Buddhist Stupas in Ancient Shakya Territory

Buddhist Stupas in Ancient Shakya Territory - Prof. Gitu Giri (Ph.D.) Advocate - Abstract Stupa means heaped up or heaped of an alms bowl. Stupa is a symbol of supremacy and stability of an order. It contains the relics of Buddha and represented various events of Buddha, Bodhisattva, Panchadyani Buddha and other followers of Buddha. These are categorized into five groups- Saririka, Paribhogika, Uddesika, Dhammika and Votive. It became religious component to those who wanted some concrete form to worship before the image. PreMauryan and Mauryan stupas also reflect the impact of the Sunga and Kushana periods in Nepal. Earlier stupas were built on a low hemispherical dome rose on a cylindrical base and were provided with harmika and chhatravali. The exterior components of the solid brick work was smoothened with lime, clay or concrete plaster. The medhi was filled-up with mud or other appropriate packing materials to provide additional strength to bear the weight of hemisphere. Stupas of later period are well-decorated and its various components i.e. chhatravali, amalaka, kalasa and vayupuraka were added to the superstructure. From the Kushana period onwards the drum (medhi) grew in height as compared to its diameter and turned into a tall cylinder dominating the dome. During the Gupta period four images of Buddha were kept at four cardinal points of the stupas. In the Gandhara period, the drum was built in diminishing terraces and the facade was elaborately embellished. The low hemisphere of the earliest stupas was changed into a tall figure with ornamental tower on the platform, drum and chhatravali. The shape and size of the stupas were so radically changed that it became difficult to recognize the original form and its importance without the knowledge of the intermediate stages. The changing modes as well as the stages in its development could not be studied without the support of the stone and metal miniatures, rock-cut specimens due to the absence of the preserved complete superstructure. Keywords : Saririka, Paribhogika, Uddesika, Dhammika, Dhamnihawa, Votive, chhatravali, amalaka, kalasa and vayupuraka, group of sixteen stupas, six stupas, Sakya of Kapilavastu, Koliya of Ramagrama-Devadaha, Gotihawa, Lumbinī, Tilaurakot, Rehara, Lohasaudiya, Samaimai, Kudan, Pipari, Lumbini 1 Introduction Stupa refers to a Buddhist monument, generally of a pyramidal or dome like form, erected over the sacred relics of the great Buddha. Its meaning is defined in various ways. In Hindi it denotes thopa, to cover, heap, collect, or thupam up meaning to cause to prop or be propped 1. In Pali thuipikata means heaped up or heaped of an alms bowl 2. It commemorate essential moments of the life and famous miracles of Lord Buddha. It is an ancient architectural element in the Buddhist world. Originally, it contained the relics of Buddha, His followers and represented Pariniravana. It became religious component to those who wanted some concrete form to worship before the image. The practice of erecting stupas over corporal relics is of preBuddhist tradition 3. Earlier stupas or chaitays, either in the shape of a tumulus or made of perishable materials, must have been in existence before Ashoka 4. It is clear from the declaration and instructions given to Ananda by his master, Lord Buddha, that his bones and other remains were to be kept under a dome after cremation. It is thus clear that stupas were popular in the Buddhist religion and society right at the time of the death of Lord Buddha. In the Mahaparinirvana Sutta of Dighanikaya mentions that after the death of Gautam Buddha in Kusinagar, the relics were divided into eight portions and allotted to Ajatasattu, king of Magadha, Lichchhavis of Visali, Sakyas of Kapilavastu, Bulis of Allakapa, Kolias of Ramagrama, Brahman of Vethadipa, Mallas of Pava, and Mallas of Kusinagar. At last Drona, the Brahman who divided the relic, received the vessel of cremated body and the Moriyas of Pipphalivana, who arrived after the division had been made and claimed a share of the relics, received the ashes of the funeral pyre 5. The Buddhists regarded this particular form of structure as an object of supreme veneration. It was changed from simple mound of earth into ostentatious structure of architectural importance later on and became the chief emblem of the Buddhist faith 6. The Buddhist stupas are categorized into five groups, viz. (a) Saririka, those erected over the corporal relics of Buddha, his disciples, Buddhist teachers and saints (b) Paribhogika, erected over the objects used by Buddha, like robe, begging-bowl, cloths etc. (c) Uddesika, commemorative of the Buddha's life, (d) Dharmika, (e) Votive, those which were small in size and mostly erected by the pilgrims when they visited the sacred places. N.R.Banerjee has categorized them into three groups and excluded votive