seeds.฀Thanks฀to฀the฀Green฀ Revolution,฀we฀are฀able฀to฀grow฀more฀crops฀ on฀less฀land. However,฀the฀Green฀Revolution฀has฀ impacted฀biodiversity฀and฀in฀some฀areas฀ water฀quality฀and฀coastal฀ecosystems.฀The฀ new฀techniques฀encouraged฀large-scale฀industrial฀agriculture฀at฀the฀expense฀of฀small฀ farmers฀who฀were฀unable฀to฀compete฀with฀ high-efficiency฀Green฀Revolution฀crops฀ (Wikipedia฀n.d.).฀Nevertheless,฀the฀Green฀ million฀metric฀tonnes฀per฀year.฀By฀2025,฀ production฀must฀be฀nearly฀doubled.฀In฀ order฀to฀feed฀the฀world’s฀people฀through฀ The฀Present฀Day 2025,฀an฀additional฀1฀000฀million฀metric฀ tonnes฀of฀grain฀must฀be฀produced฀annuWorld฀population฀now฀stands฀at฀6฀billion฀ ally.฀Most฀of฀this฀increase฀will฀have฀to฀be฀ people฀(IPC฀2003b).฀While฀global฀resourcsupplied฀by฀improving฀crop฀yields฀on฀land฀ es฀were฀sufficient฀to฀support฀the฀Earth’s฀ already฀in฀production. human฀population฀as฀a฀whole฀prior฀to฀the฀ Industrial฀Revolution,฀individual฀groups฀or฀ This฀will฀not฀be฀possible฀unless฀farmeven฀entire฀civilizations฀sometimes฀reached฀฀ ers฀worldwide฀have฀access฀to฀existing฀ environmental฀limits฀for฀a฀particular฀resource;฀a฀number฀collapsed฀as฀a฀result฀of฀ unsustainable฀hunting,฀fishing,฀logging,฀ or฀land฀use฀practices.฀The฀ever-increasing฀ cultural฀globalization฀of฀the฀20th฀and฀21st฀ centuries฀has฀brought฀with฀it฀globalization฀ of฀resource฀degradation,฀making฀current฀ environmental฀problems฀an฀issue฀for฀the฀ entire฀world฀rather฀than฀for฀individual,฀ isolated฀groups.฀Although฀perceived฀ environmental฀limits฀can฀sometimes฀be฀ overcome,฀neither฀science฀nor฀technology฀ has฀yet฀made฀possible฀unlimited฀supplies฀of฀ natural฀resources฀or฀depositories฀for฀waste฀ (Casagrande฀and฀Zaidman฀1999). Moderate฀projections฀put฀world฀population฀at฀around฀8฀300฀million฀by฀2025฀(FigCredit:฀Lee฀Tsunhua/UNEP/Topfoto ure฀1.3),฀with฀the฀hope฀that฀it฀will฀stabilize฀ high-yield฀crop฀production฀methods฀as฀ at฀roughly฀10฀000฀to฀11฀000฀million฀by฀the฀ well฀as฀biotechnological฀breakthroughs฀ end฀of฀the฀century.฀It฀took฀approximately฀฀ that฀increase฀the฀yield,฀dependability,฀and฀ 10฀000฀years฀to฀expand฀global฀food฀production฀to฀the฀current฀level฀of฀about฀5฀000฀ nutritional฀quality฀of฀our฀basic฀food฀crops฀ (Borlaug฀2000).฀ Revolution฀is฀a฀success.฀We฀are฀able฀to฀feed฀ more฀people฀now,฀than฀ever฀before. Credit:฀Paulus฀Suwito/UNEP/Topfoto 7 Figure฀1.3:฀Earth’s฀shrinking฀biosphere฀land฀area฀(ha)/capita฀฀ 1900-2000฀AD Currently,฀the฀Earth฀is฀the฀only฀home฀we฀have.฀With฀each฀new฀person฀ added฀to฀our฀growing฀population,฀the฀amount฀of฀our฀living฀space฀ decreases.฀Thus฀we฀have฀less฀land฀available฀but฀an฀increasing฀need฀to฀ feed฀more฀people.฀This฀puts฀more฀pressure฀on฀our฀limited฀resources฀ and฀exacerbates฀changes฀in฀the฀environment.฀Source:฀Lund฀and฀Iremonger฀2000 ฀Human฀beings฀have฀been฀very฀successful฀in฀exploiting฀the฀Earth’s฀resources.฀In฀the฀process,฀however,฀they฀have฀brought฀about฀major฀changes฀in฀the฀ Earth’s฀ecosystems,฀especially฀in฀recent฀years: •฀half฀the฀world’s฀wetlands฀were฀lost฀during฀the฀ last฀century; •฀logging฀and฀land฀use฀conversion฀have฀reduced฀ forest฀cover฀by฀at฀least฀20฀per฀cent,฀and฀possibly฀as฀ much฀as฀50฀per฀cent; •฀nearly฀70฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀world’s฀major฀marine฀ fish฀฀ stocks฀are฀either฀over-fished฀or฀being฀fished฀at฀the฀ biological฀limit; •฀over฀the฀last฀half฀century,฀soil฀degradation฀has฀affected฀two-thirds฀of฀the฀world’s฀agricultural฀land.฀It฀is฀ estimated฀that฀each฀year฀some฀25฀000฀million฀metric฀ tonnes฀of฀fertile฀topsoil—the฀equivalent฀of฀all฀of฀the฀ wheat฀fields฀in฀Australia—฀is฀lost฀globally฀(Casagrande฀and฀ Zaidman฀1999); •฀each฀year,฀an฀estimated฀27฀000฀species฀disappear฀from฀the฀ planet—approximately฀one฀every฀20฀minutes฀(Casagrande฀and฀ Zaidman฀1999);฀ •฀the฀Earth฀now฀appears฀to฀be฀experiencing฀a฀sixth฀mass฀ extinction฀event฀that฀began฀about฀50฀000฀years฀ago฀with฀the฀ expanding฀role฀of฀humans฀in฀the฀world฀(Recer฀2004).฀Unlike฀past฀events,฀this฀mass฀extinction฀is฀being฀caused฀by฀ human฀activities฀such฀as฀transforming฀the฀landscape,฀ overexploiting฀species,฀pollution,฀and฀alien฀species฀ introductions฀(Eldredge฀2001); •฀dams฀and฀engineering฀works฀have฀fragmented฀60฀ per฀cent฀of฀the฀world’s฀large฀river฀systems.฀They฀ have฀so฀impeded฀water฀flow฀that฀the฀time฀it฀takes฀ for฀a฀drop฀of฀water฀to฀reach฀the฀sea฀has฀tripled;฀ •฀human฀activities฀are฀significantly฀altering฀ the฀basic฀chemical฀cycles฀upon฀which฀all฀ ecosystems฀depend฀฀ (Kirby฀2000). Historian฀J.R.฀McNeill฀recently฀ wrote฀(McNeill฀2000):฀“It฀is฀impossible฀to฀know฀whether฀humankind฀ has฀entered฀a฀genuine฀ecological฀crisis.฀It฀is฀clear฀enough฀ that฀our฀current฀ways฀are฀ ecologically฀unsustainable,฀but฀we฀cannot฀ know฀for฀how฀long฀ we฀can฀yet฀sustain฀ 88 Credit:฀Noguchi฀Yoshi/UNEP/Topfoto them฀or฀what฀might฀happen฀if฀we฀do.”฀In฀ the฀past,฀humanity฀trod฀relatively฀lightly฀on฀ the฀Earth,฀even฀though฀civilizations฀were฀ intensely฀concentrated฀in฀some฀places฀such฀ as฀Mesopotamia฀and฀the฀Nile฀River฀valley.฀ Today,฀however,฀the฀evidence฀from฀space฀ shows฀signs฀of฀the฀human฀presence฀in฀ almost฀every฀corner฀of฀the฀planet. Global฀concern฀about฀the฀environment฀ and฀the฀fate฀of฀the฀Earth฀emerged฀in฀the฀ 1970s,฀as฀did฀international฀initiatives฀to฀ address฀those฀concerns.฀In฀roughly฀the฀past฀ 30฀years,฀the฀environment฀has฀borne฀the฀ stresses฀imposed฀by฀a฀four-fold฀increase฀in฀ human฀population฀and฀an฀eighteen-fold฀ increase฀in฀world฀economic฀output฀(UNEP฀ 2002).฀Not฀surprisingly,฀when฀scientists฀ compare฀recent฀satellite฀images฀of฀the฀ Earth’s฀surface฀with฀those฀taken฀one฀or฀several฀decades฀ago,฀the฀impact฀people฀have฀ had฀on฀the฀planet฀is฀obvious฀and฀฀ often฀disturbing.฀ This฀atlas฀vividly฀illustrates฀some฀of฀the฀ changes฀the฀human฀race฀has฀brought฀about฀ on฀the฀Earth—both฀good฀and฀bad—over฀ the฀past฀30฀years.฀In฀doing฀so,฀it฀also฀serves฀ as฀an฀early฀warning฀for฀environmental฀ events฀that฀may฀occur.฀We฀hope฀it฀will฀be฀ useful฀as฀a฀basis฀for฀developing฀policy฀decisions฀and฀promoting฀individual฀actions฀to฀ help฀sustain฀the฀Earth฀and฀ensure฀the฀wellbeing฀of฀its฀inhabitants. References Kirby,฀A.฀(2000).฀Humans฀stress฀ecosystems฀to฀the฀limit.฀BBC฀News,฀ UK.฀http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/926063.stm฀on฀19฀ March฀2004. UNEP฀(2002).฀Global฀Environment฀Outlook฀3฀(GEO3)฀–฀Past,฀ present฀and฀future฀perspectives.฀Earthscan,฀London,฀UK,฀446.฀ http://www.unep.org/geo/geo3/฀on฀4฀March฀2004. Kowalski,฀W.J.฀(n.d.).฀http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/w/x/ wxk116/habitat/฀on฀19฀March฀2004. US฀Global฀Change฀Research฀Program฀(2004).฀฀Our฀Changing฀ Planet:฀The฀U.S.฀Climate฀Change฀Science฀Program฀for฀Fiscal฀ Years฀2004฀and฀2005,฀8.฀http://www.usgcrp.gov/usgcrp/Library/ocp2004-5/ocp2004-5.pdf฀on฀13฀October฀2004.฀ Anon.฀(n.d.).฀World฀population฀through฀the฀years.฀http://www. neopage.com/know/worldpop.htm฀on฀19฀March฀2004.฀ Baldia,฀M.฀O.฀(2000).฀The฀origins฀of฀agriculture.฀Version฀2.01.฀ http://www.comp-archaeology.org/AgricultureOrigins.htm฀on฀ 19฀March฀2004. Borlaug,฀N.฀E.฀(2000).฀The฀Green฀Revolution฀revisited฀and฀the฀road฀ ahead.฀Special฀30th฀Anniversary฀Lecture,฀The฀Norwegian฀Nobel฀ Institute,฀Oslo,฀Norway,฀September฀8,฀2000,฀23.฀http://www. nobel.se/peace/articles/borlaug/borlaug-฀lecture.pdf฀฀on฀1฀ August฀2004. Casagrande,฀J.฀and฀Zaidman,฀Y.฀(1999).฀Defining฀a฀new฀balance฀ between฀humans฀and฀the฀environment.฀Changemakers.฀http:// www.changemakers.net/journal/99September/index.cfm฀on฀ 18฀March฀2004.฀ Eldredge,฀N.฀(2001).฀The฀sixth฀extinction.฀ActionBioscience฀ Journal.฀http://www.actionbioscience.฀org/newfrontiers/eldredge2.html฀on฀19฀March฀2004. Grace,฀J.฀(n.d.).฀World฀Forests฀and฀Global฀Change.฀University฀of฀ Edinburgh,฀The฀Institute฀of฀Ecology฀&฀Resource฀Management,฀ Edinburgh,฀UK.฀http://www.ierm.฀ed.ac.uk/ierm/teaching/ slides.pdf฀on฀7฀October฀2004. IPC฀(2003a).฀Historical฀estimates฀of฀world฀population.฀U.S.฀Census฀ Bureau,฀Population฀Division,฀International฀Programs฀Center,฀ Cambridge,฀UK.฀http://www.census.฀gov/ipc/www/worldhis. html฀on฀19฀March฀2004. IPC฀(2003b).฀Total฀midyear฀population฀for฀the฀world:฀1950-2050.฀ U.S.฀Census฀Bureau,฀Population฀Division,฀International฀Programs฀Center,฀International฀Data฀Base,฀Cambridge,฀UK.฀http:// www.census.gov/ipc/www/worldpop.html฀on฀19฀March฀2004. Lund,฀H.G.฀and฀Iremonger,฀S.฀(2000).฀Omissions,฀commissions,฀and฀ decisions:฀the฀need฀for฀integrsted฀resource฀assessments.฀Forest฀ Ecology฀and฀Management,฀128(1-2):฀3-10. McNeill,฀J.R.฀(2000).฀Something฀new฀under฀the฀sun฀–฀An฀environmental฀history฀of฀the฀twentieth฀century฀world.฀W.W.฀Norton฀&฀ Company,฀New฀York,฀USA,฀421.฀ Mcrone,฀J.฀(2000).฀The฀discovery฀of฀fire.฀New฀Scientist.฀May฀2000.฀ http://www.btinternet.com/~neuronaut/webtwo_features_฀ fire.htm฀on฀18฀March฀2004. NASA฀(2002).฀Blue฀Marble:฀Land฀Surface,฀Shallow฀Water,฀and฀ Shaded฀Topography.฀http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view_rec. php?vev1id=11656฀on฀18฀August฀2004. Nott,฀A.฀(1996).฀Environmental฀Degradation.฀http://www.geocities. com/atlas/env/฀on฀6฀October฀2004.฀ Wadley,฀G.฀and฀Martin,฀A.฀(1993).฀The฀origins฀of฀agriculture฀–฀a฀biological฀perspective฀and฀a฀new฀hypothesis.฀Australian฀Biologist฀ 6:฀96฀–฀105.฀http://www.veganstraight-฀edge.org.uk/GW_paper. htm฀on฀19฀March฀2004. Wikipedia฀(n.d.).฀The฀free฀encyclopedia.฀http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Main_Page฀on฀18฀March฀2004. Wilford,฀J.฀N.฀(1997).฀New฀clues฀show฀where฀people฀made฀the฀great฀ leap฀to฀agriculture.฀The฀New฀York฀Times฀Company.฀http:// www.spelt.com/origins.html฀฀on฀19฀March฀2004. Williams,฀G.฀W.฀(2001).฀References฀on฀the฀American฀Indian฀use฀ of฀fire฀in฀ecosystems.฀U.S.฀Department฀of฀Agriculture:฀Forest฀ Service,฀Washington,฀DC,฀USA.฀http://www.฀wildlandfire.com/ docs/biblio_indianfire.htm฀on฀15฀March฀2004. Primal฀Seeds฀(n.d.).฀฀Agriculture฀Origins.฀฀http://www.primalseeds. org/agricult.htm฀on฀19฀March฀2004. Recer,฀P.฀(2004).฀Many฀species฀at฀risk฀of฀extinction.฀Research฀ Study.฀Associated฀Press.฀http://story.news.yahoo.com/฀ news?tmpl=story&u=/ap/wildlife_gone฀on฀19฀March฀2004. Sage,฀R.F.฀(1995).฀Was฀low฀atmospheric฀CO2฀during฀the฀Pleistocene฀ a฀limiting฀factor฀for฀the฀origin฀of฀agriculture?฀Global฀Change฀ Biology,฀1:93-106.฀http://www.greeningearthsociety.฀org/Articles/origins.htm฀on฀23฀March฀2004. Tapestries฀and฀More.฀http://www.tapestries.cc/Imagehtm/gMap. html฀on฀12฀May฀2004. 9 9 Nightlight Map of the World Credit: UNEP/NOAA, NASA 10 11 Credit:฀Busakorn฀Buranabunpo/UNEP/Topfoto 12 2 People and Planet Human Influences on the Planet H umans฀are฀a฀prolific฀and฀opportunistic฀species,฀among฀ the฀most฀successful฀of฀all฀the฀ Earth’s฀inhabitants.฀As฀the฀size฀ of฀the฀human฀population฀has฀increased,฀ people฀have฀spread฀across฀the฀globe฀into฀ every฀imaginable฀habitat.฀Throughout฀ human฀history,฀people฀have฀demonstrated฀ an฀uncanny฀ability฀to฀adapt฀to฀and฀survive฀ in฀some฀very฀harsh฀places,฀including,฀most฀ recently,฀outer฀space฀and฀the฀ocean—at฀ least฀for฀short฀periods฀of฀time. ฀As฀human฀culture฀has฀evolved,฀people฀ have฀developed฀new฀ways฀of฀living฀in฀and฀ using฀their฀environment,฀and฀of฀helping฀ themselves฀to฀all฀that฀the฀Earth฀has฀to฀ offer.฀Their฀ability฀to฀exploit฀the฀Earth’s฀ seemingly฀endless฀resources฀has฀been฀a฀vital฀key฀to฀the฀success฀of฀the฀human฀species. However,฀many฀major฀advances฀in฀ human฀culture—from฀the฀cultivation฀of฀ crops฀and฀the฀development฀of฀cities฀to฀ modern฀technologies—have฀tended฀to฀ insulate฀people฀from฀the฀very฀environment฀ that฀shaped฀them฀and฀upon฀which฀they฀ depend.฀As฀a฀group,฀people฀have฀often฀ forgotten฀that฀for฀every฀action฀taken฀there฀ is฀a฀reaction,฀an฀impact. The฀impacts฀of฀human฀activities฀on฀ the฀Earth฀often฀have฀both฀negative฀and฀ positive฀components.฀For฀example,฀when฀ people฀convert฀forests฀or฀grasslands฀to฀ cropland฀they฀improve฀the฀means฀by฀ which฀to฀feed฀their฀ever-growing฀numbers.฀ At฀the฀same฀time,฀they฀invariably฀reduce฀ biological฀diversity฀in฀the฀converted฀areas.฀ Over฀time,฀people฀have฀rarely฀been฀fully฀ aware฀of฀the฀tremendous฀change฀they฀have฀ wrought฀on฀the฀Earth฀or฀that฀their฀successes฀have฀often฀been฀achieved฀at฀the฀expense฀ of฀other฀species฀and฀the฀environment. Since฀the฀early฀1970s,฀many฀excellent฀ texts฀have฀been฀written฀about฀the฀plight฀ of฀the฀world฀(Heywood฀1995;฀Middleton฀ 1997;฀WRI฀2000;฀Chew฀2001;฀FAO฀2001;฀ Harrison฀and฀Pearce฀2001;฀IPCC฀2001;฀ McNeill฀2001;฀UNEP฀2002a).฀This฀atlas฀ supplements฀these฀works฀by฀providing฀ illustrations฀of฀both฀positive฀and฀negative฀ human-caused฀changes฀that฀have฀taken฀ place฀on฀the฀Earth.฀Satellite฀images,฀together฀with฀photographs,฀provide฀a฀unique฀ view฀of฀how฀people฀are฀impacting฀the฀terrestrial฀environment฀and฀what฀the฀consequences฀of฀environmental฀change฀mean฀ in฀terms฀of฀human฀well-being.฀The฀images฀ Credit:฀Davoli฀Silvaho/UNEP/Topfoto and฀the฀changes฀they฀illustrate฀are฀diverse.฀ But฀they฀are฀united฀by฀a฀common฀message:฀ environmental฀change฀does฀matter. The฀International฀Conference฀on฀ Population฀and฀Development฀Programme฀ of฀Action฀noted฀that฀stabilization฀of฀world฀ Credit:฀Ed฀Simpson/UNEP/PhotoSpin 13 Population฀Change Latin America 3% Others 2.5% Africa 4.5% Asia Pacific US 5% (including former Soviet Asia) 54% Europe (including Russia) 25% Europe (including Russia) 14% Asia 60% Africa 10% Latin America & Caribbean 8% Middle East & North Africa 6% North America 5% Others 3% population฀is฀crucial฀to฀achieving฀sustainable฀development.฀Population฀stabilization฀is฀also฀necessary฀for฀managing฀human฀ impacts฀on฀the฀Earth’s฀environment฀and฀ resources.฀In฀1999,฀the฀Earth’s฀human฀ population฀reached฀6฀000฀million,฀having฀ grown฀during฀the฀mid-1990s฀at฀a฀rate฀of฀13฀ per฀cent฀per฀year,฀with฀an฀average฀annual฀ addition฀of฀78฀million฀individuals.฀As฀of฀ 1999,฀countries฀with฀populations฀of฀100฀ million฀or฀more฀included฀China,฀India,฀the฀ United฀States,฀Indonesia,฀Brazil,฀Pakistan,฀ the฀Russian฀Federation,฀Bangladesh,฀Japan,฀ and฀Nigeria.฀According฀to฀the฀medium฀ variant฀of฀the฀United฀Nations’฀population฀ estimates฀and฀projections,฀world฀population฀will฀reach฀7฀200฀million฀by฀the฀year฀ 2015.฀Ninety-eight฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀population฀increase฀will฀take฀place฀in฀less-developed฀regions฀of฀the฀world.฀Africa฀will฀ experience,฀by฀far,฀the฀most฀rapid฀rate฀of฀ growth฀(Population฀Division฀2000). The฀overall฀impact฀that฀humans฀have฀ on฀the฀global฀environment฀is฀proportional฀ to฀the฀number฀of฀people฀on฀the฀Earth฀and฀ the฀average฀infl฀uence฀of฀each฀individual.฀ If฀that฀overall฀impact฀is฀to฀be฀reduced,฀addressing฀both฀of฀these฀factors฀is฀essential. Change฀in฀distribution฀of฀world฀population฀1900฀and฀2000.฀Source:฀http://www.newint.org/issue309/facts.html Case฀Study:฀Parrot’s฀Beak Between฀Sierra฀Leone฀and฀Liberia,฀ there฀is฀a฀small฀strip฀of฀land฀belonging฀ to฀Guinea฀known฀as฀the฀“Parrot’s฀Beak.”฀฀฀ As฀civil฀wars฀raged฀in฀Sierra฀Leone฀ and฀Liberia,฀hundreds฀of฀thousands฀of฀ refugees฀have฀fl฀ed฀to฀relative฀safety฀in฀ Guinea,฀many฀of฀them฀settling฀in฀the฀ Parrot’s฀Beak.฀฀The฀United฀Nations฀High฀ Commissioner฀for฀Refugees฀(UNHCR)฀ estimates฀that฀the฀refugee฀population฀ constitutes฀up฀to฀80฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀local฀ population฀there฀(UNEP฀2000).฀฀฀฀ The฀1974฀image฀of฀the฀Parrot’s฀ Beak฀in฀Guinea฀(left)฀shows฀the฀surrounding฀territory฀of฀Liberia฀and฀Sierra฀ Leone.฀฀Scattered฀throughout฀the฀deep฀ green฀forest฀of฀the฀Parrot’s฀Beak฀region฀ are฀small฀fl฀ecks฀of฀light฀green,฀where฀ compounds฀of฀villages฀with฀surrounding฀ agricultural฀plots฀are฀located.฀฀Several฀ dark฀spots฀in฀the฀upper฀left฀of฀the฀image฀ are฀most฀likely฀burn฀scars.฀฀฀฀ The฀2002฀image฀(facing฀page)฀shows฀ the฀Parrot’s฀Beak฀region฀clearly฀defi฀ned฀ by฀its฀light฀green฀color฀surrounded฀by฀ darker฀green฀forest.฀฀The฀light฀green฀ Deforestation฀of฀indigenous฀palm฀trees฀in฀ the฀refugee฀camp฀has฀left฀barren฀hillsides. Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/UNEP-GRID฀Geneva 14 World฀Biomes Biomes Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forests Tropical and Subtropical Coniferous Forests Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests Temperate Conifer Forests Boreal Forests / Taiga Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands, Savannas, and Shrublands Temperate Grasslands, Savannas, and Shrublands Flooded Grasslands and Savannas Montane Grasslands and Shrublands Tundra Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands, and Scrub Deserts and Xeric Shrublands Mangroves Bare Rock / Ice Source: World Wildlife Fund Terrestrial Ecoregions Dataset. A฀biome฀is฀a฀major฀ecological฀community฀of฀plants฀ and฀animals฀with฀similar฀life฀forms฀and฀environmental฀conditions.฀Some฀of฀the฀Earth’s฀major฀terrestrial฀ biomes฀include฀forests,฀grasslands,฀deserts,฀rain฀ forests,฀and฀tundra.฀Different฀biomes฀are฀the฀source฀ of฀different฀kinds฀of฀resources฀and฀processes฀(collectively฀called฀ecosystem฀services)฀such฀as฀water,฀ soil,฀oil,฀natural฀gas฀and฀other฀fuels,฀minerals฀and฀ other฀raw฀materials,฀wildlife฀habitat,฀erosion฀control,฀ nutrient฀cycling,฀water฀filtration,฀food฀production,฀ and฀genetic฀resources.฀The฀estimated฀global฀value฀ of฀the฀Earth’s฀biomes฀for฀ecosystem฀services฀alone฀ ranges฀from฀US฀$16฀trillion฀to฀US฀$54฀trillion฀a฀year฀ (Costanza฀et฀al.฀1997). color฀is฀the฀result฀of฀deforestation฀in฀ the฀“safe฀area”฀where฀refugees฀have฀ set฀up฀camp.฀฀Many฀of฀the฀refugees฀ integrated฀into฀local฀villages,฀created฀ their฀own฀family฀plots,฀and฀expanded฀ the฀zones฀of฀converted฀forest฀area฀until฀ they฀all฀merged฀into฀the฀larger฀defined฀ area.฀฀In฀the฀upper฀part฀of฀the฀2002฀image฀the฀forest฀devastation฀is฀especially฀ obvious,฀as฀areas฀that฀were฀green฀in฀the฀ 1974฀image฀now฀appear฀gray.฀฀Logging฀ interests฀also฀moved฀into฀the฀higher฀ elevations฀of฀this฀region,฀expanding฀the฀ deforested฀zone฀visible฀in฀the฀upper฀ left฀corner฀of฀the฀image. Overall฀impoverishment฀of฀the฀ environment฀of฀the฀Parrot’s฀Beak฀is฀ directly฀related฀to฀the฀rapidly฀increasing฀population฀in฀the฀area,฀mainly฀due฀ to฀immigration,฀and฀a฀growth฀rate฀of฀ about฀three฀per฀cent฀among฀the฀indigenous฀population.฀฀Natural฀resources฀ are฀being฀exploited฀to฀create฀more฀arable฀land฀for฀crops,฀wood฀for฀charcoal,฀ firewood฀and฀construction฀materials,฀ and฀commercial฀logging฀for฀revenue. Source:฀UNEP฀2000. Deforestation฀is฀evident฀on฀the฀hills฀surrounding฀the฀refugee฀camp. Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/UNEP-GRID฀Geneva 15 2.1 World Population A฀ simple฀defi฀nition฀of฀world฀population฀is฀the฀number฀of฀people฀alive฀on฀the฀Earth฀at฀any฀given฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀ ฀฀point฀in฀time.฀World฀population฀reached฀ 6฀400฀million฀in฀2004฀and฀it฀continues฀to฀grow฀by฀some฀ 80฀million฀each฀year฀(Table฀2.1).฀Since฀the฀1950s,฀China฀ has฀been฀the฀world’s฀most฀populous฀country฀(Table฀2.2).฀ China’s฀population฀is฀currently฀greater฀than฀that฀of฀some฀ entire฀world฀regions฀(Global฀Population฀Profi฀le฀2002).฀By฀ 2050,฀world฀population฀is฀estimated฀to฀reach฀7฀900฀to฀ 10฀900฀million,฀when฀stabilization฀of฀the฀Earth’s฀population฀is฀likely฀to฀take฀place.฀Whether฀or฀not฀world฀population฀falls฀within฀that฀range฀by฀this฀middle฀of฀this฀century—rather฀than฀exceeding฀it—will฀depend฀upon฀many฀ of฀the฀choices฀and฀commitments฀that฀people฀make฀in฀the฀ coming฀years฀(UNFPA฀2001). Table฀2.1฀–฀World฀population฀for฀given฀points฀in฀time฀ Source:฀ESA฀2003 Year฀ Population 1970฀ 3฀692฀492฀000 1975฀ 4฀068฀109฀000 1980฀ 4฀434฀682฀000 1985฀ 4฀830฀979฀000 1990฀ 5฀263฀593฀000 1995฀ 5฀674฀380฀000 2000฀ 6฀070฀581฀000 2005฀ 6฀453฀628฀000 2010฀ 6฀830฀283฀000 The฀size฀of฀any฀population฀changes฀as฀a฀result฀of฀fl฀ucCredit:฀Khin฀Aye฀Myat/UNEP/Topfoto tuations฀in฀three฀fundamental฀factors:฀birth฀rate,฀death฀ rate,฀and฀immigration฀or฀emigration.฀When฀any฀or฀all฀of฀ Figure฀2.1:฀Time฀to฀successive฀billions฀in฀world฀population:฀1800-2050. these฀factors฀deviate฀from฀zero,฀the฀size฀of฀the฀ population฀will฀change฀(Global฀Population฀ Population฀in฀billions Total฀world฀population Profi฀le฀2002).฀The฀primary฀driving฀force฀of฀ 10 2048 population฀change,฀whether฀in฀an฀individual฀ 9 country฀or฀for฀the฀entire฀world,฀is฀change฀in฀ 2028 8 birth฀and฀death฀rates. World฀population฀is฀growing฀more฀slowly฀ than฀was฀expected฀(Figure฀2.1)฀as฀a฀result฀of฀ aid,฀family฀planning฀programs,฀and฀educational฀and฀economic฀programs฀directed฀at฀ women.฀People฀are฀also฀healthier฀and฀living฀ longer฀than฀they฀did฀in฀the฀past;฀average฀life฀ expectancy฀has฀increased฀while฀crude฀birth฀ rate฀and฀death฀rate฀are฀following฀a฀downward฀ trend฀(Tables฀2.3,฀2.4,฀2.5฀and฀2.6).฀ 2013 7 1999 6 1987 5 1974 4 1959 3 1922 2 1 1804 0 1800 37฀years 13฀ years 12฀ years 15฀ years 14฀ years 15฀ years 118฀years 1850 1900 1950 2000 Most฀future฀population฀growth฀is฀likely฀to฀ Source:฀United฀Nations฀(1995b);฀U.S.฀Census฀Bureau,฀International฀Programs฀Center,฀International฀Data฀Base฀and฀unpublished฀tables. Source:฀Global฀Population฀Profi฀le฀2002 be฀in฀countries฀that฀have฀relatively฀large฀numbers฀of฀young฀people฀and฀where฀large฀families฀ are฀still฀the฀norm.฀Furthermore,฀declining฀mortality฀and฀ increased฀longevity฀have฀resulted฀in,฀and฀will฀continue฀to฀ lead฀to,฀the฀expansion฀of฀older฀populations.฀Worldwide,฀ 16 20฀ years 2050 Table฀2.2฀–฀The฀Top฀Ten฀Most฀Populous฀Countries:฀1950,฀2002,฀2050 1950฀ ฀ 1.฀China฀ 1.฀China฀ 1.฀India ฀ 2.฀India฀ 2.฀India฀ 2.฀China ฀ 3.฀United฀States฀ 3.฀United฀States฀ 3.฀United฀States ฀ 4.฀Russia฀ 4.฀Indonesia฀ 4.฀Indonesia ฀ 5.฀Japan฀ 5.฀Brazil฀ 5.฀Nigeria ฀ 6.฀Indonesia฀ 6.฀Pakistan฀ 6.฀Bangladesh ฀ 7.฀Germany฀ 7.฀Russia฀ 7.฀Pakistan ฀ 8.฀Brazil฀ 8.฀Bangladesh฀ 8.฀Brazil ฀ 9.฀United฀Kingdom฀ 9.฀Nigeria฀ 9.฀Congo฀(Kinshasa) ฀ 10.฀Italy฀ 2002฀ the฀average฀life฀expectancy฀in฀1950฀was฀46฀years;฀in฀2050,฀ it฀is฀projected฀to฀be฀76฀years฀(Hunter฀2001). ฀ 2050 10.฀Japan฀ 10.฀Mexico ฀While฀an฀increase฀in฀life฀expectancy฀is฀a฀positive฀development,฀it฀presents฀a฀new฀set฀of฀challenges.฀In฀Europe,฀ for฀example,฀where฀women฀give฀birth฀to฀an฀average฀of฀1.4฀ children,฀governments฀are฀concerned฀that฀there฀will฀be฀ too฀few฀workers฀in฀future฀years฀to฀support฀the฀growing฀ number฀of฀retirees฀in฀the฀population.฀An฀aging฀population฀strains฀a฀nation’s฀social฀security฀system฀and฀pension฀ plans,฀and฀puts฀pressure฀on฀health฀budgets฀because฀of฀ higher฀health฀care฀costs฀for฀the฀elderly.฀Some฀governments฀are฀also฀concerned฀that฀a฀shortage฀of฀working-age฀ individuals฀may฀lead฀to฀increased฀immigration,฀and฀that฀a฀ decline฀in฀population฀may฀signal฀a฀weakening฀of฀a฀country’s฀political฀and฀economic฀clout฀(Ashford฀2004). Source:฀U.S.฀Census฀Bureau,฀International฀Programs฀Center,฀International฀Data฀Base฀are฀unpublished฀tables. Table฀2.3฀–฀Median฀age฀for฀given฀points฀฀ in฀time฀Source:฀ESA฀2003.฀ Year฀ Median฀age 1970฀ 1975฀ 1980฀ 1985฀ 1990฀ 1995฀ 2000฀ 2005฀ 2010฀ 21.7 22.0 22.7 23.4 24.3 25.3 26.4 27.4 28.4 ฀One฀of฀the฀main฀reasons฀that฀world฀population฀has฀ grown฀so฀rapidly฀over฀the฀last฀200฀years฀is฀that฀mortality฀rates฀have฀declined฀faster฀than฀fertility฀ Table฀2.4฀–฀Average฀life฀expectancy฀at฀birth฀-฀Medium฀฀ rates.฀Improved฀sanitation,฀health฀care,฀ variant฀Source:฀ESA฀2003. medicine,฀shelter,฀and฀nutrition฀have฀all฀ Period฀ Both฀sexes฀ Male฀ Female ฀ combined led฀to฀dramatic฀increases฀in฀life฀expectancy.฀ Fertility฀rates,฀on฀the฀other฀hand,฀declined฀ 1970-1975฀ 58.0฀ 56.5฀ 59.5 1975-1980฀ 59.8฀ 58.1฀ 61.5 more฀recently฀than฀mortality฀rates฀did฀ 1980-1985฀ 61.3฀ 59.4฀ 63.2 (UNEP฀1999). 1985-1990฀ 1990-1995฀ 1995-2000฀ 2000-2005฀ 2005-2010฀ 62.9฀ 63.8฀ 64.6฀ 65.4฀ 66.3฀ 60.9฀ 61.7฀ 62.5฀ 63.3฀ 64.2฀ Table฀2.5฀–฀Crude฀birth฀rate฀per฀1฀000฀฀ population฀-฀Medium฀variant฀Source:฀ESA฀2003. Table฀2.6฀–฀Crude฀death฀rate฀per฀1฀000฀฀ population฀-฀Medium฀variant฀Source:฀ESA฀2003. Period฀ Period฀ 1970-1975฀ 1975-1980฀ 1980-1985฀ 1985-1990฀ 1990-1995฀ 1995-2000฀ 2000-2005฀ 2005-2010฀ Crude฀birth฀rate 30.9 28.1 27.4 26.8 24.5 22.7 21.3 20.4 1970-1975฀ 1975-1980฀ 1980-1985฀ 1985-1990฀ 1990-1995฀ 1995-2000฀ 2000-2005฀ 2005-2010฀ Crude฀death฀rate 11.6 10.9 10.3 9.7 9.5 9.2 9.1 9.0 64.8 65.9 66.9 67.6 68.4 There฀is฀a฀striking฀paradox฀in฀global฀ population฀trends:฀for฀more฀than฀two฀decades,฀many฀developing฀countries฀have฀experienced฀a฀rapid฀decline฀in฀fertility฀while฀ fertility฀rates฀in฀most฀highly฀developed฀nations฀have฀remained฀very฀low฀(Figures฀2.3฀ and฀2.4).฀Yet฀in฀the฀coming฀years,฀a฀massive฀ increase฀of฀the฀world฀population฀is฀almost฀ certain฀(Heilig฀1996). The฀Demographic฀Transition฀Model฀ (Figure฀2.2)฀shows฀how฀a฀country’s฀population฀can฀change฀as฀the฀country฀develops.฀ However,฀this฀model฀does฀not฀take฀into฀ account฀migration.฀Worldwide,฀migration฀ of฀people฀out฀of฀rural฀areas฀is฀accelerating,฀ making฀internal฀and฀international฀฀ Credit:฀Ed฀Simpson/UNEP/PhotoSpin 17 Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/Topfoto Figure฀2.2:฀The฀Demographic฀Transition฀Model฀shows฀how฀population฀growth฀occurs฀ naturally฀in฀four฀stages.฀Stage฀1:฀Birth฀rate฀and฀death฀rate฀are฀high,฀limiting฀both฀the฀ rate฀of฀increase฀and฀total฀population.฀Stage฀2:฀Birth฀rate฀remains฀relatively฀high฀but฀ death฀rate฀begins฀to฀fall,฀causing฀the฀population฀to฀grow฀rapidly.฀Stage฀3:฀Declining฀ birth฀rate฀and฀low฀death฀rate฀maintain฀continued฀population฀growth.฀Stage฀4:฀Both฀ birth฀rate฀and฀death฀rate฀are฀low,฀slowing฀population฀growth,฀but฀leaving฀a฀large฀total฀ population.฀Source:฀http://www.geography.learnontheinternet.co.uk/topics/growth Figure฀2.3:฀Childbearing฀trends฀in฀major฀world฀ regions,฀1970฀and฀2004 ฀ Total฀fertility฀rate฀(children฀per฀woman) 6.7 5.1 5.1 2.6 Africa 1970 5.0 Asia 2.6 2.0 2.0 Latin฀America North &฀Caribbean America 2004 2.2 1.4 Europe Source:฀UN฀Population฀Division.฀World฀Population฀Prospects:฀The฀2002฀Revision฀(1970฀ data),฀and฀C.฀Haub,฀2004฀World฀Population฀Data฀Sheet฀(2004฀data). migration฀potentially฀one฀of฀the฀most฀ important฀development฀and฀policy฀issues฀ of฀this฀century.฀The฀migration฀of฀labor฀ geographically,฀out฀of฀rural฀areas,฀and฀ Figure฀2.4:฀Different฀patterns฀of฀fertility฀ occupationally,฀out฀of฀farm฀jobs,฀is฀one฀of฀ decline,฀1970-2000 the฀most฀pervasive฀features฀of฀agricultural฀ Children฀per฀woman transformations฀and฀economic฀growth.฀Yet฀ 7 6 in฀a฀world฀of฀complete฀and฀well-functionBangladesh India 5 ing฀markets,฀there฀is฀little฀or฀no฀economic฀ 4 rationale฀for฀policies฀to฀reduce฀migration;฀ 3 the฀movement฀of฀labor฀out฀of฀agriculture฀is฀ 2 Argentina Thailand both฀a฀quintessential฀feature฀of฀agricultural฀ 1 0 transformations฀and฀a฀prerequisite฀for฀ 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 Sources:฀Registrar฀General฀of฀India;฀฀Instituto฀Nacional฀de฀Estadística฀(Argeneffi฀cient฀and฀balanced฀economic฀growth฀ tina);฀United฀Nations฀Population฀Division;฀Institute฀of฀Population฀and฀Social฀ Research,฀Mahidol฀University,฀Thailand;฀Demographic฀and฀Health฀Surveys;฀and฀ (Taylor฀and฀Martin฀2002).฀ Population฀Reference฀Bureau฀estimates. Clearly,฀human฀numbers฀cannot฀continue฀to฀increase฀indefi฀฀nitely.฀The฀more฀ people฀there฀are฀and฀the฀longer฀they฀live,฀ the฀more฀competition฀there฀will฀be฀for฀the฀ Earth’s฀limited฀resources.฀Unless฀all฀nations฀adopt฀more฀sustainable฀methods฀of฀ Population฀Density฀Map Population Density persons per squar 5,000 and higher 2,000 - 4,999 1,000 - 1,999 500 - 999 200 - 499 100 - 199 50 - 99 10 - 49 1- 9 No data No data 1-9 10 - 49 50 - 99 100 - 199 200 - 499 500 - 999 1,000 1,999 2,000 4,999 5,000 and higher Source:฀฀http://beta.sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/ 18 Global฀Urban฀Extent฀Map ฀The฀map฀portrays฀the฀boundaries฀of฀urban฀areas฀with฀defined฀populations฀of฀5฀000฀persons฀or฀more.฀Source:฀฀Modified฀from฀http://beta.sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/gpw/global.jsp production฀and฀consumption,฀the฀planet’s฀ carrying฀capacity฀will฀be฀exceeded฀(UNEP฀ 1999). Natural฀resources฀are฀already฀severely฀ limited,฀and฀there฀is฀emerging฀evidence฀ that฀natural฀forces฀are฀already฀starting฀ to฀control฀human฀population฀numbers฀ Case฀Study:฀Monitoring฀Rapid฀Urban฀ Expansion฀of฀Tehran,฀Iran 1975฀and฀2000 Tehran฀is฀located฀at฀the฀foot฀of฀the฀Alborz฀ Mountains.฀The฀city฀occupies฀the฀northern฀part฀ of฀the฀alluvial฀Tehran฀Plain,฀sloping฀from฀the฀ mountains฀to฀the฀flat฀Great฀Salt฀Desert.฀The฀urban฀area฀is฀bounded฀by฀mountains฀to฀the฀north฀ and฀east฀making฀it฀difficult฀to฀differentiate฀the฀ urban฀area฀from฀the฀mountainous฀and฀desert฀ area฀that฀surrounds฀Tehran. The฀population฀of฀Tehran฀has฀grown฀threefold฀since฀1970฀when฀the฀population฀was฀three฀ million.฀฀In฀1987,฀the฀city฀had฀grown฀to฀more฀ through฀malnutrition฀and฀disease฀(Pimentel฀et฀al.฀1999). The฀environmental฀challenges฀that฀people฀now฀face฀and฀most฀likely฀will฀continue฀ to฀face฀in฀the฀future฀would฀be฀less฀difficult฀ if฀world฀population฀were฀growing฀very฀ slowly฀or฀not฀at฀all.฀The฀number฀of฀people฀ than฀seven฀million฀people฀and฀covered฀an฀area฀ of฀575฀km2฀(230฀square฀miles).฀฀Today฀the฀city฀ has฀nine฀million฀residents. The฀rapid฀expansion฀of฀Tehran,฀as฀well฀as฀its฀ sharp฀population฀growth฀in฀recent฀decades,฀has฀ had฀many฀adverse฀impacts฀on฀the฀environment.฀฀ Air฀and฀water฀pollution฀are฀major฀problems฀in฀ the฀city.฀Urban฀areas฀are฀replacing฀farms฀and฀ water฀resources.฀A฀major฀concern฀is฀its฀location฀ on฀a฀recognized฀zone฀of฀active฀faulting฀with฀a฀ modest฀to฀high฀seismic฀risk.