The Human Tradition in Modern Europe 139 The Herbert Baum Groups: Networks of Jewish, Leftist, and Youth Resistance in the Third Reich John Cox The Human Tradition in Modern Europe, 1750 to the Present, Cora Granata and Cheryl Koos, eds., Rowman and Littlefield, 2007, pp. 139-154 With Germany’s defeat in World War I in 1918, revolution led to the collapse of the German Empire and the establishment of Germany’s first democracy, the Weimar Republic. The republic faced significant challenges, including economic hardship and popular resentment over the terms of the post–World War I settlement. The Treaty of Versailles had imposed on Germany large war payments to Britain and France and the moral guilt of the sole responsibility for the war. In the interwar period, the rising Nazi Party (National Socialist German Workers’ Party) under the leadership of Adolf Hitler profited from these conditions to become a mass party with increasing popular support. When Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany on 30 January 1933, he destroyed the weak parliamentary democracy of the Weimar Republic. The Nazis then began the process of consolidating their dictatorial control over the German government and society. With the policy of Gleichschaltung (roughly translated as “coordination”), the Nazi program attempted to take over most aspects of civil society, from schools and youth groups to sports clubs and churches. Hundreds of thousands of Germans became a part of Nazi-controlled organizations, such as the Hitler Youth and the League of German Girls. Under the Nazi vision, all of German society was to be incorporated into the party’s ultranationalist, racist, militaristic, and authoritarian program. However, the Nazis’ control over German society was not absolute, as this chapter demonstrates. Here, John Cox examines networks of leftist, Jewish youth groups that organized around the leadership of a young man named Herbert Baum. Living in the midst of the Third Reich’s extreme anti- Semitism, anticommunism, and oppressive dictatorial rule, these young people risked their lives as both leftists and German Jews. They arranged underground readings and music gatherings, distributed anti-Nazi leaflets, and even staged an attack against a Nazi-organized anti-Soviet exhibit. Cox “Baum Groups” 140 Overall, the anti-Nazi underground’s efforts against the Third Reich within Germany were small, and its abilities to pose a significant challenge to the Third Reich’s political power were extremely limited. The tragic fate of most members of the Baum networks illustrates the immense challenges faced by any who tried to resist. Yet in countless everyday oppositional activities, these German Jewish young people represented individuals who attempted to maintain their integrity, political principles, and sense of self in the face of dictatorship. The inability of such groups to gain wider support among the German population also reminds us of the mass popularity, or at least tolerance, of the Nazis, an attitude that ultimately helped the Holocaust to occur. On 8 May 1942, Soviet Paradise, an exhibition staged by Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels depicting the poverty and degradation of Russia under its supposed “Jewish-Bolshevik” regime, opened with great fanfare in the Lustgarten square in Berlin. One newspaper optimistically predicted that it would be “the most successful political exhibition yet. . . . Several million people shall visit.”1 However, not everyone was quite as enthusiastic. At approximately eight o’clock on the evening of 18 May, several explosives ignited around the periphery of Soviet Paradise. Although fire trucks responded quickly, a portion of the installation burned that evening. The German press was predictably silent, but news of the attack spread by word of mouth, and the dictatorship suffered a rare embarrassment. Had Goebbels and his immediate superior, Adolf Hitler, known the identity of the saboteurs at the time, they would undoubtedly have been even more enraged: this bold action was perpetrated by young Jews—moreover, they were German Jews who belonged to leftist organizations. The Gestapo was too efficient and methodical to allow such an act to go unpunished. Within days, the police had rounded up, tortured, and sentenced to death most of the members of two underground groups led by Herbert Baum, who had organized the attack. While the spectacular assault on Soviet Paradise increased the outside world’s knowledge of the internal leftist opposition, the Baum groups had already earned a reputation within the German underground resistance. Herbert Baum had begun building his network of dissident groups and circles in the first days of the dictatorship, and it would become the largest organization of German-Jewish resisters. The story of the Baum groups is also significant because it is only one example of a broader history of anti-Nazi activism among young Jews living under Hitler’s reign of terror. The Human Tradition in Modern Europe 141 Herbert Baum was born in February 1912 in Prussia. His political activity commenced at an early age, which was not unusual at that time. Baum belonged to the Social Democratic