stupas 7. He did not refer small excavated stupas of Lumbini and Kapilavastu. Main Features Main components of the stupas have been changing according to the interest of the builders and situation from the ancient to modern period. In the beginning, the stupa used to be a low hemispherical dome (anda), raised on a basal cylinder (medhi). Circumambulatory path was 2 provided around the anda and on the top of the anda, a harmika was made enclosing the chhatra or a series of chhatras. Later on lower circumambulating path of the stupa was constructed and the railing was made of wood, stone or brick adjoining the elaborate entrances. The exterior component of the solidly-constructed stupa was smoothened with lime, clay or concrete plaster. Later the medhi was filled-up with appropriate packing materials to provide additional strength to the stupa to bear the weight of its huge hemispherical top 8. Due to the influences of Hindu temple architecture various components of the stupa were decorated and other additional parts were also added to it. Unfortunately, the main (original) shape, size and features of the ancient stupas are not available because of later reconstructions from time to time. In the beginning earthen funeral mounds were made of layers of mud which used to be separated from one another by thinner layers of kankar and ashy clay. The earliest definitely dated stupas were made by Mauryan Emperor Ashoka. They are provided with hemispherical dome of brick- work with medhi as its base. It is surmounted by a dome or umbrellas with square railing. The top of the drum was also utilized as an elevated processional path during this period. Ashokan stupas are located at the four corner of Patan in Kathmandu valley. These are simple and non-decorated stupas in the valley. Brick stupas of Ashoka with veneer of hammer-dressed stone, was converted in the second century BCE into an almost hemispherical dome flattened near the top, crowned by three superimposed umbrellas, yasthi, harmika and vedika. Medhi, sopana and circumambulation path were also added as the elements of the stupas. The earliest stupas were built solid. Remains of these stupas are obtained in Lumbini and Kapilavastu. But in later times, when ostentatious stupas of great height came to be erected by filling the core used to be filled with earth or rubble in order to economize the building materials, i.e. brick or stone as the case may be. During this period box-chambers built by network of walls were also filled with earth 9 . From the Kushana period onwards the drum (medhi) grew in height as compared to its diameter and turned into a tall cylinder dominating the dome. Projected niches were made, as in temples, to install the images of Buddha or other divinities of the Buddhist pantheon. During the Gupta period four images of Buddha were kept at four cardinal points of the stupas. In the Gandhara period, the drum was built in diminishing terraces and the facade was elaborately embellished. The low hemisphere of the earliest stupas was changed into a tall figure with ornamental tower on the platform, drum and chhatravali. The shape and size of the stupas were so radically changed that it became difficult to recognize the original form and its importance without the knowledge of the intermediate stages. The changing modes as well as the stages in 3 its development could not be studied without the support of the stone and metal miniatures, rock-cut specimens due to the absence of the preserved complete superstructure. According to the Buddhist literature, the accounts of the Chinese pilgrims and excavated reports, many stupas have been erected from the Buddhist period in Ramagrama, Gotihawa, Dhamnihawa, Lumbinī, Tilaurakot, Rehara, Lohasaudiya, Samaimai, Kudan, Pipari etc sites in ancient Kapilavastu region. In course of excavation available stupas in Nepal are catagorised on the basis of their chronological order from pre-Mauryan to the medieval or Khasia structures 10. All the structures cannot be clearly classified into various periods in chronological order due to reconstruction and repair from time to time. Each stupa shows the impact of many periods. Pre-Mauryan Stupa Only four stupas clearly belong to the pre-Mauryan period are obtained in Kapilavastu. Seventeen other stupas are also said to have belonged to this period. However, it is not clear. In the beginning the funeral pyre used to be covered and above it a plain mound was raised to be commemorated by the descendants. The Sakya of Kapilavastu and the Koliyas of Ramagrama got two parts of the corporal relic of Gautam Buddha in the process of its distribution on which stupas were built according to the advice given to Ananda by Buddha. Some scholars have tried to identify Deurawa, about 3 km south of the Parasi bazar, district headquarter of Nawal parasi, with the ancient Ramagrama 11. Hoey discovered the site firstly during