฀Recent฀planning฀ and฀construction฀techniques฀are฀designed฀to฀ improve฀the฀resistance฀to฀a฀major฀earthquake฀ that฀could฀threaten฀the฀city. on฀the฀Earth฀and฀the฀rate฀at฀which฀that฀ number฀increases฀(Table฀2.7)฀dramatically฀ impact฀the฀availability฀of฀water,฀soil,฀arable฀land,฀minerals,฀fuels,฀and฀many฀other฀ natural฀resources฀worldwide.฀Access฀to฀and฀ use฀of฀family฀planning฀services฀can฀help฀ lower฀fertility฀rates฀and฀delay฀child-bearing฀ Credit:฀Saman฀Salari฀Sharif/UNEP/UNEP-GRID฀Geneva 19 Credit:฀Ed฀Simpson/UNEP/PhotoSpin Population฀Density (people/km2) High฀(>100) Medium฀(25–100) Low฀(<25) Water Lake฀Victoria,฀Kenya Population฀growth฀around฀Lake฀Victoria,฀ Kenya,฀is฀signifi฀cantly฀higher฀than฀in฀the฀rest฀ of฀Africa฀because฀of฀the฀wealth฀of฀natural฀ resources฀and฀economic฀benefi฀ts฀the฀lake฀region฀offers.฀Note฀the฀increase฀in฀population฀ in฀a฀100-km฀(62฀miles)฀buffer฀zone฀around฀ Lake฀Victoria฀between฀1960฀and฀2000.฀During฀each฀decade,฀population฀growth฀within฀ this฀zone฀outpaced฀the฀continental฀average.฀ Source:฀UNEP/GRID-฀Sioux฀Falls years,฀years,฀thereby฀helping฀to฀slow฀population฀growth.฀Comprehensive฀population฀ policies฀are฀an฀essential฀element฀in฀a฀world฀ Table฀2.7฀–฀World฀Vital฀Events฀Per฀Time฀Unit:฀2004 ฀(Figures฀may฀not฀add฀to฀totals฀due฀to฀rounding) ฀ Time฀unit฀฀ ฀ Births฀ ฀Natural฀ Death฀ Population Increase฀ Year฀ Month฀ Day฀ Hour฀ Minute฀ Second฀ 29฀358฀036฀ 10฀779฀836฀ 353฀437฀ 14฀727฀ 245฀ 4.1฀ 56฀150฀533฀ 4฀679฀211฀ 153฀417฀ 6฀392฀ 107฀ 1.8฀ 73฀207฀503฀ 6฀100฀625 200฀021 8฀334 139 2.3 Source:฀http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/pcwe development฀strategy฀that฀combines฀access฀ to฀reproductive฀health฀services,฀education฀ and฀economic฀opportunities,฀improved฀ energy฀and฀natural฀resource฀technologies,฀ and฀more฀reasonable฀models฀of฀consumption฀and฀what฀constitutes฀“the฀good฀life.”฀ Such฀a฀strategy฀has฀the฀potential฀to฀bring฀ humanity฀into฀an฀enduring฀balance฀with฀ the฀environment฀and฀the฀natural฀resources฀ upon฀which฀people฀will฀always฀depend฀ (Population฀Fact฀Sheet฀2000). In฀addition฀to฀the฀overall฀global฀increases฀in฀population,฀the฀geographic฀distribution฀of฀human฀population฀underwent฀฀ Figure฀2.5:฀Population฀change฀in฀the฀20th฀century Source:฀http://www.bioone.org/pdfserv/i0044-7447-031-03-0251.pdf Population density (people per sq km) 0 – 0.5 0.5 – 10 10 – 100 100 – 250 250 – 500 500 – 1000 greater than 1000 20 massive฀changes฀during฀the฀20th฀century฀ (Figure฀2.5).฀For฀example,฀between฀1900฀ and฀1990,฀the฀population฀of฀northern฀ South฀America฀increased฀by฀214฀million,฀or฀ 681฀per฀cent,฀compared฀to฀the฀global฀average฀population฀increase฀of฀3฀700฀million,฀ or฀236฀per฀cent฀(Ramankutty฀and฀ Olejniczak฀2002). 2.2 Culture Culture฀encompasses฀the฀customary฀beliefs,฀social฀forms,฀ and฀material฀traits฀of฀a฀racial,฀religious,฀or฀social฀group.฀ Culture฀includes฀the฀set฀of฀values฀and฀institutions฀that฀ enable฀a฀society฀to฀develop฀and฀maintain฀its฀identity.฀ Cultural฀signatures฀differ฀around฀the฀globe฀and฀often฀ hold฀to฀very฀different฀ideals฀and฀ideas,฀such฀as฀the฀role฀ of฀economics฀as฀an฀integrating฀system฀of฀values฀or฀the฀ importance฀of฀technology฀and฀technological฀change฀as฀ springboards฀for฀human฀progress.฀Different฀cultures฀also฀ differ฀in฀their฀concepts฀of฀justice฀and฀fairness฀and฀their฀ beliefs฀about฀the฀relationship฀between฀people฀and฀the฀ natural฀and฀spiritual฀world฀(UNEP฀2002a). Many฀of฀these฀differences฀are฀disappearing฀as฀cultures฀ worldwide฀become฀increasingly฀homogeneous.฀Major฀ steps฀in฀this฀direction฀occurred฀in฀the฀fi฀fteenth฀century฀ with฀European฀exploration฀and฀colonization฀and฀in฀the฀ nineteenth฀century฀with฀the฀Industrial฀Revolution.฀In฀ recent฀decades฀the฀creation฀of฀the฀European฀Union฀and฀ spread฀of฀globalization฀has฀lowered฀many฀international฀ barriers฀and฀concurrently฀impacted฀cultural฀diversity.฀ Following฀the฀collapse฀of฀the฀Eastern฀Bloc฀in฀1989,฀capitalism฀became฀more฀pervasive฀and฀less฀nationally฀limited. Globally,฀world-spanning฀communication฀networks,฀ and฀inexpensive฀air฀travel฀have฀reduced฀the฀costs฀of฀ cross-cultural฀connections฀of฀all฀kinds,฀boosting฀television,฀tourism,฀and฀emigration฀to฀new฀levels.฀Global฀ fi฀nancial฀integration฀has฀proceeded฀at฀a฀furious฀pace,฀ along฀with฀the฀international฀fl฀฀ow฀of฀goods฀and฀services฀ as฀countries฀become฀increasingly฀dependent฀on฀one฀ Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/Bigfoto The฀World’s฀Biocultural฀Diversity.฀People,฀Languages฀and฀Ecosystems Source:฀Terralingua,฀UNESCO,฀and฀WWF฀2003 21 Languages฀of฀the฀World Source:฀http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/site/dl/free/007248179x/35299/map12.pdf another฀for฀food฀and฀basic฀commodities฀ (Wilk฀2000).฀Explosive฀development฀of฀ electronic฀media฀has฀intensified฀cultural฀ homogenization฀by฀promoting฀the฀ideals฀ of฀a฀handful฀of฀cultures฀over฀those฀of฀many฀ others฀(Gary฀and฀Rubino฀2001).฀The฀technological฀expansion฀of฀the฀media,฀in฀particular฀the฀Internet,฀is฀bringing฀different฀ cultures฀and฀civilisations฀ever฀closer;฀while฀ this฀increases฀the฀possibility฀of฀dialogue,฀it฀ can฀also฀be฀perceived฀as฀a฀threat฀to฀cultural฀diversity,฀In฀short,฀current฀globalization฀ of฀trade฀and฀mass฀culture,฀together฀with฀ unprecedented฀demand฀for฀consumer฀ goods,฀has฀significantly฀impacted฀indigenous฀cultures฀around฀the฀globe. Every฀civilisation฀and฀culture฀is฀uniqu฀ and฀irreplaceable,฀in฀that฀all฀cultures฀ and฀civilisations฀are฀part฀of฀the฀common฀ legacy฀of฀humankind฀(UN฀2000).฀In฀many฀ parts฀of฀the฀world,฀English฀has฀become฀ the฀dominant฀language,฀having฀displaced฀ native฀tongues฀and฀dialects.฀According฀to฀ a฀recent฀UNEP฀report฀(UNEP,฀2001)฀there฀ were฀5฀000฀to฀7฀000฀spoken฀languages฀in฀ the฀world฀with฀4฀000฀to฀5฀000฀of฀these฀classified฀as฀indigenous.฀Thirty-two฀per฀cent฀ Source:฀Modified฀from฀http://www.neiu.edu/~ejhowens/104/6/cultur.gif฀ 22 Table฀2.8฀–฀The฀most฀common฀languages฀in฀the฀world฀ ฀ ฀ ฀ ฀ ฀ ฀ Language฀ ฀ 1.฀ ฀ 2.฀ ฀ 3.฀ ฀ 4.฀ ฀ 5.฀ ฀ ฀ ฀ 6.฀ ฀ 7.฀ ฀ 8.฀ ฀ 9.฀ ฀10.฀ ฀11.฀ ฀12.฀ ฀13.฀ ฀14.฀ ฀15.฀ Mandarin฀Chinese฀ 874฀000฀000฀ Hindi฀(India)฀ 366฀000฀000฀ English฀ 341฀000฀000฀ Spanish฀ 322-358฀000฀000฀ Bengali฀฀ 207฀000฀000฀ (India฀and฀Bangladesh) Portuguese฀ 176฀000฀000฀ Russian฀฀฀฀ 167฀000฀000฀ Japanese฀ 125฀000฀000฀ German฀(standard)฀ 100฀000฀000฀ Korean฀ 78฀000฀000฀ French฀ ฀฀77฀000฀000฀ Wu฀Chinese฀ ฀฀77฀000฀000฀ Javanese฀ ฀75฀000฀000฀ Yue฀Chinese฀ ฀71฀000฀000฀ Telegu฀(India)฀ 69฀000฀000฀ ฀ ฀ Approximate฀number฀ Countries฀with of฀native฀speakers฀฀ substantial฀numbers (in฀the฀year฀2000)฀ of฀native฀speakers 16 17 104 43 9 33 30 26 40 31 53 1 4 ฀฀20 7 Note:฀These฀statistics฀are฀only฀rough฀approximations฀in฀most฀cases. (Source:฀The฀World฀Almanac฀and฀Book฀of฀Facts,฀2003) Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/Bigfoto of฀the฀world’s฀spoken฀languages฀are฀found฀in฀Asia,฀30฀per฀cent฀ in฀Africa,฀19฀per฀cent฀in฀the฀Pacifi฀c,฀15฀per฀cent฀in฀the฀Americas,฀and฀three฀per฀cent฀in฀Europe.฀More฀than฀2฀500฀languages฀ are฀in฀danger฀of฀immediate฀extinction,฀while฀234฀have฀already฀ died฀out฀and฀many฀more฀were฀losing฀their฀connection฀to฀the฀ modern฀world.฀Some฀researchers฀estimate฀that฀over฀the฀next฀ century฀90฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀world’s฀languages฀will฀have฀become฀ extinct฀or฀virtually฀extinct.฀More฀than฀350฀languages฀already฀ have฀fewer฀than฀50฀speakers฀(Table฀2.8).฀Such฀rare฀languages฀ are฀more฀likely฀to฀decline฀or฀disappear฀than฀those฀that฀are฀ more฀common฀(Sutherland฀2003).฀The฀disappearance฀of฀any฀ language฀represents฀an฀irreparable฀loss฀for฀the฀heritage฀of฀all฀ humankind฀(Wurm฀1970).฀The฀loss฀has฀been฀likened฀to฀the฀ extinction฀of฀a฀species—an฀unfortunate฀cultural฀analog฀to฀the฀ alarming฀events฀now฀occuring฀in฀the฀biological฀world.฀In฀fact,฀ Religions฀of฀the฀World Source:฀http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/site/dl/free/007248179x/35299/map11.pdf 23 A฀natural฀wonder฀formed฀by฀natural฀processes,฀Rainbow฀ Bridge฀(far฀left)฀straddles฀a฀tributary฀of฀the฀Colorado฀ River฀in฀southern฀Utah฀in฀the฀United฀States.฀Two฀contemporary฀bridges,฀one฀from฀Sydney,฀Australia฀(left),฀ and฀the฀other฀from฀London,฀England฀(below฀left),฀echo฀ the฀natural฀form฀of฀Rainbow฀Bridge,฀but฀are฀the฀obvious฀ byproducts฀of฀modern฀culture. Credit:฀W.R.฀Hansen/UNEP/USGS Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/฀Bigfoto Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/Bigfoto the฀number฀of฀“living”฀languages฀spoken฀ on฀the฀Earth฀is฀dwindling฀faster฀than฀the฀ planet’s฀biodiversity. Culture฀is฀an฀aspect฀and฀a฀means฀of฀ development.฀Much฀has฀been฀said฀about฀ the฀expansion฀of฀Western฀culture฀to฀the฀ detriment฀of฀others.฀It฀is฀clear฀that฀many฀ individuals฀aspire฀to฀Western฀lifestyles,฀ while฀others฀associate฀Western฀cultural฀ values฀with฀selfi฀sh฀individualism฀and฀excessive฀consumption.฀The฀spread฀of฀Western฀ culture฀is฀both฀a฀cause฀and฀an฀effect฀of฀ economic฀globalization,฀aided฀by฀the฀ far-reaching฀penetration฀of฀information฀ technologies฀and฀electronic฀media.฀At฀the฀ same฀time,฀there฀have฀been฀nationalist฀and฀ religious฀reactions฀against฀that฀culture,฀ sometimes฀resulting฀in฀terrorist฀activities฀ and฀in฀open฀warfare฀within฀or฀between฀nations฀(UNEP฀2002a). The฀World฀has฀some฀6฀000฀communities.฀The฀international฀migration฀rate฀is฀ growing฀every฀year฀and฀the฀number฀of฀migrants฀has฀doubled฀since฀the฀1970s.฀While฀ the฀reasons฀for฀migration฀vary,฀it฀is฀safe฀to฀ say฀that฀we฀live฀in฀an฀increasingly฀heterogeneous฀society.฀Difference฀naturally฀leads฀to฀ diversity฀of฀vision,฀values,฀beliefs,฀practices฀ and฀expression,฀which฀all฀deserve฀equal฀respect฀and฀dignity฀(UNESCO฀2003).฀While฀ highlighting฀the฀role฀of฀culture฀in฀development,฀there฀is฀also฀a฀need฀to฀emphasize฀ the฀role฀of฀culture฀in฀promoting฀peace฀ (UNESCO฀n.d). Just฀as฀biodiversity฀enriches฀our฀natural฀ environment฀and฀is฀essential฀for฀its฀protection,฀cultural฀diversity฀is฀a฀treasure฀of฀ humanity฀and฀a฀prerequisite฀for฀human฀ development฀(UN฀2000).฀Cultural฀Diversity฀ presupposes฀respect฀of฀fundamental฀ freedoms,฀namely฀freedom฀of฀thought,฀ conscience฀and฀religion,฀freedom฀of฀opinion฀and฀expression,฀and฀freedom฀to฀participate฀in฀the฀cultural฀life฀of฀one’s฀choice.฀ Cultural฀Diversity฀is฀not฀just฀a฀natural฀fact฀ that฀we฀need฀simply฀recognize฀and฀respect.฀ It฀is฀about฀plurality฀of฀knowledge,฀wisdom฀ and฀energy,฀all฀of฀which฀contribute฀to฀ improving฀and฀moving฀the฀World฀forward฀ (UNESCO฀n.d.). Variety฀in฀all฀aspects฀of฀life฀has฀been฀ a฀source฀of฀wonder฀and฀celebration฀for฀ countless฀centuries,฀and฀the฀loss฀of฀that฀ variety฀is฀an฀unfortunate฀prospect฀(Gary฀ and฀Rubino฀2001). Credit:฀Ed฀Simpson/UNEP/PhotoSpin 24 2.3 Land Use and Degradation Growing฀crops,฀clearing฀land,฀planting฀trees,฀draining฀a฀wetland— these฀and฀many฀other฀activities฀fall฀into฀the฀broad฀category฀of฀land฀ use,฀or฀how฀people฀use฀land.฀Land-use฀intensity฀is฀the฀extent฀to฀ which฀land฀is฀used.฀It฀is฀an฀indication฀of฀the฀amount฀and฀degree฀of฀ development฀in฀an฀area,฀and฀a฀refl฀ection฀of฀the฀effects฀generated฀ by฀that฀development฀(Planning฀Department฀2001). As฀a฀measure฀of฀activity,฀land-use฀intensity฀can฀range฀from฀very฀ low฀(for฀example,฀a฀pristine฀wilderness฀area)฀to฀intermediate฀(a฀ managed฀forest฀ecosystem)฀to฀very฀high฀(urban฀and฀industrial฀ settings)฀(Lebel฀and฀Steffen฀1998).฀From฀a฀global฀change฀perspective฀(Figure฀2.6),฀land-use฀intensity฀is฀an฀important฀characteristic฀ in฀assessing฀change฀and฀its฀impact฀(Berka฀et฀al.฀1995).฀Land-use฀ intensity฀is฀determined฀by฀the฀spatial฀requirements฀of฀a฀land-use฀ activity,฀relationship฀to฀open฀space,฀requirements฀for฀infrastructure฀(transportation฀routes,฀water,฀sewer,฀electricity,฀and฀communications),฀and฀environmental฀impact.฀Parameters฀for฀measuring฀ land-use฀intensity฀typically฀include: •฀type฀of฀land-use฀activity,฀such฀as฀agriculture,฀grazing,฀wood฀ production,฀or฀residential,฀commercial฀or฀industrial฀usage, •฀duration฀of฀use, •฀number฀of฀people,฀animals,฀plants,฀structures,฀or฀machines฀ that฀occupy฀the฀land฀during฀a฀given฀period,฀and •฀amount฀of฀land฀involved. Credit:฀Andre฀Louzas/UNEP/Topfoto Figure฀2.6:฀This฀series฀of฀illustrations฀depicts฀global฀land-use฀change,฀particularly฀ the฀expansion฀of฀cropland฀and฀grazing฀land,฀between฀1700฀and฀1990.฀Credit:฀Klein฀ Goldewijk,฀K.,฀2001.฀Source:฀NASA฀2002,฀http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/topstory/20020926landcover. html tropical฀evergreen/deciduous฀forest savana grassland฀and฀steppe intensive฀agriculture desert open฀shrub฀land temperate฀deciduous฀forest temperate฀needle-leaf฀evergreen฀forest marginal฀cropland฀used฀for฀grazing 25 Figure฀2.7:฀Conceptual฀framework฀of฀the฀Agro-Ecological฀Zones฀methodology Also฀important฀in฀assessing฀land-use฀ intensity฀is฀to฀examine฀the฀relative฀imperviousness฀of฀the฀landscape.฀Impervious฀ surfaces,฀such฀as฀paved฀roads,฀inhibit฀or฀ entirely฀block฀the฀absorption฀of฀water฀by฀ underlying฀soil฀(Forney฀et฀al.฀2001).฀Once฀ paved฀or฀otherwise฀made฀impervious,฀land฀ is฀not฀easily฀reclaimed.฀As฀environmentalist฀ Rupert฀Cutler฀noted฀(Brown฀2001),฀ “Asphalt฀is฀the฀land’s฀last฀crop.”฀ Land-use฀intensity฀trends฀are฀usually฀ expressed฀through฀changes฀in฀inputs,฀ management,฀or฀number฀of฀harvests฀over฀a฀ given฀period฀of฀time.฀Only฀changes฀within฀ the฀same฀land-use฀category฀and฀on฀the฀ same฀area฀(change฀of฀intensity)—as฀opposed฀to฀changes฀from฀one฀type฀of฀land฀ use฀to฀another฀(for฀example,฀forest฀to฀ cropland)—are฀taken฀into฀account฀when฀ assessing฀trends฀(van฀Lynden฀et฀al.฀n.d.;฀ FAO฀2002). The฀Agro-Ecological฀Zones฀(AEZ)฀ methodology฀(Figure฀2.7)฀is฀a฀system฀developed฀by฀the฀Food฀and฀Agriculture฀Organization฀of฀the฀United฀Nations฀(FAO)฀with฀ the฀collaboration฀of฀the฀International฀Institute฀for฀Applied฀Systems฀Analysis฀(IIASA),฀ that฀enables฀rational฀land฀use฀planning฀on฀ R A Rio C an d ei a s R the฀basis฀of฀an฀inventory฀of฀land฀resources฀ and฀evaluation฀of฀biophysical฀limitations฀ and฀potentials.฀฀This฀methodology฀utilizes฀ a฀land฀resources฀inventory฀to฀assess,฀for฀ Z I specifi฀ed฀management฀conditions฀and฀ levels฀of฀inputs,฀all฀feasible฀agricultural฀ land-use฀options฀and฀to฀quantify฀expected฀ production฀of฀cropping฀activities฀relevant฀ L ari R i o Ja m B Source:฀FAO฀2000,฀http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/agll/gaez/index.htm A Rio C an d e i a s B Karitiana Indigenous Area ari R i o Ja m ana nous a Z I Ariquemmes L Ariquemmes Rondônia Rondônia São Cruz São Cruz São Joao Rio Branco São Joao Rio Branco Figure฀2.8:฀A฀satellite฀image฀reveals฀a฀typical฀“feather”฀or฀“fi฀shbone”฀pattern฀of฀deforestation฀in฀Brazil.฀The฀pattern฀follows฀ the฀construction฀of฀a฀new฀road฀through฀the฀rain฀forest.฀Roads฀ provide฀easy฀access฀for฀mechanicized฀logging฀to฀clear฀cut฀forest฀sections.฀Clear฀cut฀sections฀can฀then฀be฀turned฀into฀agricultural฀fi฀elds฀as฀roads฀provide฀easy฀access฀to฀local฀markets. Joao Filipe Uru-Eu-Wau-Wau Indigenous Area 0 26 10 Ki l om e t e r s Pacaás Novos National Park Source:฀UNEP/GRID–Sioux฀Falls 19฀Sep฀2001 Credit:฀Xintian฀Pan/UNEP/Topfoto in฀the฀specific฀agro-ecological฀context.฀ The฀characterization฀of฀land฀resources฀ includes฀components฀of฀climate,฀soils฀and฀ landform,฀which฀are฀basic฀for฀the฀supply฀of฀ water,฀energy,฀nutrients฀and฀physical฀support฀to฀plants฀(FAO฀2000). Scientists฀estimate฀that฀between฀onethird฀and฀one-half฀of฀the฀Earth’s฀land฀ surface฀has฀been฀transformed฀by฀human฀ activities฀฀(Figure฀2.9)฀(Herring฀n.d.).฀The฀ activity฀that฀has฀had฀the฀greatest฀impact฀on฀ the฀global฀landscape฀is฀agriculture.฀Twelve฀ Worldwide,฀the฀effect฀people฀are฀having฀ per฀cent฀of฀the฀world’s฀land฀surface—an฀ area฀equivalent฀to฀that฀of฀the฀South฀Amerion฀the฀Earth฀is฀substantial฀and฀growing.฀ can฀continent—is฀under฀permanent฀฀ Satellite฀images฀reveal฀in฀startling฀detail฀ cultivation฀(Ramankutty฀and฀Foley฀1999;฀ the฀signs฀of฀human฀impact฀on฀the฀landDevitt฀2001). scape.฀From฀the฀herringbone฀patterns฀ of฀deforestation฀etched฀into฀once-undisOver฀the฀next฀30฀years,฀the฀annual฀rate฀ turbed฀rain฀forests฀(Figure฀2.8)฀to฀the฀ of฀growth฀in฀global฀crop฀production฀is฀expatchwork฀patterns฀of฀agricultural฀fields฀ pected฀to฀decrease.฀However,฀the฀Food฀and฀ Agriculture฀Organization฀of฀the฀United฀ and฀concrete฀splotches฀of฀urban฀sprawl,฀ Nations฀predicts฀that฀production฀will฀still฀ the฀evidence฀that฀people฀have฀become฀a฀ exceed฀demand,฀despite฀the฀world’s฀growpowerful฀force฀capable฀of฀reshaping฀the฀ Earth’s฀environment฀is฀everywhere.฀ ing฀population.฀By฀2030,฀75฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀ Global฀Soil฀Degradation฀Map projected฀global฀crop฀production฀will฀occur฀in฀developing฀countries,฀compared฀to฀ 50฀per฀cent฀in฀the฀early฀1960s.฀Increases฀in฀ production฀will฀be฀achieved฀by฀improving฀ plant฀yields฀and฀through฀more฀intensive฀ land-use฀activities,฀including฀multi-cropping฀or฀high-cropping฀intensities฀(UCS฀ 2004).฀In฀light฀of฀these฀projections,฀continued฀support฀of฀agricultural฀research฀and฀ policies฀in฀developing฀countries฀is฀vital. Nearly฀one-third฀of฀the฀world’s฀cropland—1฀500฀million฀hectares—has฀been฀ abandoned฀during฀the฀past฀40฀years฀ because฀erosion฀has฀made฀it฀unproductive฀ (Pimentel฀et฀al.฀1995).฀Restoring฀soil฀lost฀ by฀erosion฀is฀a฀slow฀process;฀it฀takes฀roughly฀500฀years฀for฀a฀mere฀2.5฀cm฀(1฀inch)฀฀ of฀soil฀to฀form฀under฀agricultural฀฀ Source:฀http://www.isric.nl/ Source:฀http://www.isric.nl/ 27 27 Figure฀2.9:฀Human-induced฀land฀degradation฀(severe฀and฀very฀severe)฀as฀percentage฀of฀total฀land฀area 30 Area฀(million฀sq.฀km) 25 Total฀human induced฀land degradation 20 15 Total฀land 10 5 0 SubNorth Saharan Africa Africa and฀Near East North Asia, east฀of Urals North Europe Asia฀and South America Pacific and Central America Source:฀World฀Atlas฀of฀Desertification฀฀(UNEP฀1992) conditions฀(Pimentel฀et฀al.฀1996).฀Thus฀the฀ approach฀to฀replacing฀eroded฀agricultural฀ lands฀typically฀has฀been฀to฀clear฀more฀and฀ more฀areas฀of฀grassland฀or฀forest฀and฀convert฀them฀to฀cropland.฀The฀ever-growing฀ need฀for฀agricultural฀land฀accounts฀for฀60฀ to฀80฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀world’s฀deforestation฀ (Figure฀2.9). Despite฀such฀“replacement”฀strategies,฀ the฀amount฀of฀available฀cropland฀ worldwide฀has฀declined฀to฀0.27฀hectare฀ (0.67฀acres)฀per฀person฀(Pimentel฀et฀al.฀ 1996).฀It฀is฀possible฀to฀feed฀one฀adult฀on฀ a฀plant฀diet฀grown฀on฀about฀0.2฀hectares฀ (0.5฀acres)฀of฀land฀(Knee฀2003)—and฀ this฀land-per-person฀minimum฀is฀roughly฀ what฀will฀be฀available฀when฀world฀ population฀reaches฀8฀000฀million—but฀ only฀if฀crop฀yields฀now฀being฀achieved฀ in฀developed฀countries฀are฀achieved฀ worldwide.฀To฀do฀so฀requires฀that฀most฀ countries’฀inputs฀of฀fertilizer,฀and฀probably฀ pesticides,฀rise฀to฀match฀those฀of฀North฀ America฀and฀Europe.฀Furthermore,฀any฀ mechanization฀of฀crop฀production฀will฀ entail฀additional฀energy฀consumption.฀ Increased฀mechanization฀is฀likely฀given฀ the฀mass฀migration฀from฀rural฀areas฀to฀ cities฀currently฀underway฀on฀all฀continents.฀ While฀agriculture฀accounts฀for฀only฀about฀ two฀per฀cent฀of฀energy฀consumption฀in฀ North฀America฀and฀Europe,฀it฀accounts฀ for฀roughly฀ten฀per฀cent฀of฀energy฀ consumption฀in฀the฀rest฀of฀the฀world฀ (Knee฀2003). associated฀human฀malnutrition.฀Political฀ unrest,฀economic฀insecurity,฀and฀unequal฀ food฀distribution฀patterns฀also฀contribute฀ to฀food฀shortages฀worldwide฀(Pimentel฀et฀ al.฀1996). In฀addition฀to฀agriculture,฀the฀global฀ trend฀toward฀urbanization฀is฀another฀key฀ factor฀bringing฀change฀to฀the฀landscape.฀ Historically,฀forests฀and฀grasslands฀have฀ been฀converted฀to฀cropland.฀Increasingly,฀ cropland฀is฀being฀converted฀to฀urban฀areas฀ (Ramankutty฀and฀Foley฀1999;฀Devitt฀2001).฀ Millions฀of฀hectares฀of฀cropland฀in฀the฀ industrial฀world฀have฀been฀paved฀to฀create฀ roads฀and฀parking฀lots.฀The฀average฀car฀requires฀0.07฀hectares฀(0.17฀acres)฀of฀paved฀ land฀for฀roads฀and฀parking฀space฀฀ (Brown฀2001). ฀If฀farmers฀worldwide฀fail฀to฀meet฀the฀ challenge฀of฀increasing฀yields฀on฀existing฀ cropland,฀or฀they฀cannot฀access฀the฀tools฀ necessary฀to฀achieve฀increased฀yields,฀the฀ only฀alternative฀will฀be฀to฀clear฀the฀world’s฀ remaining฀forests฀and฀grasslands฀(Green฀ 2001).฀Yet฀indications฀are฀that฀the฀world฀ does฀not฀have฀enough฀forests฀to฀fulfill฀all฀ the฀current฀and฀future฀demands฀being฀ placed฀on฀them฀(Nilsson฀1996). As฀natural฀forests฀are฀exhausted฀or฀ come฀under฀protection,฀the฀demand฀for฀ wood฀and฀wood฀products฀will฀be฀increasingly฀satisfied฀by฀tree฀farms.฀Between฀1980฀ and฀1995,฀forest฀plantations฀in฀developed฀ countries฀increased฀from฀45-60฀million฀฀ The฀shortage฀of฀cropland,฀together฀with฀ hectares฀(111-147฀million฀acres)to฀80-100฀ falling฀productivity,฀is฀a฀significant฀factor฀ million฀hectares฀(198-247฀million฀acres).฀ contributing฀to฀global฀food฀shortages฀and฀ Credit:฀Choosak฀Khemtai/UNEP/Topfoto 28 Credit:฀Paiboon฀Patta/UNEP/Topfoto In฀the฀developing฀world,฀the฀area฀in฀forest฀ plantations฀doubled฀from฀roughly฀40฀million฀to฀about฀81฀million฀hectares฀฀(99-200฀ million฀acres)฀over฀the฀same฀period.฀More฀ than฀80฀per฀cent฀of฀forest฀plantations฀in฀ the฀developing฀world฀are฀found฀in฀Asia,฀ where฀demand฀for฀paper฀and฀other฀wood฀ products฀continues฀to฀grow฀rapidly.฀Forest฀plantations฀now฀cover฀more฀than฀187฀ million฀hectares฀(462฀million฀acres)฀worldwide.฀That฀accounts฀for฀less฀than฀five฀ per฀cent฀of฀the฀Earth’s฀total฀forested฀area,฀ but฀20฀per฀cent฀of฀current฀global฀wood฀production฀(Larsen฀2003). Land฀Degradation฀฀ and฀Desertification By฀the฀beginning฀of฀the฀twenty-first฀century,฀unprecedented฀global฀environmental฀ changes฀had฀reached฀sufficient฀proportions฀to฀impinge฀upon฀human฀health—simultaneously฀and฀often฀interactively.฀These฀ changes฀include฀the฀processes฀of฀land฀ degradation฀and฀desertification฀(Menne฀ and฀Berollini฀2000). Land฀degradation฀is฀the฀decline฀in฀the฀ potential฀of฀land฀resources฀to฀meet฀human฀economic,฀social,฀and฀environmental฀ functions฀needs฀(Africa฀Mountain฀Forum฀ n.d.).฀Desertification฀is฀soil฀degradation฀in฀ arid฀regions,฀often฀to฀such฀an฀extent฀that฀ it฀is฀impossible฀to฀make฀the฀soil฀productive฀again฀(Table฀2.9).฀Desertification฀is฀ the฀result฀of฀complex฀interactions฀between฀ unpredictable฀climatic฀variations฀and฀ unsustainable฀land฀use฀practices฀by฀communities฀who,฀in฀their฀struggle฀to฀survive,฀ overexploit฀agricultural,฀forest,฀and฀water฀ resources฀(CIDA฀2001). (Watson฀et฀al.฀1998).฀The฀consequences฀of฀ desertification฀include฀(UNEP฀2002a): •฀reduction฀of฀the฀land’s฀natural฀resilience฀to฀recover฀from฀climatic฀disturbances; Over฀3฀600฀million฀hectares฀(8฀896฀million฀acres)—25฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀Earth’s฀land฀ area—are฀affected฀by฀land฀degradation.฀ Desertification฀occurs฀to฀some฀extent฀on฀ 30฀per฀cent฀of฀irrigated฀lands,฀47฀per฀cent฀ of฀rain-fed฀agricultural฀lands,฀and฀73฀per฀ cent฀of฀rangelands฀(Figure฀2.10).฀Annually,฀ an฀estimated฀1.5฀to฀2.5฀million฀hectares฀ (3.7฀to฀6฀million฀acres)฀of฀irrigated฀land,฀ 3.5฀to฀4.0฀million฀hectares฀(8.6฀to฀9฀million฀acres)฀of฀rain-fed฀agricultural฀land,฀ and฀about฀35฀million฀hectares฀(86฀million฀ acres)฀of฀rangeland฀lose฀all฀or฀part฀of฀their฀ productivity฀due฀to฀land฀degradation฀processes฀(Watson฀et฀al.฀1998). ฀Desertification฀and฀drought฀are฀problems฀of฀global฀dimension฀that฀directly฀ affect฀more฀than฀900฀million฀people฀in฀ 100฀countries,฀some฀of฀which฀are฀among฀ the฀least฀developed฀nations฀in฀the฀world฀ •฀reduction฀of฀soil฀productivity; •฀damaged฀vegetation฀cover,฀such฀that฀ edible฀plants฀are฀easily฀replaced฀by฀ non-edible฀ones; •฀increased฀downstream฀flooding,฀reduced฀water฀quality,฀sedimentation฀in฀ rivers฀and฀lakes,฀and฀siltation฀of฀reservoirs฀and฀navigation฀channels; •฀aggravated฀health฀problems฀due฀to฀ wind-blown฀dust,฀including฀eye฀infections,฀respiratory฀illnesses,฀allergies,฀ and฀mental฀stress; •฀undermined฀food฀production;฀and •฀loss฀of฀livelihoods฀forcing฀affected฀ people฀to฀migrate. Desertification฀results฀from฀mismanagement฀of฀land฀and฀thus฀deals฀with฀two฀ interlocking,฀complex฀systems:฀the฀natural฀ Table฀2.9฀–฀Degree฀of฀soil฀degradation฀by฀subcontinental฀regions฀(per฀cent฀of฀total฀area) None฀ Light฀ Africa฀ ฀ 83฀ 6฀ Moderate฀ 6฀ 4฀ 0.2 Asia฀ 82฀ 7฀ 5฀ 3฀ <0.1 Australiasia฀ 88฀ 11฀ 0.2฀ <0.1 Europe฀ 77฀ 6฀ 0.5฀ 15฀ Strong฀฀ 1฀ Extreme 0.3 North฀America฀ 93฀ 1฀ 5฀ 1฀ 0 South฀America฀ 86฀ 6฀ 6฀ 1฀ 0 World: ฀ Per฀centage฀ 85฀ ฀ Area฀(‘000฀km2)฀110฀483฀ 6฀ 7฀490฀ 7฀ 9฀106฀ 2฀ 2฀956฀ <0.1 92 Source:฀World฀Atlas฀of฀Desertification฀(UNEP฀1992) 29 Credit:฀Rick฀Collins/UNEP/Topfoto ecosystem฀and฀the฀human฀social฀system฀ (Eswaran฀et฀al.฀1998).฀While฀much฀desertification฀is฀attributed฀to฀poor฀land-use฀practices,฀hotter฀and฀drier฀conditions฀brought฀ about฀by฀potential฀global฀warming฀would฀ extend฀the฀area฀prone฀to฀desertification฀ northwards฀to฀encompass฀areas฀currently฀ not฀at฀risk.฀In฀addition,฀the฀rate฀of฀desertification฀would฀increase฀due฀to฀increases฀ in฀erosion,฀salinization,฀fire฀hazard,฀and฀ reductions฀in฀soil฀quality.฀As฀a฀result,฀the฀ process฀of฀desertification฀is฀likely฀to฀become฀irreversible฀(Karas฀n.d.). Worldwide,฀an฀estimated฀6฀to฀27฀million฀ hectares฀(15฀to฀67฀million฀acres)฀of฀land฀ are฀lost฀each฀year฀to฀desertification.฀Seventy฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀world’s฀dry฀land฀is฀degraded฀enough฀to฀be฀vulnerable฀to฀desertification฀(Anon฀2002).฀The฀amount฀of฀land฀ susceptible฀to฀desertification฀(areas฀known฀ as฀tension฀zones)฀also฀is฀increasing.฀Currently,฀7.1฀million฀km2฀฀(2.7฀million฀square฀ miles)฀of฀land฀face฀low฀risk฀of฀human-induced฀desertification,฀8.6฀million฀km2฀฀ (3.4฀million฀square฀miles)฀are฀at฀moderate฀ risk,฀15.6฀million฀km2฀(6.2฀million฀square฀ miles)฀are฀at฀high฀risk,฀and฀11.9฀million฀ km2฀(4.6฀million฀square฀miles)are฀at฀very฀ high฀risk.฀Tension฀zones฀result฀from: •฀excessive฀and฀continuous฀soil฀erosion฀ resulting฀from฀overuse฀and฀improper฀ use฀of฀lands,฀especially฀marginal฀and฀ sloping฀lands; •฀nutrient฀depletion฀and/or฀soil฀acidification฀due฀to฀inadequate฀replenishment฀of฀nutrients฀or฀soil฀pollution฀ from฀excessive฀use฀of฀organic฀and฀ inorganic฀agrichemicals; •฀reduced฀water-holding฀capacity฀of฀ soils฀due฀to฀reduced฀soil฀volume฀and฀ reduced฀organic฀matter฀content,฀both฀ of฀which฀are฀a฀consequence฀of฀erosion฀ and฀reduced฀infiltration฀due฀to฀crusting฀and฀compaction; •฀salinization฀and฀water-logging฀from฀ over-irrigation฀without฀adequate฀ drainage;฀and •฀unavailability฀of฀water฀stemming฀from฀ decreased฀supply฀of฀aquifers฀and฀ drainage฀bodies.฀ ฀฀฀฀The฀following฀negative฀effects฀are฀highest฀in฀the฀tension฀zones฀(Eswaran฀et฀al.฀ 1998): •฀systematic฀reduction฀in฀crop฀performance,฀leading฀to฀failure฀in฀rain-fed฀ and฀irrigated฀systems; •฀reduction฀in฀land฀cover฀and฀biomass฀ production฀in฀rangelands,฀with฀an฀ accompanying฀reduction฀in฀quality฀of฀ feed฀for฀livestock; Figure฀2.10:฀Soils฀are฀classified฀according฀to฀the฀proportions฀of฀different฀sized฀particles฀they฀contain.฀฀ As฀seen฀in฀this฀figure,฀the฀largest฀percentage฀of฀world฀land฀area฀unsuitable฀for฀agriculture฀is฀land฀that฀ is฀too฀dry.฀฀฀Source:฀FAO฀2000,฀http://www.fao.org/desertification/default.asp?lang=en฀ 30 •฀reduction฀of฀available฀woody฀plants฀ for฀fuel฀and฀increased฀distances฀to฀ harvest฀them; This฀sub-scene฀of฀an฀ASTER฀satellite฀image฀shows฀ sand฀dunes฀covering฀an฀area฀roughly฀12฀km฀x฀15฀km฀ (8฀x฀9฀miles)฀in฀the฀Thar฀Desert฀of฀northwestern฀ India฀and฀eastern฀Pakistan.฀The฀dunes฀here฀shift฀ constantly,฀taking฀on฀new฀shapes.฀Approximately฀800฀ km฀(497฀miles)฀long฀and฀490฀km฀(305฀miles)฀wide,฀ the฀Thar฀Desert฀is฀bounded฀on฀the฀south฀by฀a฀salt฀ marsh฀known฀as฀the฀Rann฀of฀Kutch,฀and฀on฀the฀west฀ by฀the฀Indus฀River฀plain.฀The฀desert’s฀terrain฀is฀primarily฀rolling฀sand฀hills,฀with฀scattered฀outcroppings฀ of฀shrub฀and฀rock.฀Source:฀NASA฀2004,฀http://asterweb.jpl. nasa.gov/gallery/gallery.htm?name=Thar •฀significant฀reduction฀in฀water฀from฀ overland฀flows฀or฀aquifers฀and฀a฀concomitant฀reduction฀in฀water฀quality; •฀encroachment฀of฀sand฀and฀crop฀damage฀by฀sand-blasting฀and฀wind฀erosion;฀ and •฀increased฀gully฀and฀sheet฀erosion฀by฀ torrential฀rain. Ultimately,฀desertification฀processes฀impact฀about฀2฀600฀million฀people,฀or฀44฀per฀ cent฀of฀the฀world’s฀population฀(Eswaran฀฀ et฀al.฀1998). Case฀Study:฀Mt.฀Kenya–Diversity฀฀ in฀Ecosystems Christian฀Lambrechts฀ Mount฀Kenya฀is฀located฀on฀ the฀equator฀180฀kilometres฀ north฀of฀Nairobi.฀It฀is฀a฀solitary฀mountain฀of฀volcanic฀ Credit:฀NASA/GSFC/METI/ERSDAC/JAROS,฀ and฀U.S./Japan฀ASTER฀Science฀Team.฀ Tana฀River฀where฀50฀per฀cent฀of฀Kenya’s฀total฀ 2002,฀a฀study฀was฀carried฀out฀to฀assess฀the฀effec- electricity฀output฀is฀generated.฀ tiveness฀of฀the฀new฀management฀practices฀put฀ Forest฀conservation฀initiative in฀place฀in฀2000.฀฀The฀study฀revealed฀significant฀ Following฀a฀1999฀aerial฀survey,฀the฀entire฀forest฀ improvement฀in฀the฀state฀of฀conservation฀of฀฀ belt฀of฀Mount฀Kenya฀was฀gazetted฀as฀National฀ the฀forests. Reserve฀and฀placed฀under฀the฀management฀of฀ Kenya฀Wildlife฀Services฀in฀the฀year฀2000.฀฀In฀ origin฀with฀the฀base฀diameter฀of฀about฀120฀km฀(75฀ miles).฀฀Its฀broad฀cone฀shape฀ reaches฀an฀altitude฀of฀5฀199฀m฀(17฀057฀ft)฀with฀ deeply฀incised฀U-shaped฀valleys฀in฀the฀upper฀ parts.฀฀฀Forest฀vegetation฀covers฀the฀major฀part฀ of฀the฀mountain,฀with฀a฀total฀area฀around฀฀ 220฀000฀hectares฀(548฀574฀acres).฀฀The฀forests฀ are฀critical฀and฀invaluable฀national฀assets฀that฀ must฀be฀protected. High฀diversity฀in฀ecosystems฀and฀species The฀wide฀range฀in฀altitude฀clines—from฀1฀200฀ to฀3฀400฀m฀(3฀900฀to฀11฀000฀ft)—and฀rainfall฀ clines฀from—from฀900฀mm/year฀(35฀in/year)฀ in฀the฀north฀to฀2฀300฀mm/year฀(91฀in/year)฀in฀ the฀south-eastern฀slopes—contributes฀to฀the฀ highly฀diverse฀mosaic฀patterns฀of฀Mount฀Kenya฀ forests.