Topoisomerase IV, alone, unknots DNA in E. coli

Downloaded from genesdev.cshlp.org on June 19, 2020 - Published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press Topoisomerase IV, alone, unknots DNA in E. coli Richard W. Deibler,1,2 Sonia Rahmati,2 and E. Lynn Zechiedrich1,2,3 1 Program in Cell and Molecular Biology and 2Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030-3411, USA Knotted DNA has potentially devastating effects on cells. By using two site-specific recombination systems, we tied all biologically significant simple DNA knots in Escherichia coli. When topoisomerase IV activity was blocked, either with a drug or in a temperature-sensitive mutant, the knotted recombination intermediates accumulated whether or not gyrase was active. In contrast to its decatenation activity, which is strongly affected by DNA supercoiling, topoisomerase IV unknotted DNA independently of supercoiling. This differential supercoiling effect held true regardless of the relative sizes of the catenanes and knots. Finally, topoisomerase IV unknotted DNA equally well when DNA replication was blocked with hydroxyurea. We conclude that topoisomerase IV, not gyrase, unknots DNA and that it is able to access DNA in the cell freely. With these results, it is now possible to assign completely the topological roles of the topoisomerases in E. coli. It is clear that the topoisomerases in the cell have distinct and nonoverlapping roles. Consequently, our results suggest limitations in assigning a physiological function to a protein based upon sequence similarity or even upon in vitro biochemical activity. [Key Words: DNA supercoiling; gyrase; site-specific recombination; DNA catenane; quinolone; DNA replication] Received December 8, 2000; revised version accepted January 25, 2001. Metabolic processing of the DNA double helix leads to DNA catenanes are mostly, if not exclusively, problem- three topological forms that all cells must resolve to sur- atic to the cell if they are left unresolved. For example, vive: linking number (Lk), catenanes, and knots (Fig. 1). catenane links must be entirely eliminated to allow for The Lk is the number of times that the two strands of the the partitioning of chromosomes. DNA are interwound. In cells, the value of Lk typically Although the effects of knotting on cellular functions is lower than would be most thermodynamically favored have not been evaluated in vivo, the following evidence (Lk0), and, as a result, the DNA writhes back upon itself, reveals that knotted DNA may have consequences for resulting in negative supercoiling (Fig. 1A). Catenanes, cells that are distinct from those effects caused by super- two or more DNA molecules interlinked, are important coiling or catenation: (1) In purified systems, gene tran- intermediates in DNA replication (Sundin and Var- scription is significantly impaired on knotted templates shavsky 1981; Marians 1987; Adams et al. 1992b; Shek- (Portugal and Rodriguez-Campos 1996). (2) DNA knots htman et al. 1993; Zechiedrich and Cozzarelli 1995) and inhibit chromatin assembly in cellular extracts (Rod- recombination (Fig. 1B; for review, see Wasserman and riguez-Campos 1996). (3) DNA knots may serve as topo- Cozzarelli 1986). A DNA knot is a single DNA molecule logical barriers between different regions of the chromo- entangled with itself (Fig. 1C). some, altering both the structural organization of the The effects that negative supercoils or unresolved cat- genome and whether DNA sites can interact (Staczek enanes have on cellular functioning can be envisioned and Higgins 1998). (4) An important and potentially le- easily. Negative supercoiling favors any process that re- thal cellular consequence of knotted DNA, long familiar quires double helix opening, including DNA replication, to mountain climbers and anglers working with ropes, is transcription, and recombination (Kanaar and Cozzarelli that knots weaken lines and lead to breaks (McNally 1992; Kornberg and Baker 1992; Shlyakhtenko et al. 1993). It has been demonstrated, both by computer simu- 2000). Whereas negative supercoils can have beneficial lation (Saitta et al. 1999) and by single molecule studies effects on DNA metabolism when properly regulated, (Arai et al. 1999), that knots lower the tensile strength of biologically relevant polymers. Therefore, the failure to resolve a knotted genome may lead to double-strand 3 Corresponding author. breaks in the DNA, which are potentially lethal events. E-MAIL [email protected]; FAX (713) 798-7375. Article and publication are at www.genesdev.org/cgi/doi/10.1101/ Although knots could be problematic, DNA knotting gad.872301. occurs naturally in cells (Shishido et al. 1987; Martin- 748 GENES & DEVELOPMENT 15:748–761 © 2001 by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press ISSN 0890-9369/01 $5.00; www.genesdev.org  Downloaded from genesdev.cshlp.org on June 19, 2020 - Published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press Topoisomerase IV unknots DNA in vivo normally (Shishido et al. 1987; Martin-Parras et al. 1998; R.W. Deibler and E.L. Zechiedrich, unpubl.). This low amount suggests that the cell is well equipped to remove knots. Although other possible ways to untie a DNA knot may exist, the most straightforward and least dan- gerous to the cell is to create a transient break in the DNA backbone, pass DNA through this break (to re- move the knot crossing), and reseal the broken DNA. This is the mechanism of a topoisomerase. Topoisomerases are divided into two types. The type-1 enzymes, topoisomerases I and III in E. coli, alter Lk in steps of one by passing nucleic acids through single- strand breaks in the DNA. The type-2 topoisomerases are gyrase and topoisomerase IV, and they alter Lk in steps of two by passing DNA through a double-strand break. Both of these enzymes are essential (Menzel and Figure 1. Topological forms. A single line represents the DNA Gellert 1983; Kato et al. 1990; Schmid 1990). double helix. No deformation short of severing the DNA back- Traditionally, gyrase has been considered to be the cel- bone can alter the three topological forms of DNA. (A) The lular unknotting enzyme based upon the following ob- torsional stress resulting from the Lk deficit causes the DNA servations: (1) Purified gyrase unties several different double helix to writhe about itself, termed negative supercoil- types of knots in vitro (Liu et al. 1980; Mizuuchi et al. ing. In Escherichia coli cells, gyrase introduces negative super- 1980). (2) Quinolone antibiotics, previously thought to coils into DNA and is countered by topoisomerase I (topo I) and target only gyrase, cause an accumulation of knotted topoisomerase IV (topo IV), which relax negative supercoils plasmids in vivo (Ishii et al. 1991; Adams et al. 1992a). (3) (Menzel and Gellert 1983; Zechiedrich et al. 2000). Topoisom- erase I relaxes the DNA partially, and topoisomerase IV relaxes Mutations in gyrase that reduce its supercoiling activity it nearly completely (Zechiedrich et al. 2000). (B) DNA cat- in the cell also lead to an increased accumulation of enanes are two (or more) interlocked DNA rings. Solid and knots (Shishido et al. 1987). (4) Gyrase seems to be de- dashed lines distinguish the two rings here. Topoisomerase IV signed to transport a contiguous segment of DNA unlinks catenanes generated by replication or recombination in through itself during the intramolecular supercoiling re- vivo (Adams et al. 1992a; Zechiedrich and Cozzarelli 1995; action (Liu and Wang 1978; Kirchhausen et al. 1985; Zechiedrich et al. 1997). (C) A knot is the entanglement of a Vologodskii and Cozzarelli 1996). Knots are also an in- single DNA molecule. We show here that