youth movement, the Red Falcons, from 1925 to 1928. From 1928 on he was a member of the German-Jewish Youth Society (DJJG), where he met his future wife, Marianne Cohn. Around the time that the DJJG broke up, in 1931, Baum joined the Communist Party youth organization, the KJVD. In each of these groups he quickly assumed a leading role. Baum was a gifted organizer, melding personal charisma with political passion. An acquaintance of Baum’s from the 1920s recalled, “In his calm style he always pleaded for justice. . . . [He spoke] in such a persuasive and simple manner, that everyone not only understood him, but also agreed with him. He had everything that a natural-born leader” should possess. Another old friend from the Jewish youth movement attested to these qualities, adding, “We all tried to outdo ourselves when ‘Hebbi’ [Baum’s nickname] participated.”2 These traits were augmented by a “combative nature,” according to another former comrade, who explained that Baum declined to flee Germany in the late 1930s because “he saw himself as head of a group with special responsibilities and believed in the imminent defeat of fascism.”3 Baum’s principal allegiance was to the German Communist Party (KPD), the world’s largest such party outside the Soviet Union in the 1920s and early 1930s. Larger yet was the German Social Democratic Party (SPD). Along with smaller radical groups, the KPD and the SPD grew substantially during the turbulent years of Germany’s Weimar Republic (1919–1933), and together the two parties enjoyed the support of millions of workers and more than one-third of the electorate. But the left was not the only political force to gain sustenance from Germany’s deepening economic and political turmoil. Initially a minor grouping in the spectrum of nationalist and racist organizations, the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP, or Nazi Party) drew German nationalists, anti-Semites, and other right-wingers under its banner during the Weimar years. Founded as the German Workers Party in early 1918, the party adopted its full name in early 1920, a few months after a thirty-year-old demobilized army veteran from Austria, Adolf Hitler, found his way into its ranks. In the early 1920s the Nazis were based in Munich, the site of their ill- fated 1923 Beerhall Putsch, which led to the deaths of a few members and Hitler’s conviction and imprisonment. A sympathetic criminal-justice system ensured that Hitler served less than one year of his five-year sentence. The NSDAP languished in the political wilderness for several more years following Cox “Baum Groups” 142 Hitler’s release from prison, but gained greater support as well as converts at the end of the 1920s. The Nazi Party quadrupled its membership in the second half of the decade, from 25,000 to 100,000, although this was still not a large number on the landscape of German politics. The Nazis combined radical-sounding populism with ultranationalism and extreme anticommunism and anti-Semitism. Their paramilitary squads and penchant for street battles with leftists appealed to wayward youths, and they benefited from an upsurge in nationalist sentiment. While most of the Nazis’ vote, as well as membership, came from lower-middle-class Germans, by the early 1930s they received significant support from workers as well. The worldwide economic depression brought about the collapse of Weimar’s governing coalition. The centrist parties were pushed to the sidelines by the Far Right and Far Left, whose parties made significant electoral gains in the early 1930s, and in July 1932 the NSDAP gained the largest share in federal elections. These elections mirrored the severe polarization of German politics, which was now embodied in the spectacle of 100 uniformed KPD deputies and 196 brown-shirted Nazi deputies sitting in the parliament (Reichstag). By this point a growing number of Germany’s landowning and industrial elites had come to see the Nazis, whose hooliganism and overheated rhetoric they had earlier disdained, as their best defense against the far more frightening specter of revolution from the Left. In January 1933 President Paul von Hindenburg and other ruling conservatives appointed Adolf Hitler chancellor, believing they could thereby rein in the Nazis. They would be grossly mistaken, as Hitler and his movement consolidated their rule over the next year and a half. Baum had one foot firmly planted in the thriving subculture of the German-Jewish youth movements, and the other foot in the Communist milieu, when disaster struck in 1933. Hitler’s victory would violently shatter each of those social and political worlds. The German Left and labor movements were the regime’s first victims: By the end of Hitler’s first year in power tens of thousands of KPD members were under arrest, many of them doomed to that feature of Nazism that would come to define its rule throughout Europe—the concentration camp. Approximately half the KPD’s 1933 membership was subjected to Hitler’s extensive, ghastly jail and camp system, and some 20,000 Communists perished under the Third Reich. Meanwhile, life for Germany’s Jews grew steadily more intolerable as Hitler consolidated his regime. The 1 