฀฀Mount฀Kenya฀adds฀value฀to฀the฀nation฀by฀providing฀tourism฀potential฀and฀local฀ cultural฀and฀economic฀benefits.฀฀It฀also฀provides฀important฀environmental฀services฀to฀the฀ nation฀such฀as฀a฀water฀catchment฀area฀of฀the฀ Forest฀is฀shown฀in฀red฀on฀these฀images.฀Note฀the฀changes฀in฀forest฀cover฀in฀the฀boxes.฀ Source:฀UNEP/GRID–Nairobi 31 2.4 Ecoregions and Ecosystems An฀ecosystem฀is฀an฀organic฀community฀of฀plants฀and฀animals฀viewed฀within฀its฀physical฀environment฀(habitat);฀ the฀ecosystem฀results฀from฀the฀interaction฀between฀soil฀ and฀climate.฀It฀is฀a฀dynamic฀complex฀of฀plant,฀animal,฀ and฀microorganism฀communities฀and฀their฀non-living฀ environment฀interacting฀as฀a฀functional฀unit฀(UNEPWCMC฀2003).฀ An฀ecoregion฀is฀a฀cartographical฀delineation฀of฀a฀ relatively฀large฀unit฀of฀land฀or฀water฀containing฀a฀geographically฀distinct฀assemblage฀of฀species,฀natural฀communities,฀and฀environmental฀conditions.฀An฀ecoregion฀ is฀often฀defined฀by฀similarity฀of฀climate,฀landform,฀soil,฀ surface฀form,฀potential฀natural฀vegetation,฀hydrology,฀ and฀other฀ecologically฀relevant฀variables.฀Ecoregions฀ contain฀multiple฀landscapes฀with฀different฀spatial฀patterns฀of฀ecosystems. The฀ecoregion฀concept฀is฀one฀of฀the฀most฀important฀ in฀landscape฀ecology,฀both฀for฀management฀and฀understanding฀(Hargrove฀and฀Hoffman฀1999).฀Ecoregion฀ classifications฀are฀based฀on฀particular฀environmental฀ conditions฀and฀designed฀for฀specific฀purposes,฀and฀no฀ single฀set฀of฀ecoregions฀would฀be฀appropriate฀for฀all฀ potential฀uses฀(Wikipedia฀n.d.). The฀environment฀of฀an฀ecoregion฀in฀terms฀of฀฀ climate,฀resource฀endowments,฀and฀socioeconomic฀฀ Credit:฀John฀R฀Jones/UNEP/Topfoto Tropical rainforest Tropical moist deciduous forest Tropical dry forest 32 Tropical shrubland Subtropical humid forest Temperate oceanic forest Boreal coniferous forest Polar Tropical desert Subtropical dry forest Temperate continental forest Boreal tundra woodland Water Tropical mountain Subtropical steppe Temperate steppe/prairie Boreal mountain No Data Subtropical desert Temperate desert Subtropical mountain Source:฀USGS฀National฀Center฀for฀EROS Credit:฀Philip฀De฀Mancz/UNEP/Topfoto conditions฀is฀homogeneous.฀Specific฀advantages฀of฀using฀an฀ecoregion฀approach฀ for฀planning฀and฀decision-making฀include: •฀easier฀identification฀of฀production฀capabilities฀and฀constraints; •฀better฀targeting฀of฀prospective฀฀ technologies; •฀improved฀assessment฀of฀responses฀to฀ new฀technologies;฀and •฀wider฀adoption฀and฀larger฀impact฀of฀ research฀outputs฀(Saxena฀et฀al.฀2001). Table฀2.10฀–฀Loss฀of฀biodiversity฀from฀2000฀to฀2003—expressed฀as฀changes฀in฀species฀ numbers—in฀animals฀and฀plants฀classified฀as฀critically฀endangered,฀endangered,฀and฀ vulnerable ฀ ฀ Critically฀Endangered฀ Endangered฀ Vulnerable Group฀ 2000฀ 2002฀ 2003฀ 2000฀ 2002฀ 2003฀ 2000฀ 2002฀ 2003 Mammals฀ Birds฀ Reptiles฀ Amphibians฀ Fishes฀ Insects฀ Mollusks฀ Plants฀ 180฀ 181฀ 184฀ 182฀ 182฀ 182฀ 56฀ 55฀ 57฀ 25฀ 30฀ 30฀ 156฀ 157฀ 162฀ 45฀ 46฀ 46฀ 222฀ 222฀ 250฀ 1฀014฀ 1฀046฀ 1฀276฀ 340฀ 321฀ 74฀ 38฀ 144฀ 118฀ 237฀ 1฀266฀ 339฀ 326฀ 79฀ 37฀ 143฀ 118฀ 236฀ 1฀291฀ 337฀ 331฀ 78฀ 37฀ 144฀ 118฀ 243฀ 1฀634฀ 610฀ 680฀ 161฀ 83฀ 452฀ 392฀ 479฀ 3฀311฀ 617฀ 684฀ 159฀ 90฀ 442฀ 393฀ 481฀ 3฀377฀ 609 681 158 90 444 389 474 3฀864 Source:฀http://www.redlist.org/info/tables/table2.html Trends ฀An฀increase฀in฀average฀global฀temperature฀has฀the฀potential฀to฀bring฀about฀ dramatic฀change฀in฀ecosystems.฀Some฀ species฀may฀be฀forced฀out฀of฀their฀habitats฀ (possibly฀to฀extinction)฀because฀of฀changing฀conditions.฀Other฀species฀may฀flourish฀ and฀spread.฀Few,฀if฀any,฀terrestrial฀ecoregions฀on฀the฀Earth฀are฀expected฀to฀remain฀ unaffected฀by฀significant฀global฀warming.฀ Since฀1970,฀there฀has฀been฀a฀30฀฀ per฀cent฀decline฀in฀the฀world’s฀living฀ things฀and฀the฀downward฀trend฀is฀continuing฀at฀one฀per฀cent฀or฀more฀per฀year฀(Collins฀2000;฀UNEP฀1997).฀Table฀2.10฀shows฀ an฀increase฀in฀the฀number฀of฀endangered฀ and฀vulnerable฀species฀between฀the฀years฀ 2000–2003.฀Modification฀of฀landscapes,฀ loss฀of฀native฀species,฀introduction฀of฀ exotic฀species,฀monoculture-focused฀agriculture,฀soil฀enhancement,฀irrigation,฀and฀ land฀degradation฀have฀all฀tended฀to฀“simplify”฀ecosystems,฀leading฀to฀a฀reduction฀ in฀biodiversity.฀In฀aquatic฀environments,฀ eutrophication฀and฀habitat฀destruction฀ have฀had฀a฀similar฀effect฀(Tilman฀et฀al.฀ 2001).฀As฀ecosystems฀become฀simpler,฀so฀ do฀ecoregions. ฀Ecoregion฀and฀ecosystem฀fragmentation฀also฀contributes฀to฀a฀decline฀in฀biodiversity฀and฀threatens฀many฀species.฀Globally,฀over฀half฀of฀the฀temperate฀broadleaf฀ and฀mixed฀forests฀and฀nearly฀one฀quarter฀ of฀the฀tropical฀rain฀forests฀have฀been฀fragmented฀or฀removed฀(Wade฀et฀al.฀2003). 33 Impacts Simplification฀of฀ecosystems฀and฀ecoregions฀results฀in฀species฀extinctions฀and฀ a฀loss฀of฀natural฀resources฀(Tilman฀et฀al.฀ 2001).฀Climate฀change฀and฀the฀way฀in฀ which฀ecological฀communities฀respond฀to฀ it฀have฀enormous฀conservation฀implications.฀These฀include฀developing฀awareness฀ of฀the฀transience฀of฀native฀ranges฀and฀ plant฀associations฀and฀the฀significance฀of฀ population฀declines฀and฀increases,฀as฀well฀ as฀the฀need฀to฀develop฀targets฀and฀references฀for฀restoration,฀and฀strategies฀for฀ dealing฀with฀global฀warming฀(Millar฀2003).฀ For฀example,฀changes฀in฀the฀potential฀distribution฀of฀tree฀and฀shrub฀taxa฀in฀North฀ America฀in฀response฀to฀projected฀climate฀ change฀are฀expected฀to฀be฀far-reaching฀ and฀complex;฀growing฀ranges฀for฀various฀ species฀will฀shift฀not฀only฀northward฀and฀ upward฀in฀elevation฀but฀in฀all฀directions฀ (Shafer฀et฀al.฀2001).฀Some฀models฀predict฀ that฀more฀than฀80฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀world’s฀ Credit:฀Ron฀Levy/UNEP/Topfoto ecoregions฀will฀suffer฀extinctions฀as฀a฀ result฀of฀global฀warming฀(Malcolm฀et฀al.฀ 2002).฀Ecoregions฀expected฀to฀be฀most฀ dramatically฀altered฀by฀climate฀change฀ include฀the฀boreal฀forests฀of฀the฀North- ern฀Hemisphere,฀the฀fynbos฀of฀Southern฀ Africa,฀and฀the฀Terai-Duar฀savanna฀and฀ grasslands฀of฀northeastern฀India฀(Malcolm฀ et฀al.฀2002). Credit:฀Gary฀Wilson/UNEP/NRCS 34 2.5 Biodiversity, Invasive Species, and Protected Areas Biological฀diversity,฀or฀“biodiversity,”฀refers฀to฀the฀ variety฀of฀life฀on฀the฀Earth฀in฀all฀its฀forms.฀There฀ are฀three฀levels฀of฀biodiversity:฀biodiversity฀of฀a฀ landscape฀or฀ecosystem,฀species฀biodiversity,฀and฀ genetic฀biodiversity฀(IUCN,฀UNEP,฀and฀WWF฀ 1991).฀These฀three฀levels฀are฀intimately฀connected.฀ For฀example,฀genetic฀diversity฀is฀often฀the฀key฀to฀ survival฀for฀a฀species,฀equipping฀it฀with฀the฀necessary฀resources฀to฀adapt฀to฀changing฀environmental฀ conditions.฀Species฀diversity,฀in฀turn,฀is฀typically฀a฀ measure฀of฀ecosystem฀health฀(Rosenzweig฀1999). ฀We฀have฀just฀begun฀to฀identify฀and฀fully฀understand฀the฀diverse฀living฀things฀that฀currently฀ inhabit฀the฀Earth.฀Scientists฀have฀discovered฀and฀ described฀roughly฀1.75฀million฀species฀to฀date.฀ That฀number฀is฀expected฀to฀increase฀substantially฀ when฀all฀marine฀organisms,฀arthropods,฀bacteria,฀ and฀viruses฀are฀eventually฀added฀to฀the฀list.฀Tragically,฀however,฀humans฀are฀destroying฀this฀great฀ diversity฀at฀an฀alarming฀rate.฀Rates฀of฀human-induced฀species฀extinction฀are฀estimated฀to฀be฀50฀to฀ 100฀times฀the฀natural฀background฀rate;฀this฀could฀ Credit:฀Gyde฀Lund/UNEP Credit:฀William฀M.฀Ciesla/UNEP/Invasive.org 35 increase฀to฀1฀000฀to฀10฀000฀times฀the฀natural฀rate฀in฀the฀next฀25฀years฀(Lund฀et฀al.฀ 2003;฀Pellew฀1996). Why฀are฀so฀many฀species฀becoming฀ extinct?฀Human฀activities฀over฀the฀last฀ three฀centuries฀have฀signifi฀cantly฀transformed฀the฀Earth’s฀environment,฀primarily฀ through฀the฀conversion฀of฀natural฀ecosystems฀to฀agriculture฀(Ramankutty฀and฀Foley฀ 1999).฀It฀is฀estimated฀that฀cropland฀expanded฀from฀3-4฀million฀km2฀(1.2-1.5฀million฀square฀miles)฀in฀1700฀to฀15-18฀million฀ km2฀(5.8-6.9฀million฀square฀miles)฀in฀1990,฀ primarily฀at฀the฀expense฀of฀forests.฀At฀the฀ same฀time,฀grazing฀lands฀expanded฀from฀5฀ million฀km2฀(1.9฀million฀square฀miles)฀in฀ 1700฀to฀31฀million฀km2฀(12฀million฀square฀ 36 miles)฀in฀1990,฀largely฀via฀the฀conversion฀of฀ native฀grasslands฀(Goldewijk฀and฀Ramankutty฀2001).฀In฀addition฀to฀agriculture-driven฀landscape฀transformations,฀the฀move฀ to฀monoculture-based฀forms฀of฀agriculture฀ has฀contributed฀to฀declining฀biodiversity.฀ Wild฀plants฀and฀animals฀are฀a฀major฀ source฀of฀food.฀Billions฀of฀people฀still฀harvest฀wild฀or฀“bush”฀food฀around฀the฀world.฀ Between฀one-fi฀fth฀and฀one-half฀of฀all฀food฀ consumed฀by฀poor฀people฀in฀developing฀ countries฀is฀gathered฀rather฀than฀cultivated.฀On฀a฀global฀scale,฀ocean฀fi฀sh฀caught฀ in฀the฀wild฀account฀for฀16฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀ human฀diet฀(Harrison฀and฀Pearce฀2001). Wild฀plants฀are฀also฀a฀major฀source฀of฀ medicine,฀and฀the฀loss฀of฀biological฀diver- sity฀has฀serious฀implications฀in฀terms฀of฀ human฀health.฀Of฀the฀150฀most฀frequently฀ prescribed฀drugs,฀more฀than฀half฀are฀ derived฀from฀or฀patterned฀after฀chemical฀ compounds฀found฀in฀plants฀(Brehm฀2003).฀ Moreover,฀plants฀are฀an฀important฀source฀ of฀fuel.฀Nearly฀15฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀world’s฀ energy฀is฀derived฀from฀the฀burning฀of฀plant฀ materials฀(De฀Leo฀and฀Levin฀1997). Worldwide,฀people฀eat฀only฀a฀small฀fraction฀of฀the฀70฀000฀plants฀known฀to฀be฀edible฀or฀to฀have฀edible฀parts฀(Wilson฀1989).฀ But฀retaining฀biodiversity฀is฀still฀vital฀for฀ the฀food฀supply,฀since฀most฀food฀crops฀constantly฀require฀an฀infusion฀of฀“wild”฀genes฀ to฀maintain฀their฀resistance฀to฀ever-evolving฀pests฀(Harrison฀and฀Pearce฀2001).฀ Photos฀left฀to฀right:฀A฀family฀of฀elephants฀in฀Africa฀(Credit฀:฀Gyde฀Lund/UNEP).฀A฀clear-cut฀section฀of฀forest฀(Credit:฀Steven฀Poe/UNEP/Topfoto).฀Yellowstone฀National฀Park฀(Credit:฀Gyde฀Lund/ UNEP).฀People฀often฀peel฀the฀loose฀bark฀off฀birches฀for฀souvenirs.฀Danforth,฀ME฀USA฀(Credit: Randy฀Cyr/UNEP/Forestryimages.org). Despite฀our฀dependence฀on฀biodiversity,฀it฀has฀been฀estimated฀that฀27฀000฀ species฀are฀lost฀every฀year—roughly฀three฀ per฀hour.฀Other฀estimates฀put฀the฀number฀ much฀higher.฀The฀greatest฀loss฀of฀biodiversity฀is฀currently฀taking฀place฀in฀wet฀ tropical฀regions฀where฀rain฀forest฀ecosystems฀are฀being฀altered฀dramatically.฀But฀ loss฀of฀biodiversity฀is฀also฀evident฀in฀drier฀ regions,฀due฀to฀desertifi฀cation.฀Major฀contributors฀to฀species฀extinctions฀and฀loss฀of฀ biodiversity฀worldwide฀include: •฀human฀population฀growth; •฀unsustainable฀patterns฀of฀consumption฀such฀as฀over-harvesting฀of฀plant฀ and฀animal฀resources; •฀poor฀agricultural฀practices; •฀increased฀production฀of฀wastes฀and฀ pollutants; •฀urban฀development;฀and •฀international฀confl฀ict฀(UNEP฀2002b). ฀Loss฀of฀biodiversity฀occurs฀hand-inhand฀with฀habitat฀loss,฀and฀habitat฀loss฀is฀ generally฀greatest฀where฀human฀population฀density฀is฀highest฀(Harrison฀1997).฀ One฀type฀of฀habitat฀loss฀is฀fragmentation.฀ Fragmentation฀occurs฀where฀a฀once-continuous฀ecosystem฀is฀broken฀up฀into฀many฀ small,฀poorly฀connected฀patches฀of฀land,฀ which฀happens฀when฀blocks฀of฀trees฀are฀ removed฀from฀a฀forest.฀A฀change฀in฀land฀ cover฀typically฀accompanies฀fragmentation.฀Six฀categories฀of฀fragmentation฀have฀ been฀identifi฀ed฀(interior,฀perforated,฀ edge,฀transitional,฀patch,฀and฀undetermined)฀depending฀on฀how฀a฀given฀area฀ of฀land฀is฀broken฀up฀(Riitters฀et฀al.฀2000).฀ Fragmentation฀may฀be฀human-induced฀or฀ due฀to฀natural฀causes฀such฀as฀fi฀re,฀fl฀oods,฀ or฀wind.฀Fragmentation฀may฀create฀more฀ diverse฀landscapes฀than฀were฀originally฀ present,฀and฀while฀it฀may฀destroy฀habitats฀ of฀some฀species,฀it฀can฀also฀create฀habitats฀ for฀others. Left฀to฀right:฀Junipers฀near฀near฀Paulina,฀Oregon.฀Without฀natural฀fi฀฀res฀to฀control฀their฀spread,฀junipers฀can฀become฀invasive฀in฀rangelands฀(Credit:฀Gyde฀Lund/UNEP).฀Women฀herding฀goats฀(Credit:฀ Unknown/UNEP/Topfoto).฀Cattle฀grazing฀in฀a฀bog฀(Credit:฀Rubai฀Wang/UNEP/Topfoto).฀Kudzu฀฀ taking฀over฀the฀land฀and฀trees฀in฀the฀southeastern฀United฀States฀(Credit:฀Gyde฀Lund/UNEP). 37 Cumulative฀Growth฀in฀Protected฀Areas฀by฀5฀Year฀Increments: 1872฀–฀2003 Area฀of฀Sites Number฀of฀sites 18,000,000 100,000 16,000,000 14,000,000 80,000 12,000,000 60,000 10,000,000 8,000,000 40,000 6,000,000 4,000,000 20,000 2,000,000 0 Figure฀2.11:฀฀The฀number฀and฀extent฀of฀the฀world’s฀ protected฀lands฀increased฀significantly฀during฀the฀ period฀from฀1872฀to฀2003.฀The฀greatest฀increase฀has฀ occurred฀over฀the฀past฀few฀decades.฀In฀2003,฀the฀total฀ number฀of฀protected฀sites฀surpassed฀100฀000,฀while฀ total฀area฀increased฀to฀more฀than฀18฀million฀km2฀(7฀ million฀square฀miles).฀Source:฀Chape฀et฀al.฀2003 1872 1902 1917 1932 1947 Invasive฀Species Most฀plants฀and฀animals฀exist฀in฀places฀in฀ which฀they฀did฀not฀originate.฀They฀moved฀ or฀were฀introduced฀into฀new฀areas฀over฀ time.฀While฀rooted฀plants฀cannot฀themselves฀move฀from฀place฀to฀place,฀the฀dispersion฀of฀their฀seeds฀by฀wind,฀water,฀and฀ animals฀has฀enabled฀them฀to฀spread฀into฀ many฀new฀habitats. An฀introduced฀species฀is฀one฀whose฀ existence฀in฀a฀given฀region฀is฀due฀to฀some฀ Case฀Study:฀Lake฀Maracaibo,฀Venezuela Lake฀Maracaibo฀in฀northwestern฀Venezuela฀is฀ the฀largest฀natural฀lake฀in฀South฀America฀at฀ 13฀330฀km2฀(5฀146฀square฀miles).฀At฀its฀widest฀ point,฀it฀is฀more฀than฀125฀km฀(78฀miles)฀wide.฀ The฀lake฀itself฀lies฀in฀the฀Maracaibo฀basin,฀ which฀is฀semi-arid฀in฀the฀north,฀but฀averages฀ over฀1฀200฀mm฀(47฀in)฀of฀annual฀rainfall฀in฀ the฀south.฀It฀has฀been฀suffering฀from฀a฀serious฀ problem฀of฀invasive฀duckweed,฀a฀tiny฀aquatic฀ plant฀that฀grows฀in฀freshwater.฀This฀first฀image฀ 1952 1962 1977 1992 2003 0 type฀of฀human฀activity.฀That฀activity฀may฀ enable฀the฀species฀to฀cross฀natural฀geographic฀barriers฀or฀it฀may฀transform฀conditions฀in฀an฀area฀as฀to฀be฀in฀some฀way฀favorable฀to฀the฀species’฀growth฀and฀spread.฀ Introduced฀species฀are฀also฀called฀alien,฀or฀ exotic,฀species.฀ Many฀introduced฀species฀have฀been฀ actively฀transported฀by฀people฀to฀new฀areas฀ for฀specific฀purposes฀and฀have฀played฀ important฀and฀beneficial฀roles฀in฀human฀ (left),฀taken฀by฀the฀Aqua฀MODIS฀satellite฀on฀ 17฀December฀2003,฀shows฀the฀lake฀during฀the฀ winter฀months,฀when฀duckweed฀is฀absent฀from฀ the฀lake’s฀waters,฀and฀the฀silvery฀sunglint฀is฀absent.฀In฀summer฀the฀weed฀blooms.฀The฀true-colour฀image฀from฀26฀June฀2004฀(middle)฀shows฀ strands฀of฀duckweed฀curling฀through฀the฀lake,฀ floating฀at฀the฀surface,฀or฀slightly฀submerged฀ in฀the฀brackish฀water.฀A฀closer฀look฀in฀August฀ 2004฀(right)฀reveals฀the฀stranglehold฀the฀duckweed฀has฀on฀port฀areas,฀especially฀along฀the฀ important฀oil฀shipping฀routes฀in฀the฀neck฀of฀ history.฀Most฀modern฀agricultural฀crops฀ were฀introduced฀into฀the฀regions฀they฀ now฀inhabit.฀For฀instance,฀corn฀(maize)฀is฀ thought฀to฀have฀originated฀in฀Mexico฀some฀ 7฀000฀years฀ago.฀Today฀it฀is฀found฀worldwide.฀Wheat฀probably฀originated฀in฀the฀ Middle฀East.฀Currently,฀wheat฀is฀grown฀on฀ more฀land฀area฀worldwide฀than฀any฀other฀ crop฀and฀is฀a฀close฀third฀to฀rice฀and฀corn฀in฀ total฀world฀production. Many฀modern฀domesticated฀animals฀ were฀also฀new฀species฀introductions฀at฀ some฀point฀in฀their฀history.฀Modern฀domestic฀cattle฀evolved฀from฀a฀single฀early฀ ancestor,฀the฀auroch.฀Cattle฀were฀domesticated฀between฀10฀000฀and฀15฀000฀years฀ ago฀near฀the฀boundary฀of฀Europe฀and฀Asia฀ or฀Southwest฀Asia.฀Cattle฀are฀now฀widely฀ distributed฀throughout฀the฀world.฀The฀ total฀world฀cattle฀population฀in฀the฀late฀ Lake฀Maracaibo.฀Fish฀and฀the฀fishing฀industry฀ suffer฀as฀thick฀green฀mats฀block฀photosynthesis฀ and฀alter฀fish฀habitats.฀The฀weed฀also฀adheres฀ to฀boats,฀affects฀cooling฀systems,฀and฀obstructs฀ travel.฀In฀September฀2004,฀Venezuela’s฀Ministry฀of฀Environment฀and฀Natural฀Resources฀ reported฀that฀it฀had฀reduced฀the฀duckweed฀ area฀by฀75฀per฀cent,฀using฀duckweed฀harvesting฀ machines฀from฀the฀United฀States.฀The฀ministry฀ is฀investigating฀using฀the฀harvested฀weed฀as฀ animal฀fodder. Credit:฀(Left,฀right฀images)฀NASA;฀(middle)฀LPDAAC฀–฀USGS฀National฀Center฀for฀EROS 38 Table฀2.11฀–฀Growth฀of฀protected฀areas฀of฀the฀world฀in฀1994฀and฀2004฀(in฀per฀cent) Ratio฀ 1994฀ 2004 World฀ Developed฀Countries฀ Commonwealth฀Independent฀States฀(CIS)฀ CIS-ASIA฀ CIS-Europe฀ Developing฀ Northern฀Africa฀ Sub-Saharan฀Africa฀ Latin฀America฀&฀the฀Caribbean฀ Eastern฀Asia฀ Southern฀Asia฀ South-eastern฀Asia฀ Western฀Asia฀ Oceania฀ Least฀Developed฀Countries฀(LDCs)฀ Landlocked฀Developing฀Countries฀(LLDCs)฀ Small฀Island฀Developing฀States฀(SIDs)฀ 7.8฀ 11.3฀ 2.8฀ 3.6฀ 2.6฀ 7.6฀ 3.5฀ 8.1฀ 8.0฀ 8.2฀ 4.5฀ 4.8฀ 21.4฀ 1.0฀ 7.7฀ 8.4฀ 1.6฀ 9.5 14.1 3.0 3.8 2.8 9.1 3.9 8.3 9.9 14.2 5.1 5.9 22.0 1.1 7.9 9.6 2.8 could฀allow฀the฀weeds฀to฀adapt฀to฀new฀ environments฀more฀quickly,฀and฀better฀ resist฀attack฀by฀insects.฀Higher฀levels฀of฀ carbon฀dioxide฀in฀the฀atmosphere฀may฀also฀ favor฀plants฀that฀can฀utilize฀extra฀carbon฀ dioxide฀and฀grow฀faster.฀One฀such฀example฀ is฀cheatgrass,฀an฀introduced฀species฀that฀ now฀dominates฀vast฀areas฀of฀the฀American฀ West฀(Holmes฀1998).฀In฀other฀parts฀of฀the฀ world,฀invasive฀exotic฀plant฀species฀make฀ up฀4฀to฀44฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀total฀number฀of฀ species฀in฀ecosystems฀(Lövei฀1997). Invasive฀exotic฀species฀are฀one฀of฀the฀ most฀significant฀drivers฀of฀environmental฀ change฀worldwide.฀They฀also฀contribute฀ to฀social฀instability฀and฀economic฀hardship,฀and฀place฀constraints฀on฀sustainable฀ development,฀economic฀growth,฀and฀environmental฀conservation.฀Worldwide,฀the฀ annual฀economic฀impact฀of฀invasive฀species฀ There฀is฀considerable฀variation฀in฀the฀total฀area฀protected฀between฀regions,฀ranging฀from฀1.1฀per฀cent฀in฀ the฀developing฀countries฀of฀Oceania฀to฀22.0฀per฀cent฀in฀Western฀Asia.฀The฀percentage฀coverage฀in฀both฀ on฀agriculture,฀biodiversity,฀fisheries,฀forWestern฀and฀Eastern฀Asia฀(14.2฀per฀cent)฀exceeds฀the฀coverage฀of฀all฀developed฀countries฀(14.1฀฀ ests,฀and฀industry฀is฀enormous.฀The฀World฀ per฀cent)฀representing฀a฀significant฀commitment฀by฀these฀regions฀to฀conservation.฀However,฀the฀constraints฀imposed฀upon฀the฀data฀by฀the฀criterion฀for฀a฀date฀of฀establishment฀within฀the฀Millennium฀DevelConservation฀Union฀(IUCN)฀estimates฀that฀ opment฀Goals฀(MDG)฀reporting฀period฀suggest฀that฀all฀figures฀should฀be฀treated฀cautiously.฀ the฀global฀economic฀costs฀of฀invasive฀exotic฀ Source:฀UNEP-WCMC฀2005 species฀are฀about฀US$400฀billion฀annually฀ (UNEP฀2002a).฀Alien฀invaders฀cost฀140฀bil1980s฀was฀estimated฀to฀be฀nearly฀1.3฀bilare฀under฀siege฀from฀increasing฀numbers฀ lion฀dollars฀a฀year฀in฀the฀USA฀alone฀(Mclion.฀Chickens—the฀world’s฀most฀abundant฀ of฀harmful฀invasive฀species.฀These฀include฀ Grath฀2005).฀Less฀easily฀measured฀costs฀ domesticated฀bird—are฀generally฀believed฀ disease฀organisms,฀agricultural฀weeds,฀and฀ also฀include฀unemployment,฀impacts฀on฀ to฀have฀descended฀from฀jungle฀fowl฀in฀ destructive฀insects฀and฀small฀mammals฀that฀ infrastructure,฀shortages฀of฀food฀and฀water,฀ Southeast฀Asia.฀They฀were฀subsequently฀ threaten฀economic฀productivity,฀ecological฀ environmental฀degradation,฀increases฀in฀ stability,฀and฀biodiversity.฀On฀a฀local฀scale,฀ introduced฀into฀almost฀every฀country฀and฀ the฀rate฀and฀severity฀of฀natural฀disasters,฀ region฀of฀the฀world. such฀invasions฀decrease฀diversity฀of฀native฀ and฀human฀illness฀and฀death.฀Invasive฀exIn฀stark฀contrast฀to฀such฀positive฀species฀ flora฀and฀fauna.฀Globally,฀they฀contribute฀ otic฀species฀represent฀a฀growing฀problem,฀ to฀making฀the฀biosphere฀more฀homogeintroductions฀are฀those฀where฀introduced฀ and฀one฀that฀is฀here฀to฀stay—at฀least฀for฀ exotic฀species฀have฀become฀invasive.฀Scien- neous฀and฀less฀resilient. the฀foreseeable฀future฀(Brandt฀2003). Natural฀biodiversity฀helps฀to฀maintain฀ tifically฀speaking,฀invasive฀species฀are฀those฀ ecological฀resilience฀in฀the฀face฀of฀varying฀ organisms฀that฀are฀unwanted฀and฀have฀a฀ Protected฀and฀Wilderness฀Areas tendency฀to฀spread.฀Invasive฀species฀harm,฀ environmental฀conditions฀(Holling฀et฀al.฀ Wilderness฀areas฀are฀those฀areas฀of฀land฀ 1995).฀Invasion฀by฀exotic฀species฀lessens฀ or฀have฀the฀potential฀to฀harm,฀a฀given฀ that฀are฀relatively฀untouched฀by฀human฀ ecosystem฀or฀peoples’฀health฀or฀economic฀ ecological฀resilience฀and฀can฀transform฀ ecosystems฀in฀unpredictable฀ways฀that฀may฀ activities.฀To฀qualify฀as฀wilderness,฀an฀area฀ well-being฀(Clinton฀1999).฀Historically,฀ must฀have฀70฀per฀cent฀or฀more฀of฀its฀origisome฀invasive฀exotic฀species฀have฀been฀ have฀negative฀consequences฀for฀people.฀ nal฀vegetation฀intact,฀cover฀at฀least฀10฀000฀ intentionally฀introduced฀into฀new฀settings;฀ This฀problem฀is฀growing฀in฀severity฀and฀ km2฀(3฀861฀square฀miles),฀and฀be฀inhabthe฀introduction฀of฀the฀common฀starling฀ geographic฀extent฀as฀global฀trade฀and฀ ited฀by฀fewer฀than฀five฀people฀per฀km2฀(12฀ into฀the฀United฀States฀and฀the฀rabbit฀into฀ international฀travel฀expand,฀as฀markets฀ people฀per฀square฀mile). Australia฀are฀two฀classic฀examples.฀Introare฀liberalized฀and฀deregulated,฀as฀ecosysductions฀of฀other฀invasive฀species฀have฀ tems฀are฀further฀altered฀and฀fragmented,฀ Wilderness฀areas฀are฀major฀storehouses฀ occurred฀by฀accident,฀such฀as฀that฀of฀zebra฀ and฀as฀global฀climate฀continues฀to฀change฀ of฀biodiversity.฀They฀also฀provide฀critical฀ mussels฀into฀the฀American฀Great฀Lakes฀as฀a฀ (Brandt฀2003;฀Dalmazzone฀2000).฀ ecosystem฀services฀to฀the฀planet,฀including฀ result฀of฀shipping฀activities. watershed฀maintenance,฀pollination,฀and฀ Invasions฀by฀alien฀species฀are฀set฀to฀ Native฀or฀indigenous฀species฀are฀those฀ that฀occur฀naturally฀in฀an฀area฀or฀habitat.฀ Invasive฀species฀often฀out-compete฀and฀displace฀native฀species฀because฀the฀invaders฀ have฀no฀natural฀enemies฀and฀can฀spread฀ easily฀and฀quickly.฀Both฀managed฀and฀ natural฀ecosystems฀throughout฀the฀world฀ worsen฀in฀the฀next฀few฀decades฀if฀the฀ world฀continues฀to฀warm฀as฀most฀scientists฀ predict฀it฀will.฀Longer฀growing฀seasons฀ spawned฀by฀global฀warming฀may฀give฀ invasive฀weedy฀plants฀time฀to฀flower฀and฀ set฀seeds฀where฀previously฀they฀could฀only฀ spread฀asexually.฀This฀new-found฀ability฀ carbon฀sequestration.฀Wilderness฀areas฀ currently฀cover฀nearly฀half฀the฀Earth’s฀terrestrial฀surface฀(Mittermeier฀et฀al.฀2003).฀ While฀that฀represents฀a฀significant฀amount฀ of฀land฀area,฀however,฀most฀wilderness฀ areas฀are฀not฀protected,฀and฀are฀therefore฀ at฀risk. 39 World฀Environmental฀Hotspots฀as฀identified฀by฀Conservation฀International. Source:฀www.conservation.org One฀of฀the฀most฀effective฀means฀for฀ conserving฀wilderness฀is฀through฀the฀development฀of฀protected฀areas.฀A฀protected฀ area฀is฀an฀area฀of฀land฀(or฀water)฀especially฀ dedicated฀to฀the฀protection฀and฀maintenance฀of฀biological฀diversity,฀along฀with฀ natural฀and฀associated฀cultural฀resources,฀ that฀is฀managed฀through฀legal฀or฀other฀ effective฀means฀(IUCN฀1994).฀Protected฀ areas฀are฀managed฀for฀a฀wide฀variety฀of฀ purposes,฀including: •฀protection฀of฀specific฀natural฀and฀฀ cultural฀features; •฀tourism฀and฀recreation; •฀education; •฀sustainable฀use฀of฀resources฀from฀฀ natural฀ecosystems;฀and •฀maintenance฀of฀cultural฀and฀traditional฀attributes฀(Green฀and฀Paine฀1997). and฀Canada฀combined,฀or฀more฀than฀12฀ per฀cent฀of฀the฀Earth’s฀surface฀(Chape฀et฀ al.฀2003).฀฀That฀total฀exceeds฀the฀ten฀฀ per฀cent฀called฀for฀in฀the฀Caracas฀Action฀ Plan฀formulated฀at฀the฀Fourth฀World฀Parks฀ Congress฀held฀in฀1992฀in฀Caracas,฀Venezuela.฀Between฀10฀and฀30฀per฀cent฀of฀some฀of฀ the฀planet’s฀vital฀natural฀features,฀such฀as฀ Amazonian฀rain฀forests฀and฀tropical฀savannah฀grasslands,฀are฀classified฀as฀protected฀ areas.฀However,฀ecoregional฀and฀habitat฀ representation฀remains฀uneven.฀ The฀2003฀United฀Nations฀List฀of฀Protected฀Areas—compiled฀by฀UNEP฀and฀ the฀IUCN฀and฀released฀during฀the฀Fifth฀ •฀scientific฀research; World฀Parks฀Congress฀in฀Durban,฀South฀ Currently,฀almost฀half฀of฀the฀world’s฀ •฀wilderness฀protection฀and฀preservation฀ Africa—reveals฀that฀there฀are฀now฀102฀102฀ protected฀areas฀are฀found฀in฀regions฀where฀ of฀species฀and฀ecosystems; protected฀areas,฀together฀representing฀a฀ agriculture฀and฀logging฀are฀primary฀land•฀maintenance฀of฀environmental฀฀ total฀land฀area฀roughly฀equivalent฀to฀China฀ use฀strategies.฀All฀indications฀are฀that฀food฀ services; 40 and฀timber฀production฀will฀need฀to฀increase฀in฀coming฀decades฀to฀keep฀up฀with฀ population฀growth฀and฀increasing฀demand฀ for฀wood฀and฀wood฀products.฀Thus,฀establishing฀additional฀protected฀areas,฀while฀ helping฀to฀preserve฀biological฀diversity,฀will฀ take฀land฀out฀of฀production฀and฀put฀more฀ stress฀on฀lands฀elsewhere฀(Sohngen฀et฀al.฀ 1999).฀Balancing฀the฀need฀to฀protect฀wild฀ species฀and฀conserve฀habitat฀while฀at฀the฀ same฀time฀increasing฀agricultural฀and฀timber฀production฀represents฀a฀tremendous฀ challenge฀(McNeely฀and฀Scherr฀2001). Of฀the฀world’s฀protected฀areas,฀the฀vast฀ majority—91.3฀per฀cent—are฀found฀in฀terrestrial฀ecosystems.฀Fewer฀than฀ten฀฀ per฀cent฀of฀the฀world’s฀lakes฀and฀less฀than฀ 0.5฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀world’s฀seas฀and฀oceans฀ lie฀within฀protected฀areas฀(SBSTTA฀2003).฀ Recognizing฀that฀the฀world’s฀marine฀environment฀remains฀largely฀unprotected,฀ the฀Fifth฀World฀Parks฀Congress฀put฀forth฀ the฀Durban฀Action฀Plan.฀The฀Plan฀calls฀for฀ the฀establishment฀of฀at฀least฀20-30฀per฀cent฀ marine฀protected฀areas฀worldwide฀by฀2012.฀ The฀Plan฀also฀calls฀for฀the฀conservation฀of฀ all฀globally฀threatened฀or฀endangered฀species฀by฀2010. In฀the฀coming฀years,฀further฀development฀of฀global฀networks฀of฀protected฀areas฀ will฀need฀to฀focus฀on฀four฀areas฀(Green฀ and฀Paine฀1997): •฀consolidating฀existing฀networks฀by฀addressing฀major฀gaps; •฀physically฀linking฀protected฀areas฀to฀ one฀another฀so฀they฀function฀more฀effectively฀as฀networks; Credit:฀Harriett฀O’Mahony/UNEP/Topfoto •฀expanding฀networks฀by฀forming฀or฀ strengthening฀links฀with฀other฀sectors,฀ notably฀the฀private฀sector;฀ most฀devastating฀diseases฀in฀the฀form฀of฀ unique฀chemical฀compounds฀and฀as-yet-undiscovered฀genetic฀material.฀ •฀and฀improving฀the฀effectiveness฀with฀ which฀protected฀areas฀are฀managed. ฀A฀recent฀analysis฀published฀by฀Conservation฀International฀identified฀nine฀ additional฀sites฀as฀areas฀of฀extraordinarily฀ high฀biological฀diversity,฀popularly฀known฀ as฀hotspots,฀taking฀the฀count฀of฀hotspots฀to฀ 34.฀These฀34฀regions฀worldwide฀are฀where฀ 75฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀planet’s฀most฀threatened฀ mammals,฀birds,฀and฀amphibians฀survive.฀฀฀ In฀these฀34฀hotspots,฀estimated฀50฀per฀cent฀ of฀all฀vascular฀plants฀and฀42฀per฀cent฀of฀ terrestrial฀vertebrates฀exist.฀Therefore฀it฀is฀ critical฀to฀protect฀and฀preserve฀these฀areas฀ (Conservation฀International฀2005).฀ Protected฀areas฀are฀often฀considered฀a฀ kind฀of฀sacrifice,฀a฀financial฀burden฀rather฀ than฀an฀asset.฀Yet฀establishing,฀maintaining,฀and฀expanding฀protected฀areas฀is฀a฀ fundamental฀approach฀to฀safe-guarding฀ the฀environment฀and฀conserving฀฀ biological฀diversity. Protected฀areas฀are฀also฀important฀in฀ other฀respects,฀such฀as฀helping฀to฀maintain฀ freshwater฀resources.฀Protected฀areas฀may฀ also฀hold฀the฀cures฀to฀some฀of฀the฀world’s฀ Credit:฀Christian฀Lambrechts/UNEP 41 Case฀Study:฀Kameng฀and฀Sonitpur฀฀ Elephant฀Reserves, Map฀of฀Study฀Area Arunachal฀Pradesh,฀India S.฀P.฀S.฀Kushwaha฀and฀Rabul฀Hazarika The฀Kameng฀and฀Sonitpur฀Elephant฀Reserves฀in฀northeastern฀India฀are฀comprised฀of฀ transborder฀subtropical฀evergreen฀to฀tropical฀ moist฀deciduous฀forests฀of฀Arunachal฀Pradesh฀ andAssam.฀The฀reserves฀are฀facing฀deforestation฀and฀habitat฀loss฀in฀recent฀years.฀This฀study฀ attempts฀to฀investigate฀the฀loss฀of฀habitat฀in฀ these฀reserves฀using฀temporal฀satellite฀imagery฀ of฀periods฀1994,฀1999฀and฀2002.฀The฀on-screen฀ visual฀interpretation฀of฀the฀three-period฀imagery฀revealed฀alarming฀and฀continuous฀habitat฀ loss฀from฀1994฀to฀2002.฀The฀overall฀habitat฀loss฀ was฀found฀to฀be฀344฀km2฀(133฀square฀miles)฀between฀1994฀and฀2002.฀The฀average฀annual฀rate฀ of฀deforestation฀worked฀out฀to฀be฀1.38฀฀ Sonitpur per฀cent,฀which฀is฀much฀bigger฀than฀the฀national฀average.฀The฀rate฀of฀deforestation฀was฀ highest฀between฀1999฀and฀2002.฀The฀study฀indicated฀that฀at฀this฀rate฀much฀of฀the฀forests฀in฀the฀ study฀area฀would฀be฀depleted฀within฀the฀next฀ few฀years.฀It฀also฀showed฀that฀moist฀deciduous฀ forests,฀which฀possess฀the฀highest฀biodiversity฀ in฀Assam,฀are฀facing฀maximum฀deforestation.฀ High฀deforestation฀has฀resulted฀in฀high฀manelephant฀conflicts. Habitat฀loss฀(1994–1999) Habitat฀loss฀(1999–2002) Habitat฀loss฀(1994–2002) Credit:฀฀Dr.฀Bibhab฀Talukdar 4242 2.6 Energy Consumption and Resource Extraction Energy฀is฀measured฀by฀its฀capacity฀to฀do฀work฀ (potential฀energy)฀or฀the฀conversion฀of฀this฀ capacity฀to฀motion฀(kinetic฀energy).฀Most฀of฀the฀ world’s฀convertible฀energy฀comes฀from฀fossil฀fuels฀that฀are฀burned฀to฀produce฀heat฀that฀is฀then฀ converted฀to฀mechanical฀energy฀or฀other฀means฀ in฀order฀to฀accomplish฀tasks฀(EIA฀2004a). Energy฀is฀essential฀for฀the฀fulfi฀llment฀of฀many฀ basic฀human฀needs,฀such฀as฀generating฀electricity,฀heating฀and฀cooling฀living฀spaces,฀cooking฀ food,฀forging฀steel,฀and฀powering฀engines฀for฀ many฀forms฀of฀transportation฀(Harrison฀and฀ Pearce฀2001).฀฀Energy฀use฀is฀closely฀tied฀to฀human฀health฀and฀well-being.฀Worldwide,฀roughly฀ 2฀000฀million฀people฀do฀not฀have฀access฀to฀electricity.฀Countries฀in฀which฀energy฀use฀is฀low฀tend฀ to฀have฀high฀infant฀mortality฀rates,฀low฀literacy฀ rates,฀and฀low฀life฀expectancies.฀It฀is฀through฀ the฀utilization฀of฀convertible฀energy฀sources฀that฀ the฀modern฀world฀has฀transcended฀its฀agrarian฀ roots฀and฀fostered฀the฀energy-driven฀societies฀ that฀characterize฀it฀today.