his tour of the region in 1898 12. However, he did identify it with ancient Ramagrama. In 1964 S.B. Deo had noted that this stupa was more than 9.1437 m in height and nearly 21.3353 m in diameter. He noted several courses of well-baked bricks on this spot 13. He was of the opinion the site should immediately be excavated. During the period of 1997 to 2005, excavation was conducted under the joint aegis of the Department of Archaeology and Bradford University of the United Kingdom 14. In course of exploration and excavation, a monastic complex was exposed. It was only four meters away from the stupa in north-west direction. At Gotihawa, nearly 9 km southwest of Taulihawa, another brick stupa is in existence which was, probably, constructed on the relics of Krakuchchhanda Buddha or Sakyamuni Buddha. It had also been repaired in several periods, as mentioned in the Chinese accounts 15. As mentioned by Beal, "to the south of the city', not far, there is stupa; this is the place where, having arrived at complete enlightenment, he met his father" 16. A stone pillar, surmounted by lion on the capital, is also noted. Major Waddell and Führer had dug a deep trench from the centre towards the circumference in the direction of the pillar. In the centre, the hole was 1 m.98 cm. in diameter and 2 m 2 cm in depth. Brick work was terminated at 2.28 m from the top. A large number of animal bones, teeth and charcoal were recovered in the 53cm. deep hole. About 15 cm wide hole in the centre of the mound was dug, most probably, to fix a wooden pole in it in order to measure the 4 circumference of the stupa in course of its construction. However, Waddell did not publish its of archaeological findings of the site. It was mentioned by P.C. Mukherji in his description of the site. In 1993-94 the team of IsMEO along with Department of Archaeology and Lumbini Development Trust had reopened the trench excavated by Waddell and the drawings of the site was prepared. According to the excavators, this stupa is larger than the one drawn by Mukherji in his report. In course of excavation two building periods were noticed on which stands the earlier stupa of 3rd century BCE made of tightly connected brick structure. The size of the second mound is 21.5 m. John Irwin considered this piece of information as an evidence of the fact that the stupa of Gotihawa was not a Buddhist monument. It may be a unlikely hypothesis 17 . A few charcoal samples of the stupa is dated back to about 800 BCE at Gotihawa. Its radiocarbon date has been given method by the Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory Miami 18. However, the team did not complete the excavation work of the stupa until 2000. The mound of the stupa as well as the complex has revealed evidences which indicate that the ancient stupa was built of mud before 3rd century BCE. It seems that the earthern mound might have been covered with bricks and a circumambulatory path of the brick-bats was constructed. During the Lichchhvi period human rehabitation might have started on it as the artifacts found here clearly attest. The shaft in the centre of the stupa indicates the position of the wooden post. At the bottom of the stupa, the stump of a wooden pillar was located in situn when the excavation of the site was completed. Divyavadana mentions the setting up of a pillar (yupa) in the interior of the dome 19. The art remains of the excavated stupa reveal that it was older than the stupa of Sakyamuni Buddha which was rebuilt by Emperor Ashoka who erected there a stone pillar surmounted by a lion. Nigalisagar pillar inscription of Ashoka mentions the details of the relic stupa of Kanakamuni, an earlier Manushi Buddha than Sakyamuni Buddha. The word 'thube' is mentioned there and it is said that it was repaired and enlarged double of the original size by Ashoka during his pilgimage. This town is not yet clearly identified. However, it has been suggested by some archaeologists that it could be identified with Sisahniya-Pandey, Nigalisagar and Araurakot area 20. According to A.Fuhrer the stupa of Kanakamuni built at Nigalisagar itself, was in the shape of a hemispherical dome, about 30.78 m. in diameter and 9.14.m. in height and built on a square drum of 33.222 m. in diameter. Perhaps, about 6.09 m. deep the dome was constructed of solid brick work filled up with earth-packing. The drum of the monument was 1 m. 82.8 cm. in the height and made of kiln-burnt bricks, measuring of 40.6 x 27.8 x 7.5cm. in size . It had 2.43 m.wide procession-path around the exterior of the dome. It had a stone railing recessed with gates at cardinal points. It was an important stupa of Kapilavastu as the corporal relics of Kanakamuni was kept in it. Smith, Mukherji and Pandey have claimed that Sisahaniya Pandey 5 represented the township of Kanakamuni, refuting the version of Fuhrer. Stupas erected before Mauryan period, were enlarged and