April 1933 anti-Jewish boycott proclaimed by the government is often considered the beginning of the institutionalized offensive against German Jewry; in the weeks preceding the The Human Tradition in Modern Europe 143 boycott, however, Jews were victimized by Nazi militants in cities throughout the country, including Berlin, where storm troopers seized several dozen east European Jews to be shipped off to concentration camps. Thus began the process that would ultimately lead to the death camps, although in those first days of the Hitler regime neither the perpetrators nor the victims imagined the “final solution.” New Forms of Resistance From the first days of the Third Reich, Baum coordinated a network of small groups comprising young radicals, most of them Jewish. While Baum tried his best to follow the political lead of the KPD, his groups accommodated a variety of political viewpoints. Unable to wage an open struggle against the Nazi state, resisters in the Baum groups engaged in covert forms of resistance, surreptitiously dropping leaflets around Berlin, scrawling anti- Hitler graffiti on walls, and seeking allies among the forced laborers in the factories where they worked. Baum’s groups coordinated political discussions and carried out some clandestine leafleting. The leaflets would usually contain brief slogans or exhortations (“Be a good citizen—think for yourself,” “Love your country, think for yourself. A good German is not afraid to say ‘no’”).4 Some of these actions were rather bold and imaginative given the conditions of life under the police state. One former member described an action led by Baum in July 1934: “Explosives with detonators were contrived by the anti-fascist underground and placed in tin cans. A metal plate covered the explosive material and on top of the plate leaflets were stuffed. These cans were placed on rooftops. An hour later they blew up and scattered the leaflets onto the streets.”5 But the main activities of the Baum groups were semi-informal evenings—usually called by the members Heimabende, literally “home evenings” or study groups—that revolved around discussions of novels, political texts, and music. Some veterans of the Baum groups later emphasized that they would have liked to have threatened and confronted the Nazi state more directly. Yet the evening meetings clearly served a purpose beyond their educational and social value. They imparted cohesiveness, helped the participants maintain morale, and attracted new members to Baum’s resistance network. While such gatherings were not the monopoly of German-Jewish youth organizations, their centrality for the Baum groups clearly suggests a debt to the backgrounds of many of their members in the once-vibrant German-Jewish youth organizations. Gerhard Bry, a Jewish Cox “Baum Groups” 144 youth activist during the Weimar Republic and later a member of a dissident Communist group, remembered that he and his fellow youth activists “talked about everything that existed between heaven and earth.”6 Other veterans of the German-Jewish youth movements have similar recollections. The centrality of the Heimabende within the Baum network was also a function of the youthfulness of the Baum groups’ members—anyone whose teenage or college years included impassioned, late-night ruminations on theory, philosophy, and life can identify with the youths attracted to Baum’s niche within Berlin’s dissident subcultures. The Heimabende were characterized by youthful enthusiasm and an almost limitless intellectual curiosity. Rita Zocher hosted meetings in her apartment, where she and her comrades read Heinrich Heine and more contemporary authors, while also discussing such orthodox Marxist literature as The Communist Manifesto and Engels’s Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State. The group included several musicians, and they listened to and discussed works by various composers, including Beethoven and Tchaikovsky. Zocher and her colleagues chafed under the restrictions that prevented them from enjoying “theater or concerts, good music and literature.”7 She recalled that one of the group’s favorite plays was Goethe’s Egmont. Goethe’s tragedy—which was considered a radical, democratic statement in its time—is set in the early years of the sixteenth-century Dutch revolt against Spanish rule. The hero perishes knowing that his cause will not prevail until after his death. Count Egmont sees the future in a dream vision shortly before his execution: “She [the vision of Liberty] bids him be of good cheer, and, as she signifies to him that his death will achieve the liberation of the provinces, she hails him as victor.” Two momentous events altered the political and social landscape for Baum’s groups in 1938 and 1939. The first of these was the Kristallnacht pogrom of November 1938, a night of anti-Semitic terror unleashed by Goebbels and other Nazi leaders, which heralded a drastic escalation of the Nazis’ anti-Jewish persecutions. The second, Germany’s invasion of Poland the following September, marked the start of World War II. Over the next two months the Nazi government implemented numerous laws and policy initiatives that harshly aggravated the plight of