฀Generating฀the฀power฀ to฀sustain฀these฀societies฀has฀entailed฀extracting฀massive฀amounts฀of฀natural฀resources฀from฀ the฀planet.฀Extraction฀is฀the฀process฀of฀obtainCredit:฀Darren฀Defner/UNEP/Topfoto Nightlight฀Map฀of฀the฀World Credit:฀NOAA/UNEP/NASA 43 G l oba l ฀N a tura l ฀Resources Affluent฀countries฀consume฀vast฀quantities฀of฀global฀natural฀resources,฀but฀contribute฀ proportionately฀less฀to฀the฀extraction฀of฀many฀raw฀materials.฀This฀imbalance฀is฀due,฀in฀ part,฀to฀domestic฀attitudes฀and฀policies฀intended฀to฀protect฀the฀environment.฀Ironically,฀ developed฀nations฀are฀often฀better฀equipped฀to฀extract฀resources฀in฀an฀environmentally฀ prudent฀manner฀than฀the฀major฀suppliers.฀Thus,฀although฀citizens฀of฀affluent฀countries฀ may฀imagine฀that฀preservationist฀domestic฀policies฀are฀conserving฀resources฀and฀ protecting฀nature,฀heavy฀consumption฀rates฀necessitate฀resource฀extraction฀elsewhere฀and฀ oftentimes฀with฀weak฀environmental฀oversight.฀A฀major฀consequence฀of฀this฀“illusion฀of฀ natural฀resource฀preservation”฀is฀greater฀global฀environmental฀degradation฀than฀would฀ arise฀if฀consumption฀were฀reduced฀and฀a฀larger฀portion฀of฀production฀was฀shared฀by฀ affluent฀countries.฀Clearly,฀environmental฀policy฀needs฀to฀consider฀the฀global฀distribution฀ and฀consequences฀of฀natural฀resource฀extraction฀(Berlik฀et฀al.฀2002). Credit:฀Jon฀P฀Bonetti฀/UNEP/Topfoto ing฀a฀useful฀substance฀from฀a฀raw฀material฀ (NCR&LB฀2003).฀Such฀raw฀materials฀may฀ include฀fossil฀fuels,฀metals,฀minerals,฀water,฀ and฀biomass,฀including฀animals฀and฀raw฀ materials฀from฀plants฀and฀crops฀฀ (EEA฀2001). cent฀between฀2001฀and฀2025,฀from฀404฀ quadrillion฀British฀thermal฀units฀(Btu)฀in฀ 2001฀to฀640฀quadrillion฀Btu฀in฀2025฀(EIA฀ 2003;฀EIA฀2004b).฀While฀a฀slow,฀steady฀increase฀in฀energy฀consumption฀is฀expected฀ in฀industrialized฀nations,฀where฀most฀enResources฀can฀be฀divided฀into฀those฀that฀ ergy฀use฀currently฀takes฀place,฀a฀meteoric฀ increase฀in฀consumption฀is฀anticipated฀in฀ are฀renewable,฀such฀as฀plant฀and฀animal฀ material,฀and฀those฀that฀are฀not,฀including฀ the฀developing฀world฀during฀that฀period฀ (Tilford฀2000). coal,฀oil,฀and฀minerals.฀The฀Earth฀has฀a฀ The฀tempo฀at฀which฀energy฀resources฀ finite฀supply฀of฀non-renewable฀resources.฀ are฀being฀used฀to฀fuel฀modern฀societies฀ Even฀renewable฀resources,฀however,฀are฀ exhaustible฀if฀they฀are฀used฀faster฀than฀they฀ is฀rapidly฀depleting฀supplies฀of฀non-recan฀be฀replenished.฀ newable฀resources฀and฀far฀exceeding฀the฀ rate฀at฀which฀renewable฀resources฀can฀be฀ Total฀world฀energy฀consumption฀has฀ naturally฀renewed฀(Ernst฀2002).฀In฀many฀ risen฀almost฀70฀per฀cent฀since฀1971฀(WRI฀ least–developed฀countries,฀for฀instance,฀ 1998).฀It฀is฀expected฀to฀increase฀by฀58฀per฀ Case฀Study:฀Blackout฀in฀฀ United฀States฀and฀Canada 14฀August฀2003 On฀14฀August฀2003,฀parts฀of฀the฀northeastern฀United฀States฀and฀southeastern฀Canada฀ experienced฀widespread฀power฀blackouts.฀ Among฀the฀major฀urban฀agglomerations฀affected฀by฀the฀electrical฀power฀outage฀were฀ the฀cities฀of฀New฀York฀City,฀Albany,฀and฀Buffalo฀in฀New฀York,฀Cleveland฀and฀Columbus฀ in฀Ohio,฀Detroit฀in฀Michigan,฀and฀Ottawa฀ and฀Toronto฀in฀Ontario,฀Canada.฀฀Other฀ U.S.฀states,฀including฀New฀Jersey,฀Vermont,฀ Pennsylvania,฀Connecticut,฀and฀Massachusetts,฀were฀also฀affected.฀฀The฀blackout฀ resulted฀in฀the฀shutting฀down฀of฀nuclear฀ power฀plants฀in฀New฀York฀and฀Ohio,฀and฀ air฀traffic฀was฀slowed฀as฀flights฀into฀affected฀ airports฀were฀halted.฀Approximately฀50฀ million฀people฀were฀affected฀by฀the฀outage.฀ The฀change฀in฀the฀nighttime฀city฀lights฀is฀ apparent฀in฀this฀pair฀of฀Defense฀Meteorological฀Satellite฀Program฀(DMSP)฀satellite฀ images.฀The฀top฀image฀was฀acquired฀on฀14฀ August,฀about฀20฀hours฀before฀the฀black- burning฀biomass฀in฀the฀form฀of฀wood฀ (largely฀a฀non-renewable฀resource)฀generates฀70฀to฀90฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀energy฀needed฀ and฀disregard฀for฀the฀fate฀of฀non-renewable฀resources฀is฀prevalent.฀In฀the฀United฀ States,฀for฀example,฀72฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀ country’s฀electricity฀is฀generated฀using฀nonrenewable฀resources.฀Only฀about฀10฀per฀ cent฀comes฀from฀renewable฀resources,฀with฀ nuclear฀power฀providing฀the฀rest.฀ Currently,฀85฀per฀cent฀of฀world฀energy฀ consumption฀comes฀from฀the฀burning฀of฀ fossil฀fuels—oil,฀coal,฀and฀natural฀gas฀(BP฀ 2003).฀Although฀no฀immediate฀shortages฀ of฀these฀non-renewable฀energy฀resources฀ exist,฀supplies฀are฀finite฀and฀will฀not฀last฀ forever.฀What฀took฀millions฀of฀years฀to฀฀ out,฀and฀the฀bottom฀image฀shows฀the฀same฀ area฀on฀15฀August,฀roughly฀seven฀hours฀ after฀the฀blackout.฀In฀the฀bottom฀scene,฀ notice฀how฀the฀lights฀in฀Detroit,฀Cleveland,฀ Columbus,฀Toronto,฀and฀Ottowa฀are฀either฀ missing฀or฀visibly฀reduced.฀Previous฀major฀ blackouts฀include฀the฀9฀November฀1965฀ outage฀caused฀by฀a฀faulty฀relay฀at฀a฀power฀ plant฀in฀Ontario,฀which฀affected฀a฀large฀ swath฀of฀land฀stretching฀from฀Toronto฀to฀ New฀York.฀Another฀one฀followed฀on฀14฀ July฀1977,฀the฀result฀of฀a฀lightning฀strike,฀ affecting฀New฀York฀City.฀The฀power฀supply฀ 14฀August฀2003฀before฀power฀failure in฀nine฀western฀states฀was฀also฀affected฀in฀ August฀1996฀as฀a฀result฀of฀a฀high฀demand฀ for฀electricity,฀a฀heat฀wave,฀and฀sagging฀ electrical฀power฀lines.฀ Source:฀NASA฀2002,฀http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/ NaturalHazards/natural_hazards_v2.php3?img_id=11628;฀ GlobalSecurity.org฀2003,฀http://www.globalsecurity.org/eye/ blackout_2003.htm฀ 15฀August฀2003฀after฀power฀failure Credit฀Image฀courtesy฀Chris฀Elvidge,฀U.S.฀Air฀Force฀http://earthobservatory. nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/Archive/Aug2003/NE_US_OLS2003227_lrg.jpg฀ 4444 Case฀Study:฀SWERA,฀the฀Solar฀and฀Wind฀ Energy฀Resource฀Assessment The฀Solar฀and฀Wind฀Energy฀Resource฀Assessment฀ (SWERA)—co-fi฀nanced฀by฀the฀Global฀Environment฀Facility฀(GEF)—is฀a฀project฀to฀assist฀13฀developing฀countries฀identify฀optimal฀locations฀for฀potential฀solar฀and฀wind฀energy฀production.฀SWERA฀ assists฀by฀creating฀a฀global฀archive฀of฀information฀ gathered฀through฀a฀network฀of฀international฀and฀ national฀agencies.฀These฀agencies฀collect฀and฀ analyse฀data฀on฀solar฀and฀wind฀energy฀resources,฀ energy฀demand,฀and฀electrifi฀cation.฀Using฀inputs฀ derived฀from฀satellite฀and฀surface฀observations,฀ SWERA฀partners฀model฀wind฀and฀solar฀energy฀resource฀potential฀and฀produce฀maps฀of฀wind฀power฀ density฀and฀monthly฀average฀and฀daily฀total฀solar฀ radiation฀of฀a฀given฀area.฀This฀information฀can฀ then฀be฀used฀to฀facilitate฀investments฀and฀create฀ policies฀in฀the฀participating฀countries฀for฀developing฀solar฀and฀wind฀energy. Source:฀UNEP/GRID–Sioux฀Falls Credit:฀NREL Credit:฀NCAT/UNEP/NREL Credit:฀Energy฀Northwest/UNEP/NREL 4545 produce฀will฀be฀consumed฀in฀the฀time฀ frame฀of฀a฀century฀or฀two฀(Hawken฀1994;฀ Tilford฀2000). This฀rapid,฀large-scale฀consumption฀of฀a฀ fuel฀source฀that฀took฀millennia฀to฀produce฀ has฀generated฀unforeseen฀complications,฀ several฀with฀global฀implications.฀Burning฀ fossil฀fuels฀produces฀atmospheric฀pollutants฀ such฀as฀oxides฀of฀sulfur฀and฀nitrogen฀and฀ unburned฀hydrocarbons.฀Fossil฀fuel฀combustion฀also฀adds฀one฀of฀the฀most฀prevalent฀ greenhouse฀gases—carbon฀dioxide—to฀the฀ atmosphere.฀As฀a฀result,฀world฀energy฀use฀ has฀emerged฀at฀the฀center฀of฀the฀climate฀ change฀debate.฀World฀carbon฀dioxide฀emissions฀are฀projected฀to฀rise฀from฀ 23฀900฀million฀metric฀tonnes฀in฀2001฀to฀ 27฀700฀million฀metric฀tonnes฀in฀2010฀and฀ 37฀100฀million฀metric฀tonnes฀in฀2025฀(EIA฀ 2004b).฀The฀Earth’s฀atmosphere฀and฀biosphere฀will฀not฀remain฀unchanged฀by฀the฀ combustion฀of฀such฀enormous฀amounts฀of฀ these฀fuels.฀The฀relatively฀sudden฀release฀of฀ massive฀amounts฀of฀carbon฀has฀the฀potential฀not฀only฀to฀disrupt฀the฀Earth’s฀heat฀ balance฀and฀climate,฀but฀other฀parts฀of฀ the฀global฀carbon฀cycle฀as฀well,฀and฀in unpredictable฀ways. The฀Earth฀cannot฀sustain฀existing฀levels฀ of฀resource฀consumption.฀Furthermore,฀ resource฀extraction฀methods฀are฀often฀ environmentally฀destructive.฀The฀impact฀ of฀environmental฀degradation฀hits฀those฀ who฀are฀poorest฀the฀hardest.฀Many฀of฀the฀ world’s฀energy฀sources฀and฀other฀natural฀ resources฀come฀from฀developing฀countries.฀ Extracting฀and฀harvesting฀these฀resources฀ can฀result฀in฀air,฀soil,฀and฀water฀pollution.฀ It฀also฀generates฀waste;฀the฀amount฀of฀waste฀ associated฀with฀extracting฀minerals,฀for฀ instance,฀can฀be฀enormous.฀Disposing฀of฀ wastes฀in฀environmentally฀friendly฀ways฀is฀ a฀daunting,฀if฀not฀impossible,฀task฀in฀many฀ developing฀nations. ฀A฀major฀challenge฀for฀the฀21st฀century฀ is฀to฀develop฀methods฀of฀generating฀and฀using฀energy฀that฀meet฀the฀needs฀of฀the฀population฀while฀protecting฀the฀planet฀(Harrison฀and฀Pearce฀2001).฀Yet฀most฀of฀the฀world฀ is฀still฀without฀energy฀policies฀that฀direct฀or฀ restrict฀consumption฀patterns. Only฀through฀conservation฀and฀resource฀ recovery฀strategies฀can฀we฀hope฀to฀reach฀a฀ sustainable฀balance฀between฀available฀resources฀and฀their฀consumption.฀The฀utiliza- Sources฀of฀Energy Coal Coal฀is฀the฀world’s฀largest฀source฀of฀fuel฀for฀ electricity฀production.฀The฀byproducts฀of฀coal฀ combustion฀are฀also฀a฀major฀source฀of฀environmental฀damage. Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/Freefoto.com Oil Although฀used฀primarily฀in฀the฀production฀ of฀transportation฀fuels,฀oil฀is฀also฀used฀for฀ generating฀electricity,฀for฀heating,฀and฀in฀the฀ production฀of฀chemical฀compounds฀and฀synthetic฀materials. Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/Freefoto.com Natural฀Gas Compared฀to฀coal฀and฀oil,฀natural฀gas฀is฀a฀ relatively฀clean-burning฀fossil฀fuel.฀It฀is฀used฀ primarily฀for฀heating฀and฀for฀powering฀many฀ industrial฀processes.฀Increasingly,฀natural฀gas฀ is฀burned฀to฀drive฀turbines฀used฀in฀the฀production฀of฀electricity. Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/Freefoto.com Biomass Plant฀and฀animal฀material,฀or฀biomass,฀is฀a฀ rich฀source฀of฀carbon฀compounds.฀When฀ burned฀to฀release฀energy,฀biomass฀does฀not฀ add฀additional฀carbon฀to฀the฀natural฀carbon฀ cycle฀as฀do฀fossil฀fuels.฀Fast-growing฀plants,฀ such฀as฀switchgrass,฀willow,฀and฀poplar฀can฀ be฀harvested฀and฀used฀as฀“energy฀crops.”฀ Biomass฀wastes,฀including฀forest฀residues,฀ lumber฀and฀paper฀mill฀waste,฀crop฀wastes,฀ garbage,฀and฀landfi฀ll฀and฀sewage฀gas,฀can฀be฀ used฀for฀heating,฀as฀transportation฀fuels,฀and฀ to฀produce฀electricity,฀while฀at฀the฀same฀time฀ reducing฀environmental฀burdens.฀According฀ to฀the฀World฀Bank,฀50฀to฀60฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀energy฀used฀in฀developing฀countries฀in฀Asia,฀and฀ 70฀to฀90฀per฀cent฀used฀in฀developing฀countries฀ in฀Africa,฀comes฀from฀wood฀or฀other฀biomass;฀ half฀the฀world฀cooks฀with฀wood. Credit:฀Volker฀Quaschning/UNEP Sources: www.freefoto.com,฀http://www.topfoto.co.uk/,฀Prof.฀Dr.-Ing.฀habil.฀Volker฀Quaschning฀http://www.volker-quaschning.de 46 Nuclear Nuclear฀power฀harnesses฀the฀heat฀of฀radioactive฀materials฀to฀produce฀steam฀for฀ electricity฀generation.฀The฀use฀of฀nuclear฀ power฀is฀expected฀to฀decline฀as฀aging฀ plants฀are฀taken฀out฀of฀operation. Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/Freefoto.com Hydroelectric Credit:฀Volker฀Quaschning/UNEP Hydroelectric฀power฀uses฀the฀force฀of฀moving฀water฀to฀produce฀electricity.฀A฀large฀ part฀of฀the฀world’s฀electricity฀is฀produced฀in฀ hydroelectric฀plants.฀Many฀of฀these฀plants,฀ however,฀are฀associated฀with฀large฀dams฀that฀ disrupt฀habitats฀and฀displace฀people.฀Smaller฀“run฀of฀the฀river”฀hydroelectric฀plants฀ have฀less฀environmental฀impact. Geothermal Geothermal฀energy฀is฀energy฀contained฀in฀ intense฀heat฀that฀continually฀fl฀ows฀outward฀ from฀deep฀within฀the฀Earth.฀Geothermal฀ energy฀is฀typically฀used฀to฀heat฀water,฀which฀ is฀then฀used฀to฀heat฀buildings฀directly฀or฀to฀ drive฀turbines฀to฀produce฀electricity. Credit:฀Lupidi/UNEP/Topfoto Solar Credit:฀Anthony฀Karbowski/UNEP/Topfoto Solar฀energy—power฀from฀the฀sun—is฀ readily฀available฀and฀inexhaustible.฀Humans฀have฀used฀sunlight฀for฀heating฀and฀ drying฀for฀thousands฀of฀years.฀Converting฀ the฀power฀of฀sunlight฀into฀usable฀energy฀ forms,฀such฀as฀electricity,฀is฀not฀without฀ cost,฀but฀the฀sunlight฀itself฀is฀free.฀Solar฀ cells,฀or฀photovoltaics,฀are฀devices฀used฀to฀ transform฀sunlight฀into฀electric฀current. Wind Wind฀power฀is฀an฀ancient฀energy฀source฀ that฀has฀moved฀into฀the฀modern฀era.฀Aerodynamically฀designed฀wind฀turbines฀can฀ produce฀electricity฀more฀cheaply฀than฀coalburning฀power฀plants. Credit:฀Sanjay฀Singh/UNEP/Topfoto tion฀of฀non-renewable฀resources฀is฀ theoretically฀not฀sustainable.฀But฀if฀used฀ wisely,฀some฀non-renewable฀resources฀can฀ be฀conserved฀and฀recycled฀for฀a฀very฀long฀ time.฀To฀recycle฀means฀to฀make฀new฀products฀from฀old฀ones.฀Recycling฀materials฀ such฀as฀paper,฀aluminum,฀and฀glass฀saves฀ energy,฀reduces฀pollution,฀and฀conserves฀ natural฀resources฀(EPA฀2003).฀Every฀nation฀ must฀assume฀responsibility฀for฀recycling฀ its฀own฀wastes.฀Some฀industrialized฀Western฀countries฀“dispose”฀of฀their฀electronic฀ wastes฀by฀shipping฀them฀to฀Asia—an฀increasingly฀common฀practice฀(FOEE฀2004). To฀insure฀that฀renewable฀resources฀ can฀be฀replenished฀at฀a฀sustainable฀rate,฀ people฀must฀switch฀to฀more฀environmentally฀friendly฀energy฀sources฀and฀employ฀ new฀technologies฀that฀can฀help฀make฀such฀ sustainability฀a฀reality฀(Ernst฀2002).฀Indeed,฀ new฀technologies—coupled฀with฀effective฀ and฀effi฀cient฀use฀of฀existing฀technologies— are฀essential฀to฀increasing฀the฀capabilities฀ of฀countries฀to฀achieve฀sustainable฀development฀on฀many฀fronts,฀as฀well฀as฀sustaining฀the฀world’s฀economy,฀protecting฀the฀ environment,฀and฀alleviating฀poverty฀and฀ human฀suffering฀(Hay฀and฀Noonan฀2000). Most฀changes฀in฀the฀Earth,฀including฀ changes฀brought฀about฀by฀increasing฀energy฀consumption,฀can฀be฀observed฀through฀ such฀tools฀as฀remote฀sensing.฀฀Remote฀ sensing฀is฀the฀collection฀of฀information฀ about฀an฀object฀without฀being฀in฀physical฀ contact฀with฀the฀object.฀Aircraft฀and฀satellites฀are฀the฀common฀platforms฀from฀which฀ remote฀sensing฀observations฀are฀made.฀ Satellite฀imagery,฀a฀crucial฀component฀of฀ this฀publication,฀is฀especially฀useful฀for฀ studying฀changes฀in฀our฀Earth’s฀environment.฀Most฀satellite฀imagery฀is฀collected฀ using฀multispectral฀scanners,฀which฀record฀ light฀intensities฀in฀different฀wavelengths฀in฀ the฀spectrum฀from฀infrared฀through฀visible฀light฀through฀ultraviolet฀light.฀Satellite฀imagery฀is฀useful฀because฀of฀its฀stable฀ nature฀(same฀resolution,฀same฀time,฀same฀ data฀characteristics).฀Aided฀by฀the฀global฀ positioning฀system฀(GPS),฀these฀satellites฀ know฀their฀orbital฀position฀precisely.฀Thus,฀ satellite฀imagery฀is฀ideally฀suited฀for฀applications฀requiring฀large-area฀coverage,฀such฀as฀ agricultural฀monitoring,฀regional฀mapping,฀ environmental฀assessment,฀฀and฀infrastructure฀planning฀(Krouse฀et฀al.฀2000).฀฀ 47 48 MINING THE฀BLACK฀TRIANGLE,฀EUROPE 48 48 The so-called Black Triangle is an area bordered by Germany, Poland, and the Czech Republic and is the site of extensive surface coal mining operations. In the 1975 satellite image above, the gray areas are surface mines located primarily in the Czech Republic. Air-borne pollutants from coal extraction activities tended to become trapped by the mountainous terrain to the northeast and were concentrated in the area around the mines, eventually causing severe deforestation along the border between the Czech Republic and Germany. In the 2000 image, this deforestation is very obvious, appearing as large brownish patches. Interestingly, the 2000 image also reveals somewhat improved vegetation cover—a slight “greening” of the landscape—as compared to conditions in 1975. Some of this improvement may be attributable to actions taken by the three countries bordering the Black Triangle to reduce pollutants produced by the mining operations. The implementation of anti-pollution technologies, including circulating fluidized-bed boilers, clean coal technology, and nitrous oxide emission burners, appears to have reversed some, albeit not all, of the environmental damage experienced by the region as a result of the mines. 49 49 In one year up to 67 000 tonnes of sulfur dioxide, 500 tonnes of lead, 400 tonnes of zinc and 4 tonnes of cadmium can be released by the city’s two active smelters. The affected area is huge: in excess of 180 000 hectares (445 000 acres) of land are affected by air pollution and 150 000 hectares (371 000 acres) of agricultural land are untenable. 31 000 hectares (77 000 acres) of forest are also unacceptably polluted. Credit:฀Lorant฀Czaran/UNEP MINING 50 50 ¸ ฀MICA,฀ROMANIA COPSA ¸ Mica is a large industrial city located in the very center of Copsa Romania and is classified as an “environmental disaster area.” The environmentally damaged area covers hundreds of square kilometres of ¸ Mica are non-ferrous metalworking land. The main industries in Copsa and chemical processing plants, and their effect on the environment has been devastating. Air pollution by heavy metals is 600 times the allowed levels. To make matters worse, a lead-smelting facility emitted fumes containing sulfur dioxide, lead, cadmium, and zinc on the town and surrounding area for 50 km2 (19 square miles). The entire town and much of the surrounding area were covered with a blanket of black soot daily until the facilities were forced to close in 1993. In 1989 Copsa ¸ Mica was exposed as one of the most polluted places in Europe. It has the highest infant mortality rate in Europe, 30.2 per cent of children suffer reduced “lung function” and 10 per cent of the total population of 20 000 suffer “neurobehavioral problems.” The soil and the local food chain probably will remain contaminated for at least another three decades. 51 51 MINING ESCONDIDA,฀CHILE 52 52 Located at an elevation of 3 050 m (10 006 ft), Chile’s Escondida Mine is an open-pit copper, gold, and silver mine and also the largest copper mine in the world. Isolated in the barren, arid Atacama Desert in the country’s far north, the Escondida Mine relies heavily on external well fields for the water used in its mining operations. Unlike similar mining operations, however, Escondida has a redeveloped tailings impoundment, which appears on the 1989 image as a white patch in the lower left corner. Impoundments of this type help reduce water consumption and enhance water conservation, two areas where mining activities typically fall short. The Escondida Mine also minimizes the impact of its operation on the environment by means of a 170-km-long (106 miles) underground pipeline that carries copper concentrate slurry from the mine to the port of Coloso. This underground scheme is efficient and ecologically sound, as the copper travels downhill without disrupting the environment. The 2003 image shows how the Escondida Mine has grown and expanded while at the same time continues to minimize negative impacts from its mining operations on the environment. 53 53 M INING E C KATI ,฀ 54 54 ANADA As of 2001, the Ekati Mine was North America’s only operating diamond mine. Located in the north central Northwestern Territories (NWT) of Canada, the mine yields raw diamonds from a sparsely inhabited sub-arctic region. Air transport connects mine personnel and supplies year-round, while a single winter ice road provides the only vehicular access just ten weeks per year. Expanded mining exploration in the 1990s began a new era for this otherwise undeveloped region. Wildlife officials have collared and tracked caribou, in a herd ranging from 350 000 to half a million, to monitor their movement and behavior in proximity to the mines. Historical information about the herds comes from Dogrib and Inuit knowledge obtained from elder natives who still inhabit the NWT, and who have depended on the caribou for centuries. These two images compare the same area, pre-mining and after mine operations have commenced. The white patch in the northwest portion of the 2000 image represents the mine and the associated infrastructure. 55 55 MINING OK฀TEDI฀MINE,฀PAPUA฀NEW฀G 56 56 The controversial Ok Tedi copper mine is located at the headwaters of the Ok Tedi River, a tributary of the Fly River, in extremely rough terrain in the rainforest-covered Star Mountains of Papua New Guinea’s western province. Prior UINEA to the opening of the mine in 1984, this area was very isolated, sparsely inhabited, and ecologically pristine. This pair of satellite images reveals the tremendous environmental impact the mine has had in 20 years. The uncontrolled discharge of 70 million tonnes of waste rock and mine tailings annually has spread more than 1 000 km (621 miles) down the Ok Tedi and Fly rivers, raising river beds and causing flooding, sediment deposition, forest damage, and a serious decline in the area’s biodiversity. In the 1990 image, both the mine and the township of Tabubil—developed east of the river in support of the mine—are clearly visible. Lighter patches of green show disturbance of the original forest cover from subsistence agriculture, road clearing, and other infrastructure development. 57 57 M INING P R B OWDER ฀ 58 58 IVER ฀ ASIN ,฀ UNITED฀STATES The Powder River basin, located in northeast Wyoming and southeast Montana, is a core area of coal and natural gas production in the United States. Coal mining activities in the basin date back to 1975. In recent years surface mining in Wyoming has mushroomed, making it the leading coal producer in America at almost 300 000 tonnes per year. Similarly, coal bed methane gas development in this region is unrivaled in the U.S. The images show areas under coal exploitation. Notable is the remarkable increase in mining operations in the 2001 image. Reasons for the expansion include improvements in the area’s rail network, the high grade of the coal deposits, and the depletion of high-grade deposits in other major coal mining areas such as West Virginia and Kentucky. The open cast coal mines appear as white-purplish while the reddish brown areas are bare ground. Vegetated areas are green. 59 59 MINING WEIPA฀BAUXITE฀MINE,฀AUSTRALIA 60 60 Mining of bauxite (aluminum ore) began at Weipa, on the Cape York Pennisula in Queensland, Australia, in 1963. The mine produces 8.5 metric tonnes of ore annually, making it one of the world’s largest open-cut bauxite mines. Under current mining practices, vegetation is cleared and the topsoil is removed and either stockpiled for later use or immediately The total lease covers an area of approximately 2 590 km2 (1 000 square miles) of which 68 km2 (26 square miles) have been mined. Approximately four km2 (1.5 square miles) of the mined land is revegetated each year, and over 50 km2 (19 square miles) of land has been revegetated to date. replaced on previous mined areas. After topsoil removal, the bauxite is removed, resulting in a lowering of the entire landscape to a depth equivalent to the thickness of the orebody, often several meters. If the topsoil can be returned to a mined-out area after only a short time, it still contains most of the original soil fungi, bacteria and micro fauna. In addition, the seeds from the original plant community are likely to be viable. On slopes, rigorous soil conservation measures are implemented, and the area is then normally planted with suitable native species so that it gradually reverts to bushland. 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Black฀Triangle Ardö,฀J.,฀Lambert,฀N.฀J.,฀Henzlik,฀V.฀and฀Rock,฀B.฀N.฀(1997).฀Satellite฀Based฀ Estimations฀of฀Coniferous฀Forest฀Cover฀Changes,฀Krusne฀Hory,฀Czech฀ Republic,฀1972-1989.฀Ambio,฀Volume฀26,฀No.฀3.,฀158-166. UNEP฀(1992).฀The฀World฀Atlas฀of฀Desertification,฀First฀Edition. Powder฀River฀Basin,฀Wyoming Wyoming฀Oil฀and฀Gas฀Conservation฀Commission฀(n.d.).฀Map฀of฀coalbed฀distribution,฀http://wogcc.state.wy.us/CoalBedTwpRge.฀ htm?RequestTimeout=3500฀on฀3฀March฀2005;฀Statistics.฀http://wogcc. state.wy.us/coalbedchart.cfm?RequestTimeout=3500฀on฀3฀March฀2005. Site฀References Tilman,฀D.,฀Fargione,฀J.,฀Wolff,฀B.,฀D’Antonio,฀C.,฀Dobson,฀A.,฀Howarth,฀R.,฀ Schindler,฀D.,฀Schlesinger,฀W.฀H.,฀Simberloff,฀D.,฀Swackhamer,฀D.฀(2001). Forecasting฀agriculturally฀driven฀global฀environmental฀change.฀Science฀ 292:฀281-284.฀http://pangea.stanford.edu/courses/GES56Q/Tilman2001Agriculture%20and%20Env%20Change.pdf฀on฀5฀May฀2004. UN฀(2000).฀Dialogue฀among฀Civilizations฀and฀Cultures:฀Resolution฀adopted฀ without฀a฀vote฀by฀the฀103rd฀Inter-Parliamentary฀Conference,฀Amman,฀ Jordan,฀5฀May฀2000.฀http://www.dialoguecentre.org/PDF/culture.pdf฀on฀ 20฀July฀2005. Claassen,฀D.฀(2004).฀Personal฀Communication.฀October฀2004.฀About฀the฀Environment฀(2001).฀Ok฀Tedi฀Mining฀Limited.฀http://www.oktedi.com/฀ resources/pages/aboutEnvironment.php฀on฀3฀March฀2005. Wurm,฀S.฀A.฀(1970).฀Atlas฀of฀the฀world’s฀languages฀in฀danger฀of฀disappearing.UNESCO฀Publishing,฀90.฀http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/฀ ev.php@URL_ID=2229&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html฀ on฀25฀April฀2004. NASA’s฀Earth฀Observatory,฀Changes฀in฀Biochemical฀Cycles.฀www.eos-ids.sr.unh. edu/ids-cycles.html฀on฀15฀December฀2004.฀Czech฀Power฀Company฀CEZ,฀ a.s.฀http://www.cez.cz/eng/฀on฀14฀December฀2004. UCS฀(2004).฀FAO฀Report:฀Enough฀food฀in฀the฀future--without฀genetically฀ engineered฀crops.฀Food฀and฀Environment.฀Backgrounder.฀Union฀of฀ Concerned฀Scientists,฀Cambridge,฀Massachusetts,฀USA.฀http://www.ucsusa.฀ org/food_and_environment/biotechnology/page.cfm?pageID=331฀on฀3฀ May฀2004. Ok฀Tedi฀Mine,฀Papua฀New฀Guinea WRI฀(2000).฀World฀Resources฀2000-2001:฀People฀and฀ecosystems:฀The฀fraying฀ web฀of฀life.฀World฀Resources฀Institute฀in฀cooperation฀with฀United฀Nations,฀ Washington,฀DC,฀USA. Tilford,฀D.฀(2000).฀Why฀Consumption฀Matters.฀Center฀for฀a฀New฀American฀ Dream.฀http://www.newdream.org/core/whyconsumptionmatters9. html#_edn177฀on฀18฀April฀2004. UCS฀(2003).฀Clean฀Energy:฀The฀Sources฀of฀Energy,฀Union฀of฀Concerned฀Scientists,฀Cambridge,฀Massachusetts,฀USA.฀http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/renewable_energy/page.cfm?pageID=77฀on฀19฀April฀2004. Etaki฀Mine,฀Canada Copsa฀Mica_Romania Thompson,฀J.฀(1991).฀East฀Europe’s฀Dark฀Dawn,฀The฀Iron฀Curtain฀Rises฀to฀Reveal฀a฀Land฀tarnished฀by฀Pollution.฀National฀Geographic฀Magazine,฀36-69฀ Volume฀179,฀No.฀6฀June฀1991. Czaran,฀L.฀(2004).฀Personal฀Communication. Escondida฀Mine,฀Chile SPG฀Media฀Limited.฀(2004).฀http://www.mining-technology.com/฀on฀3฀March฀ 2005. NASA’s฀Earth฀Observatory.฀http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/฀ NewImages/images.php3?img_id=4492฀on฀3฀March฀2005. 63 Daylight฀Map฀of฀the฀World Credit:฀UNEP/NASA 64 65 66 Credit:฀Hu฀Zong฀Huu/UNEP/Topfoto 3 Human Impacts on the Planet Visualising Change over Time Human฀interactions฀with฀the฀environment฀ leave฀many฀traces.฀฀For฀much฀of฀human฀ history,฀human฀impact฀on฀the฀Earth’s฀ surface฀has฀been฀relatively฀minor.฀In฀the฀ last฀several฀hundred฀years,฀however,฀that฀ impact฀has฀grown฀tremendously.฀Change฀ brought฀about฀by฀human฀activities฀can฀now฀ be฀objectively฀measured;฀it฀can฀even฀be฀ seen฀from฀space.฀A฀study฀by฀the฀National฀ Aeronautics฀and฀Space฀Administration฀ (NASA฀2003a)฀known฀as฀The฀Human฀Footprint฀(Figure฀3.1)฀is฀a฀quantitative฀analysis฀ of฀human฀influence฀across฀the฀globe฀that฀ illustrates฀the฀impact฀of฀people฀and฀their฀ activities฀on฀the฀Earth.฀ Map฀of฀the฀Human฀Footprint Evidence฀of฀change฀is฀not฀always฀visible฀on฀the฀landscape.฀Change฀also฀occurs฀ in฀the฀atmosphere,฀in฀the฀soil,฀and฀in฀the฀ oceans฀and฀other฀water฀bodies.฀In฀these฀ environments,฀evidence฀of฀change฀can฀ still฀be฀“seen,”฀however,฀by฀detecting฀and฀ measuring฀things฀such฀as฀rising฀average฀ global฀temperatures,฀the฀concentrations฀of฀ certain฀gases฀in฀the฀atmosphere,฀and฀various฀chemical฀contaminants฀in฀water.฀฀ Figure฀3.1:฀The฀Human฀Footprint฀is฀a฀quantitative฀analysis฀of฀human฀influence฀on฀the฀Earth’s฀surface.฀In฀this฀ map,฀human฀impact฀is฀rated฀on฀a฀scale฀from฀0฀(minimum)฀to฀100฀(maximum)฀for฀each฀terrestrial฀biome.฀The฀ color฀green฀indicates฀areas฀of฀minimal฀impact฀while฀purple฀indicates฀areas฀of฀major฀impact.฀Credit:฀Scott,฀Michon฀ Change฀alone฀is฀not฀the฀only฀problem.฀ It฀is฀the฀degree฀to฀which฀human฀activities฀ are฀changing฀the฀Earth฀that฀is฀also฀cause฀ 2003.฀The฀Human฀Footprint.฀NASA:฀Socioeconomic฀Data฀and฀Applications฀Center.฀Source:฀http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/ NewImages/Images/human_footprint.gif฀ for฀growing฀concern.฀For฀instance,฀the฀ results฀of฀a฀recent฀ten-year฀study฀concerning฀the฀ecological฀effects฀of฀industrialized฀ fishing฀in฀the฀world’s฀oceans฀reveals฀that฀ large฀predatory฀fish฀species฀including฀ tuna,฀marlin,฀sharks,฀cod,฀and฀halibut฀have฀ declined฀by฀an฀estimated฀90฀per฀cent฀from฀ pre-industrial฀levels฀(Myers฀and฀Warm฀ 2003).฀Furthermore,฀the฀average฀size฀of฀ surviving฀individuals฀among฀these฀species฀ is฀only฀one-fifth฀to฀one-half฀what฀it฀was฀ previously.฀฀ The฀composition฀of฀the฀Earth’s฀atmosphere฀is฀also฀undergoing฀rapid฀change.฀ Since฀life฀began฀on฀Earth,฀changes฀in฀ climate฀have฀ordered฀the฀distribution฀of฀ Credit:฀Apollo฀Mbabaz/UNEP/Topfoto 67 Credit:฀Paiboon฀Pattanasitubol฀/UNEP/Topfoto organisms฀and฀their฀behavior.฀Today,฀฀ increases฀in฀atmospheric฀concentrations฀ of฀greenhouse฀gases฀are฀expected฀to฀cause฀ more฀rapid฀changes฀in฀the฀Earth’s฀climate฀ than฀have฀been฀experienced฀for฀millennia฀ (Figure฀3.2).฀฀At฀least฀some฀of฀the฀increase฀ globally฀is฀due฀to฀human฀activity,฀and฀ certainly,฀local฀impacts฀such฀as฀urban฀heat฀ islands฀have฀profound฀effects฀on฀regional฀ climatic฀conditions.