Pauline Letter Manuscripts

Paul among Jews, Greeks, and Romans Edited by Mark Harding and Alanna Nobbs WILLIAM B. EERDMANS PUBLISHING COMPANY GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN / CAMBRIDGE, U .K. Pauline Letter Manuscripts Manuscripts Brent Nongbri Like all the documents that make up the New Testament, the letters attributed to the apostle Paul have reached us by way of transmission through a number of ancient manuscripts (when I say "manuscripts" here, I refer to handwritten copies of texts made before the introduction and spread of the printing press in Europe in the mid-fifteenth century). None of these manuscripts are exactly identical to one another, and no single one of them is the "original" copy of the letters. 1 What we read in most modem English editions of the Bible (the NRSV, the NIV, etc.) are translations of what scholars call an "eclectic" Greek text, a text made up of bits and pieces of lots of manuscripts, although 2 it reproduces no actual, single manuscript from the ancient world. In fact, most editions of ancient texts work this way when multiple copies of the ancient manuscripts survive. What makes Paul's letters, and indeed all the documents that make up the New Testament, different from other ancient literature is that we have many, many more manuscript copies of them than we have for most other ancient texts. The letters attributed to Paul are preserved in ancient manuscripts of several different languages-Greek, Latin, Coptic, Syriac, and others. This chapter will focus on the manuscripts of Paul's letters written in Greek, the language in which the letters were composed. 3 In what follows, I will discuss 1 The idea of a single "original" version of any of Paul's letters is problematic for a number of complicated reasons. For a discussion of some of these difficulties, see E. J. Epp, "The Multivalence of the Term 'Original Text' in New Testament Textual Criticism," HTR 92 (1999): 245-81; repr. in E. J. Epp, Perspectives on New Testament Textual Criticism: Collected Essays, 1962-2004 (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 551-93. I discuss this point in more detail later in the chapter. 2 The eclectic text most commonly used by scholars of the New Testament is the twenty-eighth edition of Novum Testamentum Graece (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2012), originally edited by Eberhard Nestle and more recently produced by the Institute for New Testament Textual Research in Munster. Scholars generally refer to it by the shorthand designation "NestleAland," and it is often abbreviated as "NA28." Other important older eclectic texts include those of B. F. Westcott and F. J. A. Hort, The New Testament in the Original Greek (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1881) and Constantin von Tischendorf, Novum Testamentum Graece (Leipzig: Giesecke & Devrient, 1869-1894). 3 For information on the various ancient translations of Paul's letters, see D. C. Parker, An Introduction to the New Testament Manuscripts and their Texts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 264-67, and B. M. Metzger, The Early Versions of the New Testament: Their Origin, Transmission, and Limitations (Oxford: Clarendon, 1977). 84 the different ways that scholars classify these manuscripts and describe some features of a few especially important manuscripts of Paul's letters. I will also briefly outline how scholars go about determining the oldest recoverable text of Paul's letters and survey some textual problems raised by the differences in the various manuscripts. I will conclude by giving an overview of different theories about how and when copies of Paul's letters began to be gathered into the kinds of collections that constitute the vast majority of our surviving manuscripts. Throughout, I will try to illustrate the complex relationship that exists between the modem translations most people read today and the ancient manuscripts. Modem Bibles contain thirteen documents explicitly attributed to Paul (or to Paul and co-authors): Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 Thessalonians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus, and Philemon. The letter "To the Hebrews" does not explicitly name an author, and early Christians were divided about whether or not Paul wrote it. Nevertheless, Hebrews is present as a part of most ancient Greek manuscript collections of Paul's letters. We also possess ancient copies of other letters attributed to Paul, including an epistle to the Laodiceans, an additional letter to the Corinthians (often called 3 Corinthians), as well as a set of letters between Paul and the Roman 4 philosopher Seneca. Some of these letters are included in ancient Latin and Syriac collections of Paul's letters, but they are not regularly present in the Greek manuscripts; so for the most part, they will be left out of the following discussion. 5 1. Classifications of Manuscripts There are about eight hundred Greek manuscripts (or fragments of manuscripts) of Paul's letters known today. 6 These range in size from complete or nearly complete copies of collections of Paul's letters to tiny scraps of a single letter. 7 Almost all of these manuscripts are (or were at one 4 For further information on these texts, see the relevant pages in J. Fitzgerald and W. A. Meeks, eds., The Writings ofSt. Paul (2nd ed.; New York: Norton, 2007). 5 Modern scholars debate whether or not Paul actually wrote some of these letters. There is general agreement that Paul wrote Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, and Philemon. Most scholars regard Laodiceans, 3 Corinthians, the correspondence of Paul and Seneca, 1 and 2 Timothy, and Titus as forgeries written in Paul's name by later authors. There is no consensus on whether or not Paul wrote Colossians and Ephesians. The Letter to the Hebrews, as I mentioned, does not claim to be by Paul, and few modem scholars would claim Pauline authorship for this letter. On the practice of forgery in the Christian tradition, see Bart Ehrman, Forgery and Counteiforgery: The Use of Literary Deceit in Early Christian Polemics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012). 6 This number is constantly growing as manuscripts are identified. For up to date statistics, readers should consult the list of manuscripts (Handschriftenliste) at the website of the Munster Institute for New Testament Textual Research at http://intf.uni-muenster.de/vmr/NTVMR/ ListeHandschriften.php. 7 About fifty Greek manuscripts (mostly dating from the eleventh century to the fifteenth century) contain the whole New Testament. For a list and discussion, see D. D. Schmidt, "The 85 Pauline Letter Manuscripts Brent Nongbri time part of) codices, that is, books. While most ancient letters were written on unbound sheets of papyrus, early Greek literary works were actually written on papyrus rolls (scrolls). The use of the codex for the production of literary texts was just getting underway in the late first century when Paul's letters were beginning to be copied and circulated, but by the time of our earliest surviving manuscripts of Paul's letters (probably the third century), the codex appears to have been the most common means of transmitting 8 Christian texts. These manuscripts can look quite different from the type of printed pages to which most modem readers are accustomed. The system of division into numbered verses so common in modem Bibles, for example, was not a feature of ancient manuscripts (the division of the text into numbered verses first 9 occurred in a 1551 printed edition of the Greek New Testament). Many manuscripts of Paul's letters are written in what is called scriptio continua, that is, there are no spaces between words or punctuation marks, just strings of letters. It takes practice to gain facility with this kind of writing, and some combinations of letters can be open to multiple interpretations. Consider the following: GODISNOWHERE. The letters could be construed as "God is now here" or as "God is nowhere." Many manuscripts of the New Testament also 10 employ contractions for certain words now generally called nomina sacra. Many manuscripts, however, (especially later manuscripts) contain various reading aids such as word divisions, punctuation marks, chapter divisions, and 11 even introductions to the individual letters. · Scholars classify these manuscript copies of Paul's letters in different ways. One chief division of these manuscripts places them in four groups: minuscules, majuscules, papyri, and lectionaries. The vast majority of our Greek New Testament as a Codex," in L. M. McDonald and J. A. Sanders, eds., The Canon Debate (Peabody: Hendrickson, 2002), 469-84. A small group of what are called majuscule manuscripts (to be discussed below) of the fourth and fifth centuries also contain Paul's letters as part of a larger "New Testament" collection. 