topoisomerase IV tramolecular substrate. unknots DNA in vivo. A role for topoisomerase IV in unknotting DNA in vivo has not been addressed directly. Even studies that Parras et al. 1998). Knots result from packaging the long demonstrated the role for topoisomerase IV in unlinking DNA into the small cell and could arise from any process catenated replicons could not discern a role for topoi- that involves DNA strand breaks, including DNA repli- somerase IV in DNA unknotting (Adams et al. 1992b; cation, recombination, repair, and topoisomerization Khodursky et al. 1995). However, a role for this enzyme (Liu et al. 1980; Mizuuchi et al. 1980; Pollock and Nash may have been overlooked in the aforementioned studies 1983; Spengler et al. 1985; Wasserman and Cozzarelli concluding that gyrase unknotted DNA. The quinolones 1991). Replicated DNA located behind a stalled fork, an used in these studies would have also inhibited topoi- event estimated to occur with as many as half of the somerase IV, which is now known to be a target of these replication forks in Escherichia coli during aerobic drugs in vivo (Khodursky et al. 1995). In the strains con- growth conditions (Cox 1998), has been shown to be par- taining mutations in gyrase, it is possible that additional ticularly prone to knotting (Viguera et al. 1996; Sogo et mutations existed in the genes for topoisomerase IV (Raji al. 1999). In addition, the transformation of the plecto- et al. 1985). Like gyrase, purified topoisomerase IV is nemic supercoils (Fig. 1A) known to be prevalent in E. capable of unknotting DNA (Kato et al. 1992). In addi- coli (Bliska and Cozzarelli 1987) into knots may be ther- tion, whereas previous models for type-2 topoisomerase modynamically favored. Knotted DNA has been calcu- action predicted that knotting and unknotting should be lated to adopt a conformation that is lower in free energy equally likely, topoisomerase IV and its eukaryotic ho- than the plectonemically supercoiled DNA (Vologodskii mologs (gyrase was not tested) possess a significant in- and Marko 1997; Podtelezhnikov et al. 1999). This pro- trinsic preference to unknot rather than knot DNA (Ry- cess would be particularly detrimental to the cell be- benkov et al. 1997a). Additionally, purified topoisomerase cause once supercoiled DNA is converted to knotted III is proficient at knotting and unknotting DNA with DNA, the benefits of DNA supercoiling are lost single-stranded regions (Du et al. 1995). In conjunction (Podtelezhnikov et al. 1999). with the RecQ helicase, topoisomerase III has been dem- In spite of the propensity of cellular DNA to become onstrated to link intact double-stranded DNA in vitro knotted, and the continuous action of the processes (Harmon et al. 1999). If topoisomerase III and RecQ can within the cell that can cause knotting, only a low reverse this process in vivo, then topoisomerase III may steady-state fraction (<1%) of plasmid DNA is knotted contribute to unknotting despite being a type-1 enzyme. GENES & DEVELOPMENT 749  Downloaded from genesdev.cshlp.org on June 19, 2020 - Published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press Deibler et al. Here we show that topoisomerase IV unknots DNA in harboring a mutant ␭ lysogen incapable of excision (see E. coli. Gyrase does not affect unknotting DNA in vivo Table 1). Recombination, in addition to knotting the directly or indirectly through its supercoiling activity. plasmid, inverts the DNA between the two sites and We also show that the rate of topoisomerase IV unknot- destroys the attP and attB sites to form attL and attR to ting is identical in the presence or absence of DNA rep- prevent further recombination. lication, which demonstrates that topoisomerase IV ac- To selectively inhibit gyrase or topoisomerase IV, we tivity does not require an association with ongoing DNA used an isogenic set of E. coli strains (see Table 1). In replication. these strains, the wild-type alleles of gyrase (gyrA+) and + topoisomerase IV (parC ) produce enzymes that are in- hibited by norfloxacin, whereas mutant alleles, gyrAr Results and parCr, produce drug-resistant forms of the enzymes that remain fully active in the presence of the drug. Experimental strategy The experimental protocol is diagrammed in Figure We generated DNA knots using two different site-spe- 2B. Cells harboring the plasmid pJB3.5i, or in later ex- cific recombination systems and measured the removal periments pABCi, were grown with shaking to late loga- of these recombinant knots following the inhibition of rithmic phase (70 Klett units) at 30°C. The cultures were gyrase and/or topoisomerase IV. The site-specific recom- then shifted to 42°C to induce Int expression (Bliska and bination systems allowed us to generate a large number Cozzarelli 1987). The cultures were shifted back to 30°C of knots with defined topology and to study the effects of to activate the Int protein, which is not functional at topoisomerases specifically upon the removal, rather 42°C (Bliska and Cozzarelli 1987; Zechiedrich et al. than the formation, of knots. 1997). Upon return to 30°C (Time = 0 min), the quino- We first used the well-characterized site-specific Int lone norfloxacin was added to inhibit gyrase and topoi- (integrase) recombination system of bacteriophage ␭, somerase IV, which are the only cellular targets of this which the phage employs for integration and excision drug up to 100-fold greater than the minimal inhibitory from the host chromosome. When the Int recombination concentration (Khodursky et al. 1995). Neither topoi- sites attB and attP are on the same DNA plasmid in an somerase III nor topoisomerase I is inhibited by the nor- inverted (head-to-head) orientation, site synapsis traps floxacin concentrations used here (Harmon et al. 1999; supercoil nodes, which are converted to knot nodes by Zechiedrich et al. 2000). Plasmid DNA was isolated at recombination (Fig. 2A). Int is expressed in E. coli strains various times following the shift back to 30°C and di- vided into three fractions, which were treated as de- scribed below. Removal of DNA knots generated by Int recombination The amount of Int recombination was measured by di- gesting one fraction of the purified plasmid DNA with BamHI and EcoRI, which generates differently sized products in the parental and inverted orientation. All recombination proceeds through a knotted intermediate (Pollock and Nash 1983). Therefore, the fraction of DNA that underwent recombination equaled the fraction of DNA that was knotted in an experiment. The digestion products were displayed on 1% agarose gels and quanti- fied using scanning densitometry (Nucleovision). There was no detectable recombination before the cells were shifted back to 30°C, indicating that the system was tightly regulated (Fig. 3A, Time = 0 min). Recombination occurred efficiently in all strains following induction of Int (Fig. 3A). In accordance with previous results (Zech- iedrich et al. 1997), DNA isolated from cells in which Figure 2. Int recombination system to knot DNA. (A) Mecha- gyrase activity was inhibited by norfloxacin (gyrA+) had nism of Int recombination. Int and the host protein IHF (not less recombination (25%–30% of the total plasmid shown) bind to the att sites on the negatively supercoiled Int DNA) than that from cells in which gyrase was function- recombination substrate (pJB3.5i or pABCi) with the recombi- ing (gyrAr, ∼80%). Because DNA supercoiling stimulates nation att sites (arrows) in an inverted orientation to form the synaptic complex (i). Strand exchange, which is shown by the Int recombination, the loss of gyrase activity causes less switching of arrowheads (ii), converts the DNA supercoil nodes