฀As฀shown฀in฀Figure฀3.2,฀ waste฀generation฀and฀disposal฀is฀one฀of฀the฀ ways฀in฀which฀humans฀contribute฀greenhouse฀gases฀to฀the฀atmosphere. An฀emerging฀global฀impact฀issue฀is฀that฀ of฀electronic฀or฀E-waste—a฀collective฀term฀ for฀discarded฀electronic฀devices.฀Over฀the฀ past฀decade,฀E-waste฀has฀become฀one฀of฀ the฀world’s฀fastest฀growing฀waste฀streams฀ and—due฀to฀the฀presence฀of฀lead,฀merFigure฀3.2:฀The฀disposal฀and฀treatment฀of฀waste฀can฀ produce฀emissions฀of฀several฀greenhouse฀gases฀that฀ contribute฀to฀global฀climate฀change.฀Even฀the฀recycling฀of฀waste฀produces฀some฀emissions,฀although฀ these฀are฀offset฀by฀the฀reduction฀in฀fossil฀fuels฀that฀ would฀be฀required฀to฀obtain฀new฀raw฀materials.฀Both฀ waste฀prevention฀and฀recycling฀help฀address฀global฀ climate฀change฀by฀decreasing฀greenhouse฀gas฀emissions฀and฀saving฀energy฀(Environmental฀Protection฀ Agency).฀Source:฀http://www.grid.unep.ch/waste/html_file/4243_climate_change.html฀ 68 cury,฀brominated฀flame฀retardants,฀and฀ other฀hazardous฀substances—one฀of฀the฀ most฀toxic.฀The฀disposal฀of฀computer฀waste฀ in฀particular฀is฀becoming฀a฀difficult฀issue฀as฀ millions฀of฀computers฀and฀other฀electronic฀ devices฀are฀rapidly฀becoming฀obsolete฀as฀ each฀year฀the฀industry฀produces฀ever-greater฀quantities฀of฀less-expensive฀equipment.฀ There฀are฀an฀estimated฀300฀million฀obsolete฀computers฀in฀the฀United฀States,฀with฀ fewer฀that฀ten฀per฀cent฀destined฀for฀recy- cling฀each฀year.฀Even฀when฀a฀computer฀is฀ sold฀to฀a฀secondhand฀parts฀dealer,฀however,฀ there฀is฀a฀good฀chance฀it฀will฀end฀up฀฀ in฀a฀dump฀in฀the฀developing฀world฀฀ (Figure฀3.3).฀ The฀Earth’s฀forests฀are฀also฀under฀ pressure.฀Tropical฀forests฀are฀now฀being฀ subjected฀to฀the฀same฀heavy฀exploitation฀ as฀were฀temperate฀forests฀a฀few฀generations฀ago.฀Pressures฀from฀logging,฀mining,฀ hydropower,฀and฀a฀hunger฀for฀land฀are฀ leading฀to฀large฀areas฀of฀forest฀being฀converted฀to฀serve฀other฀purposes.฀The฀integrity฀of฀forest฀ecosystems฀is฀being฀affected฀ as฀the฀timber฀and฀paper฀industries฀remove฀ vast฀areas฀of฀mature฀tropical฀and฀temperate฀ forests.฀As฀a฀consequence,฀forest฀ecosystems฀lose฀their฀ability฀to฀support฀complex฀ biodiversity฀and฀thousands฀of฀plant฀and฀ animal฀species฀disappear฀forever. Several฀globally฀signifi฀cant฀environmental฀trends฀that฀have฀occurred฀between฀ 1980฀and฀2000฀may฀also฀be฀contributing฀to฀ loss฀of฀forest฀ecosystems,฀including฀global฀ warming฀(the฀two฀warmest฀decades฀on฀ record฀are฀the฀1980s฀and฀1990s),฀three฀intense฀El฀Niño฀events,฀changes฀in฀cloudiness฀ and฀monsoon฀dynamics,฀and฀a฀9.3฀ per฀cent฀increase฀in฀atmospheric฀CO2.฀Although฀these฀factors,฀along฀with฀others,฀are฀ thought฀to฀exert฀their฀infl฀uence฀globally,฀ their฀relative฀roles฀are฀still฀unclear.฀ An฀observed฀decline฀in฀tropical฀cloud฀ cover฀is฀probably฀one฀of฀the฀more฀important฀recent฀climatic฀changes,฀although฀ none฀of฀the฀existing฀climate฀models฀can฀ accurately฀simulate฀this฀effect.฀It฀is฀known฀ that฀continued฀reductions฀in฀tropical฀cloud฀ cover,฀if฀accompanied฀by฀reduced฀rainfall,฀ will฀have฀profound฀implications฀for฀tropical฀ ecosystems฀in฀terms฀of฀water฀stress,฀productivity,฀ecological฀community฀composition,฀ and฀disturbance฀patterns. Images฀of฀Change Various฀types฀of฀ground-based฀instruments,฀ together฀with฀in฀situ฀surveys฀and฀analyses,฀ can฀measure฀many฀of฀the฀changes฀being฀ brought฀about฀on฀the฀Earth฀as฀a฀result฀of฀ human฀activities.฀฀But฀such฀changes฀can฀ also฀be฀observed—in฀more฀detail฀and฀with฀ a฀“big฀picture”฀perspective—from฀space฀by฀ Earth-orbiting฀satellites฀that฀gather฀images฀ of฀the฀Earth’s฀surface฀at฀regular฀intervals.฀ The฀Landsat฀series฀of฀Earth-observing฀ satellites฀has฀compiled฀a฀data฀record฀of฀the฀ planet’s฀land฀surfaces฀that฀spans฀the฀past฀ thirty฀years฀and฀continues฀today.฀฀ By฀comparing฀two฀images฀of฀the฀same฀ area฀taken฀ten,฀twenty,฀or฀even฀thirty฀years฀ apart,฀it฀is฀often฀easy฀to฀see฀human-induced฀ changes฀in฀a฀particular฀landscape.฀฀Few฀ places฀remain฀on฀our฀planet฀that฀do฀ not฀show฀at฀least฀some฀impact฀from฀ human฀activities.฀ The฀focus฀of฀this฀chapter฀is฀a฀set฀of฀ specifi฀c฀case฀studies฀in฀which฀satellite฀images,฀taken฀at฀different฀times,฀are฀paired฀ so฀as฀to฀reveal฀changes฀and฀human฀impacts฀ on฀the฀atmosphere,฀oceans฀and฀coastal฀ zones,฀freshwater฀ecosystems฀and฀wetlands,฀ forests,฀croplands,฀grasslands,฀urban฀areas,฀ and฀the฀tundra฀regions. The฀changes฀that฀we฀see฀in฀pairs฀of฀ satellite฀images฀should฀make฀us฀cautious.฀ Some฀are฀positive฀changes.฀But฀many฀more฀ are฀negative.฀These฀images฀could฀be฀seen฀ as฀warning฀signs.฀At฀the฀least฀they฀should฀ provide฀us฀with฀food฀for฀thought฀and฀ prompt฀us฀to฀ask฀pointed฀questions:฀How฀ can฀we฀be฀more฀protective฀of฀our฀environment?฀How฀can฀we฀use฀the฀environment฀in฀ ways฀that฀will฀not฀reduce฀the฀ability฀of฀the฀ Earth฀to฀support฀us฀in฀perpetuity?฀ Figure฀3.3:฀The฀high฀tech฀boom฀has฀been฀accompanied฀by฀E-waste,฀which฀represents฀the฀largest฀and฀fastest-growing฀type฀of฀manufacturing฀waste฀product.฀฀ Recycling฀E-waste฀involves฀major฀producers฀and฀users,฀and฀the฀shipping฀of฀ obsolete฀equipment฀and฀other฀products฀to฀Asia,฀Eastern฀Europe,฀and฀Africa฀where฀ recyclers,฀such฀as฀the฀people฀in฀this฀photo,฀are฀exposed฀to฀toxic฀substances.Source:฀ http://www.grid.unep.ch/waste/html_fi฀le/36-37_ewaste.html฀ Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/Basel฀Action฀Network 69 70 Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/Morgue฀File 71 3.1 Atmosphere T he฀Earth’s฀atmosphere฀is฀a฀collecExosphere tion฀of฀gases,฀vapor,฀and฀particu400 km altitude lates฀that฀together฀form฀a฀blanket฀ 300 km of฀“air”฀that฀surrounds฀the฀planet.฀The฀ Thermosphere atmosphere฀extends฀over฀560฀km฀(348฀ 50 km Mesosphere miles)฀from฀the฀surface฀of฀the฀Earth฀out฀ 40 km Stratosphere toward฀space,฀and฀can฀be฀roughly฀divided฀ 10 km Troposphere into฀five฀major฀layers฀or฀sections฀(Figure฀ 3.4).฀The฀primary฀components฀of฀the฀atmosphere฀are฀three฀gases:฀nitrogen฀(N2,฀78฀ per฀cent),฀oxygen฀(O2,฀21฀per฀cent),฀and฀ argon฀(Ar,฀1฀per฀cent).฀Other฀components,฀ present฀in฀smaller฀amounts,฀include฀water฀ vapor฀(H2O,฀0-7฀per฀cent),฀ozone฀(O3,฀0Figure฀3.4:฀The฀Earth’s฀atmosphere฀Credit:฀Used฀with฀permission฀from฀Centre฀for฀Atmospheric฀Science,฀University฀of฀Cam0.01฀per฀cent),฀and฀carbon฀dioxide฀(CO2,฀ bridge,฀UK.฀Source:฀http://www.atm.ch.cam.ac.uk/tour/atmosphere.html 0.01-0.1฀per฀cent)฀(Phillips฀1995).฀ Human฀activities฀impact฀the฀Earth’s฀ Ozone฀Depletion The฀Earth’s฀atmosphere฀plays฀many฀ atmosphere฀in฀many฀ways.฀Some฀activities฀ Ozone฀is฀a฀relatively฀unstable฀molecule,฀ vital฀roles฀essential฀to฀sustaining฀life฀on฀ produce฀a฀quite฀direct฀effect,฀such฀as฀genmade฀up฀of฀three฀oxygen฀atoms฀(O3).฀In฀ the฀planet.฀The฀air฀we฀breathe฀circulates฀ erating฀and฀releasing฀pollutants฀that฀foul฀ the฀atmosphere,฀ozone฀is฀formed฀naturally฀ through฀its฀lowest฀level.฀The฀chemical฀elethe฀air,฀and฀adding฀carbon฀dioxide฀and฀ in฀the฀stratosphere.฀It฀is฀concentrated฀ ments฀carbon,฀nitrogen,฀oxygen,฀and฀hyother฀greenhouse฀gases฀to฀the฀atmosphere฀ there฀as฀an฀“ozone฀layer”฀that฀acts฀as฀a฀ drogen,฀which฀are฀constituents฀of฀all฀living฀ that฀induce฀global฀warming฀and฀climate฀ protective฀shield฀against฀harmful฀ultraviothings,฀are฀cycled฀and฀recycled฀in฀the฀atmo- change.฀Other฀human฀impacts,฀such฀as฀ let฀(UV)฀radiation฀coming฀from฀the฀Sun.฀ sphere.฀Organisms฀convert฀these฀elements฀ water฀pollution,฀land฀degradation,฀and฀ The฀loss฀of฀stratospheric฀ozone฀allows฀ into฀carbohydrates,฀proteins,฀and฀other฀ human-induced฀loss฀of฀biodiversity,฀can฀ more฀UV฀radiation฀to฀reach฀the฀Earth’s฀ chemical฀compounds.฀The฀atmosphere฀ indirectly฀affect฀the฀atmosphere,฀as฀well฀as฀ surface,฀where฀it฀can฀cause฀skin฀cancer฀and฀฀฀ also฀shields฀life฀on฀the฀planet’s฀surface฀ the฀water฀and฀land. cataracts฀in฀people฀and฀negatively฀affect฀ from฀harmful฀solar฀radiation,฀and—for฀the฀ In฀this฀section,฀four฀major฀issues฀that฀in- other฀living฀things฀as฀well.฀ most฀part—from฀the฀threat฀of฀meteorites,฀ volve฀human฀impacts฀on฀the฀atmosphere— which฀typically฀burn฀up฀as฀they฀go฀through฀ Ozone฀is฀also฀found฀in฀the฀troposphere,฀ ozone฀depletion,฀global฀warming,฀climate฀ the฀atmosphere฀(UNEP฀1999a). the฀layer฀of฀the฀Earth’s฀atmosphere฀that฀is฀ change,฀and฀air฀pollution—are฀addressed. closest฀to฀the฀planet’s฀surface.฀Ozone฀can฀ Credit:฀Image฀Analysis฀Laboratory/UNEP/NASA฀Johnson฀Space฀Center 72 Credit:฀Image฀Analysis฀Laboratory/UNEP/NASA฀Johnson฀Space฀Center be฀formed฀naturally฀in฀the฀troposphere— for฀example,฀by฀lightning.฀However,฀ tropospheric฀ozone฀is฀also฀a฀byproduct฀of฀ certain฀human฀activities.฀Vehicle฀exhaust฀ contributes฀large฀quantities฀of฀ozone฀to฀the฀ troposphere฀each฀year. Depending฀on฀where฀ozone฀resides,฀ it฀can฀protect฀or฀harm฀life฀on฀the฀Earth฀ (Figure฀3.5).฀฀In฀the฀stratosphere,฀ozone฀ is฀“good”฀as฀it฀shields฀life฀on฀the฀surface฀ from฀harmful฀solar฀radiation.฀In฀the฀troposphere,฀ozone฀can฀be฀“bad”฀as฀it฀becomes฀ a฀type฀of฀air฀pollution.฀Changes฀in฀the฀ amount฀of฀ozone฀in฀either฀the฀stratosphere฀ or฀the฀troposphere฀can฀have฀serious฀ consequences฀for฀life฀on฀the฀Earth.฀For฀ several฀decades,฀“bad”฀tropospheric฀ozone฀ has฀been฀increasing฀in฀the฀air฀we฀breathe,฀ while฀“good”฀stratospheric฀ozone฀has฀been฀ decreasing,฀gradually฀eroding฀the฀Earth’s฀ protective฀ozone฀shield฀(Thompson฀1996). Since฀the฀late฀1970s,฀scientists฀have฀ detected฀a฀slow฀but฀steady฀decline฀in฀the฀ amount฀of฀ozone฀in฀the฀stratospheric฀ ozone฀layer.฀This฀ozone฀destruction฀results฀from฀the฀presence฀of฀certain฀types฀ of฀chemicals฀in฀the฀atmosphere,฀especially฀chlorofluorocarbons฀(CFCs)฀and฀ other฀chlorine-฀and฀bromine-containing฀ compounds,฀coupled฀with฀fluctuations฀in฀ stratospheric฀temperature.฀ In฀polar฀regions,฀particularly฀the฀area฀ of฀the฀atmosphere฀that฀overlies฀Antarctica,฀ ozone฀depletion฀is฀so฀great฀that฀an฀“ozone฀ hole”฀forms฀in฀the฀stratosphere฀there฀every฀ Stratosphere: Earth Troposphere: In this region, ozone is “good.” It protects us from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation. In this region, ozone is “bad.” It can damage lung tissure and plants. Mesosphere Ozone in the Earth’s Atmosphere Figure฀3.5:฀Ozone฀in฀the฀stratosphere฀forms฀the฀protective฀ozone฀layer฀that฀shields฀the฀Earth’s฀surface฀from฀harmful฀solar฀radiation.฀Ozone฀in฀the฀troposphere,฀the฀lowest฀part฀of฀the฀atmosphere,฀ can฀be฀a฀form฀of฀air฀pollution.฀Source:฀http://www.atmos.umd.edu/~owen/CHPI/IMAGES/ozonefig1.html 73 24 Sep 2003 06 Sep 2000 Ozone • Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) Figure฀3.6:฀Every฀austral฀spring,฀an฀area฀of฀severe฀stratospheric฀ozone฀depletion—฀an฀“ozone฀ hole”—forms฀in฀the฀atmosphere฀over฀Antarctica.฀The฀ozone฀holes฀that฀formed฀in฀2000฀and฀2003฀ were฀the฀largest฀and฀second฀largest฀on฀record,฀respectively.฀฀Source:฀http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/gsfc/earth/ pictures/2003/0925ozonehole/still_hires_24Sept2003.tif฀and฀http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/ftp/pub/ozone/ozone_still_2000_09_06.tif฀ (NASA฀2004a) austral฀spring฀(late฀August฀through฀early฀ October).฀In฀the฀past฀few฀years,฀the฀Antarctic฀ozone฀hole฀has฀been฀about฀the฀size฀ of฀North฀America.฀In฀2000,฀the฀Antarctic฀ ozone฀hole฀was฀the฀largest฀on฀record,฀ covering฀29.6฀million฀km2฀(11.4฀million฀ square฀miles).฀In฀the฀austral฀spring฀of฀ 2003,฀it฀was฀almost฀as฀large,฀covering฀28.9฀ million฀km2฀(11.1฀million฀square฀miles)฀ (Figure฀3.6).฀ lost฀during฀the฀winter฀and฀early฀spring฀of฀ 1999-2000฀(Shah฀2002). Some฀ozone-depleting฀chemicals,฀such฀ as฀CFCs,฀also฀contribute฀to฀global฀warming.฀Like฀carbon฀dioxide฀and฀methane,฀ CFCs฀are฀powerful฀greenhouse฀gases฀ that฀trap฀heat฀radiating฀from฀the฀Earth’s฀ surface฀and฀prevent฀it฀from฀immediately฀ escaping฀into฀space.฀This฀causes฀the฀part฀ of฀the฀atmosphere฀nearest฀the฀Earth’s฀surSeasonal฀ozone฀depletion฀is฀also฀ face฀to฀warm,฀resulting฀in฀global฀warming.฀ noticeable฀around฀the฀North฀Pole.฀More฀ This฀warming฀in฀the฀troposphere,฀howthan฀60฀per฀cent฀of฀stratospheric฀ozone฀ ever,฀leads฀to฀colder-than-normal฀temperanorth฀of฀the฀Arctic฀ tures฀in฀the฀stratosphere.฀This,฀in฀turn,฀ enhances฀the฀formation฀of฀certain฀types฀of฀ Circle฀was฀ stratospheric฀clouds฀that฀foster฀ozone-de฀ stroying฀chemical฀reactions฀in฀the฀strato฀ sphere฀(Shanklin฀n.d.).฀฀฀ ฀ Fortunately,฀bans฀against฀the฀production฀and฀use฀of฀CFCs฀and฀other฀stratospheric฀ozone-destroying฀chemicals฀appear฀to฀be฀working฀to฀reverse฀the฀damage฀ that฀has฀been฀done฀to฀the฀ozone฀layer.฀In฀ the฀past฀few฀years,฀the฀Antarctic฀ozone฀ hole฀has฀not฀increased฀significantly฀in฀size฀ Figure฀3.7:฀Growth฀of฀the฀Antarctic฀ozone฀ hole฀over฀20฀years,฀as฀observed฀by฀the฀satellite-borne฀Total฀Ozone฀Mapping฀Spectrometer฀ (TOMS).฀Darkest฀blue฀areas฀represent฀regions฀ of฀maximum฀ozone฀depletion.฀Atmospheric฀ ozone฀concentration฀is฀measured฀in฀Dobson฀ Units.฀฀A฀“normal”฀stratospheric฀ozone฀measurement฀is฀approximately฀300฀Dobson฀Units.฀ Measurements฀of฀220฀Dobson฀Units฀and฀below฀ represent฀significant฀ozone฀depletion.฀฀Source:฀ http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/topstory/2004/0517aura.html 1979 1988 1982 1986 1984 74 Credit:฀John฀Bortniak/UNEP/NOAA or฀intensity.฀Some฀researchers฀predict฀that฀ if฀atmospheric฀concentrations฀of฀ozone-destroying฀chemicals฀drop฀to฀pre-ozone-hole฀ levels,฀the฀Antarctic฀ozone฀hole฀should฀disappear฀in฀approximately฀50฀years฀(Figure฀ 3.7)฀(WMO-UNEP฀2002).฀ Global฀Warming Atmospheric฀temperature฀and฀chemistry฀ are฀strongly฀influenced฀by฀the฀amount฀ and฀types฀of฀trace฀gases฀present฀in฀the฀ atmosphere.฀฀Examples฀of฀human-made฀ trace฀gases฀are฀chlorofluorocarbons,฀such฀ as฀CFC-11,฀CFC-12,฀and฀halons.฀฀Carbon฀ dioxide,฀nitrous฀oxide,฀and฀methane฀(CH4)฀ are฀naturally฀formed฀trace฀gases฀produced฀ by฀the฀burning฀of฀fossil฀fuels,฀ released฀by฀living฀and฀ dead฀biomass,฀฀ ฀ ฀ ฀ and฀resulting฀from฀various฀metabolic฀ processes฀of฀microorganisms฀in฀the฀soil,฀ wetlands,฀and฀oceans.฀There฀is฀increasing฀ evidence฀that฀the฀percentages฀of฀environmentally฀significant฀trace฀gases฀(greenhouse฀gases)฀are฀changing฀due฀to฀both฀ natural฀and฀human฀factors,฀and฀contributing฀to฀global฀warming.฀฀ Global฀warming฀is฀recognized฀as฀one฀of฀ the฀greatest฀environmental฀threats฀facing฀ the฀world฀today.฀Global฀warming฀is฀the฀ gradual฀rise฀of฀the฀Earth’s฀average฀surface฀ temperature฀caused฀by฀an฀enhancing฀of฀the฀ planet’s฀natural฀greenhouse฀effect.฀Radiant฀energy฀leaving฀the฀planet฀is฀naturally฀ retained฀in฀the฀atmosphere฀thanks฀to฀the฀ presence฀of฀certain฀gases฀such฀as฀water฀ vapor฀and฀carbon฀dioxide.฀This฀heat-trapping฀effect฀is,฀in฀fact,฀what฀makes฀life฀on฀the฀ Earth฀possible.฀ effect.฀The฀Earth’s฀average฀surface฀temperature,฀which฀has฀been฀relatively฀stable฀ for฀more฀than฀1฀000฀years,฀has฀risen฀by฀ about฀0.5฀degrees฀Celsius฀in฀the฀past฀100฀ years฀(Figure฀3.8).฀The฀nine฀warmest฀ years฀in฀the฀20th฀century฀have฀all฀occurred฀ since฀1980;฀the฀1990s฀were฀probably฀the฀฀ warmest฀decade฀of฀the฀second฀millennium฀ (IPCC฀2001).฀ Global฀warming฀has฀occurred฀in฀the฀distant฀past฀as฀the฀result฀of฀natural฀influences.฀ However,฀since฀the฀industrial฀era,฀the฀term฀ is฀most฀often฀used฀to฀refer฀to฀the฀current฀ warming฀predicted฀as฀a฀result฀of฀increases฀ in฀the฀atmospheric฀concentrations฀of฀certain฀heat-trapping฀greenhouse฀gases฀generated฀by฀human฀activities฀(Figure฀3.9).฀฀ Most฀scientists฀฀ ฀ Global฀warming,฀by฀contrast,฀is฀an฀฀ intensification฀of฀the฀Earth’s฀greenhouse฀฀ ฀ ฀ 1990 1999 1997 1992 1994 75 Figure฀3.8:฀Satellite฀data฀of฀Arctic฀regions฀show฀ warming฀is฀taking฀place฀there฀at฀an฀accelerating฀rate.฀These฀two฀maps฀show฀temperature฀ anomalies฀in฀the฀Arctic฀in฀1981฀and฀in฀2003.฀ The฀anomalies฀range฀from฀7ºC฀(12.6ºF)฀below฀ normal฀to฀7ºC฀(12.6ºF)฀above฀normal.฀Shades฀ 76 of฀orange฀and฀red฀show฀areas฀of฀warming;฀ shades฀of฀blue฀shows฀areas฀of฀cooling;฀white฀ represents฀little฀or฀no฀change฀(map฀adapted฀ from฀Comiso).฀The฀data฀reveal฀that฀some฀regions฀are฀warming฀faster฀than฀2.5ºC฀(4.5ºF)฀per฀ decade฀(NASA฀2003b).฀฀ Source:฀http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a002800/ a002830/฀ believe฀that฀much฀of฀this฀global฀temperature฀increase฀is฀due฀to฀increased฀use฀of฀ fossil฀fuels,฀which฀when฀burned,฀release฀ carbon฀dioxide฀into฀the฀atmosphere฀where฀ it฀absorbs฀infrared฀radiation฀that฀normally฀ would฀pass฀through฀the฀atmosphere฀and฀ travel฀out฀into฀space฀(Brehm฀2003).฀ The฀planet฀is฀not฀as฀warm฀as฀it฀was฀approximately฀1฀000฀years฀ago฀(Figure฀3.10).฀ Nevertheless,฀CO2฀currently฀accounts฀for฀ the฀greatest฀proportion฀of฀greenhouse฀gas฀ emissions.฀Much฀of฀the฀CO2฀added฀to฀the฀ atmosphere฀comes฀from฀the฀burning฀of฀ fossil฀fuels฀in฀vehicles,฀for฀heating,฀฀ and฀for฀the฀production฀of฀electricity฀฀ (Figure฀3.11). Figure฀3.9:฀Human฀activities฀directly฀influence฀the฀abundance฀of฀greenhouse฀gases฀and฀aerosols฀in฀ the฀atmosphere.฀฀Carbon฀dioxide,฀nitrous฀oxide,฀methane,฀and฀sulfur฀aerosols฀have฀all฀increased฀ significantly฀in฀the฀past฀50฀years.฀Source:฀Intergovernmental฀Panel฀on฀Climate฀Change,฀IPCC฀(2001) Figure฀3.10:฀Variations฀in฀the฀Earth’s฀temperature฀for฀the฀past฀140฀years฀(global)฀and฀for฀the฀past฀ 1฀000฀years฀(Northern฀Hemisphere).฀฀Source:฀IPCC฀(2001) In฀addition฀to฀carbon฀dioxide,฀rising฀levels฀of฀methane฀in฀the฀atmosphere฀ are฀also฀of฀concern.฀The฀relative฀rate฀of฀ increase฀of฀methane฀has฀greatly฀exceeded฀ that฀of฀carbon฀dioxide฀in฀the฀last฀several฀ decades.฀Methane฀is฀released฀into฀the฀ atmosphere฀in฀many฀ways:฀as฀a฀result฀of฀agriculture฀and฀ranching฀activities;฀through฀ the฀decay฀of฀organic฀matter,฀including฀ waste฀dumps;฀through฀deforestation;฀and฀ as฀a฀by-product฀of฀the฀hydrocarbon฀economy.฀None฀of฀these฀sources฀are฀anticipated฀ to฀decrease฀in฀the฀future.฀On฀the฀contrary,฀ methane฀emissions฀are฀expected฀to฀increase,฀as฀each฀year฀an฀additional฀100฀million฀people฀require฀food฀and฀fuel฀as฀world฀ population฀expands฀(Figure฀3.12).฀ Most฀scientists฀believe฀that฀recent฀ global฀warming฀is฀mainly฀due฀to฀human฀ activities฀and฀related฀increases฀in฀concentrations฀of฀greenhouse฀gases฀(Figure฀3.13),฀ primarily฀CO2,฀CH4,฀nitrous฀oxide฀(N2O),฀ hydrofluorocarbons฀(HFCs),฀perfluorocarbons฀(PFCs),฀and฀sulfur฀hexafluoride฀ (SF6).฀These฀changes฀are฀driven฀by฀worldwide฀population฀and฀economic฀growth,฀ and฀the฀underlying฀production฀and฀ consumption฀of฀fossil฀fuels,฀as฀well฀as฀by฀ the฀intensification฀of฀agricultural฀activity฀ and฀changes฀in฀land฀use฀and฀land฀cover.฀ Energy฀production฀and฀use,฀the฀largest฀ sole฀source฀of฀CO2฀emissions฀and฀a฀large฀ contributor฀of฀CH4฀and฀N2O฀emissions,฀accounted฀for฀81.7฀per฀cent฀of฀emissions฀in฀ industrialised฀countries฀in฀1998฀฀ (UNFCCC฀2000).฀ From฀far฀out฀in฀space,฀instruments฀ carried฀aboard฀satellites,฀such฀as฀NASA’s฀ 77 Moderate฀Resolution฀Imaging฀Spectroradiometre฀(MODIS)฀sensor,฀are฀taking฀the฀ temperature฀of฀the฀Earth’s฀surface.฀Satellite฀data฀confirm฀that฀the฀Earth’s฀average฀ surface฀temperature฀has฀been฀slowly฀rising฀ for฀the฀past฀few฀decades฀(Figure฀3.14).฀ Satellite฀records฀are฀more฀detailed฀and฀ comprehensive฀than฀previously฀available฀ ground฀measurements,฀and฀are฀essential฀ for฀improving฀climate฀analyses฀and฀computer฀modeling. One฀of฀the฀more฀predictable฀effects฀of฀ global฀warming฀will฀be฀a฀rise฀in฀sea฀levels฀ (Figure฀3.15).฀It฀is฀already฀under฀way฀at฀ a฀pace฀of฀about฀a฀millimetre฀a฀year—a฀ consequence฀of฀both฀melting฀land฀ice฀and฀ the฀thermal฀expansion฀of฀the฀oceans฀(Harrison฀and฀Pearce฀2001).฀Predictions฀as฀to฀ how฀much฀global฀sea฀levels฀may฀rise฀over฀ the฀next฀century฀range฀from฀half฀a฀metre฀ (1.5฀feet)฀(Houghton฀et฀al.฀2001)฀to฀between฀1฀and฀2฀m฀(3฀to฀6฀feet)฀(Nicholls฀et฀ al.฀1999).฀Such฀an฀increase฀would฀drown฀ many฀coastal฀areas฀and฀atoll฀islands.฀Unless฀countries฀take฀action฀to฀address฀rising฀ sea฀levels,฀the฀resulting฀flooding฀is฀expected฀to฀impact฀some฀200฀million฀people฀ worldwide฀by฀the฀2080s.฀In฀addition,฀ around฀25฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀world’s฀coastal฀ wetlands฀could฀be฀lost฀by฀this฀time฀due฀to฀ sea-level฀rise฀(DETR฀1997). Global฀warming฀may฀have฀some฀positive฀impacts.฀It฀could,฀for฀example,฀open฀ Figure฀3.11:฀Between฀1971฀and฀1998,฀energy฀use฀and฀carbon฀dioxide฀emissions฀both฀increased฀฀ significantly,฀contributing฀to฀the฀likelihood฀of฀global฀warming.฀฀Source:฀IPCC฀(2001) Figure฀3.12:฀Methane฀is฀the฀second฀largest฀contributor฀to฀global฀warming฀and฀its฀atmospheric฀ concentration฀has฀increased฀significantly฀over฀the฀last฀two฀decades.฀Methane฀emissions฀from฀ human-related฀activities฀now฀represent฀about฀70฀per฀cent฀of฀total฀emissions,฀as฀opposed฀to฀less฀ than฀10฀per฀cent฀200฀years฀ago.฀฀Source:฀IPCC฀(2001) Figure฀3.13:฀The฀role฀of฀different฀gases฀and฀aerosols฀in฀global฀warming.฀Source:฀IPCC฀(2001) Figure฀3.14:฀฀Global฀warming฀is฀an฀increase฀in฀ the฀Earth’s฀average฀surface฀temperature.฀These฀ graphs฀illustrate฀how฀a฀shift฀in฀the฀mean฀temperature฀and฀its฀variance฀can฀affect฀weather.฀Source:฀ IPCC฀(2001) 78 Figure฀3.15:฀Reasons฀for฀sea฀level฀change฀Source:฀IPCC฀(2001) new฀lands฀for฀agriculture฀and฀forestry฀in฀ the฀far฀north.฀During฀the฀past฀30฀years฀in฀ Iceland,฀old฀farmlands฀have฀been฀exposed,฀ and฀are฀being฀used,฀as฀the฀Breidamerkurjökull฀Glacier฀has฀receded.฀All฀told,฀฀ however,฀the฀negative฀impacts฀of฀unchecked฀global฀warming฀outweigh฀any฀ positive฀benefits. Climate฀Change฀ Climate฀is฀the฀statistical฀description฀in฀ terms฀of฀the฀mean฀and฀variability฀of฀relevant฀measures฀of฀the฀atmosphere-ocean฀ system฀over฀periods฀of฀time฀ranging฀from฀ weeks฀to฀thousands฀or฀millions฀of฀years.฀ Climate฀change฀is฀defined฀as฀a฀statistically฀฀ significant฀variation฀in฀either฀the฀mean฀ state฀of฀the฀climate฀or฀in฀its฀variability,฀ persisting฀for฀an฀extended฀period฀(typically฀ decades฀or฀longer).฀Climate฀change฀may฀be฀ due฀to฀natural฀internal฀processes฀or฀to฀external฀forcing฀(Figure฀3.16).฀Volcanic฀gases฀ and฀dust,฀changes฀in฀ocean฀circulation,฀ fluctuations฀in฀solar฀output,฀and฀increased฀ concentrations฀of฀greenhouse฀gases฀in฀the฀ Case฀Study:฀European฀Heat฀Wave฀฀ July฀2003 This฀image฀shows฀the฀differences฀ in฀daytime฀land฀surface฀temperatures฀ (temperature฀anomalies)฀collected฀over฀ Europe฀between฀July฀2001฀and฀July฀2003฀ by฀the฀Moderate฀Resolution฀Imaging฀ Spectroradiometer฀(MODIS)฀on฀NASA’s฀ Terra฀satellite.฀A฀blanket฀of฀deep฀red฀across฀ southern฀and฀eastern฀France฀(left฀of฀image฀center)฀reveals฀that฀temperatures฀in฀ this฀region฀were฀10ºC฀(18ºF)฀hotter฀during฀2003฀than฀in฀2001.฀Temperatures฀were฀ similar฀in฀white฀areas฀and฀cooler฀in฀blue฀ areas.฀Although฀models฀predict฀an฀overall฀ increase฀in฀global฀average฀temperatures,฀ regional฀differences฀may฀be฀pronounced,฀ and฀some฀areas,฀such฀as฀mid-continental฀ zones฀in฀North฀America฀and฀Asia,฀may฀ actualy฀experience฀some฀degree฀of฀cooling฀ (NASA฀2003c).฀ European฀Heat฀Wave,฀July฀2003฀Credit:฀NASA— Satellite฀Thermometers฀Show฀Earth฀Has฀a฀Fever฀(2004) 79 atmosphere฀can฀all฀cause฀climate฀changes฀ (USCCSP฀2003). Global฀warming,฀whatever฀its฀underlying฀causes,฀is฀expected฀to฀have฀adverse,฀ possibly฀irreversible฀effects฀on฀the฀Earth’s฀ climate,฀including฀changes฀in฀regional฀temperature฀and฀rainfall฀patterns฀and฀more฀ frequent฀extreme฀weather฀events.฀Climate฀ change฀will฀affect฀the฀ecology฀of฀the฀planet฀ by฀impacting฀biodiversity,฀causing฀species฀ extinctions,฀altering฀migratory฀patterns,฀ and฀disturbing฀ecosystems฀in฀countless฀ ways.฀Climate฀change฀will฀impact฀human฀ societies฀by฀affecting฀agriculture,฀water฀ supplies,฀water฀quality,฀settlement฀patterns,฀ and฀health. Overall,฀climate฀change฀is฀likely฀to฀intensify฀the฀already฀increasing฀pressures฀on฀ various฀sectors.฀Although฀the฀impact฀of฀climate฀change฀may,฀in฀some฀cases,฀be฀smaller฀ than฀other฀stresses฀on฀the฀environment,฀ even฀relatively฀small฀changes฀can฀have฀serious฀adverse฀effects,฀especially฀where฀there฀ may฀be฀critical฀thresholds,฀where฀฀ Figure฀3.16:฀Climate฀change฀is฀the฀result฀of฀complex฀interactions฀among฀many฀factors.฀฀Source:฀IPCC฀(2001) development฀is฀already฀marginal,฀or฀where฀ a฀region฀is฀less฀able฀to฀implement฀adaptabeing฀put฀on฀water฀resources฀by฀a฀growing฀ els฀indicate฀that฀there฀may฀be฀an฀additional฀ tion฀measures฀(DETR฀1997). global฀population,฀particularly฀in฀Africa,฀ 100฀million฀people฀living฀in฀countries฀with฀ Central฀America,฀the฀Indian฀subcontinent,฀ extreme฀water฀stress฀due฀to฀climate฀change฀ For฀example,฀climate฀change฀is฀likely฀ and฀southern฀Europe.฀By฀the฀2050s,฀modalone฀(DETR฀1997). to฀exacerbate฀already฀increasing฀pressure฀ Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/Topfoto 80 Carbon฀dioxide,฀the฀gas฀largely฀blamed฀ for฀global฀warming,฀has฀reached฀recordhigh฀levels฀in฀the฀atmosphere฀(Hanley฀ 2004).฀Carbon฀dioxide฀levels฀have฀risen฀ by฀30฀per฀cent฀in฀the฀last฀200฀years฀as฀a฀ result฀of฀industrial฀emissions,฀automobiles,฀ and฀rapid฀forest฀burning,฀especially฀in฀the฀ tropics.฀Much฀of฀this฀increase฀has฀occurred฀ since฀1960.฀This฀increase฀in฀CO2฀is฀thought฀ to฀enhance฀the฀Earth’s฀natural฀greenhouse฀ effect฀and฀thus฀increase฀global฀temperatures฀(Figure฀3.17). The฀Intergovernmental฀Panel฀on฀Climate฀Change฀projects฀that,฀if฀unchecked,฀ atmospheric฀carbon฀dioxide฀concentrations฀will฀range฀from฀650฀to฀970฀ppm฀by฀ 2100.฀As฀a฀result,฀the฀panel฀estimates,฀average฀global฀temperature฀may฀rise฀by฀1.4ºC฀ (2.5ºF)฀to฀5.8ºC฀(10.4ºF)฀between฀1990฀and฀ 2100฀(Hanley฀2004).฀ Interestingly,฀increased฀levels฀of฀atmospheric฀CO2฀may฀stimulate฀the฀growth฀of฀ some฀kinds฀of฀plants.฀Researchers฀in฀the฀ Amazon฀have฀noted฀increased฀growth฀rates฀ in฀several฀species฀of฀trees฀(Laurance฀et฀al.฀ 2004).฀The฀forests฀are฀also฀becoming฀more฀ dynamic,฀with฀existing฀trees฀dying฀and฀being฀replaced฀by฀new฀trees฀at฀a฀more฀rapid฀ pace.฀In฀addition,฀the฀species฀composition฀ of฀the฀forest฀is฀changing.฀Rising฀atmospheric฀CO2฀concentrations฀may฀explain฀these฀ changes,฀although฀the฀effects฀of฀this฀and฀ other฀large-scale฀environmental฀alterations฀ remain฀uncertain. Figure฀3.17:฀For฀more฀than฀40฀years,฀researchers฀at฀Mauna฀Loa฀Observatory,฀Hawaii,฀have฀tracked฀the฀steady฀ increase฀of฀atmospheric฀carbon฀dioxide฀(concentration฀expressed฀in฀parts฀per฀million,฀or฀ppm).฀Source:฀SIO฀ (2004)฀and฀SeaWiFS:฀NASA฀Carbon฀Cycle฀Initiative,฀NASA/Goddard฀Space฀Flight฀Center฀Scientific฀Visualization฀Studio฀฀(2004).฀฀ Source:฀NASA฀(2004b) burning฀of฀fossil฀fuels฀and฀the฀alteration฀of฀ natural฀land฀cover,฀also฀generate฀aerosols.฀ Averaged฀over฀the฀globe,฀human-generated฀aerosols฀currently฀account฀for฀about฀ ten฀per฀cent฀of฀total฀atmospheric฀aerosols.฀ Most฀of฀those฀aerosols฀are฀concentrated฀ in฀the฀Northern฀Hemisphere,฀especially฀ downwind฀of฀industrial฀sites,฀slash-andburn฀agricultural฀regions,฀and฀overgrazed฀ grasslands฀(Figure฀3.18).฀ As฀the฀composition฀of฀Earth’s฀atmosphere฀changes,฀so฀does฀its฀ability฀to฀abAir฀Pollution฀ sorb,฀reflect฀and฀retain฀solar฀energy.฀GreenAir฀pollution฀is฀the฀presence฀of฀contamihouse฀gases,฀including฀water฀vapor,฀trap฀ nants฀or฀pollutant฀substances฀in฀the฀air฀that฀ heat฀in฀the฀atmosphere.฀Airborne฀aerosols฀ interfere฀with฀human฀health฀or฀welfare฀ from฀human฀and฀natural฀sources฀absorb฀or฀ or฀produce฀other฀harmful฀environmental฀ reflect฀solar฀energy฀based฀on฀colour,฀shape,฀ effects฀(EEA฀2004).฀The฀term฀“smog”—first฀ size,฀and฀substance.฀The฀impact฀of฀aerosols,฀ coined฀in฀London,฀England,฀to฀describe฀ tropospheric฀ozone,฀and฀upper฀troposphera฀combination฀of฀smoke฀and฀fog—is฀now฀ used฀in฀reference฀to฀a฀specific฀combination฀ Figure฀3.18:฀Aerosol฀particles฀larger฀than฀1฀micrometre฀are฀composed฀primarily฀of฀windblown฀dust฀ of฀airborne฀particles,฀gases,฀and฀chemicals฀ and฀sea฀salt฀from฀sea฀spray.฀Aerosols฀smaller฀than฀ 1฀micrometre฀are฀mostly฀formed฀by฀condensation฀ that฀together฀affect฀peoples’฀health฀and฀ processes,฀such฀as฀the฀conversion฀of฀SO2฀gas฀released฀ their฀natural฀environment฀(Health฀฀ by฀volcanic฀eruptions฀to฀sulfate฀particles฀and฀by฀formation฀of฀soot฀and฀smoke฀during฀burning฀processes.฀ Canada฀2003). Aerosols฀are฀tiny฀particles฀suspended฀ in฀the฀air.฀Some฀occur฀naturally,฀originating฀from฀volcanoes,฀dust฀storms,฀forest฀ and฀grassland฀fires,฀living฀vegetation,฀and฀ sea฀spray.฀Human฀activities,฀such฀as฀the฀ ic฀water฀vapor฀on฀Earth’s฀climate฀remains฀ largely฀unquantified฀(NASA฀1989).฀ About฀25฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀world’s฀population฀is฀exposed฀to฀potentially฀harmful฀ amounts฀of฀SO2,฀O3,฀and฀particulate฀matter฀ in฀smog฀(Schwela฀1995).฀Globally,฀some฀50฀ per฀cent฀of฀cases฀of฀chronic฀respiratory฀illness฀are฀now฀thought฀to฀be฀associated฀with฀ air฀pollution฀(UNEP฀1999b). Some฀pollutants฀travel฀long฀distances฀ on฀the฀wind,฀causing฀acid฀deposition฀in฀ the฀surrounding฀countryside฀and฀even฀in฀ neighboring฀countries.฀In฀the฀1980s,฀“acid฀ rain”฀was฀identified฀as฀a฀major฀international฀environmental฀problem,฀moving฀from฀ After฀aerosols฀form,฀they฀are฀mixed฀and฀transported฀ throughout฀the฀atmosphere฀by฀wind฀and฀weather;฀they฀ are฀removed฀from฀the฀atmosphere฀primarily฀through฀ cloud฀formation฀and฀precipitation.฀Source:฀http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/Aerosols/฀฀(NASA฀2004c) 81 Fig.3.19:฀Aerosols฀affect฀climate฀both฀directly฀by฀reflecting฀and฀absorbing฀sunlight฀and฀indirectly฀by฀modifying฀clouds.฀The฀Total฀Ozone฀Mapping฀Spectrometer฀ (TOMS)฀aerosol฀index฀is฀an฀indicator฀of฀smoke฀and฀dust฀absorption.฀This฀figure฀shows฀aerosols—the฀hazy฀green,฀yellow,฀and฀red฀patches—crossing฀the฀Atlantic฀and฀ Pacific฀Oceans.฀Dust฀from฀the฀Sahara฀Desert฀is฀carried฀westward฀toward฀the฀Americas฀and฀provides฀nutrients฀for฀Amazon฀forests.฀Asian฀dust฀and฀pollution฀travel฀to฀ the฀Pacific฀Northwest.