8 For a recent sensible discussion of the development and spread of the codex in the Roman world, see R. Bagnall, Early Christian Books in Egypt (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009). One scholar has even suggested that the production of a collection of Paul's letters was an impetus for the increased popularity and spread of the codex format among Christians. For that argument, see H. Gamble, "The Pauline Corpus and the Early Christian Book," in W. S. Babcock, ed., Paul and the Legacies of Paul (Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 1990), 265-80. 9 See B. M. Metzger and B. D. Ehrman, The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration (4th ed.; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 149-50. 1 For a good discussion of this phenomenon, see K. Haines-Eitzen, Guardians of Letters: Literacy, Power, and the Transmitters of Early Christian Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 91-94. 11 For Paul's letters, the chief reading aids found in the manuscripts themselves are the so-called "Marcionite Prologues" to the letters and the "Euthalian Apparatus." On these two features of the manuscripts, see N. A. Dahl, "The Origin of the Earliest Prologues of the Pauline Letters," Semeia 12 (1978): 233-77; repr. in Nils A. Dahl, Studies in Ephesians: Introductory Questions, Text- and Edition-Critical Issues, Interpretation of Texts and Themes (eds. D. Hellholm, V. Blomkvist, and T. Pomberg; Tiibingen: Mohr [Siebeck], 2000), 179-209; and Nils A. Dahl, "The 'Euthalian Apparatus' and the Affiliated 'Argumenta,"' in Dahl, Studies in Ephesians, 231-75. ancient copies of Paul's letters are from codices that scholars describe as "minuscules," a type of manuscript characterized by a neat, cursive form of Greek handwriting. These manuscripts were produced beginning around the ninth century and continued to be produced up to and beyond the invention of the printing press. Scholars identify these manuscripts by numerical designations (thus, 312 refers to a minuscule manuscript of Paul's letters copied in the eleventh or twelfth century and now in the British Library). 12 The second major category in this system of classification is the group of manuscripts known as "majuscules" or "uncials." These manuscripts are characterized by clear, regular, capital lettering and are usually assigned dates from roughly the fourth century through the ninth century. To distinguish between the minuscules and the majuscules, scholars identify the majuscules by means of a numeral prefaced by a zero, although some of these pieces are better known by a particular name or by a letter associated with an older classification system (for example, the Bible generally known as "Vaticanus," to be discussed in more detail below, is abbreviated both as 03 and with the letter "B"). 13 The third grouping in this method of classification is designated not by style of handwriting but rather by the type of material on which the manuscript was copied. These are the papyri, named for the reed-like papyrus plant from which they are made (minuscules and majuscules were generally written on parchment, that is, treated animal skins). This distinction can cause some confusion, since many of the papyri are in fact written in fine majuscule characters. To date, over 30 different Greek papyrus fragments of Paul's letters have been published. They range in date from perhaps as early as the third century to the seventh or eighth century and are identified in this volume and more generally by a number preceded by the capital letter P. The manuscript designated P49 , for example, is a single fragmentary leaf of a copy of Ephesians usually assigned to a date in the third century and now kept at Yale University's Beinecke Library. 14 The final grouping of manuscripts in this classification system consists of the lectionaries. These manuscripts do not contain a continuous text of the documents of the New Testament but rather select verses for liturgical use (thus instead of handwriting or type of writing material, it is rather function that is the defining feature of the lectionaries, which, again, can invite some confusion since the lectionaries are written in minuscule hands). They are abbreviated by a script letter "L" (!or i) followed by a number. The majority of lectionary manuscripts contain passages from the gospels, but there are a number, such as the twelfth-century ° 86 2 '. The codex also contains a variety of medical recipes after the Letter to the Hebrews. Digital images of 312 may be viewed online at http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/FullDisplay.aspx?index=l &ref=Add_MS_5116. 13 A fuller designation of the codex is Bibliothecae Apostolicae Vaticanae codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209. The Vatican produced a photographic facsimile of the codex in 1999. See Bibliorum sacrorum Graecorum codex Vaticanus B (Rome: Istituto poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, 1999). 14 For digital images of P49, see http://beinecke.library.yale.edu/papyrus/oneSET.asp?pid=415. 87 Pauline Letter Manuscripts Brent Nongbri lectionary designated l 809, that contain selections from Paul's letters. I ｳｾ｡ｬ＠ say more about individual examples of each of these types of ｭ｡ｮｵｳ｣ｾｴ＠ momentarily, but first I want to introduce a second way that scholars classify these manuscripts. As I already mentioned, no two manuscripts contain exactly identical texts, but the manuscripts do show different degrees of similarity and difference with one another, with the result that scholars divide them into "families" or "types" or "clusters." Strictly speaking, it is not the manuscripts themselves that are classified in this way but rather the text that a manuscript contains. The exact characteristics of these textual clusters are debated by specialists but the system outlined below is in wide use among scholars who 16 study the 'documents that make up the New Testament. The majority of Greek manuscripts of Paul's letters contain what is called the "Byzantine Text" (also sometimes called the Koine Text or the Syrian Text). It is generally slightly longer and more polished than other. textual Ｎ｣ｾｵｳｴ･ｲ＠ Readings characteristic of the Byzantine Text are absent m the wntmgs of Christian authors who wrote before the middle of the third century, but they are overwhelmingly popular in Christian writers in the east after the early fifth century which suggests that this version of the text arose between the late 17 . 1e ' third century and the early fifth century. Most, but not a11 , ofth e rmnuscu manuscripts preserve texts of the Byzantine cluster. Several majuscule to call. the manuscripts of Paul's letters contain what scholars have ｣ｯｾ･＠ "Western Text." This text more closely resembles the early Latin translations of the New Testament (the so-called "Old Latin" version, which is to be distinguished from the more familiar "Vulgate" Latin translation associated with the work of the Christian scholar Jerome in the early fifth century). As we shall see below, some of these manuscripts are actually bilingual, containing both Greek and Latin texts. The "Western" text seems to have taken shape before the middle of the second century, as it is found in the authors writings of such figures as Marcion and Justin Martyr, two ｃｨｲｩｳｾ｡ｮ＠ active in Rome in the middle of the second century. Scholars designate some manuscripts as representing a third textual type, the "Alexandrian" type. This of text had arisen by the end of the second century. It is found in the ｷｲｩｴｾｮｧｳ＠ Clement, who wrote in Alexandria in the late second century, and Ongen, a 15 15 For an image and discussion of 1809, see B. M. Metzger, Manuscripts of the Greek Bible: An Introduction to Palaeography (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), 126-27. For further: discussion of Pauline lectionaries, see Parker, An Introduction to the New Testament Manuscripts and their Texts, 263-64. 