recombination. that were trapped by synapsis into knot nodes. The knotted Int A second portion of the plasmid was nicked with DN- recombination product (iii) is torus, right-handed, and positive. ase I to analyze DNA unknotting. The electrophoretic (B) Experimental protocol. Details are described in the text. mobility of several types of knots has been studied ex- 750 GENES & DEVELOPMENT  Downloaded from genesdev.cshlp.org on June 19, 2020 - Published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press Topoisomerase IV unknots DNA in vivo Table 1. E. coli strains Strain Genotypea Reference C600 F-thr-1 leu-6 thi-1 lacYl sup E44 tonA21 Kato et al. 1988 LZ23 C600 except gyrAL83zei-723::Tn10 kanr Khodursky et al. 1995 LZ24 C600 except zei-723::Tn10 kanr Khodursky et al. 1995 LZ35 W3101␭ except gyrAL83 zei-723::Tn10 kanr Zechiedrich et al. 1997 LZ36 W3101␭ except zei-723::Tn10 kanr Zechiedrich et al. 1997 LZ37 LZ35 except parCK84 Zechiedrich et al. 1997 LZ38 LZ36 except parCK84 Zecheidrich et al. 1997 ParE10 W3110 except parE10 Kato et al. 1990 W3101␭ F-␭ (P80 red114 xis-l cl857) Bliska and Cozzarelli 1987 W3110 F- Kato et al. 1990 1643 C600 except gyrAL83 zei-723::Tn10 parCK84, kanr Khodursky et al. 1995 1644 C600 except zei-723::Tn 10parCK84, kanr Khodursky et al. 1995 a kan, kanamycin; r, resistant. tensively (Wasserman and Cozzarelli 1991; Stasiak et al. ases were inhibited as expected (Fig. 3D). When both 1996; Vologodskii et al. 1998). The knots in our experi- enzymes remained active with drug, in the gyrAr parCr ments were identified by comparison to catenane and strain, DNA supercoiling remained near normal levels knot ladders generated by Int (Spengler et al. 1985) and (Fig. 3D, line with filled circles). When only topoisom- T4 type-2 topoisomerase (Wasserman and Cozzarelli erase IV was inhibited (gyrAr parC+), the DNA became 1991). An ethidium-bromide-stained agarose gel is slightly more negatively supercoiled (Fig. 3D, line with shown in Figure 3B. The amount of knotting was quan- open boxes). In the gyrA+ parC+ strain, the DNA relaxed tified and is shown graphically in Figure 3C. When both to a ␴ of (−) 0.057 through the action of topoisomerase I gyrase and topoisomerase IV were functioning (gyrAr alone (Fig. 3D, line with open circles). When topoisom- parCr), all DNA knots were removed by 60 min, even in erase IV remained functional and gyrase was inhibited the presence of norfloxacin (Fig. 3B, lanes g–l; Fig. 3C, (gyrA+ parCr), the DNA became almost completely re- line with filled circles). In contrast, DNA knots persisted laxed (Fig. 3D, line with filled boxes). These supercoiling when both gyrase and topoisomerase IV were inhibited measurements have an additional importance that is de- (gyrA+ parC+) with norfloxacin (Fig. 3B, lanes m–r; Fig. scribed below. 3C, line with open circles). Because there was no signifi- cant metabolism of knots in the absence of both gyrase Removal of DNA knots generated by Hin and topoisomerase IV, we conclude that no significant recombination additional unknotting activity is present. In cells where topoisomerase IV was functioning, but Int-mediated DNA knots and the catenated intermedi- gyrase was inhibited with norfloxacin (gyrA+ parCr), ates of DNA replication are toroidal, right-handed, and knots were removed by 60 min (Fig. 3B, lanes s–x; Fig. positive in structure. Therefore, it could be possible that 3C, line with filled boxes). The knot removal by topoi- our Int knots were removed by topoisomerase IV because somerase IV, alone, was similar to the results when both of their similarity to catenanes generated by DNA repli- enzymes were functioning. We found no unknotting cation (Fig. 4, cf. i and ii), and not because topoisomerase when topoisomerase IV was inhibited and gyrase re- IV normally unknots all DNA in the cell. Furthermore, mained fully functional in the gyrAr parC+ strain (Fig. in strains containing a mutant gyrase, knots were found 3B, lanes a–f; Fig. 3C, line with open boxes). Even after 60 to accumulate that were negative and belonged to the min, nearly all the recombined DNA remained knotted. twist family (Shishido et al. 1987), a family defined by This result shows topoisomerase IV unties right-handed, characteristic twist nodes (see Fig. 4A,iii). This finding torus knots. suggests that gyrase may have a role in untying knots To confirm that norfloxacin had affected specifically with a negative twist topology. To determine how nega- gyrase or topoisomerase IV, we used the third portion of tive twist knots are resolved, we utilized an in vivo E. purified plasmid DNA to measure DNA supercoiling. As coli DNA knotting system based upon the Hin invertase shown in Figure 1A, DNA supercoiling is determined by site-specific recombination system from Salmonella ty- gyrase countering topoisomerases I and IV (Zechiedrich phimurium. et al. 2000). When gyrase is inhibited, topoisomerases I The mechanism that Hin uses to knot DNA is shown and IV relax DNA. When topoisomerase IV is inhibited, in Figure 5A. Hin and the protein Fis bind to the hix sites the DNA attains a more negatively supercoiled steady- and the enhancer, respectively, of a negatively super- state level (Fig. 1A). The plasmid DNA from the experi- coiled plasmid substrate with the geometry shown ment was subjected to electrophoresis in agarose gels (Heichman and Johnson 1990). Hin cleaves the hix sites, containing chloroquine, which allows separation of the leaving a 2-nucleotide overhang (Fig. 5A), and the DNA supercoil topoisomers. Shown is −␴ with time after the strands rotate 180° in a right-handed direction. If the addition of norfloxacin. We found that the topoisomer- DNA has wild-type hix sites, the overhangs created by GENES & DEVELOPMENT 751  Downloaded from genesdev.cshlp.org on June 19, 2020 - Published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press Deibler et al. Figure 3. Metabolism of Int recombina- tion knots in vivo. (A) The extent of Int recombination for each strain is shown. Cells were grown as described for Figure 2. Plasmid DNA was isolated and submitted to restriction digestion with EcoRI and BamHI. Samples were analyzed by agarose gel electrophoresis. Shown is the percent of total plasmid DNA recombined with time. No recombination occurred before Int was induced (Time = 0). Error bars are from two experiments that were averaged. (B) Unknotting of Int recombination prod- ucts. Representative agarose gels of Int re- combination in the isogenic strains. In this and subsequent figures, the grid above the gels shows which strain was used and whether gyrase and topoisomerase IV were active (+) or not (−). The positions of nicked circular (嘷) and linear (wavy line) plasmid, as well as the trefoil (3) and pentafoil (5) knots are shown. (C) Graphic representation of the data. Shown is the percent of the total plasmid DNA that was knotted with time for each strain. Data were quantified by Scanning densitometry with Nucleovision or TechSoftware PhosphorImage analyses using Storm. Each time point was repeated 2–3 times with similar results. (D) A fraction of the purified plasmid DNA used in A and B was subjected to electrophoresis on 1%–1.2% agarose gels that contained (2–20 µg/mL) chloroquine to visualize DNA supercoiling (Zechiedrich et al. 2000). The mean ␴ was calculated and is shown for each strain over time. Where not shown, the error was smaller than the symbol (except for the gyrA+ parCr strain at 8, 20, and 60 min, each of which was performed once). cleavage are identical, and religation can occur after a IPTG-inducible tac promoter. The C600 strains con- single 180° strand rotation. However, in the mutant re- tained the various combinations of wild-type