฀Source:฀NASA฀(http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/topstory/2004/0517aura.html)฀(NASA฀2004a) heavily฀industrialized฀areas฀of฀both฀Europe฀ and฀North฀America฀into฀prime฀agricultural฀ areas฀that฀lay฀downwind.฀Mountain฀regions฀ suffered฀the฀most฀because฀their฀higher฀ rainfall฀increased฀the฀volume฀of฀acid฀deposition฀and฀their฀often฀thin฀soils฀could฀not฀ neutralize฀the฀acid.฀Lakes฀and฀streams฀in฀ pristine฀parts฀of฀Scandinavia฀and฀Scotland฀ became฀acidified,฀and฀fish฀populations฀ were฀decimated฀in฀some฀areas.฀The฀most฀ intense฀acid฀rain฀fallout฀occurred฀in฀the฀ so-called฀Black฀Triangle฀region฀bordered฀ by฀Germany,฀Czech฀Republic,฀and฀Poland฀ (Harrison฀and฀Pearce฀2001)฀(Figure฀3.19). Acid฀precipitation฀decreased฀throughout฀the฀1980s฀and฀1990s฀across฀large฀portions฀of฀North฀America฀and฀Europe.฀Many฀ recent฀studies฀have฀attributed฀observed฀ reversals฀in฀surface-water฀acidification฀at฀ national฀and฀regional฀scales฀to฀this฀decline฀(Stoddard฀et฀al.฀1999;฀Larssen฀2004).฀ 82 Decreases฀in฀acid฀precipitation฀have฀been฀ achieved฀largely฀through฀improved฀flue฀gas฀ treatments,฀fuel฀switching,฀use฀of฀low-sulfur฀ fuels฀in฀power฀stations,฀and฀use฀of฀catalytic฀ converters฀in฀automobiles.฀Since฀1985,฀ international฀treaties฀and฀heavy฀investment฀ in฀desulphurization฀equipment฀by฀power฀ station฀operators฀have฀cut฀sulfur฀pollution฀ in฀Europe฀and฀North฀America฀by฀as฀much฀ as฀80฀per฀cent฀(Harrison฀and฀Pearce฀2001).฀ those฀made฀in฀Europe฀and฀North฀America฀ over฀the฀past฀20฀years฀(Downing฀1997;฀ WRI฀1998). Nitrogen฀dioxide฀is฀the฀orange฀gas฀that฀ is฀the฀most฀visible฀component฀of฀most฀air฀ pollution.฀฀In฀many฀cities,฀NO2฀and฀other฀ pollutants฀are฀suspended฀in฀the฀air฀to฀form฀ a฀brownish฀haze฀commonly฀called฀smog.฀ Nitrogen฀dioxide฀is฀formed฀when฀oxygen฀ in฀the฀air฀combines฀with฀nitric฀oxide.฀฀ Although฀significant฀progress฀has฀been฀ Nitric฀oxide฀comes฀from฀automobiles,฀ made฀in฀controlling฀acid-forming฀emissions฀ aerosols,฀and฀industrial฀emissions,฀and฀ in฀some฀countries,฀the฀global฀threat฀from฀ contributes฀to฀the฀formation฀of฀acid฀rain.฀ acid฀precipitation฀still฀remains.฀In฀fact,฀the฀ In฀addition,฀this฀pollutant฀can฀cause฀a฀wide฀ problem฀is฀growing฀rapidly฀in฀Asia,฀where฀ range฀of฀environmental฀damage,฀including฀ 1990s-level฀SO2฀emissions฀could฀triple฀by฀ eutrophication฀of฀water฀bodies—explosive฀ 2010฀if฀current฀trends฀continue.฀Curtailing฀ algae฀growth฀that฀can฀deplete฀oxygen฀and฀ the฀already฀substantial฀acid฀precipitation฀ kill฀aquatic฀organisms. damage฀in฀Asia,฀and฀avoiding฀much฀more฀ severe฀damage฀in฀the฀future,฀will฀require฀ investments฀in฀pollution฀control฀similiar฀to฀ Case฀Study:฀Emissions฀in฀Paris฀ 1999-2003 Paris,฀France,฀lies฀on฀a฀relatively฀flat฀plain.฀ Most฀of฀the฀time,฀Paris฀benefits฀from฀a฀wet฀ and฀windswept฀oceanic฀climate฀that฀encourages฀the฀dispersal฀of฀air฀pollution฀and฀ thus฀cleans฀the฀air.฀However,฀under฀certain฀ meteorological฀conditions฀(anticyclones฀ and฀a฀lack฀of฀wind),฀pollutants฀can฀remain฀ trapped฀in฀the฀atmosphere฀above฀the฀city,฀ where฀they฀become฀concentrated,฀resulting฀ in฀significantly฀higher฀levels฀of฀pollution.฀ Thus,฀for฀equivalent฀pollutant฀emissions฀in฀ terms฀of฀location฀and฀intensity,฀the฀levels฀of฀ pollutants฀recorded฀in฀the฀atmosphere฀can฀ vary฀by฀a฀factor฀of฀20฀according฀to฀meteorological฀conditions. Annual฀SO2฀emmissions฀in฀the฀Paris฀region Annual฀NOx฀emmissions฀in฀the฀Paris฀region Annual฀CO฀emmissions฀in฀the฀Paris฀region Annual฀VOC฀emmissions฀in฀the฀Paris฀region This฀explains฀why฀peaks฀in฀secondary฀ pollutants฀often฀affect฀wider฀areas฀than฀ peaks฀in฀primary฀pollutants.฀For฀example,฀ when฀the฀wind฀blows฀from฀the฀city฀in฀a฀ Concentrations฀of฀SO2,฀NOx,฀CO,฀and฀VOC฀over฀Paris.฀Source:฀http://www.airparif.asso.fr/english/polluants/default.htm certain฀direction,฀the฀rural฀area฀surrounding฀the฀Paris฀region฀is฀also฀subject฀to฀ozone฀ pollution.฀Indeed,฀ozone฀levels฀registered฀ Regional฀cartography฀of฀the฀annual฀level฀of฀ in฀these฀areas฀are฀often฀much฀higher฀than฀ Annual฀averages฀of฀SO2฀in฀Ile-de-France฀from฀ 1999฀to฀2003 benzene฀evaluated฀within฀the฀framework฀of฀the฀ those฀in฀the฀centre฀of฀Paris฀itself. European฀project฀LIFE฀“RESOLUTION” In฀1994,฀according฀to฀the฀Centre฀ Interprofessionnel฀Technique฀d’Etude฀ de฀la฀Pollution฀Atmosphérique฀(CITEPA,฀ Inter-professional฀Technical฀Centre฀for฀ Research฀into฀Air฀Pollution)฀SO2฀emissions฀ in฀the฀Paris฀region฀corresponded฀to฀eight฀ per฀cent฀of฀national฀emissions฀(mainland฀ France฀and฀overseas฀territories),฀oxides฀฀ of฀nitrogen฀(NOx)฀emissions฀to฀10฀฀ per฀cent,฀Volatile฀Organic฀Compound฀ (non-methane)฀(VOCNM)฀emissions฀to฀12฀ per฀cent,฀carbon฀monoxide฀(CO)฀emissions฀to฀15฀per฀cent,฀and฀CO2฀emissions฀to฀ 14฀per฀cent.฀Given฀that฀19฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀ population฀lives฀in฀the฀Paris฀region,฀emissions฀per฀inhabitant฀in฀this฀area฀are฀less฀ than฀the฀national฀average฀for฀all฀substances฀ (CITEPA฀1994).฀ Existing฀air-quality-monitoring฀tools฀ in฀the฀greater฀region฀of฀Paris฀provide฀a฀ constant฀indication฀of฀air฀pollution฀levels฀ at฀specific฀background฀and฀roadside฀locations.฀In฀addition฀to฀standard฀monitoring,฀ specific฀modeling฀applications฀give฀extensive฀descriptions฀of฀air-quality฀patterns฀ for฀several฀significant฀pollutants.฀Despite฀ Air฀quality฀dynamics฀over฀the฀region฀of฀Paris,฀France,฀from฀1999฀to฀2003.฀Source:฀http://www.airparif.asso.fr/eng- lish/polluants/default.htm the฀involvement฀of฀the฀transport฀sector฀in฀ monitoring฀local฀atmospheric฀emissions,฀ there฀is฀no฀direct฀and฀constant฀traffic฀ data฀feed.฀Recently,฀a฀project฀known฀as฀ HEAVEN฀(Healthier฀Environment฀through฀ the฀Abatement฀of฀Vehicle฀Emissions฀and฀ Noise)฀was฀implemented฀in฀Paris.฀Its฀main฀ objective฀was฀to฀integrate฀real-time฀traffic฀ information฀with฀the฀air฀quality฀monitoring฀ tools.฀฀HEAVEN฀helped฀develop฀and฀demonstrate฀new฀concepts฀and฀tools฀to฀allow฀ cities฀to฀estimate฀emissions฀from฀traffic฀in฀ near-real฀time.฀This฀enhanced฀the฀identification฀and฀evaluation฀of฀the฀best฀strategies฀ for฀transport฀demand฀management.฀฀฀ Souce:฀http://heaven.rec.org 83 Case฀Study:฀Pollution฀from฀Wild฀Fires฀ 2003–2004 ferent฀seasons฀can฀be฀easily฀identified฀and฀ tracked฀over฀time฀on฀such฀images,฀leading฀ to฀better฀understanding฀of฀sources฀of฀CO฀ Whether฀started฀by฀people฀or฀natural฀ pollution฀and฀its฀transcontinental฀transevents,฀fires฀add฀large฀quantities฀of฀pollutport฀(NASA฀2004d).฀For฀example,฀in฀the฀ ants฀to฀the฀atmosphere฀every฀year,฀primarily฀in฀the฀form฀of฀CO฀and฀aerosols.฀Satellite฀ summer฀image฀of฀this฀series,฀a฀very฀high฀ concentration฀of฀CO฀appears฀over฀west฀ sensors฀can฀help฀researchers฀distinguish฀ central฀Africa,฀largely฀due฀to฀forest฀fires.฀ between฀wildfires฀and฀urban฀or฀industrial฀ Wildfires฀in฀southern฀Africa฀are฀a฀mafires.฀Some฀can฀also฀distinguish฀different฀ jor฀source฀of฀carbon฀monoxide฀pollution.฀ types฀of฀fire-generated฀pollutants.฀For฀ instance,฀two฀sensors฀aboard฀NASA’s฀Terra฀ Every฀August฀in฀southern฀Africa,฀thousands฀of฀people฀equipped฀with฀lighters฀or฀ satellite—the฀Measurements฀of฀Pollution฀ torches฀travel฀out฀onto฀the฀savanna฀and฀ in฀the฀Troposphere฀(MOPITT)฀instruintentionally฀set฀the฀dry฀grasslands฀ablaze.฀ ment฀and฀the฀Moderate฀Resolution฀ImagBurned฀grasses฀send฀up฀tender฀new฀growth฀ ing฀Spectroradiometer฀(MODIS)฀instruthat฀is฀ideal฀for฀cattle฀consumption.฀The฀ ment—gather฀data฀on฀CO฀and฀aerosols,฀ fires฀typically฀scorch฀an฀area฀the฀size฀of฀ respectively.฀ Montana,฀Wyoming,฀Idaho,฀and฀the฀DakoCarbon฀monoxide฀is฀one฀of฀the฀more฀ tas฀combined.฀Long฀plumes฀of฀smoke฀rise฀ easily฀mapped฀air฀pollutants.฀In฀the฀ like฀hundreds฀of฀billowing฀smokestacks,฀ MOPITT-generated฀series฀of฀maps฀shown฀ and฀herds฀of฀animals฀are฀sent฀scurrying฀ below,฀global฀seasonal฀variations฀in฀CO฀ across฀open฀grassland. concentration฀are฀clearly฀visible฀(highest฀concentrations฀of฀CO฀appear฀as฀red).฀ Major฀concentrations฀of฀CO฀during฀dif- During฀this฀fire฀season,฀a฀thick฀pall฀of฀ smoke฀clouds฀the฀sky฀for฀many฀weeks.฀The฀ smoke฀is฀laced฀with฀a฀number฀of฀pollutants,฀including฀nitrogen฀oxides,฀carbon฀ monoxide,฀and฀hydrocarbons.฀Some฀of฀ these฀substances฀react฀with฀the฀intense฀ heat฀and฀sunlight฀to฀form฀ozone.฀Groundlevel฀ozone฀contributes฀to฀respiratory฀ diseases฀and฀can฀seriously฀damage฀crops.฀ At฀higher฀levels฀in฀the฀troposphere,฀ozone฀ molecules฀trap฀thermal฀radiation฀emanating฀from฀the฀Earth’s฀surface฀in฀the฀same฀ way฀as฀carbon฀dioxide฀and฀other฀greenhouse฀gases฀do.฀In฀fact,฀up฀to฀20฀per฀cent฀ of฀the฀global฀warming฀experienced฀by฀the฀ Earth฀over฀the฀past฀150฀years฀is฀thought฀to฀ be฀from฀ozone. In฀the฀spring฀of฀2003,฀the฀MODIS฀and฀ MOPITT฀instruments฀were฀used฀to฀monitor฀fires฀and฀fire-produced฀air฀pollutants฀ in฀Siberia,฀especially฀in฀the฀Baikal฀region.฀ These฀fires฀produced฀large฀amounts฀of฀fine฀ carbon฀aerosols฀that฀spread฀out฀over฀the฀ Pacific฀Ocean฀and฀remained฀suspended฀ in฀the฀atmosphere฀for฀a฀few฀days.฀Carbon฀ monoxide฀was฀also฀produced฀by฀the฀fires,฀ Northern฀Hemisphere฀seasonal฀variation฀in฀atmospheric฀carbon฀monoxide฀and฀its฀global฀distribution.฀฀Source:฀http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a002100/ a002150/฀(NASA฀2004d) 84 but฀unlike฀the฀aerosols,฀remained฀airborne฀ for฀a฀much฀longer฀period฀of฀time,฀allowing฀ it฀to฀cross฀the฀Pacific฀Ocean฀and฀reduce฀air฀ quality฀over฀North฀America฀before฀continuing฀on฀around฀the฀globe. Gas฀and฀particle฀emissions฀produced฀ as฀a฀result฀of฀fires฀in฀forests฀and฀other฀ vegetation฀impact฀the฀composition฀of฀the฀ atmosphere฀(WHO฀2000).฀These฀gases฀and฀ particles฀interact฀with฀those฀generated฀by฀ fossil-fuel฀combustion฀or฀other฀technological฀processes,฀and฀are฀major฀causes฀of฀urban฀air฀pollution.฀They฀also฀create฀ambient฀ pollution฀in฀rural฀areas.฀When฀biomass฀fuel฀ is฀burned,฀the฀process฀of฀combustion฀is฀not฀ complete฀and฀pollutants฀released฀include฀ particulate฀matter,฀carbon฀monoxide,฀oxides฀of฀nitrogen,฀sulfur฀dioxide฀and฀organic฀ compounds.฀Once฀emitted,฀the฀pollutants฀may฀undergo฀physical฀and฀chemical฀ changes.฀Thus,฀vegetation฀fires฀are฀major฀ contributors฀of฀toxic฀gaseous฀and฀particle฀ air฀pollutants฀into฀the฀atmosphere.฀These฀ fires฀are฀also฀sources฀of฀“greenhouse”฀and฀ reactive฀gases.฀Particulate฀pollution฀affects฀ more฀people฀globally฀on฀a฀continuing฀ basis฀than฀any฀other฀type฀of฀air฀pollution.฀In฀1997/98,฀forest฀fires฀in฀Southeast฀ Asia฀affected฀at฀least฀70฀million฀people฀in฀ Brunei฀Darussalam,฀Indonesia,฀Malaysia,฀ the฀Philippines,฀Singapore,฀and฀Thailand.฀ Thousands฀of฀people฀fled฀the฀fires฀and฀ smoke฀and฀the฀increase฀in฀the฀number฀of฀ emergency฀visits฀to฀hospitals฀demonstrated฀ the฀severity฀of฀the฀fires฀and฀pollution฀they฀ caused฀(WHO฀2000). Case฀Study:฀African฀Fires฀฀ 2002฀ Wildfires—from฀forest฀fires฀and฀brush฀fires฀ to฀grass฀fires฀and฀slash-and-burn฀agriculture—can฀be฀sweeping฀and฀destructive฀ conflagrations,฀especially฀in฀wilderness฀or฀ rural฀areas.฀As฀biomass฀burns,฀particulates,฀ black฀carbon,฀and฀gases฀including฀CO2,฀ CO,฀NOx,฀CH4,฀and฀CH3Cl฀are฀produced฀ in฀great฀quantities.฀All฀of฀these฀pollutants฀ can฀be฀lofted฀relatively฀high฀in฀the฀atmosphere฀due฀to฀the฀convective฀heating฀of฀a฀ raging฀fire฀(Graedel฀and฀Crutzen฀1993).฀ The฀image฀at฀right฀shows฀fire฀activity฀in฀ Africa฀from฀1฀January฀2002฀to฀31฀December฀2002.฀The฀fires฀are฀shown฀as฀tiny฀dots฀ with฀each฀dot฀depicting฀the฀geographic฀region฀in฀which฀fire฀was฀detected.฀The฀color฀ of฀a฀dot฀represents฀the฀number฀of฀days฀ since฀a฀sizable฀amount฀of฀fire฀was฀detected฀ Pollution฀outflow฀from฀spring฀2003฀fires฀in฀Siberia฀can฀be฀seen฀in฀the฀top฀and฀middle฀image.฀ These฀fires฀produced฀large฀amounts฀of฀fine฀carbon฀aerosol฀detected฀by฀MODIS฀instrument฀ (bright฀colours)฀on฀the฀Terra฀satellite,฀which฀spread฀over฀the฀Pacific฀Ocean฀but฀lasted฀only฀a฀few฀ days.฀They฀also฀produced฀carbon฀monoxide,฀which฀was฀detected฀by฀the฀MOPITT฀instrument฀on฀ the฀Terra฀satellite฀(bottom฀image).฀This฀gas฀can฀last฀over฀a฀month,฀which฀allowed฀it฀to฀cross฀the฀ Pacific฀Ocean฀and฀reduce฀air฀quality฀over฀North฀America฀before฀continuing฀on฀around฀the฀globe.฀ Credit:฀David฀Edwards,฀The฀National฀Center฀for฀Atmospheric฀Research฀(NCAR)฀(NASA฀2004e) in฀that฀region,฀with฀red-orange฀representing฀less฀than฀20฀days,฀orange฀representing฀ 20฀to฀40฀days,฀yellow฀representing฀40฀to฀60฀ days,฀and฀gray฀to฀black฀representing฀more฀ than฀60฀days.฀These฀data฀were฀gathered฀ by฀the฀MODIS฀instrument฀on฀the฀Terra฀ satellite.฀MODIS฀detects฀fires฀by฀measuring฀ the฀brightness฀temperature฀of฀a฀region฀in฀ several฀frequency฀bands฀and฀looking฀for฀ hot฀spots฀where฀this฀temperature฀is฀greater฀ than฀the฀surrounding฀region. Global฀statistics฀on฀the฀amount฀of฀land฀ burned฀worldwide฀every฀year฀vary฀considerably.฀It฀has฀been฀estimated฀that฀from฀ 7.5฀million฀to฀8.2฀million฀km2฀(4.6฀million฀ to฀5.1฀million฀square฀miles)฀are฀burned฀ and฀between฀1฀800฀million฀and฀10฀000฀ million฀metric฀tonnes฀of฀dry฀biomass฀are฀ consumed฀in฀fires฀annually.฀Global฀change฀ scenarios฀predict฀an฀increase฀in฀total฀area฀ African฀Fires฀during฀2002฀Credit:฀http://svs.gsfc.nasa. gov/vis/a000000/a002800/a002890/index.html฀(NASA฀2004f) burned,฀with฀an฀increase฀in฀very฀large฀and฀฀฀฀฀฀ intense฀fires. 85 Case฀Study:฀Pollution฀in฀China฀ 2001฀and฀2004฀ During฀February฀2004,฀a฀considerable฀outflow฀of฀pollution฀stemmed฀from฀China฀and฀ Southeast฀Asia.฀The฀image฀at฀right฀shows฀ atmospheric฀concentrations฀of฀carbon฀ monoxide฀at฀an฀altitude฀of฀roughly฀3฀km฀ (1.9฀miles)฀over฀this฀region฀that฀were฀moving฀across฀the฀Pacific฀Ocean฀and฀at฀some฀ points฀reaching฀the฀western฀coast฀of฀the฀ United฀States. Carbon฀monoxide฀is฀a฀good฀indicator฀ of฀air฀pollution฀since฀it฀is฀produced฀during฀ combustion฀processes,฀such฀as฀the฀burning฀ of฀fossil฀fuels฀in฀urban฀and฀industrial฀areas,฀ as฀well฀as฀by฀wildfires฀and฀biomass฀burning฀in฀more฀rural฀areas.฀Industrial฀emis- sions฀were฀mainly฀ responsible฀for฀the฀ high฀levels฀of฀carbon฀monoxide฀over฀ China฀in฀this฀image,฀ whereas฀emissions฀in฀ Southeast฀Asia฀were฀ due฀primarily฀to฀agricultural฀fires.฀ Natural฀processes฀and฀events฀can฀ also฀be฀a฀source฀of฀ transcontinental฀air฀pollution.฀In฀2001,฀a฀ large฀dust฀storm฀developed฀over฀China฀(see฀ below).฀Prevailing฀winds฀swept฀particulates฀ from฀this฀storm฀all฀the฀way฀to฀the฀eastern฀ coast฀of฀North฀America. This฀image฀was฀developed฀from฀a฀composite฀of฀carbon฀monoxide฀data฀collected฀over฀China฀and฀Southeast฀Asia฀from฀1-25฀February฀2004,฀by฀the฀Measurements฀of฀Pollution฀in฀the฀Troposphere฀(MOPITT)฀ instrument฀aboard฀NASA’s฀Terra฀satellite.฀The฀colors฀ represent฀the฀mixing฀ratios฀of฀carbon฀monoxide฀in฀ the฀air,฀given฀in฀parts฀per฀billion฀by฀volume.฀The฀ grey฀areas฀show฀where฀no฀data฀were฀collected฀due฀to฀ persistent฀cloud฀cover.฀Source:฀http://earthobservatory.nasa. gov/Natural฀(NASA฀2004g) 7฀April฀2001฀-฀Blue฀represents฀just฀slightly฀higher-than-normal฀aerosols฀and฀red฀represents฀the฀highest฀concentration฀of฀aerosols. 6฀April฀2001฀normal฀aerosol฀levels฀are฀apparent฀on฀the฀first฀day฀of฀the฀dust฀storm. 10฀April฀2001฀-฀The฀aerosol฀impact฀from฀the฀dust฀storm฀can฀clearly฀be฀seen฀over฀ China,฀Mongolia,฀Russia,฀Korea,฀Japan,฀and฀the฀Pacific฀Ocean. 13฀April฀2001฀-฀The฀aerosol฀impact฀from฀the฀dust฀storm฀can฀clearly฀be฀seen฀over฀ Japan,฀the฀Pacific฀Ocean,฀Alaska,฀and฀the฀United฀States. 14฀April฀2001฀-฀The฀aerosol฀impact฀from฀the฀dust฀storm฀can฀clearly฀be฀seen฀in฀the฀ Pacific฀Ocean,฀and฀the฀United฀States. 17฀April฀2001฀-฀High฀levels฀of฀aerosols฀are฀visible฀over฀the฀East฀Coast฀of฀the฀United฀ States,฀especially฀Maine. A฀large฀dust฀storm฀developed฀over฀China฀on฀6-7฀April฀2001.฀This฀series฀of฀images฀shows฀air-borne฀dust฀from฀the฀storm฀moving฀over฀China,฀Russia,฀Japan,฀ the฀Pacific฀Ocean,฀Canada,฀and฀ultimately฀over฀the฀United฀States฀on฀17฀April฀2001฀(NASA฀2004g).฀Visualization฀Credit:฀NASA/Goddard฀Space฀Flight฀Center฀Scientific฀ Visualization฀Studio฀Source:฀http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a000000/a002900/a002957/index.html 86 Credit:฀Chia/UNEP/Morgue฀File 87 88 Credit:฀Darren฀H.Holto/UNEP/Topfoto 89 3.2 Coastal Areas O ceans฀cover฀roughly฀70฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀Earth’s฀surface฀and฀ make฀up฀some฀90฀per฀cent฀of฀space฀habitable฀by฀living฀ things.฀They฀contain฀a฀vast,฀and฀largely฀unexplored,฀diversity฀of฀life,฀from฀the฀smallest฀of฀microorganisms฀to฀blue฀whales,฀ the฀largest฀mammals฀on฀the฀Earth.฀Oceans฀are฀essential฀for฀the฀ ecological฀functions฀and฀resources฀they฀provide,฀including฀food,฀ medicines,฀and฀energy฀for฀millions฀of฀people฀worldwide฀(UNEPWCMC฀2003).฀ The฀world’s฀oceans฀have฀a฀great฀effect฀on฀global฀climate.฀ Water฀has฀a฀high฀capacity฀for฀retaining฀heat.฀Because฀so฀much฀of฀ the฀Earth’s฀surface฀is฀covered฀by฀oceans,฀the฀temperature฀of฀the฀ atmosphere฀is฀kept฀fairly฀constant฀and฀within฀the฀range฀necessary฀to฀support฀life.฀Currently,฀the฀oceans฀also฀moderate฀climate฀ change฀by฀absorbing฀a฀third฀of฀the฀carbon฀dioxide฀(CO2)฀emitted฀ into฀the฀air฀by฀human฀activity฀(Harrison฀and฀Pearce฀2001).฀However,฀global฀warming฀may฀reduce฀the฀ocean’s฀capacity฀to฀act฀as฀a฀CO2฀ sink฀by฀10฀to฀20฀per฀cent฀over฀the฀next฀century฀ (Houghton฀et฀al.฀2001). Different฀parts฀of฀the฀global฀ ocean฀affect฀climate฀in฀ different฀ways.฀The฀ Indian฀Ocean/West฀ Pacific฀Warm฀Pool,฀ for฀example,฀is฀an฀ enormous฀expanse฀of฀warm฀ surface฀water.฀ It฀extends฀ almost฀half฀ way฀around฀ the฀Earth,฀ stretching฀along฀ the฀equator฀south฀ of฀India,฀ through฀the฀ waters฀off฀ Sumatra,฀Java,฀ Borneo,฀and฀ New฀Guinea,฀ and฀into฀the฀central฀Pacific฀Ocean.฀ The฀waters฀of฀the฀ Warm฀Pool฀are฀warmer฀ than฀any฀other฀area฀of฀open฀ ocean฀on฀the฀Earth.฀Because฀ these฀waters฀are฀warm฀to฀enough฀to฀drive฀moisture฀high฀into฀the฀atmosphere,฀the฀Warm฀Pool฀has฀a฀large฀effect฀on฀ the฀climate฀of฀the฀lands฀that฀surround฀it.฀The฀slow฀fluctuations฀in฀ size฀and฀intensity฀of฀the฀Warm฀Pool฀may฀be฀linked฀with฀the฀intensity฀of฀the฀El฀Niño฀phenomenon. In฀addition฀to฀the฀ocean’s฀climate-buffering฀capacity,฀its฀salty฀ waters฀contain฀billions฀of฀tiny฀algae฀and฀other฀planktonic฀organisms.฀These฀life฀forms฀carry฀out฀a฀large฀part฀of฀the฀oxygen-generating฀photosynthetic฀processes฀that฀occur฀on฀the฀planet฀(Biomes฀ Group฀1996).฀For฀people,฀oceans฀represent฀one฀of฀the฀greatest฀ sources฀of฀food฀on฀the฀Earth฀as฀well.฀Global฀fish฀production฀ exceeds฀that฀of฀cattle,฀sheep,฀poultry,฀or฀eggs.฀It฀represents฀the฀ largest฀source฀of฀wild฀or฀domestic฀protein฀in฀the฀world฀(UNEPWCMC฀2003).฀Marine฀fish฀catch฀rose฀from฀51฀million฀metric฀ tonnes฀in฀1975฀to฀nearly฀70฀million฀metric฀tonnes฀in฀1999฀฀ (UNEP฀2002). 90 90 Coastal฀zones,฀which฀include฀bays,฀tidal฀lands,฀estuaries,฀marine฀wetlands,฀mangroves,฀and฀coral฀reefs,฀form฀an฀interface฀between฀the฀land฀and฀ the฀ocean.฀The฀total฀length฀of฀all฀the฀world’s฀coastlines฀is฀estimated฀to฀be฀ roughly฀1.6฀million฀km฀(1฀million฀miles)฀(Burke฀et฀al.฀2000). Many฀coastal฀marine฀ecosystems฀are฀among฀the฀most฀productive฀ in฀the฀world,฀rich฀in฀living฀and฀nonliving฀resources.฀Mangroves,฀for฀ example,฀extend฀over฀18฀million฀hectares฀(44฀million฀acres)฀worldwide,฀covering฀a฀quarter฀of฀the฀world’s฀tropical฀coastlines฀(Choudhury฀1997).฀Mangroves฀protect฀coastlines฀by฀absorbing฀the฀force฀ of฀storms.฀They฀provide฀large฀quantities฀of฀food฀and฀fuel,฀building฀materials,฀and฀even฀medicines.฀Mangroves฀are฀also฀characterized฀by฀nutrient-rich฀waters฀that฀support฀large฀numbers฀of฀ marine฀organisms฀and,฀in฀many฀cases,฀form฀nursery฀grounds฀ for฀fish฀and฀other฀marine฀species.฀Because฀of฀their฀tremendous฀ productivity,฀mangroves฀and฀other฀coastal฀ecosystems฀provide฀ food฀and฀livelihood฀for฀millions฀of฀people.฀ In฀many฀warm-ocean฀regions฀of฀the฀world,฀coral฀reefs฀are฀ also฀associated฀with฀coastal฀zones.฀Coral฀reefs฀occupy฀less฀than฀ one฀tenth฀of฀one฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀oceans฀(UN฀2002),฀yet฀they฀are฀ among฀the฀most฀biologically฀diverse฀ecosystems฀on฀the฀Earth,฀ home฀to฀more฀than฀a฀million฀species.฀The฀total฀area฀of฀the฀most฀ biologically฀productive฀nearsurface฀reefs฀has฀been฀ estimated฀at฀around฀฀ 255฀300฀km2฀฀฀ (98฀572฀square฀ miles)฀(Bryant฀et฀ al.฀1998).฀About฀ a฀quarter฀of฀the฀ world’s฀fish฀ feed,฀reproduce,฀and฀live฀ on฀or฀near฀ coral฀reefs฀ (Harrison฀ and฀Pearce฀ 2001).฀Coral฀ reefs฀are฀a฀ major฀global฀ biological฀ and฀economic฀ resource฀for฀ both฀fisheries฀and฀ tourism,฀because฀ they฀protect฀vulnerable฀coastlines฀from฀ wave฀action฀and฀storms฀ (Bryant฀et฀al.฀1998). Land฀adjacent฀to฀the฀ocean฀is฀ a฀tremendously฀valuable฀resource.฀Coastal฀zones฀are฀economically,฀ politically,฀and฀socially฀critical฀to฀many฀nations.฀They฀are฀hubs฀of฀ commerce฀and฀home฀to฀many฀major฀corporations฀and฀transportation฀networks.฀ Coastal฀landscapes฀offer฀fertile฀soils,฀flat฀land฀for฀urban฀development,฀and฀sheltered,฀deep-water฀bays฀for฀harbors฀and฀ports.฀ Coasts฀are฀used฀by฀millions฀of฀people฀annually฀for฀recreation฀and฀ they฀support฀a฀growing฀tourist฀trade.฀Although฀coastal฀zones฀account฀for฀only฀20฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀world’s฀land฀area,฀a฀majority฀of฀ the฀world’s฀human฀population฀inhabit฀them.฀Half฀of฀the฀world’s฀ population—some฀3฀000฀million฀people—lives฀within฀200฀km฀ (124฀miles)฀of฀a฀coast.฀By฀2025฀that฀figure฀may฀double,฀rising฀to฀ six฀billion฀people฀(Cohen฀et฀al.฀1997).฀ The฀oceans฀are฀a฀seemingly฀limitless฀and฀enduring฀resource.฀ But฀they,฀and฀the฀coastal฀zones฀that฀encircle฀them,฀are฀currently฀at฀ risk฀along฀many฀fronts.฀In฀1995,฀FAO฀reported฀that฀52฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀ 91 Credit:฀Chansareek/UNEP/Topfoto oceans’฀wild฀fish฀stocks฀were฀being฀exploited฀at฀the฀maximum฀sustainable฀limit,฀ 16฀per฀cent฀were฀already฀overexploited,฀ and฀seven฀per฀cent฀were฀depleted.฀Only฀ 23฀percent฀will฀be฀able฀to฀sustain฀further฀ expansion.฀(FAO฀2005).฀In฀24฀countries฀for฀ which฀sufficient฀data฀were฀available,฀trawling฀grounds฀encompass฀8.8฀million฀km2฀฀ (3.4฀million฀square฀miles),฀of฀which฀about฀ 5.2฀million฀km2฀฀(2฀million฀square฀miles)฀ are฀located฀on฀continental฀shelves.฀This฀ represents฀about฀57฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀total฀ continental฀shelf฀area฀of฀these฀countries฀ (Burke฀et฀al.฀2000). However,฀not฀all฀of฀the฀decline฀in฀ ocean฀fisheries฀may฀be฀attributed฀to฀fish- ing.฀Global฀warming฀may฀also฀be฀partly฀to฀ blame฀(Beaugrand฀et฀al.฀2003).฀The฀depletion฀of฀natural฀fish฀stocks฀has฀prompted฀ expansion฀of฀aquaculture—the฀farming฀of฀ fish—in฀many฀areas,฀a฀reaction฀to฀ocean฀ degradation฀that฀does฀provide฀employment฀ and฀food,฀but฀also฀carries฀with฀it฀the฀potential฀for฀pollution฀and฀other฀concerns. Case฀Study:฀Dumping฀of฀Radioactive฀ Waste฀at฀Sea฀ The฀Report฀of฀the฀United฀Nations฀Conference฀on฀Human฀Environment฀held฀in฀ Stockholm฀in฀1972฀defined฀the฀principles฀ for฀environmental฀protection,฀specifically฀ for฀the฀assessment฀and฀control฀of฀marine฀ pollution.฀These฀were฀forwarded฀to฀an฀ Inter-Governmental฀Conference฀held฀in฀ London฀later฀that฀year,฀where฀the฀Convention฀on฀the฀Prevention฀of฀Marine฀Pollution฀ by฀Dumping฀of฀Wastes฀and฀Other฀Matter฀ (also฀known฀as฀the฀London฀Convention฀of฀ 1972)฀was฀adopted฀and฀which฀entered฀into฀ force฀on฀30฀August฀1975. The฀contracting฀parties฀to฀the฀London฀ Convention฀agreed฀to฀promote฀the฀effective฀control฀of฀all฀sources฀of฀pollution฀of฀ the฀marine฀environment฀and฀to฀take฀all฀ practicable฀steps฀to฀prevent฀the฀pollution฀ of฀the฀ocean฀by฀dumping฀of฀waste฀and฀other฀matter฀that฀is฀liable฀to฀create฀hazards฀to฀ human฀health฀and฀to฀harm฀living฀resources฀ and฀marine฀life.฀The฀International฀Atomic฀ Energy฀Agency฀(IAEA)฀was฀designated฀as฀ the฀international฀body฀that฀should฀oversee฀ matters฀related฀to฀the฀disposal฀of฀radioactive฀wastes฀in฀the฀ocean. 92 The฀figure฀shows฀the฀geographical฀disThe฀first฀reported฀ocean฀disposal฀operation฀of฀radioactive฀waste฀was฀carried฀out฀by฀ tribution฀of฀disposal฀operations. Source:฀Modified฀from฀http://www.oceansatlas.org/servlet/CDSSe the฀USA฀in฀1946฀in฀the฀North-East฀Pacific฀ Ocean฀and฀the฀latest฀was฀carried฀out฀by฀the฀ rvlet?status=ND0xNDExMyY3PWVuJjYxPSomNjU9a29z.฀Figure฀ has฀been฀modified฀from฀http://www.oceansatlas.com/unatlas/ Russian฀Federation฀in฀1993฀in฀the฀Japan฀ about/physicalandchemicalproperties/radiosp/index.htm.฀ Sea/East฀Sea.฀During฀the฀48฀year฀history฀of฀ sea฀disposal,฀14฀countries฀have฀used฀฀ more฀than฀80฀sites฀to฀dispose฀of฀approximately฀85฀PBq฀(1฀PBq฀=฀1015฀Bq)฀of฀฀ radioactive฀waste. Global฀Map฀of฀Dead฀Zones Ocean฀pollution฀is฀a฀growing฀and฀ serious฀problem.฀Most฀of฀the฀wastes฀and฀ contaminants฀produced฀by฀human฀activities฀eventually฀end฀up฀in฀the฀oceans.฀ Chemical฀contamination฀and฀litter฀exist฀ from฀the฀poles฀to฀the฀tropics฀and฀from฀ beaches฀to฀ocean฀depths.฀Some฀pollutants฀ are฀directly฀drained฀or฀dumped฀into฀the฀ oceans,฀either฀intentionally,฀or฀accidentally฀ as฀in฀the฀case฀of฀oil฀spills.฀Currently,฀the฀ oceans฀must฀absorb฀an฀estimated฀3฀million฀ tonnes฀of฀oil฀spilled฀annually฀from฀ships฀ and,฀predominantly,฀from฀sources฀on฀land฀ (Harrison฀and฀Pearce฀2001).฀Other฀ocean฀ pollutants฀fi฀rst฀enter฀the฀atmosphere฀and฀ later฀settle฀on฀ocean฀waters.฀Rivers฀that฀ fl฀ow฀into฀oceans฀carry฀runoff฀from฀city฀ streets,฀sewage,฀industrial฀wastes,฀pesticides฀ and฀fertilizers฀from฀cropland,฀and฀silt฀from฀ land-clearing฀and฀construction฀projects.฀ Because฀of฀their฀proximity฀to฀land,฀coastal฀ waters฀tend฀to฀have฀far฀higher฀concentrations฀of฀pollutants฀than฀the฀open฀ocean฀ (UNEP-WCMC฀2003).฀ Polluted฀waters฀can฀upset฀the฀ecological฀ balance฀among฀species฀in฀marine฀systems.฀ For฀example,฀the฀number฀of฀poisonous฀ algal฀species฀identifi฀ed฀by฀scientists฀has฀ nearly฀tripled฀since฀1984,฀increasing฀fi฀sh฀ kills,฀beach฀closures,฀and฀economic฀losses.฀ Large฀parts฀of฀the฀Gulf฀of฀Mexico฀are฀now฀ considered฀biological฀dead฀zones฀due฀ to฀algal฀blooms฀(UN฀2002).฀Dead฀zones฀ are฀coastal฀areas฀in฀which฀bottom฀waters฀ (those฀near฀the฀ocean฀fl฀oor)฀contain฀very฀ little฀dissolved฀oxygen.฀฀This฀condition฀ is฀called฀hypoxia,฀meaning฀“low฀oxygen”฀ (ESA฀2003).฀฀Very฀few฀organisms฀are฀ able฀to฀survive฀in฀ocean฀dead฀zones฀(Figure฀3.20).฀The฀dead฀zone฀in฀the฀Gulf฀of฀ Figure฀3.20:฀The฀map฀above฀shows฀58฀reported฀ocean฀ dead฀zones฀in฀1995.฀The฀oldest฀and฀most฀well-studied฀ marine฀dead฀zones฀are฀found฀in฀the฀Gulf฀of฀Mexico,฀ the฀Black฀Sea,฀and฀the฀Baltic฀Sea.฀In฀1995,฀the฀most฀ severe฀case฀of฀hypoxia฀was฀in฀the฀Baltic฀Sea,฀in฀which฀ about฀one-third,฀or฀98฀800฀km2฀(38฀000฀square฀miles),฀ of฀the฀body฀of฀water฀was฀reported฀lifeless.฀฀Source:฀ Modifi฀ed฀from:฀http://daac.gsfc.nasa.gov/CAMPAIGN_DOCS/ OCDST/dead_zones.html฀ Mexico฀is฀the฀largest฀hypoxic฀zone฀in฀the฀ Western฀Hemisphere฀and฀is฀also฀one฀of฀ the฀largest฀in฀the฀world฀(Downing฀1999;฀ Greenhalgh฀2003).฀฀In฀many฀places,฀the฀ hypoxic฀waters฀of฀dead฀zones฀are฀gradually฀ spreading฀out฀to฀cover฀larger฀and฀larger฀ areas฀of฀ocean฀fl฀oor฀(Kempler฀2000).฀ Marine฀bio-invasions฀have฀also฀become฀ major฀global฀environmental฀and฀economic฀problems.฀At฀any฀one฀time,฀several฀ thousand฀species฀are฀estimated฀to฀be฀in฀ Case฀Study:฀Mississippi฀Dead฀Zone 2004 Recent฀reports฀indicate฀that฀the฀large฀region฀ of฀oxygen-depleted฀water—a฀dead฀zone—฀ spreads฀across฀nearly฀15฀080฀km2฀(5฀800฀ square฀miles)฀of฀the฀Gulf฀of฀Mexico฀in฀what฀ appears฀to฀be฀an฀annual฀event.฀NASA฀satellites฀ monitor฀the฀health฀of฀the฀oceans฀and฀spot฀the฀ conditions฀that฀lead฀to฀a฀dead฀zone.฀The฀photo฀(right)฀shows฀sediment-choked฀water฀from฀ the฀Neuse฀River฀fl฀owing฀out฀into฀the฀Gulf฀of฀ Mexico฀near฀the฀coast฀(NASA฀2004h).฀ Winter Source:฀Mississippi฀Dead฀Zone,฀2004 http://www1.nasa.gov/vision/earth/environment/dead_zone.html Summer Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/NASA 93 Phytoplankton฀bloom฀off฀Denmark,฀2004฀(shown฀in฀light฀blue฀color).฀Source:฀http://rapidfire.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/gallery/?2004153-0601/Denmark. A2004153.1145.1km.jpg The฀ocean฀is฀filled฀with฀life.฀One฀of฀the฀most฀important฀varieties฀found฀there฀are฀ photosynthetic฀phytoplankton,฀tiny฀organisms฀that฀form฀the฀base฀of฀the฀oceanic฀food฀ web.฀Source:฀http://www1.nasa.gov/vision/earth/environment/dead_zone.html Case฀Study:฀Red฀Tides Coccolithophore฀bloom฀off฀Brittany,฀France,฀2004.฀Source:฀http://rapidfire.sci. gsfc.nasa.gov/gallery/?2004167-0615/France.A2004167.1335.148.1km.jpg the฀ballast฀tanks฀of฀the฀world’s฀shipping฀ fleet,฀enroute฀to฀other฀parts฀of฀the฀world.฀ The฀Atlantic฀box฀jelly,฀believed฀to฀have฀ been฀released฀in฀a฀ship’s฀ballast฀water,฀has฀ wrought฀ecological฀havoc฀in฀the฀Black฀Sea.฀ Scientists฀estimate฀that฀in฀San฀Francisco฀ Bay,฀a฀new฀foreign฀species฀takes฀hold฀every฀ 14฀weeks฀(UN฀2002). The฀problems฀are฀not฀confined฀to฀ ocean฀waters.฀Many฀coastal฀ecosystems฀ have฀been฀destroyed,฀and฀many฀more฀ degraded,฀often฀as฀a฀result฀of฀human฀activities.฀Mangroves,฀wetlands,฀seagrass฀beds,฀ and฀coral฀reefs฀are฀all฀disappearing฀at฀an฀ alarming฀rate.฀Anywhere฀from฀5฀to฀80฀฀ per฀cent฀of฀original฀mangrove฀area฀in฀various฀countries฀has฀been฀lost,฀particularly฀ in฀the฀last฀50฀years฀(Burke฀et฀al.฀2000).฀A฀ major฀contributor฀to฀this฀loss฀is฀the฀conversion฀of฀mangroves฀to฀rice฀paddies฀and฀ shrimp฀farms.฀With฀coastal฀regions฀set฀to฀ double฀their฀human฀populations฀over฀the฀ next฀25฀years,฀coastal฀ecosystems฀are฀com- Throughout฀the฀oceans,฀there฀are฀ places฀where฀strong฀currents฀bring฀ nutrient-rich฀deep฀waters฀to฀the฀ surface.฀These฀upwelling฀nutrients฀ nourish฀tiny,฀free-floating฀microscopic฀algae฀and฀other฀photosynthesizing฀planktonic฀organisms฀ collectively฀known฀as฀phytoplankton.฀ Most฀species฀of฀phytoplankton฀are฀ not฀harmful.฀Rather,฀they฀form฀the฀ base฀of฀the฀marine฀food฀web.