16 Scholars working at the Institute for New Testament Textual Research now use a rather different vocabulary for speaking about textual transmission and variation, the "Coherenc Based Genealogical Method." For an introduction to this method, see. http://www.un of recovenng the ･｡ｲｬｾＬｴ＠ muenster.de/INTF/Genealogical_method.html. For another ｭ･ｴｾｯ＠ of Paul's letters and mapping the history of the textual transrrussion, see S. C. Carlson, Text of Galatians and its History" (Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 2012). Carlson's ｳｾ｡ｲｹ＠ the Coherence-Based Genealogical Method on pp. 53-58 is also admirably clear and concise. 17 The clearest discussion of these issues remains B. F. Westcott and F. J. A. Hort, The Ne Testament in the Original Greek, Introduction, and Appendix (New York: Harper & Brothe 1882), 90-115. 88 Christian scholar who was active in the first half of the third century, first in Alexandria in Egypt and then later in Caesarea Maritima in Palestine. 18 The vast majority of scholars regard the Byzantine textual type as a later derivative from the Western and Alexandrian types. This relationship is most easily illustrated by what scholars call Byzantine "conflation" readings. For example, in Rom 6:12, manuscripts of the Western cluster read "Therefore do not let sin reign in your mortal bodies so that you ｳｨｯｾｬ､＠ obey ｩｴＮＧｾ＠ Manuscripts of the Alexandrian cluster read, "Therefore, do not let sin reign in your mortal bodies so that you should obey its passions." Manuscripts of the Byzantine cluster read, "Therefore, do not let sin reign in your mortal bodies so that you should obey it in its passions." The Byzantine version appears to combine the readings of the Western and Alexandrian types and thus appears to be derivative from these types. Determining the precise relationship between the Western textual type and the Alexandrian textual type is a challenge that still puzzles professional textual critics today. 19 I should close this discussion of classification by again emphasizing that various aspects of these schemes of categorization are contested by different specialists, but they are still regularly used by most critical scholars of the New Testament. A discussion of individual manuscripts will illustrate some of the difficulties and ambiguities. 2. Individual Manuscripts As I mentioned earlier, most minuscules have a version of the "Byzantine" type of text, and thus most textual critics regard this group of texts as the least helpful in determining early forms of the Pauline letters. There are, however, some exceptions. Among the minuscule manuscripts of Paul's letters, the one designated by the number 1739 is especially important. In its present state, 1739 contains Acts, the "Catholic" epistles, and Paul's letters. A typical feature of these minuscule manuscripts is the presence of colophons, notes to the reader from the scribe who copied the text. Just before the Letter to the Romans in 1739, the scribe wrote a note (or copied a note) that tells the reader that the fourteen letters of Paul were "copied from a most ancient exemplar," and that in fact much of the text of Romans was derived from the excerpts and homilies of Origen available to the scribe. 20 If1739 represents a text of Paul's 18 . For :he text of the four gospels, especially the text of the Gospel of Mark, some scholars recogmze a fourth textual type, the "Caesarean" text, supposedly the text known to Origen when he was in Palestine. This textual type does not exist for the Pauline letters, and many, perhaps most, textual critics now find it doubtful that this text is identifiable in any manuscripts of the gospels either. 19 See E. J. Epp, "Issues in New Testament Textual Criticism: Moving from the Nineteenth Century to the Twenty-first Century," in D. A. Black, ed., Rethinking New Testament Textual <i:riticism (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2002) 17-76; repr. in Epp, Perspectives on New ｾ･ｳｴ｡ｭｮ＠ Textual Criticism, 641-97. .For a .collation of 1739 (that is, a collection of its variant readings) as well as the Greek text of is ｳ｣ｾ｢｡ｬ＠ note, see K. Lake and S. New, Six Collations of New Testament Manuscripts Cambndge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1932), 199-219. 89 Brent Nongbri letters known to Origen, then even though 1739 was itself copied in the tenth century, the text it preserves would be much, much older than that preserved in most other tenth-century manuscripts. Thus, it is important to note that the age of a manuscript itself is not the only factor that determines its usefulness for reconstructing the earliest recoverable text of Paul's letters. There are several important majuscule manuscripts that contain Paul's letters. I will describe just a few of them below. I have already mentioned Codex V aticanus (abbreviated as B or 03 ), which has been kept at the Vatican since at least the late fifteenth century. Its history before that point is unknown, but it was probably copied in Egypt or Caesarea at some point in the fourth century. It contains both the Old and New Testaments, and almost certainly originally contained all of the standard canonical Pauline letters, although it is now defective, missing the latter portion of Hebrews, as well as 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus, and Philemon. In the opinion of the textual critic Bruce Metzger, the text of Paul's letters in Vaticanus displays "a distinctly Western element."21 In Codex Vaticanus, Paul's letters are divided into numbered chapters that continue sequentially through the set of letters. Yet, in V aticanus itself, Hebrews comes after 2 Thessalonians; but the chapter numbers of Hebrews are out of sequence and clearly indicate that in the manuscript from which Vaticanus was copied (or in an ancestor of that 22 manuscript), Hebrews was placed between Galatians and Ephesians. Like nearly all ancient manuscripts of the New Testament, Vaticanus displays a number of alterations by later users of the manuscript. One example of this phenomenon in Vaticanus is especially noteworthy. At Heb 1:3, the scribe who first copied this portion of the codex wrote that Jesus "reveals all things" (Greek: phaneron te ta panta). A later user of the manuscript changed it to the more common reading: Jesus "bears all things" (Greek: pheron te ta panta). A still later user of the manuscript restored the earlier reading and wrote a note in the margin: Ｂｉｾｮｯｲ｡ｴ＠ and wicked man! Leave the old reading alone and 2 don't change it!" . Another codex likely copied in the fourth century that provides an ｢ｾ＠ .the important copy of Paul's letters is Codex Sinaiticus (｡｢ｲ･ｾｩｴ､＠ Hebrew letter aleph, ｾＧ＠ or by the number 01 ). Like Codex Vatlcanus, it is (1 complete Bible. It was preserved at St. Catherine's monastery in Egypt, an<,l was discovered there by the famous textual critic Constantine von Tischendorf in the nineteenth century. The bulk of the manuscript is now kept at the British Library in London. 24 Sinaiticus is the oldest surviving manuscript that preserves a complete text of the thirteen letters attributed to. Paul as well as the Letter to the Hebrews (which comes after 2 Thessalomans and before Timothy in this manuscript). The text of the Pauline letters in Sinaiticus 21 Metzger, Manuscripts of the Greek Bible, 74. . . See the discussion in Metzger and Ehrman, The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmissio Corruption, and Restoration, 69. . . . 23 For a digital image of this note, see http://www-user.um-bremen.de/-w1eNatican note1512.html. 24 Digital images of Codex Sinaiticus can be viewed online at http://codexsinaiticus.org/en/. 22 90 Pauline Letter Manuscripts basically of the Alexandrian type. Yet another important representative of the Alexandria textual cluster for Paul's letters is the fifth-century majuscule ｭ｡ｾｵｳｲｩｰｴ＠ (again of the whole Bible) called Codex Alexandrinus (A or 02), which is also now housed at the British Library. 