German Jewry: among the more egregious sanctions in the wake of Kristallnacht were that all Jewish business activity would be banned as of the end of the year, and Jews would have to “sell their enterprises, as well as any land, stocks, jewels, and art works”; they would be “forbidden public entertainments”; and Jewish children were expelled from German schools.8 The Human Tradition in Modern Europe 145 When the war began, the anti-Jewish offensive proceeded on several fronts. Curfews became more restrictive; food rations were cut and the list of foods forbidden to Jews grew ever longer; and the Nazis began evicting many Jews from their homes on short notice, continually forcing them from place to place, reducing them to a status of “refugees within their own country.”9 And for all Jews—but especially for those engaged in anything that could be deemed “subversive”—the danger of arrest and incarceration loomed ominously. This debilitating fear was also exacerbated by the events of 1938 and 1939: A month after Germany’s invasion of Poland, Heinrich Himmler “ordered the immediate arrest and incarceration in a concentration camp of any Jew who failed to comply immediately with any instruction or who demonstrated antistate behavior in any other way.”10 The start of the war held additional ramifications for the Baum groups and other leftist resisters. One week before invading Poland, the Nazi government signed the Nonaggression Pact with the Soviet Union, leading immediately to a reversal of policy by Communist parties throughout Europe. No longer was Hitler the chief “enemy of peace” in Communist propaganda and oratory, but simply one in a list of “imperialist warmongers.” KPD rhetoric and literature, as well as action, adapted accordingly, and the Communist underground resistance was virtually suspended inside Germany for the next twenty-two months. New Opportunities, New Dangers Although many historians have categorized the Baum network as Communist, it operated independently of any dictates from Moscow or the exiled German Communist leadership. And over time the groups became increasingly heterogeneous in their politics, incorporating elements of varied traditions that always included a strong influence from the pre-1933 German- Jewish youth movements. Some surviving members later recalled heated debates within the groups about the Nonaggression Pact and its implications, as Baum and a few others attempted to defend the new line from Moscow, while others rejected the notion that anti-Nazi resistance should be subordinated to Soviet diplomacy. At any rate, while the tempo of their activity slowed after the pact, the Baum groups maintained their operations and undertook new forms of resistance. From 1940 Herbert Baum, along with several of his closest comrades, was a forced laborer at the Elmo-Werke. Baum was elected representative of the Jewish workers, and he coordinated a small circle of resisters within the Cox “Baum Groups” 146 plant and had some success in planning resistance activities—such as sabotaging production at the factory—in conjunction with Dutch and French slave laborers. Baum also had indirect contact with the Robert Uhrig organization, a large Communist-led resistance network that was based in Berlin’s factories. In the autumn of 1940, Baum learned that Rudi Arndt, a Jewish Communist and leader of the underground resistance at Buchenwald, had been murdered there. Arndt, who was one of the first prisoners at the notorious camp, “encouraged his fellow prisoners to write poems and songs,” according to one source, “and made the greatest efforts to combat the degradation of humanity” that characterized existence in the camp. He was permitted to assemble a string quartet, which performed works by Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven. Arndt was also acknowledged by the Buchenwald authorities as a spokesperson for the prisoners, and was derisively termed the “king of the Jews.”11 Baum and his colleagues, who by this time—a year into the restraint of the nonaggression period—were impatient for action, decided to hold a memorial gathering for Arndt in Berlin’s large Jewish cemetery, the Weissensee. This was a particularly risky venture, as it involved a congregation of approximately fifty people at a time when any sort of a crowd would arouse police suspicion. The memorial was held successfully, and this bold action bolstered the spirits of the participants and whetted the appetites of many for further action. Baum’s group met in various apartments in Berlin during this time, including that of Charlotte Paech. Paech was born in 1909, and thus was, like the Baums, older than many other members of the groups. She had briefly met Herbert as a member of the DJJG in the early 1930s, and was reacquainted with him in 1939 when he checked into the Jewish hospital where she worked as a nurse.12 Her future husband, Richard Holzer—who, along with Charlotte, escaped the Gestapo roundup and survived the war— was also part of Baum’s closest circle, which met weekly and discussed various literary and political texts. Like several others who had drifted into Baum’s orbit over the previous decade, Holzer had once been a member of