฀Occasionally,฀however,฀phytoplankton฀ grow฀and฀reproduce฀very฀quickly—they฀“bloom”—and฀accumulate฀ into฀dense,฀visible฀patches฀near฀the฀ water’s฀surface.฀Some฀phytoplankton฀blooms฀are฀called฀“red฀tides,”฀ especially฀when฀the฀species฀involved฀ contain฀red฀pigments฀and฀so฀cause฀ the฀water฀to฀turn฀pink฀or฀red฀when฀a฀ bloom฀is฀in฀progress.฀Phytoplankton฀ blooms,฀however,฀have฀nothing฀to฀do฀ with฀tides.฀ When฀phytoplankton฀die,฀they฀ sink฀to฀the฀ocean฀floor฀where฀their฀ remains฀are฀broken฀down฀by฀different฀kinds฀of฀bacteria.฀Some฀of฀these฀ bacteria฀emit฀hydrogen฀sulfide฀gas฀as฀ a฀by-product฀of฀decay฀reactions.฀The฀ gas฀collects฀on฀the฀ocean฀floor฀until฀ it฀bubbles฀up฀toward฀the฀surface฀and฀ combines฀with฀oxygen฀to฀yield฀water฀ and฀sulfur.฀The฀sulfur฀precipitates฀as฀ a฀white฀solid.฀ Hydrogen฀sulfide฀gas฀by฀itself฀is฀ toxic฀to฀fish.฀But฀its฀ability฀to฀bind฀ with฀oxygen฀also฀depletes฀that฀essential฀gas฀from฀the฀water฀column.฀If฀ enough฀oxygen฀is฀removed,฀deadly฀ low-oxygen฀(hypoxic)฀conditions฀are฀ created฀in฀the฀ocean.฀ ing฀under฀increasing฀threat฀(Harrison฀and฀฀ Pearce฀2001). Coral฀reefs฀are฀particularly฀vulnerable฀ to฀environmental฀change฀and฀damage฀ from฀human฀activities.฀Nearly฀two฀thirds฀ of฀all฀the฀world’s฀coral฀reefs฀are฀deteriorating฀(Pomerance฀1999).฀They฀are฀dismembered฀by฀souvenir-seeking฀divers,฀mined฀ for฀building฀materials,฀and฀damaged฀by฀the฀ anchors฀of฀cruise฀ships.฀Silt฀from฀dredging,฀ deforestation,฀and฀urban฀sewage฀smothers฀ and฀kills฀coral,฀or฀fosters฀the฀growth฀of฀suffocating฀and฀sometimes฀toxic฀algae฀(Harrison฀and฀Pearce฀2001).฀Coral฀reefs฀are฀ also฀subject฀to฀remote฀threats.฀Dust฀carried฀ aloft฀by฀storms฀in฀Africa฀(Figure฀3.21),฀and฀ then฀spread฀across฀the฀Atlantic฀on฀prevailing฀winds,฀may฀have฀introduced฀bacterial฀฀ infections฀to฀Caribbean฀reefs฀(USGS฀2003).฀ Global฀warming฀is฀also฀a฀threat฀to฀coral฀ reefs.฀Higher฀concentrations฀of฀carbon฀ dioxide฀in฀the฀air฀make฀surface฀waters฀ more฀acidic฀and฀reduce฀coral฀growth฀rates฀ Credit:฀Shoukyu/UNEP/Topfoto 94 (Kleypas฀et฀al.฀1999).฀The฀rise฀of฀ocean฀ temperatures฀by฀half฀a฀degree฀or฀more฀in฀ recent฀decades฀has฀already฀placed฀many฀ reefs฀at฀the฀top฀end฀of฀the฀temperature฀ ranges฀they฀can฀tolerate฀without฀undergoing฀“bleaching”฀(Harrison฀and฀Pearce฀ 2001).฀As฀corals฀reach฀the฀limits฀of฀their฀ heat฀tolerance,฀they฀expel฀symbiotic฀algae฀ from฀their฀bodies฀and฀become฀“bleached.”฀ Epidemic฀coral฀bleaching฀in฀the฀1990s,฀ which฀peaked฀with฀the฀El฀Niño-induced฀ warming฀of฀1998,฀is฀believed฀to฀have฀killed฀ more฀coral฀in฀the฀last฀few฀years฀of฀the฀20th฀ century฀than฀from฀all฀human฀causes฀to฀date฀ (Pearce฀1999).฀Continued฀warming฀could฀ cause฀sea฀levels฀to฀rise฀at฀a฀rate฀that฀coral฀ reefs฀cannot฀match. Coastal฀lands฀have฀been฀greatly฀impacted฀by฀human฀activities.฀Fifty-one฀per฀cent฀ of฀the฀world’s฀coastlines฀are฀under฀“moderate”฀or฀“high”฀threat฀from฀development฀ activities฀(Bryant฀et฀al.฀1995).฀Nineteen฀per฀ cent฀of฀all฀lands฀within฀100฀km฀(62฀miles)฀ of฀the฀coast฀(excluding฀Antarctica฀and฀ water฀bodies)฀are฀classified฀as฀“altered,”฀ having฀been฀turned฀into฀agricultural฀or฀ urban฀areas;฀10฀per฀cent฀are฀“semi-altered,”฀ involving฀a฀mosaic฀of฀natural฀and฀altered฀ vegetation;฀and฀71฀per฀cent฀fall฀within฀ the฀“least฀modified”฀category.฀A฀large฀per฀ centage฀of฀the฀coastal฀lands฀in฀this฀least฀ 27 Mar 2004 modified฀category,฀however,฀includes฀many฀ found฀in฀uninhabited฀areas฀in฀northern฀ latitudes฀(Burke฀et฀al.฀2000). The฀destruction฀of฀coastal฀ecosystems฀ and฀the฀deterioration฀in฀the฀quality฀of฀ ocean฀waters,฀together฀with฀overexploitation฀of฀resources,฀are฀seriously฀impacting฀ the฀survival฀of฀the฀ecosystems฀and฀the฀ people฀that฀depend฀on฀them฀(SIDA฀n.d.). 9 Jun 2004 Figure฀3.21:฀While฀Saharan฀dust฀provides฀coral฀ reefs฀with฀essential฀nutrients฀like฀iron฀and฀copper,฀ Saharan฀dust฀also฀introduces฀bacterial฀infections฀ to฀coral฀reefs.฀The฀image฀to฀the฀left฀is฀a฀Saharan฀ dust฀storm฀spreading฀out฀over฀the฀Mediterranean฀in฀ 2004.฀The฀image฀to฀the฀right฀is฀of฀large฀dust฀plumes฀ off฀Namibia฀in฀2004.฀Source:฀http://rapidfire.sci.gsfc.nasa. gov/gallery/?2004125-0504/Libya.A2004125.0940.1km.jpg,฀฀ http://rapidfire.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/gallery/?2004161-0609/Namibia.A2004161.0930.1km.jpg Credit:฀Denjiro฀Sato/UNEP/Topfoto 95 Case฀Study:฀Africa’s฀Kipini฀Wildlife฀and฀ Botanical฀Conservancy ฀Christian฀Lambrechts The฀coastal฀region฀of฀Kenya฀is฀famous฀for฀its฀ natural฀beauty,฀rich฀culture,฀diverse฀communities,฀and฀as฀a฀recreational฀resource.฀This฀has฀ ensured฀economic฀benefi฀ts฀for฀Kenya฀from฀ mainly฀non-consumptive฀utilization฀of฀its฀natural฀resources฀through฀tourism.฀Yet฀this฀development฀has฀not฀taken฀place฀without฀considerable฀ environmental฀cost.฀Excessive฀construction฀ along฀the฀coastline,฀uncontrolled฀access฀to฀ marine฀environments,฀factory฀fi฀shing฀operations,฀and฀poor฀planning฀have฀led฀to฀a฀decline฀ in฀the฀quantity฀and฀quality฀of฀both฀land฀and฀ marine฀resources.฀This฀has฀been฀refl฀ected฀in฀ loss฀of฀biodiversity,฀dwindling฀fi฀sh฀ stocks,฀and฀declining฀employment฀ and฀tourism฀fi฀gures,฀although฀the฀ latter฀are฀also฀attributable฀to฀recent฀ security฀concerns.฀฀ The฀Kipini฀Wildlife฀and฀Botanical฀Conservancy฀is฀located฀along฀ the฀coast฀of฀eastern฀Kenya.฀It฀lies฀ within฀the฀Lamu฀and฀Tana฀River฀ districts,฀but฀is฀connected฀ecologically฀to฀the฀Ijara฀District.฀฀It฀ is฀a฀well-preserved฀area฀with฀high฀ biodiversity,฀although฀few฀conservation฀projects฀have฀ever฀been฀implemented฀and฀current฀protection฀is฀ inadequate฀with฀wildlife฀reserves฀ only฀on฀paper.฀฀With฀increasing฀ Credits:฀Christian฀Lambrechts/UNEP/UNEP-GRID฀Nairobi 96 Credit:฀Christian฀Lambrechts/UNEP/UNEP-GRID฀Nairobi Location of the Conservancy population฀pressures฀on฀the฀natural฀resources฀ there฀is฀a฀need฀for฀prompt฀action. The฀Kipini฀Conservancy฀initially฀focuses฀on฀ what฀was฀once฀known฀as฀Nairobi฀Ranch,฀an฀area฀ approximately฀16฀000฀hectares฀(40฀000฀acres)฀ in฀size฀that฀is฀situated฀between฀the฀historical฀ towns฀of฀Kipini,฀Witu฀and฀Lamu.฀The฀Swaleh฀ Nguru฀(Sherman)฀family฀secured฀the฀land฀ under฀a฀freehold฀arrangement฀and฀has฀maintained฀it฀even฀at฀a฀loss฀under฀livestock฀operations.฀Development฀of฀the฀ranch฀is฀necessary,฀as฀ Kenya฀can฀ill฀afford฀idle฀land.฀But฀development฀ is฀being฀undertaken฀with฀considerable฀care฀to฀ ensure฀adequate฀environmental฀conservation.฀ By฀creating฀an฀easement฀on฀this฀freehold฀land,฀ the฀Swaleh฀Nguru฀family฀has฀put฀it฀in฀trust฀for฀ future฀generations฀of฀Kenyans฀as฀well฀as฀visitors฀ to฀the฀country.฀The฀conservancy฀will฀need฀to฀be฀ vigorously฀managed฀and฀will฀involve฀a฀transition฀from฀a฀cattle-based฀ranching฀system฀to฀a฀ more฀natural฀landscape฀populated฀by฀native฀ species.฀Income฀generation฀will฀be฀based฀on฀ heritage฀value฀and฀donor฀support฀in฀the฀short฀ term,฀with฀increasing฀reliance฀on฀eco-tourism.฀฀ In฀the฀future,฀the฀Kipini฀Conservancy฀is฀expected฀to฀be฀expanded฀to฀include฀the฀range฀of฀ critically฀endangered฀species.฀In฀a฀recent฀study฀ funded฀by฀the฀Finnish฀Embassy,฀Ader’s฀duiker,฀ an฀extremely฀rare฀mammal฀once฀thought฀to฀ be฀virtually฀extinct฀in฀Kenya,฀was฀found฀in฀the฀ area฀near฀the฀Conservancy.฀฀Expansion฀of฀the฀ Conservancy฀will฀also฀help฀to฀preserve฀highly฀ diverse฀habitat฀corridors฀between฀the฀coast฀and฀ the฀interior฀and฀will฀involve฀surrounding฀communities฀in฀conservation฀efforts. The฀coastal฀marine฀ecosystem฀adjacent฀to฀ the฀Conservancy฀is฀part฀of฀the฀Global฀200฀ecoregion.฀It฀supports฀a฀great฀diversity฀of฀animal฀ and฀plant฀life฀and฀is฀known฀as฀a฀turtle฀nesting฀ area.฀Several฀species฀of฀whales฀and฀dolphins฀are฀ found฀in฀the฀waters฀offshore,฀as฀well฀as฀the฀globally฀threatened฀dugong฀(Dugong฀dugon).฀The฀ part฀of฀the฀Conservancy฀that฀borders฀the฀Tana฀ River฀delta฀is฀a฀stop-over฀and฀wintering฀grounds฀ for฀many฀migratory฀bird฀populations.฀The฀area฀ also฀provides฀habitat฀for฀threatened฀shorebirds฀ and฀seabirds฀(UNEP/GRID–Nairobi). Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/Topfoto 97 C OASTAL ฀ A REAS G F H ULF ฀ OF ฀ ONSECA ,฀ 98 ONDURAS Honduras is second only to Ecuador in the production and export of cultured shrimp from Latin America. Vast areas of the delta have been converted into farms for the cultivation of shrimp. The rapid growth of shrimp aquaculture in Honduras has caused both environmental and social Shrimp฀aquaculture฀in฀Honduras฀began฀in฀the฀early฀1970s฀ and฀continued฀in฀the฀1980s฀ in฀the฀hands฀of฀both฀national฀ and฀international฀enterprises.฀ Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/Topfoto problems. Shrimp farmers are depriving fishers, farmers and others of access to mangroves, estuaries and seasonal lagoons; destroying mangrove ecosystems, altering the hydrology of the region, destroying the habitats of other flora and fauna and precipitating declines in biodiversity; contributing to degraded water quality; and exacerbating the decline in Gulf fisheries through the indiscriminate capture of other species caught with the shrimp post larvae that are used to stock ponds. These two images provide a visual comparison of the increase in coverage by shrimp farms in the Gulf of Fonseca over time. It is evident from the images that between 1987 and 1999, a period of about 12 years, the total area under shrimp farming has increased tremendously. 99 C OASTAL ฀ A REAS G G E ULF ฀ OF ฀ 100 UAYAQUIL ,฀ CUADOR Guayaquil is Ecuador’s largest city and primary sea port. It is located on the Guayas River, which empties into the huge Gulf of Guayaquil along the country’s southern coastline. Throughout the Gulf, mangroves have been steadily converted to shrimp aquaculture ponds for producing farmed shrimp. In a 15-year pe- riod, coastal area developed for shrimp aquaculture grew by approximately 30 per cent, from 90 000 hectares (222 395 acres) in 1984 to 118 000 hectares (291 584 acres) in 2000 (CLIRSEN 2000). Roughly 70 per cent of Ecuador’s shrimp farming activities are located in the Gulf of Guayaquil. In this pair of satellite images, the loss of mangroves and growth of the aquaculture industry can be seen along the coast and in the altered dendritic patterns (branching like a tree) of coastal waterways, especially those on the large island of Puna. Mangroves provide fish breeding grounds and wildlife habitat, act as natural barriers against storm surge, and filter groundwater. Converting mangroves to aquaculture ponds has wide-reaching environmental implications. 101 Huang฀He฀Delta C OASTAL ฀ A REAS H H D C UANG ฀ 102 E฀ ELTA ,฀ HINA The Huang He (Yellow River) is the muddiest river on Earth and is China’s second longest river, running 5 475 km (3 395 miles) from eastern Tibet to the Bohai Sea. The Huang He’s yellow color is caused by its tremendous load of sediment, composed primarily of mica, quartz, and feldspar particles. The sediment enters the water as the river carves its way through the highly erodable loess plateau in north-central China. (Loessial soil is called huang tu, or “yellow earth,” in Chinese.) Centuries of sediment deposition and dike building along the river’s course has caused it to flow above the surrounding farmland in some places, making flooding a critically dangerous problem. Where the Huang He flows into the ocean, sediments are continuously deposited in the river delta, where they gradually build up over time. Between 1979 and 2000—as these satellite images show—the delta of the Huang He expanded dramatically. Several hundred square kilometres of newly formed land were added to China’s coast during this period. 103 Dike C OASTAL ฀ A REAS I N JSSELMEER,฀ 104 ETHERLANDS The Zuiderzee is a large body of water along Holland’s northeastern coast. Between 1927 and 1932, a 30 km (19 miles) dam, known as the Afsluitdijk, was built across the Zuiderzee, separating it into the outer Waddenzee, which is open to the North Sea, and the inner IJsselmeer (Lake IJssel) where areas of reclaimed land—called polders—are used for agriculture and as villages. Dikes built since that time created additional polders that were drained using pumps and, at one time, wind mills. These images, from 1964, 1973, and 2004, show the transformation of polders into useable farming land. The 1973 image shows a partially completed dike that, when completed allowed for the creation of the southernmost polder visible in the 1973 image. At that time, draining of the land had been completed and soil cultivation began. By 2004, this area of reclaimed land was covered with farms. The area of lighter blue water visible in the left of the 1973 and 2004 images is the Markermeer—a polder that was created but not drained. It forms a freshwater reservoir that acts as a buffer against floodwaters. 105 C OASTAL ฀ A REAS I B J SAHAYA ฀ 106 AY ,฀ APAN Land reclamation began in Japan’s Isahaya Bay in 1989 to separate approximately 3 000 hectares (7 413 acres) of tidal flats from the Ariake Sea and turn what was Japan’s largest area of tidal lands into farmland. As these three satellites images show, the project has steadily progressed. In the 2001 image, the straight line of a 7-km (4 mile) sea wall is visible separating areas of light- and dark-colored water. Behind the sea wall, tidal flats can be seen drying as water is slowly drained away. In the 2003 image, that area has been fully reclaimed from the sea. The Isahaya Bay Reclamation project has been fraught with controversy. Environmental groups have criticized the project for its destruction of wetland habitat. The Isahaya Bay area is known for its production of nori (seaweed), and local farmers have complained that the reclamation project has negatively impacted the quality and abundance of the nori growing in the bay. The Isahaya project prompted the formation of the Japan Wetlands Action Network, a group of grassroots and national conservation organizations who are protesting the project and recommending that the sea wall gates be opened to restore ecological balance. 107 C OASTAL ฀ A REAS K R D C NIFE ฀ 108 IVER ฀ ELTA ,฀ ANADA Snow geese migrate each spring to the shores of Hudson Bay, Canada, to breed and to raise their chicks. Over the past few decades, the numbers of geese descending upon the Bay’s Knife River delta area have increased substantially. Their impact on coastal vegetation can clearly be seen in this pair of satellite images. In the image on the right, notice how the vegetation (green) has receded from the shoreline north of the delta. Snow geese have overgrazed this area and turned the shoreline into an enormous mudflat. Having denuded the shoreline of vegetation, the geese have also moved inland in search of food on the tundra, where overgrazed soil quickly becomes barren and develops a crust of salt due to evaporation. The salty layer prevents the regrowth of plants, and ultimately leads to erosion. Some researchers have suggested lifting restrictions on the hunting of snow geese in an attempt to reduce their numbers and control the overgrazing problem. Others believe such measures are “too little, too late.” 109 C OASTAL ฀ A REAS P P C HNOM ฀ ENH ,฀ 110 AMBODIA Phnom Penh (pronounced p-NOM PEN) is the capital city of Cambodia. It is just west of the four-way river intersection, which is called the Chattomukh (“Four Faces”). From the northwest and northeast, respectively, flow the Tonle Sap and Mekong Rivers. These waters merge and split into the Basak River and the Mekong, which flow southeast to the South China Sea. The Mekong River is the 12th longest in the world, flowing from western China to the Mekong Delta in southern Vietnam. Every autumn, monsoon rains are too great for the Mekong to carry, and it floods a large area of Cambodia. This flood even reverses the flow of the Tonle Sap River, northward to the Tonle Sap (“Great Lake”) which can expand to ten times its normal size. This pair of images show the extent of flooding associated with the two rivers. The 2000 image was taken during a period of flooding while the 2001 image was taken after the flood waters had receded. Visible also in the images, especially in the south-central area of the 2001 image, are extensive ditches and canals that are used in irrigation. 111 C OASTAL ฀ A REAS S I B UNDARBAN ,฀ NDIA / 112 ANGLADESH Sundarban, the largest mangrove forest of the world, is situated in the southwestern part of Bangladesh and in the West Bengal of India. Guarded by the Bay of Bengal, Sunderban is an excellent example of the coexistence of human and terrestrial plant and animal life. Despite high population pressure and environmental hazards such as siltation, cyclone flooding and sea level rise, the aerial extent of the mangrove forest has not changed significantly in the last 25 years. In fact, with improved management, the tiger population has increased from a mere 350 in 1993 to 500-700 in 2000 and ecotourism is progressing well. However, while sufficient data is not available, several reports suggest that forest degradation has been occur- ring in many parts of Sundarban. The Sundarban’s mangrove forests are also becoming more vulnerable due to the significant rise of shrimp farming in the region. The increase of shrimp farming has negatively affected agriculture and also contributed to the loss of mangrove forests during the past two decades. 113 Shrimp฀farm Credit:฀H.฀Gyde฀Lund/UNEP C OASTAL ฀ A REAS T B T HON ฀ 114 URI ,฀ HAILAND As the city of Bangkok, Thailand, has grown, the need to provide food and an additional economic base for its burgeoning population has been a primary concern. Parts of the Thai coastline, including those near Bangkok, offer conditions favorable to aquaculture, Mangrove฀trees Credit:฀H.฀Gyde฀Lund/UNEP especially shrimp aquaculture. Over time, as these satellite images from 1978 and 2002 reveal, the mangroves that once lined the coast near Bangkok, as well as the rice paddies that lay further inland, have been replaced by aquaculture ponds (blue patches inland) and urban structures (light purple). The promotion and development of aquaculture has led to the current situation, where farmed shrimp and fish production now exceeds that of shrimp and fish capture by traditional methods. The development of this coastal industry has raised environmental concerns, as extensive areas of mangroves have been destroyed to make way for aquaculture ponds. The challenge of balancing the needs of people living in coastal areas versus the welfare of the coastal areas themselves is ongoing, and repeated along many coastlines worldwide. 115 116 Credit:฀Laurent฀/UNEP/Topfoto 117 3.3 Water W ฀ater฀is฀fundamental฀to฀almost฀all฀living฀things฀on฀the฀Earth.฀ Human฀health—and฀survival—depends฀on฀a฀clean฀and฀ reliable฀supply฀of฀fresh฀drinking฀water,฀as฀well฀as฀water฀ for฀crop฀irrigation฀and฀sanitation฀(UNESCO฀2000).฀Fresh฀water฀is฀ water฀that฀has฀a฀very฀low฀salt฀content—usually฀less฀than฀one฀฀ per฀cent.฀Only฀about฀2.5฀per฀cent฀of฀all฀water฀on฀the฀planet฀is฀ fresh.฀Of฀that฀amount,฀only฀about฀0.5฀per฀cent฀is฀surface฀water฀ (found฀in฀lakes,฀rivers,฀wetlands)฀or฀accessible฀groundwater.฀ Rainfall฀is฀also฀a฀source฀of฀fresh฀water.฀But฀rainfall฀is฀unpredictable฀and฀amounts฀vary฀dramatically฀from฀place฀to฀place฀and฀ season฀to฀season฀around฀the฀world฀(UNFPA฀2001). During฀the฀past฀century,฀world฀population฀has฀tripled.฀ Over฀roughly฀the฀same฀period฀of฀time฀(1900฀to฀1995)฀water฀ use฀worldwide฀has฀increased฀six-fold.฀Experts฀predict฀that฀by฀ 2025,฀global฀water฀needs฀will฀increase฀even฀more,฀with฀40฀per฀ cent฀more฀water฀needed฀for฀cities฀and฀20฀per฀cent฀more฀water฀ for฀growing฀crops฀(Paden฀2000).฀Yet฀while฀needs฀increase,฀the฀ amount฀of฀available฀fresh฀water฀is฀dwindling฀worldwide. Water฀withdrawals฀from฀ rivers฀and฀underground฀ reserves฀have฀grown฀ by฀2.5฀to฀3฀per฀cent฀ annually฀since฀ 1940,฀significantly฀ahead฀ of฀population฀ growth.฀So฀ much฀water฀ is฀withdrawn฀from฀ several฀of฀ the฀world’s฀ major฀ rivers,฀ including฀ the฀Colorado฀River฀ in฀the฀United฀ States,฀the฀Nile฀ River฀in฀Egypt,฀ and฀the฀Yellow฀ River฀in฀China,฀that฀ there฀is฀little฀to฀no฀water฀left฀by฀the฀time฀these฀ rivers฀meet฀the฀sea฀(Postel฀et฀ al.฀1996).฀Demands฀on฀groundwater฀ are฀equally฀great;฀water฀tables฀are฀falling฀on฀every฀continent. Over฀the฀next฀two฀decades,฀it฀is฀estimated฀that฀the฀average฀ supply฀of฀water฀per฀person฀will฀drop฀by฀one-third.฀Annually,฀lack฀ of฀clean฀drinking฀water฀can฀be฀linked฀to฀roughly฀250฀million฀cases฀of฀water-related฀disease฀and฀between฀5฀and฀10฀million฀deaths฀ worldwide.฀Thus,฀water฀shortages฀indirectly฀condemn฀millions฀ of฀people฀to฀an฀avoidable฀premature฀death฀each฀year. Water฀shortages฀are฀also฀impacting฀global฀grain฀markets,฀as฀ arid฀countries฀that฀rely฀on฀irrigation฀for฀crop฀production฀switch฀ from฀growing฀grain฀to฀importing฀it฀(Harrison฀and฀Pearce฀2001).฀ Irrigation฀accounts฀for฀70฀per฀cent฀of฀direct฀water฀consumption฀ worldwide.฀It฀has฀been฀estimated฀that฀practices฀such฀as฀drip฀irrigation฀and฀inexpensive฀moisture฀monitors฀could฀cut฀agricultural฀ water฀use฀by฀as฀much฀as฀40฀per฀cent฀(Wall฀2001).฀฀ 118 The฀exploitation฀of฀the฀world’s฀water฀resources฀has฀occurred฀at฀no฀small฀ cost฀to฀the฀environment.฀Worldwide,฀all฀major฀rivers฀have฀water฀works฀ that฀change฀flow฀regimes฀to฀some฀extent฀and฀therefore฀impact฀riparian฀ ecosystems.฀Many฀endemic฀riparian฀species฀are฀disappearing฀(Ramsar฀ Convention฀Bureau฀1998),฀and฀twenty฀per฀cent฀of฀all฀freshwater฀fish฀ are฀currently฀endangered.฀Few฀aquatic฀ecosystems฀have฀been฀as฀ severely฀impacted฀as฀wetlands,฀however.฀During฀the฀20th฀century,฀half฀of฀the฀Earth’s฀wetland฀ecosystems—such฀as฀marshes,฀ fens,฀swamps,฀and฀estuaries—disappeared฀(UNESCO฀2003).฀ Approximately฀40฀000฀hectares฀(98฀842฀acres)฀of฀wetlands฀are฀ destroyed฀each฀year฀as฀the฀result฀of฀human฀activities฀(Center฀ for฀Environmental฀Resource฀Management฀n.d.).฀Drainage฀for฀ agricultural฀production฀is฀the฀principal฀cause฀of฀wetland฀loss. At฀the฀same฀time฀that฀global฀water฀supplies฀are฀declining,฀ so฀is฀the฀quality฀of฀the฀water฀that฀remains.฀Water฀pollution฀is฀ the฀presence฀of฀harmful฀and฀objectionable฀material—such฀ as฀sewage,฀industrial฀wastes฀and฀chemicals,฀and฀run-off฀from฀ land฀development฀or฀agriculture—in฀sufficient฀concentrations฀ as฀to฀make฀water฀unfit฀for฀use฀(EEA฀2004).฀Water฀pollution฀is฀a฀ serious฀threat฀to฀the฀world’s฀water฀supply.฀ It฀is฀also฀a฀growing฀threat฀to฀the฀ oceans฀that฀cover฀more฀than฀ 70฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀planet.฀ People฀have฀long฀viewed฀ these฀immense฀bodies฀ of฀water฀as฀limitless฀ dumping฀grounds฀ for฀wastes.฀Over฀ time,฀however,฀ raw฀sewage,฀ garbage,฀industrial฀wastes,฀ and฀oil฀spills฀ have฀begun฀ to฀overwhelm฀ the฀diluting฀ capabilities฀ of฀the฀oceans.฀ Most฀coastal฀ waters฀are฀now฀ polluted,฀often฀ severely฀(Revenga฀ and฀Mock฀2000,฀ Revenga฀et฀฀ al.฀2000). The฀21st฀Century฀ brings฀with฀it฀a฀global฀water฀ crisis.฀Unless฀corrective฀and฀ conservation฀measures฀are฀taken,฀it฀ is฀estimated฀that฀by฀2030฀global฀demands฀ for฀fresh฀water฀will฀exceed฀the฀supply฀(NSW฀EPA฀2003,฀UNESCO฀ 2000).฀฀Serious฀water฀and฀food฀security฀problems฀already฀exist฀ in฀some฀developing฀countries฀and฀regions,฀and฀these฀demand฀ urgent฀attention฀(FAO฀2003). Growing฀population฀in฀urban฀areas฀is฀exerting฀great฀pressure฀on฀water฀resources.฀Even฀if฀the฀world฀maintained฀the฀ pace฀of฀the฀1990s฀in฀water-supply฀development,฀this฀would฀ not฀be฀enough฀to฀ensure฀that฀everyone฀had฀access฀to฀safe฀ drinking฀water฀by฀the฀year฀2025.฀฀฀The฀impacts฀of฀climate฀ change—including฀changes฀in฀temperature,฀precipitation฀ and฀sea฀levels—are฀expected฀to฀have฀varying฀consequences฀ for฀the฀availability฀of฀freshwater฀around฀the฀world.฀Current฀ indications฀are฀that฀if฀climate฀change฀occurs฀gradually,฀the฀impacts฀by฀2025฀may฀be฀minor,฀with฀some฀countries฀experiencing฀ positive฀impacts฀while฀most฀experience฀negative฀ones.฀Climate฀ change฀impacts฀are฀projected฀to฀become฀increasingly฀strong฀during฀the฀decades฀following฀2025. 119 Credit:฀Mario฀Hernan฀Valencia/UNEP/Topfoto 120 W ATER KBG T ,฀ The Caspian Sea, seen in this 2004 image, is the largest inland body of water in the world, often categorized as a large salt lake. It is salty because rivers (especially the Volga) flow into it, but none flow out. Water leaves URKMENISTAN 121 121 through evaporation, and the dissolved salts remain. Changes in water levels are common in the sea, resulting both from changing climatic factors and water diversion by humans. The 2004 image highlights the area of change—the Kara-Bogaz-Gol (KBG). KBG is a large, shallow lagoon of the Caspian Sea, normally about 18 200 km2 (7 000 square miles) and a 122 few metres deep. The Caspian’s changing water level has been a concern since the 1970s. The KBG’s water flows in from the Caspian Sea, and its fluctuations have affected the KBG dramatically. In the 1980s, a dam blocked the KBG’s inflow, resulting in the formation of a “salt bowl” that caused widespread problems of blowing salt, In฀1980,฀in฀response฀to฀the฀rapidly฀dropping฀sea฀ level,฀a฀dam฀was฀constructed฀to฀prevent฀water฀from฀ fl฀owing฀into฀the฀shallow฀and฀restricted฀Kara-BogazGol฀basin,฀resulting฀in฀the฀drying฀up฀of฀the฀bay.฀ The฀dam฀was฀partially฀opened฀a฀few฀years฀later,฀ and฀completely฀opened฀in฀1992฀when฀Caspian฀water฀levels฀started฀to฀rise฀quickly.฀Credit:฀NASA฀Johnson฀ Space฀Center reportedly poisoning soil, and causing health problems for people living hundreds of kilometers downwind to the east. While the dam was in place, not only did the KBG’s water level rapidly drop by 2 m (7 ft) or more, but the lagoon’s shallow bottom also rose 0.5 m (2 ft), due to the accumulation of salts. The dam was partially opened in 1985, and completely opened in 1992 when Caspian Sea water levels started to rise quickly. Today, sea levels are more than 2.6 m (9 ft) higher than the 1978 levels and water flows freely into the salty waters of the Kara-Bogaz-Gol. 123 W ATER A S K RAL ฀ EA ,฀ 124 AZAKHSTAN The name “ Aral Sea “ comes from the word “aral” meaning island. The sea’s name reflects the fact that it is a vast basin that lies as an island among waterless deserts. The Aral Sea was once the world’s fourth-largest inland sea. Its problems began in the 1960s and 1970s with the diversion of the main rivers that feed it to provide for cotton cultivation in arid Soviet Central Asia. The surface of the Aral Sea once measured 66 100 km2 (25 521 square miles). By 1987, about 60 per cent of the Aral Sea’s volume had been lost, its depth had declined by 14 m (45 feet), and its salt concentration had doubled, killing the commercial fishing trade. Wind storms became toxic, carrying fine grains of clay and salts deposited on ex- posed sea floor. Life expectancies in the districts near the sea are significantly lower than in surrounding areas. The sea is now a quarter of the size it was 50 years ago and has broken into two parts, the North Aral Sea and the South Aral Sea. Re-engineering along the Syr Darya River delta in the north will retain water in the North Aral Sea, thereby drying the South Aral Sea completely, perhaps within 15 years. 125 The฀power-generating฀station฀at฀the฀Atatürk฀Dam฀already฀provides฀8.9฀billion฀kilowatt฀hours฀of฀electricity—roughly฀22฀per฀ cent฀of฀the฀electricity฀the฀country฀is฀expected฀to฀need฀by฀2010. Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/USDA-FAS W ATER A D TATÜRK ฀ 126 AM ,฀ TURKEY Built in 1990, the Atatürk Dam on the Euphrates River in southeastern Turkey is the centrepiece of the Southeastern Anatolia Project. The Atatürk Dam is the largest in a series of 22 dams and 19 hydroelectric stations built on the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers in order to provide irrigation water and electricity to this arid region Main฀Harran฀canal Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/USDA-FAS of the country. When the project’s entire system of reservoirs, power generation stations, and irrigation channels is operational (projected to occur in 2010), the irrigation of approximately 1.7 million hectares (4.2 million acres) of land will be possible.. In these two Landsat images, acquired in 1976 and 1999, respectively, the transformation of the region around the dam is strikingly apparent. The dam’s reservoir reached capacity in 1992 and has supplied sufficient water for irrigation to turn a once-arid landscape into a green one. This is especially obvious in the lower right-hand corner of the 1999 image, where irrigated fields completely surround the town of Harran. The development of the Harran region could not have occurred without the Atatürk Dam project, especially since the town is many kilometres from the river. 127 Credit:฀Combs/UNEP/Africa฀Focus Vegetable฀crops฀of฀onions฀and฀sweet฀potatoes฀can฀grow฀in฀ fi฀elds฀maintained฀by฀irrigation. W ATER C G HALLAWA ฀ 128 ORGE ฀ DAM,฀NIGERIA The Challawa Gorge Dam, completed in 1993 on the Challawa River, is the second-largest of the 23 dams along rivers in Nigeria’s Hadejia-Jama’are River Basin. Though the dam has improved the water supply for irrigation, heavy rains cause the river to break its banks Credit:฀Combs/UNEP/Africa฀Focus Soil฀turned฀with฀hand฀tool฀in฀northern฀Nigeria. upstream from the dam; farmers are driven out as the rising water floods their farms and adjoining lands. Areas downstream from the dam, on the other hand, do not receive enough water to maintain the wetlands that border the river. Under these conditions, the soil dries out and overgrazing occurs, which in turn leads to wind erosion of the topsoil. This satellite image pair gives a comparison of the area before and after construction of the dam. The 1999 image shows the degree to which flooding upstream from the dam impacts the landscape, and how the lack of water downstream negatively affects riverine wetlands and cropland. The colour of the water in the flooded area is also indicative of high-sediment content. 