25 Codex Ephraemi Syri Rescriptus (abbreviated C or 04) is now held in Paris. It is called rescriptus ("rewritten") because it is what scholars refer to as a palimpsest. The writings of Ephraem the Syrian were copied into the manuscript in the twelfth century, but they were not copied on to fresh pages. Instead, they were copied on to pages of a fifth or sixth-century Greek majuscule manuscript of the Bible that had been partially erased. Fortunately, under the newer writing, much of the older writing is still visible, including Paul's letters. This manuscript is especially interesting in regard to the Letter to the Romans. The copyist, who regularly set the beginnings of sense units into the left margin, included a high concentration of these breaks and indentations in the verses we now call Rom 3:27-4:2. 26 The effect is something like presenting lines in a play, with individual characters' parts 27 marked off by the indentations. These sorts of physical features of manuscripts can provide clues to how ancient readers understood Paul's writings. I should also point out that it is equally interesting to notice the things not marked off by indentation in the ancient manuscripts. For example, many modem translations of the New Testament set off Phil 2:6-11 with special indentation to suggest that it is somehow different from the surrounding text (scholars generally refer to these verses as a "hymn"). Yet, to ｾｹ＠ knowledge, no ancient manuscript indents or otherwise marks this passage m a way that would indicate it is somehow different from the material surrounding it. 28 As I mentioned earlier, some majuscule codices of Paul's letters are examples of diglots, that is, manuscripts written in two languages. Three especially important diglot manuscripts consisting chiefly of Paul's letters are Codex Claromontanus (abbreviated as DPaul or 06), Codex Augiensis (FPaul or 010), and Codex Boemerianus (GPaul or 012). 29 Codex Claromontanus, which was probably copied in the fifth century, presents the Greek and Latin texts on ｦ｡｣ｾｮｧ＠ ｰｾｧ･ｳＮ＠ Codex Boemerianus, which was copied in the ninth century, is an mterlmear text, in which the Latin translation is written above each line of 25 .Digital images of Codex Alexandrinus can be viewed online at http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/ viii_fsOO lr. Digital images of Codex Ephraemi Syri Rescriptus can be viewed online at http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/l 2148/btv 1b8470433r. 27 On this point, see S. K. Stowers, A Rereading of Romans: Justice, Jews, and Gentiles (New liaven: Yale University Press, 1997), 231-34. ｆｾｲ＠ a ､ｩｾｵｳｯｮ＠ of these issues, see the fascinating article by M. Peppard, "'Poetry,' 'Hymns,' and Trad1t10nal Material' in New Testament Epistles, or How to Do Things with Indentations" ｾｓｎｔ＠ 30 (2008): 319-42. , The superscript "Paul" (or occasionally just "P") distinguishes these codices from Codex Bezae,. Codex Boreelianus, and Codex Harleianus, codices of the gospels which are also abbreviated as D, F, and G, respectively. ｾ＠ ｩ･ｷｾｲＮ｟｡ｳｰｸｦ］ｯｹｬｭ､＠ 91 Pauline Letter Manuscripts Brent Nongbri Greek. 30 The pages of Codex Augiensis, also copied in the ninth century, contain double columns of Greek and Latin. These codices are the main representatives among the Greek manuscripts for the Western Text of Paul's letters. They seem to be closely related to one another. A strong case has been 31 made that Augiensis and Boemerianus are derived from a common ancestor. That ancestor manuscript and Claromontanus also seem to derive from a still earlier (fourth century?) manuscript. 32 Thus, in spite of the relatively late date of Augiensis and Boemerianus, these manuscripts are of considerable importance when discussing the earliest recoverable text of Paul's letters. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, archaeological excavations in the dry sands of Egypt began to yield a massive amount of writing preserved on papyrus. These finds included everything from classic literature to documents of everyday life-letters, receipts, magical spells, certificates of marriage and divorce, and a whole host of other kinds of writing. Also discovered were many fragments of early Christian literature, both documents of the New Testament and non-canonical Christian literature. To date there are 35 published papyrus fragments of Paul's letters, but some 16 15 of these were likely parts of the same codices, such as P and P , fragments of 1 Corinthians and Philippians, respectively, which share similar handwriting and textual affinities and were found together at Oxyrhynchus in Egypt. 33 Thus, we have papyrus fragments representing roughly 30 different manuscripts of the epistles of Paul. Of the surviving papyrus fragments of manuscripts of Paul's letters, by far the most important is P46 , a well preserved codex containing substantial 46 portions of nine of the letters attributed to Paul. Prior to its publication, P was divided on the antiquities market and sold to different buyers. At present, some leaves of the codex are kept at the University of Michigan Library, and 34 some are kept at the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin. It appears to have Digital images of Codex Claromontanus can be viewed online at http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/ 12148/btv 1b84683 ll 1. Digital images of Codex Boernerianus can be viewed online at http://www.slub-dresden.de/index.php?id=5363&tx_dlf[id]=2966. . 31 See W. H.P. Hatch, "On the Relationship of Codex Augiensis and Codex Boemenanus of the Pauline Epistles," HSCP 60 (1951): 187-99. 32 See N. A. Dahl, "0230 (=PSI 1306) and the Fourth-century Greek-Latin Edition of the Letters of Paul," in E. Best and R. McL. Wilson, eds., Text and Interpretation: Studies in the New Testament Presented to Matthew Black (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), ＷＹＭＸｾ＠ repr. In Dahl, Studies in Ephesians, 211-30. 33 For a list of papyrus fragments of Paul's letters, see Parker, An Introduction to the ｎ･ｾ＠ Testament Manuscripts and their Texts, 258, table 8.1. To his list should be added three recentl pieces: P 123 (containing 1 Cor 14:31-34 and 15:3-6, assigned to the fourth century Published · · He. p 124 (containing 2 Cor 11:1-4, 6-9, assigned to the sixth century), and P 126 ( contammg 118 13:12-13 19-20 assigned to the fourth century). Also, Parker's entry for P lists a date of"X? 118 This ｳ･ｾ＠ to ｢ｾ＠ an error. Different scholars have assigned P to dates ranging from the secon century to the fifth or sixth century. Again, the most up to date listing is to be found in the onli Handschriftenliste at http://intf.uni-muenster.de/vmr/NTVMR/ListeHandschriften.php. 34 Digital images of the pages of P46 kept at the University of Michigan can be viewed online http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/i/image/image-idx?type=bbaglist;view=bbthumbnail; bbdbid=1942765957. 30 92 been copied some time in the third or early fourth century. 35 P46 seems to have been what is called a single-quire codex. That is, it consisted of a single stack of papyrus sheets folded over once and stitched along the fold. In its current 46 state, P is missing pages at its beginning and end, but since its pages are numbered and it was most likely a single quire, the original size of the quire can be calculated (it would have had 104 leaves, which would be 208 pages). p46 contains (in this order): Pages 1-41: Pages 41-64: Pages 64-117: Pages 118-45: Pages 146-58: Pages 158-68: Pages 168-76: Pages 176-84: Pages 184-94: Romans (the first 14 pages are missing) Hebrews 1 Corinthians 2 Corinthians Ephesians Galatians Philippians Colossians 1 Thessalonians (the text is incomplete, and we can assume 14 pages are missing at the end). The content of the missing pages at the end of P 46 is a puzzle. There is no conceivable way the remainder of the quire could have space for the other letters commonly contained in Greek manuscripts of letters attributed to Paul (2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus, and Philemon). The missing pages could likely only fit 2 Thessalonians and perhaps Philemon. It is thus highly probable that the single quire of P46 did not contain the so-called Pastoral Epistles (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus). 