and drug- combination substrate used here, Hin cleavage produces resistant gyrase and topoisomerase IV alleles as used overhangs that are not complementary (Heichman et al. above (see Table 1). The assay is shown in Figure 5B. 1991). A 360° strand rotation, which will return the hix Cells were grown with shaking at 37°C to mid-logarith- sites to the original parental orientation, must take place mic phase (30 Klett units). IPTG was added to a final so that religation can occur, which results in a negative concentration of 1 mM. Following a 10-min incubation trefoil knot (Fig. 5A,iii; Heichman et al. 1991). If addi- to allow Hin expression, norfloxacin was added tional 360° strand rotations take place, twist knots with (Time = 0 min) to inhibit the type-2 topoisomerases. Be- five, seven, or more nodes result (Heichman et al. 1991). cause this system does not lead to the destruction of the Hin can also tie additional knot nodes into plasmids that recombination sites as recombination by Int does, Hin are already knotted to form what is referred to as com- continuously recombines the DNA to form new knots. posite knots. The products of Hin recombination, in- Consequently, the cellular topoisomerases constantly cluding composite knots, have a negative twist topology. remove these knots as they are formed, to reach a steady- The majority of knots isolated from cells have this to- state level of knotting of ∼5% of the total plasmid popu- pology (Shishido et al. 1987; Heichman et al. 1991; Ishii lation in all strains (Fig. 6B, Time = 0). et al. 1991; R.W. Deibler and E.L. Zechiedrich, unpubl.). At various times following the induction of Hin ex- We cotransformed an isogenic set of E. coli strains de- pression, plasmid DNA was isolated, nicked, and visu- rived from the C600 parental background (see Table 1) alized by high-resolution agarose gel electrophoresis with the Hin recombination substrate pRJ862, and (Sundin and Varshavsky 1981). As with the knots gener- pKH66, which contains the hin gene under control of the ated by Int, when both gyrase and topoisomerase IV were 752 GENES & DEVELOPMENT  Downloaded from genesdev.cshlp.org on June 19, 2020 - Published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press Topoisomerase IV unknots DNA in vivo somes, accumulates catenated intermediates of DNA replication, and is nonviable at 42°C (Kato et al. 1990; Adams et al. 1992b; Zechiedrich and Cozzarelli 1995). However, the parE10 mutant has wild-type topoisomer- ase IV activity at the permissive temperature (30°C) as measured by in vivo decatenation (Zechiedrich and Coz- zarelli 1995) and relaxation assays (Zechiedrich et al. 2000). Because Hin has been shown to be thermolabile in Figure 4. Topology of knots and catenanes. As in Figures 1 and vitro (Johnson and Simon 1985), we measured Hin-me- 2, the DNA double helix is shown as a single line. Int recom- diated knotting in the gyrAr parC+ strain at 42°C. The bination produces toroidal, right-handed, positive knots (i). DNA replication produces catenated intermediates that are also experiment was carried out as for Figure 6A. The results toroidal, right-handed, and positive (ii) (Adams et al. 1992b). The at 42°C were indistinguishable from those obtained at two rings are distinguished by solid and dashed lines. Hin re- 37°C (not shown). This shows that Hin is fully func- combination produces negative twist knots that contain ele- tional at 42°C in vivo, and could be used in conjunction ments of both right- and left-handedness and, therefore, have with the temperature-sensitive topoisomerase IV mu- undefined handedness (iii). tant. DNA knotting was compared for the parE10 mutant drug resistant (gyrAr parCr), DNA knots formed by Hin and its wild-type parental strain at 42°C. Cultures were recombination in vivo were untied in the presence of norfloxacin (Fig. 6A, lanes c,d; Fig. 6B, hatched bar). Knotting remained near the 5% level as had been ob- served in the absence of drug. When both gyrase and topoisomerase IV were inhibited by norfloxacin (gyrA+ parC+), knots accumulated (Fig. 6A, lanes e–g). Roughly 30% of the total plasmid DNA was knotted 20 min after the addition of norfloxacin in the gyrA+ parC+ strain (Fig. 6B, stippled bar). Topoisomerase IV alone (gyrA+ parCr) unknotted DNA to a similar level as when both gyrase and topoisomerase IV were active (Fig. 6A, cf. lanes j and d; Fig. 6B, cf. white to hatched bar at 20 min). However, in the absence of topoisomerase IV, a functional gyrase (gyrAr parC+) could not untie the Hin-mediated knots (Fig. 6A, lanes a,b). In fact, the highest levels of DNA knotting were seen in this strain; ∼35% of the total plasmid DNA was knotted (Fig. 6B, black bar). This finding most likely re- sults from gyrase-mediated supercoiling stimulating Hin recombination, because Hin recombination is known to be greatly affected by DNA supercoiling. More recombi- nation, in turn, leads to more knots being tied. We con- clude that topoisomerase IV, not gyrase, resolves the knotted negative twist products of Hin recombination. DNA unknotting in conditionally lethal topoisomerase IV mutants Figure 5. Hin recombination system to knot DNA. (A) Hin recombination. Hin and Fis (not shown) bind to the hix sites, In the experiments described above, the antibiotic nor- denoted by arrows, and the enhancer (thickened line), respec- floxacin was used to inhibit topoisomerase IV. Indeed, tively, on negatively supercoiled DNA to form the synaptic the previous experiments examining the in vivo role of complex shown (i). Hin makes a double-stranded DNA stag- topoisomerase IV in removing DNA catenanes produced gered break in each of the hix sites to leave two nucleotide by site-specific recombination also relied solely upon overhangs (Johnson and Simon 1985; Johnson et al. 1986; Hei- norfloxacin-based inhibition of topoisomerase IV be- chman and Johnson 1990). With a wild-type substrate, the DNA overhangs are complementary and DNA religation would occur cause these systems are thermosensitive (Zechiedrich et after strand exchange (ii). In the Hin substrate used here, pRJ826 al. 1997). Although we thought it unlikely, it was pos- (Heichman et al. 1991), an additional right-handed rotation re- sible that our results were affected by the presence of stores the DNA to its original configuration and religation can norfloxacin. Therefore, we repeated the Hin recombina- take place (Heichman et al. 1991) (iii). The hix sites are not tion experiments in a strain containing a conditionally altered by recombination and serve as substrates for further re- lethal mutation in the parE gene of topoisomerase IV, combination. (B) Experimental protocol. Details are described parE10. This mutant strain fails to segregate its chromo- in the text. GENES & DEVELOPMENT 753  Downloaded from genesdev.cshlp.org on June 19, 2020 - Published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press Deibler et al. Figure 6. Metabolism of Hin recombination knots in vivo. (A) Unknotting of Hin recombination products. Hin recombination was carried out and plas- mid DNA was isolated, nicked with DNase I, and subjected to electropho- resis through 1% agarose gels. Ethidium bromide-stained agarose gels are shown. The positions of nicked circular (嘷), linear (wavy line), and knotted (3,5,6) DNA are indicated. (B) Graphic representation of the data from two experiments. The data are presented as the percent of total plasmid DNA knotted for three different time points, after the addition of IPTG (−10 min), after the addition of norfloxacin (Nor) (0 min), and 20 min following the addition of Nor (20 min). (C) Gel showing knotting in parE10 strain. Cells containing the Hin recombination