an anarchist group called the Schwarzer Haufen. Furthermore, under Baum’s loose supervision, Martin and Sala Kochmann, who were also relatively old—they were both born in 1912— organized a group out of their apartment near the old Jewish synagogue in the center of Berlin. Martin had been a member of the DJJG in his teenage years and during the first year of the dictatorship had spent a few months in jail for his participation in a “leaflet action.”13 The couple (they married in The Human Tradition in Modern Europe 147 1938) had known Baum since the early 1930s. Sala played a leading role in this circle, making it one of the very few to be led or co-led by a woman. It was also during period that Baum began collaborating with the Joachim Group, which was organized by Heinz Joachim and included about a dozen young Jewish men and women, split almost evenly between the sexes. Born in 1919, Joachim played several instruments and studied clarinet at a private music school in Berlin. In 1941 he was pressed into forced labor at the Siemens Elmo-Werke, where he organized an underground group independent of Baum’s network in 1940 and early 1941. Joachim initiated contact with Baum in 1941, and from that time on they collaborated. Joachim held weekly meetings in his apartment in the Berlin neighborhood of Prenzlauer Berg for a circle that included his wife, Marianne, who was nearly three years younger than he, and about ten other young Jewish intellectuals and activists. Like her husband, Marianne Prager was a talented musician and an intellectually adventurous youth. The couple, like most of the young adults in Baum’s network in its final incarnation, were too young to have had more than a year or two of experience in the pre-1933 Jewish youth subculture, although Marianne had joined a Jewish youth group in 1935. She was raised in a musical family, and played the piano; a voracious reader, she was particularly fond of Thomas Mann and Leo Tolstoy. “Marianne was so attached to literature and music,” according to one account, “that she told the family shortly after Kristallnacht: ‘If they ever come for my books or my piano, they will have to take me first!’”14 Baum worked closely with two other groups after the invasion of the Soviet Union: the Hans Fruck group, a small band of Communist youths, and a group led by Joachim Franke and Werner Steinbrinck. These two groups would be instrumental in initiating and carrying out the arson of Soviet Paradise. Franke had been a member of the Communist Party in the late 1920s but, according to his testimony under interrogation, left the party in 1928 due to “my oppositional attitude.”15 Steinbrinck was a “committed Marxist,” as he would defiantly state to Gestapo interrogators, and had been a member of the KJVD since 1933, when he was fifteen years old. Steinbrinck had participated in numerous underground KJVD cells and informal dissident circles. Through his employment as a chemical technician at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute he would obtain the materials for the firebombing of Goebbels’s exhibition.16 “We Have Gone on the Offensive” Cox “Baum Groups” 148 In the early morning of 22 June 1941, three million German soldiers, supported by 600,000 motorized vehicles, thousands of tanks, and 2,740 airplanes, stormed across the Soviet Union’s western border. With the Soviet Union now drawn into the war, Communist-related resistance groups throughout Europe, including Baum’s, reenergized their efforts to combat Nazism by whatever means were at their disposal. Within the first few months following the invasion, the Baum groups’ activities became more bold and open, and the members gained a confidence that at times bordered on the reckless. This audacity was inspired by more than simply an implicit duty to defend the Soviet Union; it was also spawned by a combination of hope and misplaced optimism. Early in 1942, Baum wrote a letter to Communist officials in exile in which he expressed his view that a “mass movement,” which the underground was ostensibly on the verge of creating, could “transform” the imperialist war into a “civil war.”17 He added, “We have gone on the offensive.” If this perspective seems unrealistic in retrospect, there were some tangible causes for optimism: the slowing of the German offensive by the Soviets’ successful defense of Moscow in December 1941, aided by an unusually early and bitter winter; Hitler’s ill-advised 11 December declaration of war on the United States; and growing discontent on the home front. The increased assertiveness of the Baum-coordinated underground stemmed not only from this optimism, but also from a desperation fueled by the increasing tempo of deportations of German Jews to the east. The German government had begun deporting Jews from Berlin in October 1941, sending 1,000 Jews to the Lodz ghetto. By January 1942, about ten thousand Jews had been forcibly transported from Berlin to ghettos in eastern Europe. Many of those deported were friends and relatives of the Baum groups’ members. While exuding confidence, members of the Baum’s circles were not immune to the deepening gloom and anxiety that gripped Berlin’s dwindling Jewish population. Unknown