36 The text of P46 does not fall very neatly into any of the textual clusters described above, but it does seem to side more frequently with manuscripts of the Alexandrian cluster against those of the W estem cluster. The excellent state of preservation of P46 is something of an oddity among the papyrus manuscriEts of Paul's letters. At the other end of the spectrum are 87 2 pieces like P and P , which are assigned to the same general date range as 46 P . These pieces, however, are nowhere near as well preserved as P 46 . p 87 is a tiny scrap (roughly 4 x 5 cm) of Paul's Letter to Philemon. 37 This small fragment is all we have of a codex that (presumably) contained an entire collection of Paul's letters. P 32 is a small comer (about 11 x 5 cm) of a page 35 46 On the date of P , see S. R. Pickering, "The Dating of the Chester Beatty-Michigan Codex of 46 the Pauline Epistles (P )," in T. W. Hillard et al., eds., Ancient History in a Modern University, Volun:ze 2:.Early Christianity, Late Antiquity, and Beyond (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 21627. ｐＱ｣ｫ･ｮｾｧ＠ offers a good discussion of the many difficulties involved in trying to assign dates .to manuscnpts on the basis of handwriting . Ｖ＠ •ｾ For an in depth discussion of this issue, see E. J. Epp, "Issues in the Interrelation of New 'ifestament Textual Criticism and Canon" in McDonald and Sanders, The Canon Debate 4855715; reprinted in Epp, Perspectives on New Testament Textual Criticism, 595-639. ' For a digital image of P 87, see http://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/ifa/NRWakademie/ apyrologie/PKoeln/PK 12r.jpg. 93 Pauline Letter Manuscripts Brent Nongbri 38 containing bits of the first and second chapters of Titus. These pieces are more representative of the state of preservation of the papyrus copies of Paul's letters. It is also important to recognize that some papyrus fragments of Paul's letters were not actually part of a continuous text of Paul's letters. For example, p 10 , a sheet of papyrus excavated in the Egyptian town of Oxyrhynchus, contains the first seven verses of Paul's Letter to the Romans copied out in crudely shaped letters on the top third of the sheet. The remainder of the sheet is blank save for a short note in different handwriting below the verses from Romans. It appears to be an exercise copied out by a school child. 39 Another papyrus, P99 , is part of a codex containing Greek grammatical 99 lessons. The section of this codex that we call "P " is a bilingual dictionary with words and phrases from some of Paul's letters translated from the Greek into 40 Latin. It seems to be a kind of educational handbook. 3. Textual Problems in the Pauline Letters and Determining the Earliest Recoverable Text What we read in most English versions of Paul's letters is a translation of what many scholars believe is the earliest recoverable text of the letters. As I said at the outset, astute textual critics have acknowledged that the idea of an "original text" of any of the documents of the New Testament is highly problematic. They prefer to speak of the earliest recoverable text or the initial text. The difference is more important than it might seem. Since our earliest manuscripts of Paul's letters probably come from the third century, the best that textual critics can do is to try to discern what the text looked like at that point in time. Quotations of Paul's letters by Christian authors of the ｳ･｣ｯｾ､＠ century may make it possible to ascertain what the text of some ｰｾｳ｡ｧ･＠ m the letters looked like in the middle to late second century, but that 1s as early as the evidence goes. 41 Given that this is the case, to speak of recovering the "original text" of any of Paul's letters would presume that the texts of Paul's letters circulating in the late second century were identical to those written by For a digital image of P 32 , see the website of the John Rylands University Library at http://enriqueta.man.ac.uk:8180/luna/servlet and search for "Ti?1s." . 39 An image of this papyrus is available online at http://pds.hb.harvard.edu/pds/vtew/7456384. For further information about this piece, see A. Luijendijk, "A New Testament Papyrus and Its Documentary Context: An Early Christian Writing Exercise from the Archive of Leonides (P.Oxy. II 209/ P 1°)," JBL 129 (2010): 575-96. 4 For an edition of the text with facsimile images, see Alfons Wouters, The Chester Beattjt Codex AC 1499: A Graeco-Latin Lexicon on the Pauline Epistles and a Greek Grammar (Leuven: Peeters, 1988). 41 The use of quotations of Paul's letters in the writings of Christian authors of the second century is somewhat problematic, since our texts of those authors are just as unstable as our texts of Paul's letters. For a discussion of the difficulties of this evidence, see G.D. Fee, "The Use the Greek Fathers for New Testament Textual Criticism" in B. D. Ehrman and M. W. Holme eds., The Text of the New Testament in Contemporary Research: Essays on the statu quaestionis (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 191-207. 38 ° Paul, or by Paul and his associates (see, for example, 1 Cor 1: 1 and 2 Cor 1: 1) or by one of Paul's secretaries (see Rom 16:22), in the middle decades of the first century. Such an assumption would seem quite problematic, judging by the amount of variation preserved in the later manuscripts that we do possess and the comments of Origen concerning the state of the manuscripts known to him at the end of the second century. In regard to the gospels, Origen wrote, "The differences among the manuscripts have become great, either through of some copyist or through the perverse audacity of others; the ｮｾｧｬｩ･｣＠ neglect to check over what they have transcribed, or, in the process they ･ｩｴｨｾｲ＠ of checkmg, they make additions or deletions as they please."42 There are a number of substantial differences among the texts preserved in the. Greek ｭｾｵｳ｣ｲｩｰｴ＠ of Paul's letters. When textual critics attempt to establish the earliest recoverable text of a given passage, they use both "external" and "internal" criteria. The internal criteria deal with issues like the immediate context of the passage and the author's writing style; the external ｣ｲｩｴ･ｾ｡＠ concern the manuscripts. Scholars "weigh" the manuscript evidence; that 1s, they do not simply count up the manuscripts supporting one reading versus the manuscripts containing another reading and select the winner (doing so would almost always result in selecting the reading of the Byzantine Text). Rather, they consider factors like the antiquity of the manuscript evidence for a given reading and the breadth of support for a given reading. In many cases conclusions based on these internal and external criteria conflict and scholars who want to make decisions about the earliest recoverable ｴ･ｸｾ＠ must dismiss some of the evidence. To take just one example, in most of the earliest manuscripts containing 1 Thess 2:7, the verse reads as follows: "We were infants among you, like a nurse caring for her children." The manuscrifst ･［ｩ､ｾ｣Ｌ＠ or ･ｸｴｾｲｮ｡ｬ＠ support, for this reading is overwhelmingly strong: p 5 , Smaitlcus, Vat1canus, Syri Rescriptus, Claromontanus, Boernerianus, Augiensis, and others have this reading. Yet other manuscripts, like 1739, ｨｾｶ･＠ . Ｂｧ･ｾｴｬ＠ (G:eek: epioi) instead of "infants" (Greek: nepioi). The s1tuat10n 1s comphcated by the fact that the preceding word ("we were," Greek: egenethemen) ends with a nu ("n"), the one letter that differentiates between the terms epioi and nepioi. Nevertheless, given that the idea of being "gentle as a nurse" was a common theme in the writings of ancient ｰｨｩｬｯｳｾ｣｡Ｎ＠ teachers, it is not surprising that the majority of English translations give preference here to the internal criteria (context and sense of the passage) and translate the verse as follows: "We were gentle among you, 42 Th e Ｎｱｵｯｾ｡ｴＱＰｮ＠ . . 1s found in Origen's Commentary on Matthew, book 15, chapter 14. The ｴｲ｡ｮｳｾＱＰ＠ 1s that of B. M. Metzger in "Explicit References in the Works of Origen to Variant Readmgs m New Testament Manuscripts," in J. N. Birdsall and R. W. Thomson, eds., Biblical ?nd Patristic Studies in Memory of Robert Pierce Casey (Freiburg: Herder, 1963), 78-95; repr. 1Il B. M. Metzger, Historical and Literary Studies: Pagan, Jewish, and Christian (Leiden: Brill, 1968), ＸＭＱＰｾＮ＠ As Metzger discusses (Historical and Literary Studies, 88 n. 2), even this ｾ｡