expression vector, pKH66, and the sub- strate, pRJ862, were grown as described for Figure 5. However, before the addition of IPTG, wild-type (WT) (lane a) and parE10 mutant (lane b) cells were shifted to 42°C to inactivate the mutant topoisomerase IV. The positions of nicked circular (嘷), linear (wavy line), and knotted (3,5,6) DNA are shown. This experiment was repeated with similar results. grown at 30°C with shaking to mid-logarithmic phase coiling on decatenation by topoisomerase IV both in vivo (35 Klett units). IPTG was added to induce Hin expres- (Zechiedrich et al. 1997) and with purified components sion (Time = −10). After 10 min, cells were shifted to (Ullsperger and Cozzarelli 1996). In addition, as ex- 42°C to inactivate topoisomerase IV. Plasmid DNA was plained above, gyrase mutants with a reduced supercoil- isolated 40 min later. The accumulation of catenated ing activity have higher levels of knotting than wild-type replication intermediates (Adams et al. 1992b; Zechied- cells (Shishido et al. 1987). A possible explanation for rich and Cozzarelli 1995) confirmed that topoisomerase these findings is that gyrase, which has a pervasive effect IV had been inactivated (data not shown). At 30°C, Hin on DNA metabolism, contributes to unknotting in vivo tied knots and topoisomerase IV untied them to a steady- by supercoiling DNA. This might be expected because state level in either strain of ∼5% (data not shown). How- negative supercoiling increases the free energy of a knot ever, Hin-mediated DNA knots accumulated in the (Shaw and Wang 1993). In addition, negative supercoiling parE10 mutant (Fig. 6C, lane b) and not in the wild-type may group the knot nodes together (Marko 1999) or fa- strain at 42°C (Fig. 6C, lane a). Therefore, knotted re- cilitate the localization of a preferred topoisomerase IV combination products accumulate in the absence of to- cleavage site at a knot node. Therefore, we examined the poisomerase IV regardless of the means used to inacti- effect of negative supercoiling on topoisomerase IV un- vate the enzyme. knotting in vivo. In our experiments, we observed no turnover of knots Effect of negative supercoiling on DNA unknotting in parC+ strains treated with norfloxacin (see Fig. 3C). However, through its supercoiling activity, gyrase Previous studies showed a marked effect of DNA super- stimulated decatenation in these same strains under 754 GENES & DEVELOPMENT  Downloaded from genesdev.cshlp.org on June 19, 2020 - Published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press Topoisomerase IV unknots DNA in vivo identical conditions (Zechiedrich et al. 1997). Therefore, enhance unknotting of pABCi. However, negative super- gyrase-mediated supercoiling did not stimulate unknot- coiling strongly stimulated the topoisomerase IV-medi- ting and did stimulate decatenating by topoisomerase IV ated resolution of the pABCd catenanes (data not treated with norfloxacin. In the parCr strains, the rate shown). Therefore the size of the rings does not alter the and extent of unknotting was the same whether gyrase effect of supercoiling on decatenation. These findings was blocked by drug (gyrA+) or not (gyrA+) (Fig. 3C, com- demonstrate that over a twofold range of DNA length, pare filled squares to filled circles). These findings are decatenation by topoisomerase IV is strongly stimulated similar to those found in vitro, where the rate of unknot- and unknotting is unaffected by negative supercoiling. ting of Int products by purified topoisomerase IV without norfloxacin was also shown to be unaffected by negative supercoiling (Ullsperger and Cozzarelli 1996). Topoisomerase IV unknotting is independent of DNA An important parameter that may distinguish the cat- replication enanes from the previous experiments from the knot The physiological roles of the topoisomerases have been substrates used here is their different lengths. The two frequently studied in the context of DNA replication. rings of the catenane were 2.9 kb and 0.6 kb. The earlier Both topoisomerase IV and gyrase are involved in the in vitro experiments were carried out with 7.2-kb Int synthesis and segregation of DNA (for review, see Levine knots only (Ullsperger and Cozzarelli 1996). To deter- et al. 1998). The overexpression of the ␥ subunit of the mine whether size had an effect on the DNA supercoil- replicative DNA polymerase III holoenzyme suppressed ing dependence of topoisomerase IV-mediated decatena- the conditional lethality of the parE10 mutant used tion, we constructed new 7.8-kb Int substrates—pABCi, above in our studies (Levine and Marians 1998). This which forms knots, and pABCd, which forms catenated finding suggested an association between the DNA rep- rings of 3.2 kb and 4.6 kb. Each ring formed from pABCd lication machinery and topoisomerase IV. The knots is approximately the size of the knot formed in the Int formed by Int do not require DNA replication. Addition- substrate plasmid pJB3.5i used above. We repeated the ally, in contrast to decatenation by topoisomerase IV, experiments described for Figure 3B with pABCi to test which is very rapid, unknotting is slow enough to be whether the removal of larger knots was also unaffected measurable. Therefore, we were able to test whether to- by supercoiling. As before, topoisomerase IV untied this poisomerase IV-mediated unknotting was obligatorily 7.8-kb knot, and gyrase had no effect in vivo (data not associated with DNA replication. We tied knots in shown). We plotted the amount of knotted pABCi as a pJB3.5i with Int as described in Figure 2. We then inhib- function of negative supercoiling (Fig. 7). The rate and ited DNA synthesis with 50 mM hydroxyurea (Adams et extent of topoisomerase IV unknotting was the same in al. 1992b) and monitored topoisomerase IV unknotting all cases, including when the DNA was relaxed, in the in the absence and presence of replication. The inhibi- gyrA+ parCr strain, or hypernegatively supercoiled, in tion of DNA replication did not affect the recombination the gyrAr parC+ strain. Supercoiling did not appreciably by ␭ Int, which reached 60% by 60 min in both the pres- ence and absence of hydroxyurea (Fig. 8A). Hydroxyurea blocked DNA replication by ∼90% as measured by 3H- thymidine incorporation (Fig. 8B). The kinetics of un- knotting by topoisomerase IV were identical in the presence or absence of hydroxyurea (Fig. 8C). Therefore, topoisomerase IV unknotting activity is neither depen- dent upon nor obligatorily associated with DNA replica- tion. Discussion We have determined that topoisomerase IV is the sole unknotting enzyme for E. coli. We generated knotted plasmid DNA in vivo using two different site-specific recombination systems, ␭ Int and S. typhimurium Hin. These two systems produce knots with different topo- logical parameters and together represent most, if not all, of the DNA knots that form within cells (Shishido et al. Figure 7. Effect of DNA supercoiling (␴) on unknotting. The 1987; R.W. Deibler and E.L. Zechiedrich, unpubl.). We amount of plasmid DNA that had recombined and was knotted have shown that although topoisomerase IV is both the in the parC+-containing strains was measured. The supercoiling values were measured as described in Figure 3D. The correlation decatenating and unknotting enzyme of the cell, it car- between knotting (Y axis) and ␴ (X axis) is shown for plasmid ries out these two processes differently. Although super- pABCi (open boxes). The correlation between accumulated cat- coiling promotes decatenation by topoisomerase IV, re- enanes and ␴ for plasmid pJB3.5d (filled circles) is shown for gardless of the size of the DNA rings in the catenanes, comparison (Zechiedrich et al. 1997). the