to Berlin’s Jews, if perhaps dimly perceived by a few like Baum who had access to outside reports, the destruction of European Jewry was well under way. And even if it was impossible to imagine the intent and scale of the unfolding genocide, Berlin’s Jews were undergoing their own personal miseries. “The year 1942 was a particularly fertile one for the creative bureaucrats of persecution,” historian Christopher Browning later observed. “Perhaps precisely because their victims were fast disappearing into death camps in the east and their years of accumulated expertise in Jewish affairs would soon be professionally irrelevant, they The Human Tradition in Modern Europe 149 hastened to construct legislative monuments to their own zeal.”18 “Not a day without a new decree against Jews,” wrote an aging Jewish academic in his diary in mid-March.19 Time was running out on the Baum groups. Soviet Paradise “Words and pictures are not enough to make the tragedy of Bolshevist reality believable to Europeans,” began the exhibition’s accompanying pamphlet, so Goebbels’s team assembled a collection of dilapidated shacks and other ramshackle buildings to illustrate the “misery and hopelessness of the lives of the farmers and workers.” Rita Zocher, a friend of Herbert Baum’s since childhood, recalled that Soviet Paradise was replete with “a great big pile of dung . . . old apartments, old farmers’ huts,” depicting a society in which “nothing [was] newly built” and “the people were all robbers and criminals.” 20 The catalog accompanying Soviet Paradise was explicit in its anti-Semitism and in its identification of Judaism with bolshevism. Werner Steinbrinck had been working as a lab technician for about two years at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin. He was able to purloin a kilogram of explosive black powder, as well as a flammable solution, carbon disulfide.21 He also went to a library, by coincidence only a couple of hundred meters west of the Lustgarten, and borrowed a book on fireworks. On Sunday, 17 May, Steinbrinck brought the materials he had procured from his workplace to Joachim Franke’s apartment, and the two worked for several hours constructing a few rudimentary explosive devices, while Franke’s wife Erika attended to the couple’s eight-year-old son. Beginning at seven o’clock the next evening, eleven members of the Baum and Franke groups made their way to Soviet Paradise in groups of one or two. Marianne Baum and Hilde Jadamowitz arrived first, mingling with a crowd that grew to number approximately two thousand visitors. Steinbrinck made his way to the Lustgarten and handed Baum one of the explosive devices. Franke was to deposit another one in a cupboard in the so-called Speisehaus, or meal room, of the ersatz Soviet village. The conspirators were compelled to look for another location, however, upon finding that the Speisehaus was closed that day.22 Steinbrinck joined Franke, and they threw one of the explosives into a shack that was part of the exhibit, and then fled the scene when another device, held by Steinbrinck in a briefcase, began to emit smoke. They tossed it into a sewer drain a few blocks away. When Herbert Baum’s small firebomb also malfunctioned and began incinerating the bag that contained it, Baum fled the exhibit, as did the other members at Cox “Baum Groups” 150 about the same time, approximately an hour and a half after most of them had arrived. Despite these difficulties, Baum and his compatriots had succeeded in placing one firebomb, which burned the shack and a small part of the exhibit before firefighters arrived and a large police contingent cordoned off the area. Although the Baum and Steinbrinck-Franke groups had damaged a minor part of Soviet Paradise, the exhibit opened as usual the next day. The German press dutifully neglected to report the incident, but the Gestapo set to work immediately, forming a special investigating committee. Heinrich Himmler, in his capacity as chief of the Gestapo and of all the German police, received a telex that afternoon informing him of the “sabotage attack on the anti- Bolshevik exhibition, the ‘Soviet Paradise.’”23 Arrests and Reprisals Steinbrinck had planned to meet Baum five days later, on Saturday, 23 May, but that meeting never took place. At noon on 22 May, Herbert and Marianne Baum, Gerhard Meyer, and Heinz Rotholz were arrested at their workplace, the Elmo-Werke. Joachim Franke, Werner Steinbrinck, and all the members of their group were arrested the same day. Another four dozen people—some of whom were only tangentially linked to the Baum groups—were arrested in June and July. The courage and spirit of defiance of many of the young resisters is evident from the transcripts. Heinz Rotholz stated, “I wish to add that I knew about the preparations of the sabotage action against the ‘Soviet Paradise.’ Had the comrades not excluded me from the act because of my Jewish appearance, I would have gone on Monday to the exhibit and taken part in the act.” Lotte Rotholz told her inquisitors, “One must utilize every opportunity to fight against the present regime. . . . But one thing was clear to me: as a Jew I must not lag behind . . . my ties were and remain with Baum.”24 Herbert Budzislawski stated that he was compelled as a Jew to fight “injustice in Germany”—the only way, as he saw it, to find a way to “live in Germany as a human being.”25 The police dragged Baum back into the Elmo-Werke plant, hoping that he might reveal some of his collaborators or that some of this friends would inadvertently expose themselves when they saw their badly beaten comrade. This effort failed.26 On 11 June the Gestapo informed the state prosecutor that Herbert Baum had been declared a suicide, although it is likely that he had been tortured to death in the three weeks after his arrest— The Human Tradition in Modern Europe 151 in either case, a victim of state terror.27 The Gestapo kept no interrogation records on the case, and simply noted, without providing a coroner’s report or other evidence, that Baum had “hanged himself”.28 At least three other members of Baum’s groups died in police custody, either murdered or by their own hand. All told, thirty-two members and supporters of Baum’s groups were executed or otherwise murdered by the German authorities over the next year and a half. Sixteen of those executed were no more than twenty- three years old. Most were charged with “high treason” and tried before the Nazis’ “special courts,” which prosecuted political crimes. Others far beyond the periphery of the Baum groups would feel the wrath of the Nazi state in the aftermath of the Soviet Paradise attack. On 29 May 1942 the Gestapo rounded up Leo Baeck and a number of other prominent Jews, including officials of the National Association of Jews in Germany—established in 1939 and chaired by Baeck—in order to inform them of the attack, and the fact that 250 Jews had just been shot in response. Another 250 Jewish Berliners were arrested and sent to a nearby concentration camp, where they were killed soon thereafter.29 It took little time for the Nazi authorities to realize the fears of some of Baum’s fellow conspirators: that their actions would be used to destroy other Jews. A small number of Baum’s colleagues eluded the police dragnet. Charlotte Paech dodged the Gestapo for several months until her arrest in October 1942. Paech’s fate seemed to be sealed when she was informed in June 1943 that she had been sentenced to death, and was thrown into a cell with three non-Jewish Polish women who were also awaiting their deaths. As they were each “taken away, I remained and waited for my execution.” But shortly thereafter she was transferred to another prison in central Berlin. Paech used her medical training to help victims of typhus there, and, strengthened by the camaraderie of some of her fellow inmates and a slightly less brutal regimen, decided to escape if and when the opportunity arose. “To my help came a bombing raid. . . . I used the confusion to flee.”30 She survived the last year of Nazi Germany hiding out in the homes of various people whose addresses fellow inmates had given her. She eventually reunited with another survivor of the Baum groups, Richard Holzer, who was at one point deported to Ukraine and ended up in a Soviet camp for POWs. They married and, with a few other veterans of the Baum groups—mostly people who had left Germany in the 1930s, long before the Soviet Paradise attack—the Holzers organized memorial meetings in postwar East Germany to keep alive the memory of Berlin’s Jewish left-wing resistance. Cox “Baum Groups” 152 Legacies German Jews learned quickly that there was no place for them in Hitler’s Germany. Anti-Semitic actions and persecutions commenced in the first days of the regime, both in an organized manner—the April 1933 boycott, for example—and through violent actions by Nazi mobs. The shock was greatest for older Jews, who were more likely than their children and grandchildren to believe that they could preserve the social advances they had acquired over the course of previous decades. The younger generations of German Jews, far less inculcated with German patriotism than their elders, held few such hopes. Jewish youths tried to maintain some sense of community and contact with friends and acquaintances from their youth groups, which had played such a vital role in their lives. They also struggled to maintain or expand the narrow space they had for social and political life, which by necessity was only among fellow Jews. But the more radical of them sought a means to realize their desire to resist the assault on their rights and dignity. Were the Baum groups successful? The success or failure of any form of resistance cannot be measured in an empirical, immediate sense. There was never any chance that the Baum groups would threaten the existence of the Third Reich. But seemingly humble and nonthreatening actions—cultural activities and self-education, for example—thwarted the Nazis’ ambition to dehumanize and crush their victims. Collections for families of political prisoners, food distribution operations, working in a Jewish hospital as Charlotte Paech did—such acts could not topple the Third Reich, but they prevented the dictatorship from corrupting its victims morally and spiritually. Leaflet and graffiti actions, and the rare spectacular act, alerted portions of the public that not everyone had submitted, that it was possible to resist. And perhaps most important, these acts of resistance and refusal have a lasting, residual effect. If the history of world civilization is replete with war and tyranny, it also shows that decent, honorable impulses and the instinct for human solidarity can never be fully suppressed. The Human Tradition in Modern Europe 153 1 . Quoted in Kurt Schilde, Jugendorganisationen und Jugendopposition in Berlin-Kreuzberg 1933–45: Eine Dokumentation (Berlin: Elefanten Verlag, 1983), 114. 