ｳｧ･＠ of Ongen itself contains textual discrepancies among the Greek and Latin manuscripts m which it is preserved! 95 Pauline Letter Manuscripts Brent Nongbri 43 like a nurse taking care of her children" (RSV). These are the sorts of judgment calls that scholars regularly make in trying to establish the earliest recoverable text of Paul's letters. The preceding example may seem trivial, but there are several more substantial textual variations in Paul's letters. I will mention just a few here. The most prominent textual variant in the Pauline letters concerns the ending of the Letter to the Romans, which takes a number of different forms. The verses that appear in modem translations as Rom 16:25-7 are found in many 46 manuscripts at the conclusion of chapter 14 (that is, after Rom 14:23). In P , these verses appear at the end of Romans 15. Some manuscripts include the verses twice; others lack them entirely. This state of affairs has led some scholars to speculate that shorter versions of Romans (lacking chapter 15 or chapter 16 or even both of those chapters) may well have circulated in antiquity and in fact may be older than the longer more familiar form of the letter. 44 Other scholars have suggested that the longer version of Romans is older and was later shortened by the removal of chapter 16, with its long list of personal greetings in order to make the letter appear to be directed to more than just the assemblies of Rome. Such a notion finds support from other textual variations in Romans. Some manuscripts of Romans (including Boemerianus and manuscripts known to Origen) lack the phrases "in Rome" at 1:7 and "who are in Rome" in 1:15. This phenomenon is taken by some as evidence that Romans was altered to make it less like a letter to one particular historically situated group and more like a universally applicable theological 45 essay. Other more minor variations are also noteworthy. For example, verses 34 and 35 in chapter 14 of 1 Corinthians ("Women should be silent in the churches . . . If there is anything they desire to know, let them ask their husbands at home. For it is shameful for a woman to speak in church.") appear in different places in different manuscripts. Some manuscripts, including Claromontanus, Boemerianus, and Augiensis, place these verses after 1 Cor 15:40. While, to my knowledge, no manuscript of 1 Corinthians lacks these verses, the fact that they appear in different in different locations in different manuscripts has suggested to some scholars that they might be later insertions and not part of earlier copies of Paul's letters. As I mentioned, when scholars try to ascertain what the ･｡ｲｬｩｳｾ＠ recoverable text might be, the ages of the manuscripts are taken into See Metzger and Ehrman, The Text of the New Testament, 328-30; and A. J. ｍ｡ｬｨ･ｲ｢ｾＬ＠ "'Gentle as a Nurse': The Cynic Background to 1 Thess 2," NovT 12 (1970): 203-17. It lS interesting to note that the most recent edition of Nestle-Aland (unlike the 26th edition) opts for the reading "infants" (nepioi). 44 For a thorough treatment of the problem, see H. Y. Gamble, The Textual History of the Lett to the Romans: A Study in Textual and Literary Criticism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977). 45 N. A. Dahl, "The Particularity of the Pauline Epistles as a Problem in the Ancient Church," Neotestamntica et Patristica. Eine Freundesgabe. Herrn Oscar Cullmann zu seinem Geburtstag iiberreicht (Leiden: Brill, 1962), 261-71; repr. in N. A. Dahl, Studies in Ephesia (Introductory Questions, Text and Edition-Critical Issues, Interpretation of Texts and Them (David Hellholm et al., eds.; Tiibingen: Mohr [Siebeck], 2000), 165-78). consideration. But as we already saw (in the case of 1739), the age of a 46 manuscript does not always equate to the age of the text copied on it. P offers another opportunity to illustrate the complexity of the problem. Most modem translations of Phil 1:9-11 read something like this: "And this is my prayer, that your love may overflow more and more with knowledge and full insight to help you to determine what is best, so that in the Day of Christ you may be pure and blameless, having produced the harvest of righteousness that comes through Christ Jesus for the glory and praise of God" (NRSV). This translation is in agreement with Codex Vaticanus, Sinaiticus, and a number of other manuscripts. The diglot manuscripts Boemerianus and Augiensis, however, have a different reading at the end of the verse: "for glory and praise for me." At that point in the text, P46 reads, "to the glory of God and praise for me." This group of words in P 46 is thus a conflation, since it seems to have been produced by combining the reading of the Alexandrian cluster and the Western cluster, which suggests that the reading found in Boemerianus and 46 Augiensis must be older than that found in P (this hypothesis is strengthened by the fact that the fourth-century Latin author known as Ambrosiaster also had the reading of "glory and praise for me" (gloriam et laudem mihi). The lesson, again, is that the oldest manuscript does not necessarily preserve the oldest text. 46 These are just a few examples of the many variations in our manuscripts of Paul's letters and the ways that scholars approach them. 4. Theories about the Collection of Paul's Letters A final issue requires some consideration. We have evidence for collections of Paul's letters with varying sets ofletters or a different ordering of the letters. Compare, for example, the contents and ordering of the following manuscript copies: 1 Corinthians 2 Corinthians 43 1 Thessalonians Sinaiticus Claromontanus Boernerianus Romans Romans Romans 1 Corinthians 1 Corinthians 1 Corinthians 2 Corinthians 2 Corinthians 2 Corinthians Galatians Galatians Galatians Ephesians Ephesians Ephesians Philippians Colossians Philippians Colossians Philippians Colossians 1 Thessalonians 1 Thessalonians 1 Thessalonians 2 Thessalonians 2 Thessalonians 2 Thessalonians ｾｯｲ＠ more detailed discussion of these verses, see B. Nongbri, "Two Neglected Textual Vanants in Philippians I," JBL 128 (2009): 803-8. 46 97 Brent Nongbri Pauline Letter Manuscripts [2 Thessalonians]47 Hebrews 1 Timothy 1 Timothy [Philemon] 1 Timothy 2 Timothy 2 Timothy 2 Timothy Titus Titus Titus Philemon Philemon Philemon Hebrews [Laodiceans] 48 We have already seen that there is evidence for additional collections with still more varied contents and orders (such as the indications that in an ancestor of Codex Vaticanus Hebrews was found between Galatians and Ephesians). Why do the manuscripts have these peculiar shapes? It is important to remember first of all that we do not possess copies of all the letters that Paul wrote. Some have not survived. In 1 Cor 5:9, Paul mentions that he had written a letter to Corinth before 1 Corinthians was written. This earlier letter is lost to us. Furthermore, some of the letters we do possess seem to be composed of fragments of different letters. The prime example of this phenomenon is the text we now call 2 Corinthians. Many scholars believe 2 Corinthians actually contains fragments of six or more separate letters. 49 This situation raises several questions related to the surviving manuscripts of Paul's letters: Who would have edited Paul's letters in this way? When and why would they have done so? Is such editing somehow related to the collecting of the other letters? It also highlights an issue I mentioned briefly at the outset, the problem of the "original text." If 2 Corinthians actually contains parts of several different letters, what does it mean to speak of the "original" text of 2 Corinthians? Does that mean the earliest version of the composite letter? Or the earliest version of one or more of the letters that make it up? These are difficult questions with which even experienced scholars struggle to come to terms. There are a number of different theories of how the letters of Paul came to be collected and copied into the type of continuous manuscripts that have survived antiquity. Some scholars suggest that Paul made an initial collection of some of his own letters and edited them himself. 