resolution of knots is unaffected by negative super- GENES & DEVELOPMENT 755  Downloaded from genesdev.cshlp.org on June 19, 2020 - Published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press Deibler et al. Figure 8. Effect of DNA replication on unknotting. (A) Inhibition of DNA replica- tion by hydroxyurea. The LZ36 strain was grown with shaking to mid-logarithmic growth phase (70 Klett units). DNA repli- cation rates were measured by monitoring [methyl-3H]-thymidine incorporation in the absence (open circles) or presence (filled circles) of 50 mM hydroxyurea. This experiment was performed twice with the same results. (B) Effect of hydroxyurea on rates of Int recombination. Int recombina- tion was measured as described for Figure 2 in the absence (open circles) and presence (filled circles) of 50 mM hydroxyurea. This experiment was performed twice with the same results. (C) Effect of hydroxyurea on knot resolution by topoisomerase IV. Ex- periments were performed as described in Figure 2 except samples were incubated with 50 mM hydroxyurea. Plotted is the percentage of the total recombined plasmid that was knotted in the absence (open circles) or presence (filled circles) of 50 mM hydroxyurea with time. This experiment was carried out twice with the same re- sults. coiling. Finally, we have shown that topoisomerase IV Gyrase introduces supercoils, but does not unknot unknotting is independent of DNA replication. or decatenate in the cell Our finding that topoisomerase IV unknots DNA in vivo suggests new interpretations of the data that impli- As part of its enzymatic mechanism, gyrase wraps ∼135 cated gyrase in unknotting. Often these studies used an- bp of DNA about itself (Liu and Wang 1978), whereas tibiotics to inhibit gyrase (Ishii et al. 1991; Adams et al. topoisomerase IV binds only 34 bp (Peng and Marians 1992b). However, at the concentrations of the drugs 1995). The deletion of the wrapping domain of gyrase used, topoisomerase IV would also have been inhibited results in a protein that functions similarly to topoisom- (Khodursky et al. 1995; Zechiedrich et al. 1997). There- erase IV both biochemically and genetically in that it fore, knots produced by the normal metabolism of DNA decatenates well in vitro and can partially suppress a may have persisted in the cell because there was insuf- topoisomerase IV temperature-sensitive mutant (Kam- ficient topoisomerase IV function to remove the knots. pranis and Maxwell 1996). Therefore, DNA wrapping In support of this, we show here that even highly nega- makes gyrase uniquely suited for the introduction of su- tively supercoiled DNA and active gyrase cannot assist percoils (Liu and Wang 1978; Kirchhausen et al. 1985). in knot removal when topoisomerase IV is inhibited. An However, it is not clear why this wrapping, which facili- alternative explanation is that in the presence of quino- tates the transport of a contiguous DNA strand, is spe- lones, gyrase not only becomes inhibited in terms of its cific to supercoiling rather than to unknotting. The pre- supercoiling activity, but also becomes more prone to ferred substrate for gyrase is thought to be a left-handed knot DNA. Indeed, others have noted that there is only positive supercoil (for review, see Kornberg and Baker a subtle distinction as to which strand is passed and 1992). Gyrase has been proposed to act by inverting the which is cleaved that gyrase must recognize if it is to left-handed positive DNA crossing to a right-handed supercoil rather than to knot DNA (Vologodskii and negative node. Importantly, we found that gyrase did not Cozzarelli 1996), and either drugs or mutation may affect unknot either the right-handed trefoils produced by Int this distinction. Because we used site-specific recombi- or the left-handed trefoils generated by Hin. If gyrase nation to generate knotted DNA, obtained the same re- simply inverted left-handed nodes to form right-handed sults using two different means to inhibit topoisomerase nodes, then gyrase should have at least unknotted the IV, and monitored the resolution rather than the forma- trefoil knots produced by Hin. Instead, left-handed tre- tion of knots, we are confident that the possibility of a foils were the most prevalent types of knot observed defective gyrase knotting DNA does not affect the inter- when topoisomerase IV was inhibited and gyrase func- pretations of our data. tioned (Fig. 3B, lanes a–f; Fig. 6A, lane b). If gyrase in- 756 GENES & DEVELOPMENT  Downloaded from genesdev.cshlp.org on June 19, 2020 - Published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press Topoisomerase IV unknots DNA in vivo verted all of the positive crossings, then the trefoils pro- somerase IV between knots and catenanes occurs with duced by Int should have been resolved, and they were substrates of the same handedness and may represent an not. These results show that neither handedness alone additional level of substrate recognition by topoisomer- nor sign alone can explain the inability of gyrase to un- ase IV. Other models, even those that suggested that a knot DNA. type-2 topoisomerase might track along the DNA, can- There are at least three possible explanations for why not explain this effect (Rybenkov et al. 1997a; Yan et al. gyrase activity is limited to the introduction of negative 1999). supercoils: (1) Gyrase can somehow assess simulta- neously both the topological sign and the handedness of a node and will perform DNA strand passage only at a Topoisomerase IV does not require DNA replication left-handed, positive node. Because at least the simple for activity twist and torus knots cannot be left-handed and positive, Our results demonstrate that topoisomerase IV does not as plectonemic supercoils are, knots are not an efficient require active DNA replication to unknot DNA. This is substrate for gyrase. It was suggested previously that gy- important because the resolution of DNA knots, as well rase can sense or regulate the DNA segment being trans- as the maintenance of homeostatic DNA supercoiling, ported (Vologodskii and Cozzarelli 1996), but the physi- should be necessary at times other than when DNA is cal mechanism gyrase might employ for this is unclear. being synthesized. As suggested previously, an interac- (2) Gyrase can more easily wrap a supercoil node about tion with the replication machinery may be important itself than a knot node. (3) The conformation of a super- for topoisomerase IV to unlink replicating DNA (Levine coil and a knot are distinct in terms of a local property, and Marians 1998). However, our results demonstrate such as the angle between the segments forming the that at least knotted DNA is freely accessible to topoi- node, the flexibility of the nodes, or the physical tight- somerase IV. ness of the node. Which of these models is correct re- mains to be seen. Physiological roles of the topoisomerases Topoisomerase IV is sensitive to global DNA topology It is now possible to assign completely the topological As stated above, type-2 topoisomerases modify DNA to- roles of the topoisomerases in E. coli (Fig. 1). DNA su- pology by binding to a crossover formed between two percoiling (Fig. 1A) is regulated by topoisomerase I, gy- DNA duplexes (Zechiedrich and Osheroff 1990), cleaving rase, and topoisomerase IV: Gyrase introduces negative one of the duplexes, passing the other through this tran- supercoiling, and this action is countered by topoisom- siently open gate, and resealing the break in the back- erase I and topoisomerase IV, which relax negative su- bone (for review, see Wang 1996). It would therefore ap- percoils (Menzel and Gellert 1983; Zechiedrich et al. pear that a locally acting type-2 