129 W ATER D S J EAD ฀ EA ,฀ ORDAN 130 For decades, heavy demands have been placed on the land-locked Dead Sea to meet the needs of growing populations in the countries that border it. Both Israel and Jordan draw water from rivers that flow into the Dead Sea, reducing the amount of water that would naturally replenish it. The amount of area devoted to evaporation ponds for producing salt has greatly expanded over the past three decades. The creation of salt works tends to accelerate evaporation, further contributing to the reduction in water level. Currently, it is estimated that the water level of the Dead Sea is dropping at a rate of about one metre (3 feet) per year. These two images, from 1973 and 2002, reveal dramatic changes in the Dead Sea over a period of about 30 years. Declining water levels, coupled with impoundments and land reclamation projects, have greatly increased the amount of exposed arid land along the coastline. The near-complete closing off of the southern part of the Sea by dry land (2002 image) reveals the severity of water level decline. 131 Aerial฀view฀of฀urban฀developement฀in฀the฀ Everglades.฀ Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/SFWMD WATER EVERGLADES,฀UNITED฀STATES 132 These two Landsat images of southern Florida in the United States reveal some of the changes that have occurred in this region over the past 30 years. One of the most obvious is the growth of the Fort LauderdaleMiami urban area. Urban expansion has led to the con- The฀Florida฀panther.฀ Credit:฀Unknown/UNEP/SFWMD version of what were once farmlands to cityscapes. The city of Miami has also expanded greatly to the southwest. The advance of urban areas westward across the peninsula threatens the continued existence of the vast wetlands area known as the Everglades. The Everglades ecosystem naturally filters groundwater and helps to recharge the Biscayne Aquifer. It is also home to a remarkable collection of plants and animals for which southern Florida is famous. As urban areas encroach upon the Everglades, water resources and wildlife habitat are placed at serious risk. Protecting the Everglades to maintain its essential water filtering capacity and remarkable biodiversity is part of the mission of the Federal “Smart Growth” Task Force, which is working to better manage urban sprawl and its negative consequences. 133 Former฀Danube฀river฀bottom฀exposed฀as฀water฀is฀redirected฀into฀the฀diversion฀canal.฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀฀Credit:฀Peter฀Bardo-Déak/UNEP/WWF-DCP W ATER G S ABCIKOVA ,฀ LOVAKIA 134 The Gabcikova-Nagymoros hydraulic project on the Danube River was started in order to generate electric power, create an inland waterway, help manage water supplies, and aid in the region’s economic development. The river was to be dammed and its water diverted into a canal. Four decades after it was initiated the A฀dam฀on฀the฀Danube฀River฀ Credit:฀Peter฀Bardo-Déak/UNEP/WWF-DCP Cunovo Dam began operation in Slovakia in October 1992. The dam diverted 80 to 90 per cent of Danube River water down a diversion canal to support a hydroelectric power station. This pair of images from 1973 and 2000 reveal the striking changes the massive re-channeling of river water has brought to the region. The dam altered the hydraulic regime of the Danube River valley from a natural water- way to a controlled patchwork of channels and islands. The diversion of water by the dam brought an end to the natural, beneficial flooding that added moisture and nutrients to the soil. It also reduced the ability of wetlands and marshes to filter surface water and trap sediments. Consequently, water quality and soil nutrients levels in the region have declined. Generation of electricity has come with significant environmental cost. 135 W ATER L H ESOTHO ฀ 136 IGHLANDS ฀ WATER฀PROJECT The Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP) is one of the largest infrastructure projects ever undertaken on the African continent. The project is designed to divert water from Lesotho’s Maloti Mountains to South Africa’s urban and industrial Gauteng Province. While South Africa is set to benefit from an increased supply of much-needed water, Lesotho would gain through the generation of hydroelectric power and profits from the sale of water. An 82-km (51-mile) water transfer-and-delivery system is already in place for delivering water to South Africa. On completion of the full project, a total of four dams will be placed in key locations. However, many questions remain unanswered about the social and environmental impacts the completed dams will have. The first dam in the multi-dam scheme, called Katse, located on the Orange River, closed its gates in 1995, creating an enormous reservoir along with serious social and environmental concerns. These two images provide a comparison of the area before and after completion of the Katse dam. The effects and extent of the Katse Dam can clearly be seen in the 2001 image. 137 W ATER L B AKE ฀ 138 ALKHASH ,฀ KAZAKHSTAN Located in Kazakhstan, Central Asia, Lake Balkhash is replenished from the Ili River catchment area, most of which is located in northwestern China. The lake is a very important resource for the surrounding population. Water from the lake and its tributary rivers is used for irrigation and both municipal and industrial purposes, including supplying the water needs of the Balkhash Copper Melting Plant. Lake fish are also an important food source. However, artificially low water prices have encouraged excessive use and waste of lake water. The United Nations has warned that Lake Balkhash, which is the second largest lake in Central Asia after the Aral Sea, could dry up if current trends are not reversed. These two satellite images reveal an alarming drop in the lake’s water levels in just over twenty years. Smaller, neighboring lakes, to the southeast of Balkhash, have become detached from the main water body; they have dramatically decreased in size and appear to be drying up. 139 WATER 140 LAKE฀CHAD,฀AFRICA Lake Chad, located at the junction of Nigeria, Niger, Chad, and Cameroon was once the sixth-largest lake in the world. Persistent droughts have shrunk it to about a tenth of its former size. The lake has a large drainage basin—1.5 million km2 (0.6 million square miles)—but almost no water flows in from the dry north. Ninety per cent of lake’s water flows in from the Chari River. The lakebed is flat and shallow; even before the drought, the lake was no more than 5-8 m (16-26 ft) deep. Considered a deep wetland, Lake Chad was once the second largest wetland in Africa, highly productive, and supporting a diversity of wildlife. The lake is very responsive to changes in rainfall. When rains fail, the lake drops rapidly because annual inflow is 20-85 per cent of the lake’s volume. Human diversion from the lake and from the Chari River may be significant at times of low flow, but rainfall is still the determining factor in lake level. This image set displays a continued decline in lake surface area from 22 902 km2 (8 843 square miles) in 1963 to a meager 304 km2 (117 square miles) in 2001. 141 W ATER L C AKE ฀ 142 142 HAPALA ,฀ MEXICO Mexico’s Lake Chapala, lying in the heart of an extremely arid region, is the country’s largest natural lake. The lake is one of the most important wetlands in the region and home to more than 70 endemic species. Since the 1950s, Lake Chapala has undergone many changes as a result of water abstraction for agricultural use both inside and outside the region and for a rapidly growing population. The level of the lake has declined, and there have been noticeable decreases in surrounding wetland areas as well as changes in the hydrological system connecting various springs. Some of these changes are visible in this pair of satellite images, including alterations in the contours of the shoreline, obvious extensions of land near various townships around the lake, and the appearance of remarkably large areas of reclaimed land at the lake’s eastern end. Like all arid areas, the land around Lake Chapala is prone to salinization. If the lake continues to shrink, researchers predict both a decrease in water availability and an increase in the salt content of the region’s soil. 143 W ATER L H AKE ฀ 144 I AMOUN ,฀ RAN Iran’s Lake Hamoun is fed primarily by water catchments in neighboring Afghanistan. In 1976, when rivers in Afghanistan were flowing regularly, the amount of water in the lake was relatively high. Between 1999 and 2001, however, the lake all but dried up and disappeared, as can be seen in the 2001 satellite image above. The “dry phase” of Lake Hamoun is a striking example of how competition for scarce water resources can transform a landscape. When droughts occur in Afghanistan, or the water in watersheds that support Lake Hamoun is drawn down by other natural or human-induced reasons, the end result is a dry lakebed in Iran. In addition, when the lake is dry, seasonal winds blow fine sands off the exposed lakebed. The sand is swirled into huge dunes that may cover a hundred or more fishing villages along the former lakeshore. Wildlife around the lake is negatively impacted and fisheries are brought to a halt. Changes in water policies and substantial rains in the region saw a return of much of the water in Lake Hamoun by 2003. 145 ฀Flamingos฀on฀Lake฀Nakuru฀Credit฀:฀Gray฀Tappan/UNEP W ATER L N K AKE ฀ 146 AKURU ,฀ ENYA Lake Nakuru is located in the Eastern Rift Valley in southwest Kenya. Lake Nakuru National Park is the second most visited protected area in Kenya. It hosts the world’s largest concentration of flamingos, as well as many of the animal species that make Kenya a highly valued tourism destination, including lions, leopards, Vegetation฀around฀Lake฀Nakuru฀ Credit฀:฀Gray฀Tappan/UNEP rhinoceros, and water buffalo. In its total area of 188 km2 (73 square miles), there are over 450 bird species and 56 mammal species. Recognized as a wetland of international importance, Lake Nakuru was declared a Ramsar Site in 1990. The threat of land cover degradation in the catchments of the lake is likely to increase flow fluctuation and decrease water quality. These images show the land cover degradation in the lake’s catchment between 1973 and 2000. In 2001, the Government of Kenya announced its intention to excise 353 2 km (136 square miles) of forest in the Eastern Mau Forest Reserve (area with white boundary in the 2000 image). As a result, most of the forest cover in the upper catchment of the main rivers that feed Lake Nakuru will disappear. 147 W ATER L V AKE ฀ 148 ICTORIA ,฀ UGANDA Shared by Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, Lake Victoria is the second largest freshwater lake in the world. The infestation of Lake Victoria by water hyacinth in the 1990s disrupted transportation and fishing, clogged water intake pipes for municipal water, and created habitat for disease-causing mosquitoes and other insects. This led to the initiation of the Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project in 1994. The focus of the Project was to combat hyacinth infestations on the lake, particularly the region bordered by Uganda, which was one of the most severely affected areas. The 1995 image shows several water-hyacinth-choked bays: Murchison Bay near Gaba; large parts of Gobero and Wazimenya Bays; an area outside Buka Bay; and near Kibanga Port (yellow arrows). Initially, water hyacinth was controlled by hand, with the plants being manually removed from the lake. But re-growth quickly occurred. A more recent control measure has been the careful introduction of natural insect predators of water hyacinth. As the 2001 image shows, this approach seems to have been successful, as the floating weeds have disappeared from all the locations noted above. 149 1973 W ATER M M ESOPOTAMIA ฀ 150 150 I ARSHLANDS ,฀ RAQ Located at the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the Mesopotamian marshlands are one of the world’s great wetlands covering an estimated original area of 15 000 - 20 000 km2 (5 792 - 7 722 square miles) The marshlands are an important center of biodiversity, play a vital role in the intercontinental migration of birds, and have long supported unique human com- munities. Upstream damming as well as drainage activities in the marshlands themselves have significantly reduced the quantity of water entering the marshes. Together these factors have led to the collapse of the ecosystem. Restoration of the marshlands, mainly through reflooding by breaching of dykes and drainage canals has begun. As a result of these activities, vegetation and wildlife have returned to some parts of the marshes. This set of images provides a synoptic illustration of the changes. While the 1973 image (inset left) shows the extent of the original marshlands, the 2000 image (inset right) reveals the area after being drained, with most of the wetlands having disappeared. On the other hand, the 2004 image illustrates recovery in progress with major portions in the central and western sections having been restored to some extent. 151 W ATER T G HREE ฀ 152 ORGES ฀ DAM,฀CHINA The Three Gorges Dam on the Chang Jiang (Yangtze) River in China is one of the largest single construction projects ever attempted on the planet. The dam was constructed to supply approximately one-ninth of China’s electricity—as much power as could be gener- ated by at least fifteen nuclear power plants. It is a relatively environmentally clean option compared to coal burning or nuclear power plants. It is also hoped that the dam will help control flooding on a river where seasonal floods during the past century has caused death of over one million people. However, the Three Gorges Dam project has also had negative environmental and social impacts as a result of the massive construction efforts and the sub- mergence of land along the river above the dam. The former village of Zigui (top center of image) has already been submerged. The 1987 image shows the nature of the river and surrounding landscape before work on the dam was begun. In the May 2004 image, the enormous Three Gorges Dam is clearly visible, as is the reservoir of impounded river water that has been created behind it. 153 154 Credit:฀I฀Iguchi/ÜNEP/Topfoto 155 3.4 Forests M uch฀of฀the฀Earth’s฀above฀ground฀biomass฀and฀biodiversity฀is฀held฀within฀its฀forests.฀Forests฀are฀sources฀of฀ food,฀fuel,฀construction฀materials,฀fibers,฀and฀biological฀diversity.฀Forests฀are฀also฀important฀in฀water฀and฀air฀filtration,฀ carbon฀sequestration,฀soil฀stabilization,฀and฀tourism฀(Williams฀ 1994,฀1990).฀It฀has฀been฀estimated฀that฀roughly฀three-fourths฀of฀ a฀hectare฀of฀forestland฀is฀now฀needed฀to฀supply฀each฀person฀on฀ the฀planet฀with฀shelter฀and฀fuel฀(Lund฀and฀Iremonger฀1998).฀ Around฀the฀globe,฀there฀are฀a฀number฀of฀different฀types฀of฀ forests.฀They฀are฀classified฀according฀to฀a฀scheme฀that฀is฀largely฀ determined฀by฀climate฀and฀landform฀and฀that฀distinguishes฀evergreen฀and฀deciduous฀forests฀as฀well฀as฀broadleaf฀and฀needle-leaf฀ forests.฀ Deciduous฀broadleaf฀forests,฀for฀example,฀tend฀to฀be฀found฀ in฀temperate฀zone฀regions฀that฀have฀distinct฀seasons฀and฀moderate฀precipitation.฀Lowland฀deciduous฀broadleaf฀ forests—a฀source฀of฀great฀biodiversity—also฀tend฀to฀grow฀on฀soils฀ considered฀to฀be฀highly฀ suitable฀for฀agriculture.฀ Consequently,฀many฀of฀ the฀lowland฀forests฀in฀ the฀Northern฀Hemisphere฀have฀been฀ cut฀down฀and฀ the฀land฀they฀ once฀occupied฀ converted฀to฀ cropland.฀Lowland฀forests฀ are฀currently฀ facing฀the฀ same฀fate฀in฀ South฀America฀ and฀Africa. Evergreen฀ broadleaf฀forests—฀often฀called฀ “rain฀forests”— tend฀to฀occur฀in฀ tropical฀climates฀with฀ high฀levels฀of฀precipitation.฀Deciduous฀needle-leaf฀ forests฀occupy฀regions฀with฀ climates฀characterized฀by฀severe฀ temperature฀variations฀such฀as฀eastern฀Siberia,฀ a฀region฀with฀extremely฀cold฀winters฀and฀the฀Sahel,฀a฀region฀with฀ extremely฀hot,฀dry฀summers.฀Evergreen฀needle-leaf฀forests฀occur฀ throughout฀polar,฀temperate,฀and฀subtropical฀regions.฀Mixed฀ forests฀occupy฀transition฀zones.฀Swamp฀forests฀and฀mangroves฀ exist฀in฀areas฀where฀soils฀are฀saturated,฀or฀even฀inundated฀with฀ fresh฀water฀or฀ocean฀water,฀respectively.฀ Like฀any฀type฀of฀ecosystem,฀forests฀undergo฀changes,฀both฀ natural฀and฀human-induced.฀Attempts฀to฀determine฀how฀forests฀ have฀changed฀over฀time,฀however,฀are฀often฀complicated฀by฀the฀ fact฀that฀there฀is฀no฀single฀definition฀as฀to฀what฀constitutes฀a฀ “forest.”฀Land฀parcels฀may฀be฀classified฀according฀to฀their฀cur- Several฀different฀terms฀are฀often฀associated฀with฀forests฀and฀the฀changes฀they฀may฀ undergo.฀Deforestation฀is฀the฀removal฀of฀tree฀cover฀and฀the฀conversion฀of฀the฀resulting฀deforested฀land฀to฀some฀other฀use.฀Reforestation฀refers฀to฀re-establishing฀tree฀cover฀on฀previously฀forested฀land.฀Afforestation฀is฀the฀creation฀of฀forest฀cover฀where฀it฀did฀not฀previously฀ exist฀or฀where฀it฀existed฀only฀in฀the฀distant฀past.฀Forest฀degradation฀refers฀to฀changing฀a฀ forest฀to฀such฀a฀degree฀that฀the฀species฀that฀inhabit฀that฀forest฀can฀no฀longer฀compete฀for฀ survival;฀degradation฀typically฀leads฀to฀long฀term฀changes฀in฀species฀composition.฀ 156 Forests Br o ad l eave d everg r een Br o ad l eave d d eci d u o u s N eed l e- l eave d everg r een N eed l e- l eave d d eci d u o u s Mixed f o r es t Sw amp f o r es t ( f r es h w ater ) Man g r ove ( s al t w at er ) Source: Global land cover 2000 (GLC 2000) rent฀land฀cover,฀potential฀land฀cover,฀current฀use,฀administration,฀or฀a฀ combination฀of฀these฀criteria฀(Lund฀2002).฀The฀United฀Nations฀Food฀ and฀Agriculture฀Organization฀(FAO),฀which฀is฀responsible฀for฀global฀ forest฀resource฀assessments,฀classifies฀“forests”฀using฀a฀definition฀that฀ combines฀both฀land฀cover฀and฀use฀(FAO฀2001).฀This฀can฀lead฀to฀ some฀lands฀that฀are฀without฀trees฀due฀to฀fires฀or฀clear-cutting฀activities฀being฀classified฀as฀“forest,”฀while฀other฀lands฀that฀are฀covered฀ with฀trees,฀such฀as฀orchards฀and฀coffee฀plantations,฀are฀classified฀ as฀agricultural฀land฀or฀croplands฀rather฀than฀forests.฀ Despite฀such฀caveats,฀it฀is฀clear฀that฀there฀have฀been฀significant฀ changes฀over฀time฀in฀the฀character฀and฀spatial฀distribution฀of฀forests฀worldwide.฀It฀is฀estimated฀that฀about฀8฀000฀years฀ago,฀forests฀ occupied฀some฀6฀200฀million฀hectares฀(15฀320฀million฀acres),฀or฀ approximately฀50฀per฀cent,฀of฀the฀Earth’s฀land฀surface฀(Bryant฀et฀ al.฀1987).฀Today,฀less฀than฀4฀000฀million฀hectares฀฀ (9฀884฀million฀acres),฀or฀28฀per฀cent,฀of฀that฀total฀remains฀(FAO฀ 2001).฀This฀reduction฀in฀forest฀cover฀continues.฀From฀1990฀to฀ 2000,฀the฀global฀net฀rate฀of฀deforestation฀was฀approximately฀฀ 94฀000฀km2฀(36฀294฀square฀miles)฀฀per฀ year.฀(This฀figure฀represents฀a฀ gross฀loss฀of฀some฀123฀000฀ km2฀฀(47฀491฀square฀miles)฀ of฀forest฀per฀year฀offset฀ by฀a฀net฀gain,฀through฀ reforestation฀or฀ afforestation,฀of฀ roughly฀฀ 29฀000฀to฀฀ 30฀000฀km2฀฀ (11฀197฀to฀฀ 11฀583฀square฀ miles)฀of฀forest฀per฀year.) Fires฀are฀ a฀natural฀ event฀in฀ most฀ecosystems,฀including฀forests.฀ Fires฀are฀often฀ used฀to฀clear฀ land฀on฀forest฀ margins;฀occasionally,฀fires฀are฀ employed฀to฀bring฀ about฀a฀change฀in฀land฀ use.฀Sometimes฀fires฀are฀ simply฀the฀outcome฀of฀increasing฀numbers฀of฀people฀coming฀into฀ contact฀with฀forests.฀Most฀forestland฀disappearance฀is฀attributable฀to฀conversion฀to฀pasture,฀cropland,฀or฀ urbanization.฀Forest฀ecosystems฀are฀also฀degraded฀by฀fuel-wood฀ collection฀and฀the฀grazing฀of฀cattle฀and฀other฀livestock.฀ Gains฀in฀forest฀area฀come฀from฀afforestation฀projects,฀reforestation,฀fire฀suppression,฀and฀the฀abandonment฀of฀croplands.฀ A฀major฀concern฀of฀conservationists฀is฀the฀conversion฀of฀native฀ forests฀to฀tree฀plantations.฀The฀conversion฀to฀monocultural฀tree฀ plantations฀is฀particularly฀harmful฀to฀the฀biodiversity฀of฀the฀original,฀natural฀forest฀ecosystem. Approximately฀12฀per฀cent฀of฀the฀world’s฀forests฀are฀protected.฀ But฀this฀protection฀is฀unevenly฀distributed฀around฀the฀globe.฀It฀is฀ estimated฀that฀one฀hectare฀of฀natural,฀once-inaccessible฀forest฀in฀ Asia,฀South฀America,฀Africa฀and฀the฀former฀Soviet฀Union฀is฀lost฀ for฀every฀20฀hectares฀(49฀acres)฀of฀forest฀set฀aside฀and฀protected฀in฀ North฀America฀and฀Europe฀(Sohngen฀et฀al.฀1998).฀Just฀how฀well฀ these฀forests฀are฀protected฀over฀ecologically฀significant฀time฀scales฀ 157 Br o adleaved evergreen M an gr ove Swam p fo r est World฀Distribution฀ of฀Forest฀Types M ixe d f ore s t Br o adleaved ever gr een Broa dle ave d eve r g re e n Ne e dle -le ave d de c iduous Br o adleave d deciduo us Needle-leave d ever gr een Needle-leave d deciduo us M ix ed fo r es t Ne e dle -le ave d eve r g re e n Swamp fo r es t ( fr es h wat er ) Broa dle ave d de c iduous M angr ove ( s alt wat er ) Source:฀GLC฀2000 is฀also฀a฀continuing฀issue.฀The฀historical฀ trend฀is฀for฀people฀to฀continue฀to฀convert฀ more฀and฀more฀of฀any฀forested฀landscape฀ for฀other฀uses.฀Often,฀these฀converted฀ lands฀end฀up฀as฀low-grade฀pasture,฀with฀the฀ result฀that฀forest฀ecosystems฀are฀destroyed฀ for฀what฀amounts฀to฀only฀transient฀economic฀or฀social฀benefi฀t.฀Unfortunately,฀this฀ trend฀is฀likely฀to฀continue฀until฀either฀the฀ Br o adleave d dec iduo us human฀population฀stabilizes฀or฀demands฀ Needle- leave d evergreen for฀forest฀goods฀and฀services฀become฀sustainable—or฀both. Needle- leave d dec iduo us Whatever฀the฀future฀holds,฀many฀of฀the฀ Mixed fo r est images฀in฀this฀section฀show฀the฀profound฀ Swamp fo r est (fresh water ) effect฀that฀humans฀have฀had,฀and฀continue฀ to฀have,฀on฀the฀Earth’s฀forests. Man gr ove (salt water) Forest฀Fire Wildfi฀res฀can฀have฀both฀positive฀and฀negative฀effects฀on฀the฀environment.฀In฀some฀ ecosystems,฀fi฀res฀play฀an฀ecologically฀signifi฀cant฀role฀in฀maintaining฀biogeochemical฀ cycles.฀The฀biological฀diversity฀of฀plant฀and฀ animal฀life฀in฀the฀world’s฀forests,฀prairies,฀ and฀wetlands฀partly฀depends฀on฀the฀effects฀ of฀fi฀re.฀Some฀plants,฀for฀example,฀can- not฀reproduce฀without฀fi฀re;฀intense฀heat฀ is฀needed฀to฀open฀cones฀or฀rupture฀seed฀ coats฀so฀that฀seed฀dispersal฀and฀germination฀can฀take฀place.฀Fires฀naturally฀shape฀ many฀types฀of฀ecosystems฀including฀the฀boreal฀forests฀of฀Canada,฀Alaska,฀and฀Russia฀ and฀the฀chaparral฀in฀southern฀California. In฀addition฀to฀“natural”฀fi฀res,฀people฀ have฀used฀fi฀re฀for฀thousands฀of฀years฀to฀ clear฀land.฀Whether฀caused฀by฀nature฀or฀by฀ people,฀wildfi฀res฀are฀a฀signifi฀cant฀force฀for฀ environmental฀change,฀one฀that฀can฀radically฀alter฀a฀landscape฀in฀a฀very฀short฀time฀ (see฀box฀below). The฀Earth’s฀burgeoning฀human฀population,฀coupled฀with฀intensifi฀ed฀economic฀ development,฀has฀led฀to฀the฀serious฀degradation฀of฀many฀of฀the฀world’s฀forests.฀ Degraded฀forests฀are฀often฀highly฀ Case฀Study:฀Rodeo-Chediski฀Fires฀ 2002 On฀the฀afternoon฀of฀18฀June฀2002,฀a฀fi฀re฀broke฀out฀near฀the฀Rodeo฀Fairgrounds฀on฀the฀Fort฀Apache฀Reservation฀in฀Arizona.฀By฀mid-morning฀on฀ 20฀June,฀the฀so-called฀Rodeo฀fi฀re฀had฀expanded฀to฀12฀000฀hectares฀(30฀000฀ acres).฀Meanwhile,฀a฀second฀blaze฀began฀burning฀near฀Chediski฀Peak฀about฀ 24฀km฀(15฀miles)฀from฀the฀Rodeo฀fi฀re,฀where฀a฀lost฀hiker฀had฀started฀a฀signal฀ fi฀re.฀Two฀days฀later,฀on฀24฀June,฀the฀two฀fi฀res฀merged฀to฀encompass฀more฀ than฀94฀000฀hectares฀(235฀000฀acres).฀Over฀the฀subsequent฀two฀weeks,฀the฀fi฀re฀ burned฀an฀additional฀80฀000฀hectares฀(200฀000฀acres),฀making฀it฀the฀largest,฀ most฀severe฀wildfi฀re฀in฀Arizona.฀Before฀the฀blaze฀was฀brought฀under฀control,฀ over฀30฀000฀people฀were฀evacuated฀and฀400฀homes฀were฀ destroyed.฀Source:฀The฀Wilderness฀Society฀2002 Rodeo฀Fire Rodeo-Chediski฀ Burned฀Area 24 June 2002 Chediski฀Fire 20 June 2002 158 The฀20฀June฀2002฀satellite฀imagepictured฀left฀shows฀the฀Rodeo฀and฀ Chediski฀fi฀res฀burning฀seperately.฀The฀ 24฀June฀2002฀image฀above฀shows฀the฀ burned฀areas฀of฀the฀the฀Rodeo-Chediski฀ fi฀re.฀Areas฀where฀fi฀res฀were฀burning฀ when฀the฀images฀were฀captured฀appear฀ bright฀red;฀already฀burned฀areas฀have฀ a฀darker฀red฀coloration.฀฀Source:฀USGS฀ 2002,฀NASA฀2002 Credits:฀Unknown/UNEP/USDA฀Forestry฀Service Credit:฀UNEP/NASA susceptible฀to฀fi฀re.฀Logging฀and฀large-scale฀ land฀clearing,฀for฀example,฀disturb฀the฀ microclimate฀of฀forest฀ecosystems,฀increasing฀their฀fuel฀load฀and฀thus฀the฀potential฀ intensity฀of฀resulting฀forest฀fi฀res.฀Changes฀ in฀the฀Earth’s฀climate,฀characterized฀by฀ extended฀droughts,฀higher฀global฀surface฀ temperatures,฀and฀more฀violent฀thunderstorms,฀hurricanes฀and฀other฀types฀of฀ severe฀weather,฀can฀further฀intensify฀the฀ risk฀of฀forest฀fi฀res฀(Remote฀Sensing฀Services฀GmbH฀1998).฀Concomitantly,฀fi฀res฀ themselves฀may฀play฀an฀important฀role฀in฀ climate฀change฀by฀emitting฀both฀greenhouse฀gases฀and฀smoke฀particles฀(aerosols)฀ into฀the฀atmosphere. In฀2000,฀more฀than฀350฀million฀hectares฀ (865฀million฀acres)฀of฀forest฀were฀burned฀ worldwide—an฀area฀equal฀to฀the฀size฀of฀ India฀(Northoff฀2003).฀However,฀when฀fi฀re฀ sweeps฀through฀a฀forest,฀many฀of฀the฀trees฀ may฀survive.฀In฀some฀cases,฀the฀fi฀re฀may฀ burn฀only฀the฀low-growing฀vegetation.฀ completely฀burning฀small฀trees,฀vines฀and฀ shrubs.฀The฀dead฀and฀dying฀trees฀collapse,฀spilling฀fi฀rewood฀and฀kindling฀to฀the฀ ground฀and฀creating฀openings฀in฀the฀forest฀ canopy.฀Logging฀has฀a฀similar฀effect.฀The฀ intense฀tropical฀sun,฀previously฀defl฀ected฀ Amazon฀Forests฀and฀Fire by฀the฀green฀canopy,฀heats฀the฀forest฀fl฀oor,฀ Before฀widespread฀human฀settlement฀ pushing฀fi฀re฀danger฀even฀higher.฀In฀this฀ began฀to฀encroach฀on฀the฀borders฀of฀South฀ damaged,฀fragmented฀landscape,฀the฀onset฀ America’s฀Amazon฀forests,฀there฀was฀no฀ of฀the฀natural฀dry฀season฀brings฀with฀it฀an฀ such฀thing฀as฀an฀Amazon฀fi฀re฀season.฀Now,฀ ominous฀threat฀of฀fi฀re.฀That฀threat฀grows฀ fi฀re฀may฀pose฀the฀biggest฀threat฀to฀the฀sureven฀greater฀when฀El฀Niño-driven฀droughts฀ vival฀of฀the฀Amazon฀forest฀ecosystem. occur฀several฀times฀per฀decade. Slash-and-burn฀agriculture฀converts฀ forest฀to฀farmland,฀but฀that฀obvious฀destruction฀is฀only฀the฀beginning.฀Intentionally฀set฀fi฀res฀often฀expand฀out฀of฀control฀ and฀burn฀through฀the฀understory฀in฀areas฀ of฀surrounding฀forest,฀killing,฀but฀not฀ Case฀Study:฀Pará,฀Brazil 2004 Once฀extremely฀rare฀even฀during฀dry฀seasons,฀fi฀re฀is฀now฀a฀common฀ occurrence฀in฀the฀Amazon฀rain฀forest฀as฀people฀use฀it฀as฀a฀land฀management฀tool.฀Although฀land฀management฀fi฀res฀may฀not฀be฀immediately฀hazardous,฀it฀is฀not฀uncommon฀for฀them฀to฀escape฀control฀and฀ become฀considerably฀more฀destructive.฀Forest฀fi฀res฀can฀also฀impact฀ weather,฀climate,฀human฀health,฀and฀natural฀resources. These฀two฀satellite฀images฀show฀an฀area฀of฀the฀rain฀forest฀in฀the฀ state฀of฀Pará,฀Brazil,฀at฀the฀point฀where฀the฀Tapajós฀River฀(angling฀up฀ from฀the฀bottom฀of฀each฀image)฀joins฀the฀Amazon฀River฀(running฀ across฀each฀image).฀In฀this฀region,฀forested฀land฀is฀being฀cleared฀for฀ logging,฀ranching,฀and฀farming.฀Cleared฀areas฀are฀visible฀along฀the฀ river฀banks,฀extending฀into฀the฀forest.฀Deforested฀areas฀appear฀light฀green,฀while฀undisturbed฀ forest฀is฀dark฀green.฀฀ 18 Nov 2004 The฀image฀dated฀18฀ November฀2004฀reveals฀the฀ locations฀of฀a฀number฀of฀ fi฀res฀(red฀dots)฀burning฀in฀ different฀parts฀of฀the฀forest.฀ Roughly฀three฀weeks฀later,฀ fi฀res฀are฀still฀burning฀and฀the฀ entire฀scene฀has฀a฀hazy฀appearance,฀the฀result฀of฀smoke฀ suspended฀in฀the฀air฀over฀the฀ forest.฀Fires฀burned฀off฀and฀ on฀in฀this฀region฀for฀more฀ than฀a฀month.฀ Source:฀NOAA฀2004 7 Dec 2004 Credits:฀Unknown/UNEP/NASA 159 Case฀Study:฀Demilitarized฀Zone The฀Korean฀Demilitarized฀Zone฀(DMZ),฀which฀ separates฀the฀Republic฀of฀Korea(ROK)฀to฀the฀ south฀and฀the฀Democratic฀People’s฀Republic฀ of฀Korea฀(DPRK)฀to฀the฀north,฀represents฀ an฀opportunity฀to฀preserve฀an฀environment฀ relatively฀untouched฀by฀humans฀since฀the฀UN฀ established฀the฀political฀buffer฀in฀1953.฀ The฀DMZ฀contains฀fi฀ve฀rivers,฀and฀many฀ ecosystem฀types:฀forests,฀mountains,฀wetlands,฀ prairies,฀bogs,฀and฀estuaries.฀In฀2001,฀the฀ROK฀ government฀completed฀a฀six฀year฀study฀of฀ the฀ecosystem฀in฀the฀DMZ,฀the฀250-km-long฀ (155-mile-long),฀4-km-wide฀(2.5-mile-wide)฀ no-man’s฀land฀that฀separates฀the฀Korean฀Peninsula.฀It฀houses฀some฀of฀the฀world’s฀rarest฀species฀of฀fl฀ora฀and฀fauna.฀South฀Korean฀offi฀cials฀ began฀pushing฀ahead฀with฀a฀project฀to฀register฀ part฀of฀the฀DMZ฀with฀UNESCO฀as฀a฀Transboundary฀Biosphere฀Reserve฀(TBR).฀The฀idea฀ of฀a฀nearly฀100฀000฀hectares฀(247฀105฀acres)฀ preserve฀in฀such฀a฀location฀is฀quite฀intriguing฀ and฀unique.฀ Satellite฀images฀reveal฀signifi฀cant฀burn฀scars฀in฀the฀DMZ.฀ Reports฀state฀the฀burning฀is฀the฀result฀of฀military฀surveillance฀operations฀performed฀by฀both฀ROK฀and฀DPRK.฀ Military฀offi฀cials฀reported฀19฀major฀fi฀res฀within฀the฀DMZ฀in฀ 2000,฀burning฀nearly฀400฀km2฀(154฀square฀miles)฀of฀land.฀ Agreements฀in฀February฀2001฀to฀stop฀the฀burning฀for฀preservation฀of฀the฀fl฀ora฀and฀fauna฀dissolved฀with฀increased฀ tensio