50 We know of other ancient collections of letters that were initiated by the authors themselves. Perhaps the most famous example is the collection of Cicero. If Paul collected and edited his own letters for a broader audience, he would fit the pattern of 47 As I noted earlier, P46 breaks off toward the end of 1 Thessalonians. It appears that there only would have been space in the single quire of P 46 for 2 Thessalonians and Philemon, but this assessment is necessarily speculative. 48 On page 100 of this codex, the ending of the Letter to Philemon is followed by the title "The Letter to the Laodiceans begins ... "but the Greek then breaks off and another treatise fills the next several pages. 49 For a more detailed treatment of these issues, see the contribution on 2 Corinthians by Laurence Welborn in this volume. Some scholars have argued that the versions of Philippians and Romans preserved in the manuscripts are also composite letters assembled from portions other letters. 50 This theory has most recently been argued by David Trobisch, Paul's Letter Collection:• Tracing the Origins (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1994). 98 highly educated elite men of the Roman age who brought together their letters with the goal of publishing them for a wider audience. Yet, there is no direct evidence that such a process took place in Paul's case. That is to say, there is no statement in Paul's writings comparable to Cicero's comment to his friend Atticus: "There is no collection of my letters, but Tiro [Cicero's slave] has about seventy, and some can be got from you. Those I ought to see and correct, and then they may be published." 51 Other scholars have argued that Paul's letters were collected immediately after his death by an admirer. Another popular proposal is that there were multiple different local collections of Paul's letters in different cities that only later found their way into the more 52 comprehensive collections familiar to us. Given the limited evidence that we possess (recall that our earliest surviving manuscripts of Paul's letters are likely no earlier than the third century), it is not possible to rule out any of these suggestions. Nevertheless, it is still worthwhile to survey the data we do possess. One point seems reasonably clear: The letters attributed to Paul, although they were addressed to individual churches or multiple churches in a given civic area, circulated among multiple groups. This much is indicated by the instructions in Col 4: 16: "When this letter has been read among you all, see to it that it is read among the Laodiceans and that you all also read the letter from the Laodiceans," presumably referring to a letter written in Paul's name in the possession of the Laodiceans. At some point in the late first or early second century, it seems that individuals or groups began making collections of these letters. For instance, some time in the first half of the second century, Polycarp, the leader of a Christian community in Smyrna (a city in Asia Minor), wrote a letter to Christians in Philippi, in which he mentions "the letters" (plural) that the Philippians received from Paul. 53 This statement 51 Letters to Atticus 16.5. The text and translation are from the Loeb edition of E. 0. Winstedt, Cicero: Letters to Atticus (London: William Heinemann, 1961 [orig. 1918]). Even Cicero's statement here is not secure evidence that Cicero himself ever did actually carry out the collection and publication of his letters. See the discussion in M. Beard, "Ciceronian Correspondences: Making a Book Out of Letters," in T. P. Wiseman, ed., Classics in Progress: Essays on Ancient Greece and Rome (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 103-44. A more certain example would be the letters of Pliny the Younger, a Roman aristocrat active in the late first and early second century. The first book of his collected letters begins with a cover letter stating the origin of the collection: "You have often urged me to collect and publish any letters of mine which were composed with some care. I have now made a collection ... " For a Latin text and translation, see the Loeb edition of B. Radice, Pliny: Letters, Volume 1: Books 1-7 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1969). 52 For further details of these theories, see E. H. Lovering, Jr., "The Collection, Redaction, and Early Circulation of the Corpus Paulinum" (Ph.D. diss., Southern Methodist University, 1988). 53 See Polycarp's Letter to the Philippians 3.2. For a Greek text and English translation, see the edition of B. D. Ehrman in the Loeb Classical Library, The Apostolic Fathers (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003). Chapter 47 of 1 Clement, a letter written from followers of Jesus at Rome to the Corinthian congregation(s) at perhaps the end of the first century, ｾ･ｮｴｩｯｳ＠ a letter from Paul to the Corinthians (which overlaps at least partly with 1 Corinthians), mdicating that at least some of Paul's Corinthian correspondence was known at Rome (for text and translation, see Ehrman, The Apostolic Fathers). 2 Pet 3:15-16 also refers to "letters" of Paul that are "difficult to interpret," which would seem to indicate knowledge of a collection of Paul's 99 Brent Nongbri suggests the existence in the early second century of a collection of Paul's letters in Smyrna, though one that differed from the collections now known to us, which contain only a single letter from Paul to the Philippians. We do not have any direct evidence for the process by which Paul's letters were collected at this early stage, but we do have some evidence for the manner in which another collection of letters was produced by a network of early Christian communities. Ignatius was a Christian from Antioch who, like Paul, wrote a series of letters to assemblies in Asia Minor and Rome. Ignatius was died, likely active in the first quarter of the second century. After Ignatius ｨ｡ｾ＠ Polycarp, in his own letter to the Philippians that I have already mentioned, wrote the following: "Just as you requested, we are sending you the letters of Ignatius, which were sent to us by him, as well as other letters of his that we 54 possess. These are attached to this letter." Thus, at the instigation of someone in Philippi, Polycarp produced a collection of Ignatius' letters (although it seems that a smaller collection had already been gathered in Polycarp's home city, Smyrna). It is easy to imagine a similar kind of ｰｲｾ｣･ｳ＠ taking place to bring about a collection (or multiple different local collections) of Paul's letters. What seems most likely to me is the theory of a gradual accumulation of different collections. Copies of one or more of these local collections of letters may then have eventually found their way to a scholarly center like Alexandria where higher quality, more comprehensive copies were produced. 55 I want to emphasize, however, that this scenario is highly speculative. We are on somewhat firmer ground when it comes to the evidence from the middle of the second century. We have a reasonably good idea of the contents of at least one collection of Paul's letters known in the city of Rome at that time. Around the year 140, a Christian called Marcion of Sinope (Sinope is an area in what is now northern Turkey) came to Rome and promoted what has been called the first Christian canon, a closed group of texts that apparently consisted of a short version of Luke's Gospel, a composition by Marcion himself called "The Antitheses," and a collection of Paul's letters that appears to have included (apparently in this order) only Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Romans, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, Laodiceans (generally thought to be the letter usually called Ephesians), Colossians and Pauline Letter Manuscripts 56 Philemon, and Philippians. Some scholars believe that Marcion made this collection himself, since the placement of Galatians at the head of the collection seems to fit well with one ofMarcion's main concerns, an attack on what he regarded as the "old" law. Others, however, have argued that Marcion did not create this particular collection of Paul's letters but claim instead that such a collection of Paul's letters was already in existence, and it just 57 happened to suit Marcion's needs. Whatever the case may be, the order of Marcion's collection of Paul's letters helps to relativize the more common order and raises the question of how the placement of Romans at the beginning of the collection of Paul's letters in modem translations tends to affect our overall reading of Paul's letters. Marcion's collection of Paul's letters seems to have stimulated the production of other more inclusive collections of Paul's letters. The writings of Irenaeus, the bishop of Lyon in the latter part of the second century, contain citations from thirteen of the fourteen letters generally attributed to Paul in the Greek manuscripts (only reference to Philemon is missing), suggesting that he probably had access to a collection of fourteen letters. 