topoisomerase would be 2000). Decatenation of linked DNA molecules (Fig. 1B) is unaffected by the global topology of a DNA molecule. carried out by topoisomerase IV regardless of the mecha- However, the results presented here, as well as discov- nisms by which the catenanes arose (Zechiedrich and eries by others, contradict this straightforward model. A Cozzarelli 1995; Zechiedrich et al. 1997). Gyrase contrib- type-2 topoisomerase will remove a catenane before it utes to decatenation by supercoiling the catenane to removes a supercoil node, even when supercoil nodes are make a better substrate for topoisomerase IV (Zechied- in vast excess (Roca and Wang 1994; Ullsperger and Coz- rich et al. 1997). Gyrase may be additionally important zarelli 1996). In addition, these enzymes will hydrolyze in decatenation because DNA supercoiling has been ATP more efficiently in the presence of a catenane node shown to reduce the equilibrium probability that two than a supercoil node (Anderson et al. 1998). The type-2 DNAs become catenated (Rybenkov et al. 1997b). DNA topoisomerases that have been tested preferentially un- unknotting (Fig. 1C) is carried out exclusively by topoi- knot rather than knot DNA, which also indicates that somerase IV. Topoisomerase III does not appear to play a these enzymes can recognize the global topology of DNA role in regulating these topological forms of DNA, and (Rybenkov et al. 1997a). Because supercoiling stimulates its biological significance remains unknown. DNA decatenating, but not unknotting by topoisomer- It is clear, therefore, that topoisomerases in the cell ase IV, there must be some difference between knots and have distinct and nonoverlapping roles. Although gyrase catenanes. This result is in contrast to reactions carried and topoisomerase IV can both unknot and decatenate out by purified gyrase in vitro, where both decatenating DNA in vitro, only topoisomerase IV performs these ac- and unknotting of DNA by gyrase are stimulated by tivities within the cell. Consequently, our results sug- negative supercoiling (Liu et al. 1980; Mizuuchi et al. gest limitations in assigning to a protein a physiological 1980), and reveals that this effect may not be simply the function based upon sequence similarity (ParC and ParE result of yet uncharacterized conformational differences are 36% and 40% homologous to GyrA and GyrB, re- between knots and catenanes. Recently, it has been sug- spectively) or even upon in vitro biochemical activity. gested that topoisomerase IV preferentially relaxes posi- Topoisomerases do not carry out in the cell all the tive over negative supercoils because of the opposite reactions that they have been shown to carry out in the handedness of these substrates (Crisona et al. 2000). test tube (Table 2). What prevents enzyme promiscuity However, we find that the distinction made by topoi- in the cell? It seems that each topoisomerase is designed GENES & DEVELOPMENT 757  Downloaded from genesdev.cshlp.org on June 19, 2020 - Published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press Deibler et al. Table 2. Topoisomerases in E. coli Topoisomerase Type Genes In vitro activities In vivo role I 1 topA Relax (−) supercoils Relax (−) supercoils Decatenate/catenate Unknot/knot Gyrase 2 gyrA, gyrB Introduce (−) supercoils Introduce (−) supercoils Decatenate/catenate Unknot/knot III 1 topB Relax (−) supercoils ? Decatenate/catenate Unknot/knot IV 2 parC, parE Relax (−) supercoils Relax (−) supercoils Relax (+) supercoils Relax (+) supercoilsa Decatenate/catenate Decatenate Unknot/knot Unknot a Khodursky et al. (2000). inherently to carry out specific functions. It is also pos- have been described previously. The 7.8-kb Int catenane sub- sible that unknown cellular factors play a role in limit- strate, pABCi, was constructed by ligating the cat gene (kindly ing these enzymes to their specific activities. Topoisom- provided by T. Palzkill, Baylor College of Medicine), which en- erase IV removes crossings from DNA, whether they re- codes chloramphenicol acetyl transferase into the unique HindIII site of pAB3 (Dröge and Cozzarelli 1989) and pAB4 sult from supercoils, catenanes, or knots, but it does not (Wasserman et al. 1988). The 7.8-kb Int catenating substrate remove all of these crossings blindly. Clearly, removing pABCd was made by cloning the same cat cassette into HindIII- all catenane links is required for chromosome segrega- digested pAB4. tion and removing knot links is important for DNA me- tabolism. However, the removal of all DNA supercoils, a Int recombination difficult task in the presence of gyrase, would be detri- mental to the cell. The differences in the removal of The Int recombination strategy was described previously (Bliska these topological forms probably reflect the differences and Cozzarelli 1987; Zechiedrich et al. 1997) and is shown sche- in how vital the removal of that problem is to cell sur- matically in Figure 2B. The ␭ lysogenic strains containing an Int recombination plasmid were grown while shaking at 30°C to a vival. cell density of 70 Klett units (83 Klett units = A600 of 1.0 for C600 strains) in LB medium containing the appropriate antibi- otic: ampicillin for cells containing pJB3.5i and chlorampheni- Materials and methods col for cells with pABCi or pABCd. At this density, cultures Reagents were shifted to 42°C for 10 min, which inactivates the thermo- sensitive cI857 repressor and induces expression of Int. Because Restriction enzymes and proteinase K were obtained from Boe- the Int recombinase is not active at 42°C the cultures were hringer Mannheim. Supercoiled DNA ladder, 1-kb ladder, and returned to 30°C, where recombination can be initiated at calf thymus topoisomerase I were obtained from GIBCO BRL. Time = 0. Norfloxacin was added to the cultures at the time of T4 DNA ligase was obtained from New England Biolabs. shift down to a final concentration of 60 µM. Within ∼20 min, [␣-32P]dCTP, [methyl-3H]-thymidine, and the Multiprime recombination is complete. When not inhibited, a topoisomer- DNA-labeling kit were purchased from Amersham Pharmacia. ase (topo) unties the knotted recombination intermediates. Norfloxacin, chloroquine, RNase A, and DNase I were obtained from Sigma. Nylon Zeta-Probe Blotting Membranes were from Hin recombination Bio-Rad. Purified type-2 topoisomerase from bacteriophage T4 was a gift from K.N. Kreuzer, Duke University. All other chemi- Strains containing the Hin expression vector pKH66 and Hin cals and reagents were analytical grade or better. substrate pRJ862 were grown while shaking at 37°C. Because Hin recombination is dependent on the Fis protein, it is very sensitive to the growth phase of the bacteria (Johnson and Si- Bacterial strains and plasmids mon 1985). Fis protein levels have been shown to decrease as The bacterial strains used are listed in Table 1 and have been bacterial cultures approach stationary phase (Ball et al. 1992). described previously (Kato et al. 1990; Khodursky et al. 1995; Therefore, in our experiments, cultures were grown to mid- Zechiedrich and Cozzarelli 1995; Zechiedrich et al. 1997). We logarithmic phase (30–35 Klett units). IPTG was added to a final used the serine-to-leucine mutation at amino acid position 83 of concentration of 1 mM to induce Hin expression from pKH66. gyrase and the serine-to-lysine mutation at amino acid position Cultures were allowed to shake at 37°C for an additional 10 min 84 of topoisomerase IV because these mutations provide the before the addition of norfloxacin to a final concentration of 60 highest levels of drug resistance both in vitro and in vivo µM (Time = 0). Aliquots (∼13 mL) of cells were then either (Yoshida et al. 1988; Khodursky