2 . Eric Brothers, “Wer war Herbert Baum?” in Juden im Widerstand: Drei Gruppen zwischen Überlebenskampf und politischer Aktion, ed. Wilfried Löhken and Werner Vathke (Berlin: Edition Hentrich, 1993), 85. 3 . Hans-Rainer Sandvoß, Widerstand in Mitte und Tiergarten (Berlin: Gedenkstätte deutscher Widerstand, 1999), 169. 4 . Bundesarchiv-Lichterfelde, Berlin (BA), NJ 1403; Centre de documentation juive contemporaine (CDJC), Paris, CCCLXXXI-35. 5 . Eric Brothers, “On the Anti-Fascist Resistance of German Jews,” Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook 32 (1987): 372. 6 . Gerhard Bry, Resistance: Recollections from the Nazi Years (West Orange, NJ: published by author, 1979), 18–19. 7. Yad Vashem Archives (YVA), 03/4134, “Testimony of Rita Zocher,” dictated by Zocher in 1979 in Tel Aviv. 8 . Saul Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews: The Years of Persecution, 1933–1939 (New York: HarperCollins, 1997), 181–82. 9 . Marion Kaplan, Between Dignity and Despair: Jewish Life in Nazi Germany (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 152–53. 10 . Christopher Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939 to March 1942 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004), 174. 11 . Stephan Hermlin, Die Erste Reihe (Dortmund: Weltkreis-Verlag, 1975), 37–43, and Lucien Steinberg, Not as a Lamb: The Jews Against Hitler (Glasgow: University Press, 1970), 30–31. 12 . YVA, 03/3096, “Testimony of Charlotte Holzer,” February 1964. 13 . Bundesarchiv Zwischenarchiv Dahlwitz-Hoppegarten, Berlin (BA Zw), NJ 648. 11 September 1934 indictment against Kochmann and others. 14 . Eric Brothers, “Profile of a German-Jewish Resistance Fighter,” Jewish Quarterly 34 (1987): 33. 15 . BA, NJ 1400. 22 May 1942 Joachim Franke interrogation record. 16 . BA Zw, Z-C 12460. 26 May 1942 Werner Steinbrinck interrogation record. 17 . Michael Kreutzer, lecture at opening of Juden im Widerstand exhibition (Halle, Germany, 4 March 2000). 18 . Browning, 175. 19 . Victor Klemperer, I Will Bear Witness: A Diary of the Nazi Years 1942–1945 (New York: Random House, 1999), 29. The Nazis had just enacted “a ban on Jews buying flowers,” Klemperer reported. 20 . YVA 03/4134, “Testimony of Rita Zocher,” dictated by Zocher in 1979 in Tel Aviv. 21 . BA Zw, Z-C 12460, folder 5. 22 May 1942 Werner Steinbrinck interrogation record. 22 . BA Zw, Z-C 12460. 26 May 1942 Werner Steinbrinck interrogation record. Cox “Baum Groups” 154 23 . Regina Scheer, Im Schatten der Sterne: Eine jüdische Widerstandsgruppe (Berlin: Aufbau- Verlag, 2004), 272. 24 . Konrad Kwiet and Helmut Eschwege, Selbstbehauptung und Widerstand: Deutsche Juden im Kampf um Existenz und Menschenwürde 1933–1945 (Hamburg: Hans Christians Verlag, 1984), 131. 25 . BA Zw, Z-C 10905. 13 November 1942 Herbert Budzislawski interrogation record. 26 . Helmut Eschwege, “Resistance of German Jews against the Nazi Regime,” Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook 15 (1970): 176. 27 . Bernard Mark reported that other inmates had witnessed his murder. Mark, “The Herbert Baum Group: Jewish Resistance in Germany in the Years 1937–1942,” in They Fought Back: The Story of Jewish Resistance in Nazi Europe, ed. Yuri Suhl (New York: Schocken Books, 1967), 66. 28 . Scheer, Im Schatten, 306. 29 . Kwiet and Eschwege, Selbstbehauptung und Widerstand, 128. 30 . YVA, 03/3096, “Testimony of Charlotte Holzer,” February 1964.</notes> Suggested Readings Bauer, Yehuda. “Jewish Resistance and Passivity in the Face of the Holocaust.” In Unanswered Questions: Nazi Germany and the Genocide of the Jews, edited by François Furet, 235–51. New York: Schocken Books, 1989. Brothers, Eric. “On the Anti-Fascist Resistance of German Jews.” Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook 32 (1987): 369–82. Eschwege, Helmut. “Resistance of German Jews against the Nazi Regime.” Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook 15 (1970): 143–80. Kaplan, Marion. Between Dignity and Despair: Jewish Life in Nazi Germany. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. Löhken, Wilfried, and Werner Vathke, eds. Juden im Widerstand: Drei Gruppen zwischen Überlebenskampf und politischer Aktion. Berlin: Edition Hentrich, 1993. Peukert, Detlev J. K. Inside Nazi Germany: Conformity, Opposition, and Racism in Everyday Life. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987. Scheer, Regina. Im Schatten der Sterne: Eine jüdische Widerstandsgruppe. Berlin: Aufbau-Verlag, 2004. Suhl, Yuri, ed. They Fought Back. New York: Crown, 1967. Tec, Nechama. Resilience and Courage: Women, Men, and the Holocaust. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003.