58 5. Conclusion The manuscripts of Paul's letters, like the manuscripts of other parts of the New Testament, are crucial pieces of evidence not only for the study of the earliest followers of Jesus but also for the study of late antique and medieval Christianity. The manuscripts are both the means by which scholars try to establish an early text of Paul letters and fascinating artifacts in and of themselves. The many variations in the manuscripts attest to a complex history of transmission. The letters of Paul as we encounter them in modem Bibles are thus not really the starting point for interpretation. Rather, they are already the result of centuries of interpretations by the numerous modem translators of the Greek texts, the many modem editors of the ancient manuscripts, and the countless ancient scribes who copied the manuscripts. Becoming familiar with the manuscripts leads to a much richer understanding 56 epistles. This piece of evidence is, however, not very useful because the date .of 2. Peter is notoriously hard to establish. The first explicit evidence for its existence is not until Ongen Ｈｾ｡ｴ･＠ second or early third century), who seems to have regarded 2 Peter as a forgery. ｓ･ｾ＠ ｅｵｳｾ｢ｭＬ＠ Hist. eccl. 6.25.8 (a text and translation of the passage is available in the Loeb Classical Library edition, Eusebius: The Ecclesiastical History [London: Heinemann, 1932]). 54 . . See Polycarp's Letter to the Philippians 13.2. 55 The thesis that Paul's letters were edited at Alexandria is most closely associated with G. Zuntz, The Text of the Epistles: A Disquisition upon the Corpus Paulinum (London: ｏｾｦｯｲ､＠ University Press, 1953). Zuntz assumed that there was a Christian scriptorium in ａｬｾｸ｡ｮ､ｲ｟ｩ＠ by the end of the second century, but this thesis has been strongly challenged by Hames-Eitzen, Guardians of Letters, 77-104. 100 For information about Marcion, we must rely on the writings of other later Christians who were quite hostile to him and his followers. For details about Marcion's collection of Paul's letters, we rely primarily upon works written against Marcion by Tertullian, a Christian who wrote in north Africa in the late second and early third centuries, and Epiphanius, a Christian leader in Cyprus in the fourth century. For a Latin text and English translation of Tertullian's treatise Against Marcion, see Ernest Evans, Tertullian: Adversus Marcionem (2 vols.; Oxford: Clarendon, 1927). For Epiphanius, see the Greek text of Karl Holl, revised by Jiirgen Dummer, Epiphanius II: Panarion (haereses 34-46) (2nd ed.; Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1980) and the English translation by Frank Williams, The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis: Book I (Sects 146) (2nd rev. ed.; Leiden: Brill, 2009). 57 See John J. Clabeaux, A Lost Edition of the Letters of Paul: A Reassessment of the Text of the fsauline Corpus Attested by Marcion (Washington: Catholic Biblical Association, 1989). See Bruce M. Metzger, The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origin, Development, and Significance (Oxford: Clarendon, 1987), 154. 101 Brent Nongbri of the letters attributed to the apostle Paul and their legacy among early Christian readers. Recommended Reading Bagnall, Roger S. Early Christian Books in Egypt. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009. Carlson, Stephen C. "The Text of Galatians and its History." Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 2012. Online: http://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/handle/10161/5597. Gamble, Harry Y. Books and Readers in the Early Church: A History of Early Christian Texts. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995. Jongkind, Dirk. "The Text of the Pauline Corpus." Pages 216-31 in The Blackwell Companion to Paul. Edited by Stephen Westerholm. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 201 I. Parker, D. C. An Introduction to the New Testament Manuscripts and their Texts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. Pages 246-82. Pickering, S. R. "The Dating of the Chester Beatty-Michigan Codex of the Pauline Epistles (P 46)." in Ancient History in a Modern University, Volume 2: Early Christianity, Late Antiquity, and Beyond. Edited by T. W. Hillard et al. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998. Royse, James R. "The Early Text of Paul (and Hebrews)." Pages 175-203 in The Early Text of the New Testament. Edited by Charles E. Hill and Michael J. Kruger. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Royse, James R. Scribal Habits in Early Greek New Testament Papyri. New Testament Tools, Studies, and Documents 36. Leiden: Brill, 2008. Pages 199-358. Zuntz, Gunther. The Text of the Epistles: A Disquisition upon the Corpus Paulinum. London: Oxford University Press, 1953. * 5. Paul McKechnie This chapter addresses a topic which has been of enhanced scholarly interest since Krister Stendahl's Paul among Jews and Gentiles (1976) and E. P. Sanders' Paul and Palestinian Judaism (1977). 1 Interest is not diminishing. Just the reverse: 2009 saw the publication of Pamela Eisenbaum' s Paul was not a Christian and Magnus Zetterholm's Approaches to Paul,2 along with Richard I. Pervo's Acts: a Commentary,3 while 2010 brought Mark D. Given's Paul Unbound and David J. Rudolph's article on Paul's "rule in all 4 the churches." In 2011, John M. G. Barclay's Pauline Churches and Diaspora Jews, a collection of Barclay's papers, continued the task of putting "Pauline believers and Diaspora Jews/Judaeans into a comparative framework. " 5 Faced with such an embarras de richesses, this chapter will follow a narrow path, seeking not to cover subject matter belonging to other chapters in this book-particularly not those on Paul's life, Paul's theology, or the Letter to the Romans. Two areas of concern will be dealt with: first, the road to Damascus: where Paul came from, and where he went after the incident that happened on it; and second, how Paul interacted with Jews, from when Barnabas brought him to Antioch, until the time when he was in Rome awaiting trial before Caesar. The chapter as a whole is not a theological discussion, which is to say that it is not about Paul and Judaism, but an exploration based (for the most part) on biblical narrative: "Paul among the Jews," therefore, in the sense of what Paul did, and what happened to himwith some reference to why. *I wish to thank my colleagues Drs. Cavan Concannon, Bernard Doherty, and Chris Forbes, and an anonymous referee, for valuable help with this chapter. They should not be assumed to agree with anything said here. 1 K. Stendahl, Paul among Jews and Gentiles (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1976); E. P. Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison ofPatterns of Religion (London: SCM, 1977). 2 P. Eisenbaum, Paul Was Not a Christian: The Original Message of a Misunderstood Apostle (New York: HarperOne, 2009); M. Zetterholm, Approaches to Paul: A Student's Guide to Recent Scholarship (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2009). 3 R. I. Pervo, Acts: A Commentary (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2009). 4 M. D. Given, ed., Paul Unbound: Other Perspectives on the Apostle (Peabody: Hendrickson, 2010); D. J. Rudolph, "Paul's 'Rule in All the Churches' (1 Cor 7:17-24) and Torah-Defined Ecclesiological Variegation," Studies in Christian-Jewish Relations 5 (2010): 1-23. 5 J.M. G. Barclay, Pauline Churches and Diaspora Jews (Tiibingen: Mohr [Siebeck], 2011), 9. 103