et al. 1995; Zechiedrich et al. plunged into liquid nitrogen or immediately lysed, and the plas- 1997). Int knotting plasmid pJB3.5i (Hildebrandt and Cozzarelli mid DNA was isolated. Aliquots were taken before the addition 1995), Hin knotting substrate pRJ862 (Heichman et al. 1991), of IPTG, following the 10-min induction of Hin expression, and and Hin expression vector pKH66 (Johnson and Simon 1985) at various time points after the addition of norfloxacin. Experi- 758 GENES & DEVELOPMENT  Downloaded from genesdev.cshlp.org on June 19, 2020 - Published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press Topoisomerase IV unknots DNA in vivo ments using temperature-sensitive topoisomerase IV mutants funding from the National Science Foundation under Grant were carried out in the same manner except that cells were DMS-9406348. grown at 30°C, and instead of norfloxacin addition, a shift to The publication costs of this article were defrayed in part by 42°C blocked topoisomerase IV (Time = 0). The cells remained payment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby at 42°C with shaking for the duration of the experiment (20–40 marked “advertisement” in accordance with 18 USC section min). 1734 solely to indicate this fact. DNA analyses References The alkaline lysis procedure was used to isolate plasmid DNA (Sambrook et al. 1989). The isolated plasmid DNA was treated Adams, D.E., Bliska, J.B., and Cozzarelli, N.R. 1992a. Cre–lox with RNase A (20–100 µg/mL final concentration) and divided recombination in E. coli cells: Mechanistic differences from into three fractions. One fraction of plasmid DNA was singly the in vitro reaction. J. Mol. Biol. 226: 661–673. nicked with DNase I in the presence of ethidium bromide and Adams, D.E., Shekhtman, E.M., Zechiedrich, E.L., Schmid, analyzed by high resolution agarose (0.8%–1%) gels (Sundin and M.B., and Cozzarelli, N.R. 1992b. The role of topoisomerase Varshavsky 1981). The DNA was transferred to a Zeta-Probe IV in partitioning bacterial replicons and the structure of nylon membrane and probed with radiolabeled linear pJB3.5i, catenated intermediates in DNA replication. Cell 71: 277– pABCi, or pRJ862. The probe was made using the Multiprime 288. DNA Labeling System from Amersham. DNA knot ladders Anderson, V.E., Gootz, T.D., and Osheroff, N. 1998. Topoisom- were generated with T4 topoisomerase (Wasserman and Cozza- erase IV catalysis and the mechanism of quinolone action. J. relli 1991). Biol. Chem. 273: 17879–17885. The second fraction of plasmid DNA was analyzed on TAE Arai, Y., Yasuda, R., Akashi, K., Harada, Y., Miyata, H., Ki- agarose (1.0%–1.2%) gels containing chloroquine (2–20 µg/mL). nosita, K.J., and Itoh, H. 1999. Tying a molecular knot with The supercoiling levels were determined by the band counting optical tweezers. Nature 399: 446–448. method (Keller 1975). ␴ was calculated according to the formula Ball, C.A., Osuna, R., Ferguson, K.C., and Johnson, R.C. 1992. ␴ = ⌬Lk/Lk0, with Lk0 = 10.45 bp/turn. The third DNA plasmid Dramatic changes in FIS levels upon nutrient upshift in fraction isolated from the Int experiments was digested with Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 174: 8043–8056. EcoRI and BamHI (pJB3.5i). Similarly, SalI digestion was used to Bliska, J.B. and Cozzarelli, N.R. 1987. Use of site-specific re- measure pABCi recombination. Quantification of bands on aga- combination as a probe of DNA structure and metabolism in rose gels was carried out using either the Storm PhosphorImag- vivo. J. Mol. Biol. 194: 205–218. ing system or Nucleovision densitometry software from Cox, M.M. 1998. A broadening view of recombinational DNA Nucleotech. repair in bacteria. Genes Cells 3: 65–78. Crisona, N.J., Strick, T.R., Bensimon, D., Croquette, V., and Cozzarelli, N.R. 2000. Preferential relaxation of positively DNA replication inhibition supercoiled DNA by E. coli topoisomerase IV in single-mol- Cultures were grown with shaking at 30°C to late-logarithmic ecule and ensemble measurements. Genes & Dev. phase (70 Klett units). To block replication, 50 mM hydroxyurea 14: 2881–-2892. was added (Adams et al. 1992b). After 10 min, [methyl-3H]-thy- Dröge, P. and Cozzarelli, N.R. 1989. Recombination of knotted midine (1 µL/mL of cells), with specific activity of 70–86 Ci/ substrates by Tn3 resolvase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 86: 6062– mmole (1 mCi/mL) was added. At 1, 3, 5, 8, 11, and 20 min 6066. following the addition of 3H-thymidine, 0.75-mL aliquots of Du, S.M., Wang, H.Y., Tse-Dinh, Y.C., and Seeman, N.C. 1995. cells were removed from the culture and added to 0.75 mL stop Topological transformations of synthetic DNA knots. Bio- solution (75% ethanol; 21 mM sodium acetate at pH 5.3; 2 mM chemistry 34: 673–682. EDTA; 2% phenol) at room temperature. 3H-Thymidine incor- Harmon, F.G., DiGate, R.J., and Kowalczykowski, S.C. 1999. poration was measured according to Sambrook et al. (1989). RecQ helicase and topoisomerase III comprise a novel DNA Briefly, aliquots were passed through Whatman GF/C filters strand passage function: A conserved mechanism for control using a Millipore manifold vacuum apparatus. The filters were of DNA recombination. Mol. Cell 3: 611–620. subsequently washed, dried, and submitted to scintillation Heichman, K.A. and Johnson, R.C. 1990. The Hin invertasome: counting. Protein-mediated joining of distant recombination sites at the enhancer. Science 249: 511–517. Heichman, K.A., Moskowitz, I.P.G., and Johnson, R.C. 1991. Configuration of DNA strands and mechanism of strand ex- Acknowledgments change in the Hin invertasome as revealed by analysis of We thank R.C. Johnson and S.K. Merickel for the Hin expres- recombinant knots. Genes & Dev. 5: 1622–1634. sion vector and substrate, for technical assistance, and for shar- Hildebrandt, E.R. and Cozzarelli, N.R. 1995. Comparison of re- ing unpublished results. We are grateful to H. Ikeda, J.-I. Kato, S. combination in vitro and in E. coli cells: Measure of the Nakamura, and H. Suzuki for strains and to K.N. Kreuzer for effective concentration of DNA in vivo. Cell 81: 331–340. purified T4 topoisomerase. We thank T. Palzkill for reagents; I. Ishii, S., Murakami, T., and Shishido, K. 1991. Gyrase inhibitors Darcy, A. Landy, and J.F. Marko for insightful discussions; and increase the content of knotted DNA species of plasmid P.J. Hastings, R.C. Johnson, R.R. Sinden, M.E. Sowa, A.V. Volo- pBR322 in Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 173: 5551–5553. godskii, and members of the laboratory for critically reading the Johnson, R.C. and Simon, M.I. 1985. Hin-mediated site-specific manuscript. E.L. Zechiedrich is a New Investigator in the Toxi- recombination requires two 26 bp recombination sites and a cological Sciences for the Burroughs Wellcome Fund. This work 60 bp recombinational enhancer. Cell 41: 781–791. was supported also by a Curtis Hankamer Research Award and Johnson, R.C., Bruist, M.F., and Simon, M.I. 1986. Host protein by a Fellowship (to R.W. Deibler) from the Program in Math- requirements for in vitro site-specific DNA inversion. Cell ematics and Molecular Biology at Florida State University, with 46: 531–539. 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Lynn Zechiedrich Genes Dev. 2001, 15: Access the most recent version at doi:10.1101/gad.872301 References This article cites 69 articles, 29 of which can be accessed free at: http://genesdev.cshlp.org/content/15/6/748.full.html#ref-list-1 License Email Alerting Receive free email alerts when new articles cite this article - sign up in the box at the top Service right corner of the article or click here. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press