repaired second time in the fourteenth year of the coronation of Ashoka. However, according to Fuhrer, the stupa was enlarged finally during the Sunga-Kushan period 21. Fuhrer had excavated the mounds of Sagrahawā, about 10 km. north-east of Taulihawa. However, he has not mentioned any detail in his report. Mukherji has, of course, incorporated the details in his report with the help of Fuhrer's draftman, Bhairava Buksh. It gives interesting information about the site. Fuhrer identified the site as the place of the massacre of the Sakyas as he found there seventeen square brick structures demolished down to their very foundations. These stupas contained the ashes of the Sakya heroes whose names are found in pre-Ashokan characters on the caskets, lids and bricks of the so-called relic-chambers. Both Smith and Mukherji were in favour of the identification of the site with the place of massacre of the Sakyas. Among the recorded structural remains of Mukherji there seventeen stupas are very remarkable from the architectural point of view. The relic monuments are 1.44 m. to 5.79 m. in length and the size of kiln burnt bricks used in their construction are 40.62 x 27.92 x 7.61 cm. in size. In the center of the brick blossomed lotus was carved. Figures of arrows, bows, axes, trident, hatchets, daggers, nooses, ankusas etc. were also carved on the bricks 22 . The size and shapes of the seventeen stupas were recorded by the excavator. In the fifth century BCE the Sakyas were attacked by the warriors of Vidudabha of Kosala in which many Sakyas were massacred. Stupas were erected on that spot to commemorate them. It is indicated by the carving of various weapons on the bricks. The site is identified with Sagrahwā. However, not all the scholars agreed with this identification. The followers of Buddha might have built many stupas in Lumbini in the fifth century BCE 23. Pre-Mauryan stupas were enlarged by Ashoka during his visit of the place in the third century BCE. This stupa was buried under the plinth of the brick temple, which was excavated under the aegis of the Lumbini Development Trust and Japan Buddhist Federation during 1992-97. The earliest structure of the site had been exposed to the north-west corner of Mayadevi temple. The texture of the brick used to build a rectangular room was very rough as it contained much husk and straw. These rough bricks could probably be dated tentatively in the pre-Mauryan period. Thus, it is clear that building activities had already been started in Lumbinī area during the lifetime of Lord Buddha himself 24. 6 Mauryan, Sunga and Kushana Period Pre-Mauryan stupas were repaired and rebuilt during the Mauryan period features and tradition of which are clearly seen in the structures available in course of excavation. Thirty-four stupas of Lumbinī and two stupas of Dhamnihawa are directly associated with this period. The stupas during this period were plain with two steppings at the basement. These monuments seem to have been built with kiln- burnt bricks and their interior chambers being filled-up with lumps of clay. Above it was built low hemispheres on squarish drums, including harmikas on the top. However, all these parts of the stupa are not in existence today. The remaining portions of the excavated-stupas throw light on the cultural style of the Buddhist followers of the region, especially of Lumbinī. About 1.52 m. north of the Mayadevi temple a square based stupa of Mauryan period was discovered. The top portion of the stupa was cut to the depth of 91.4 x 80.9 cm. probably during the excavations in 1933-39. On the foundation of the stupa there was a cylindrical gold casket with some charred human bones and other ritual offerings. The lid of the vessel was broken into pieces, most probably in the course of excavations conducted between 1933-39 and the remains in it were found scattered over the ground 25. About 366 m. to the north of Tilaurakot, at Dhamnihawa, two stupas were discovered by the team of the Department of Archaeology 26. The size of the big stupa is 15.84 m.in diameter and 2.28m. in height . It was built in four phases by using the bricks measuring 43.16 x 15.23 cm. in size. Bricks were used on the outer face. In the first phase, belonging probably to the fourth century BC, it was associated with N.B.P. and grey ware pieces. In the second phase one course of brick was added around the outer face of the stupa encasing the original face, belonging probably to the third century BCE. In the fourth phase, the shape of the stupa was changed. Four stepped fashioned niches were made in all the four directions. In this phase two punch marked coins, three pieces of early cast coins and a terracotta figurine of a mother with a child belonging to the Sunga period were found 27. After cutting in the centre of the stupa neither casket nor relic remains were found .1.37 m. below the brick-layers there was mud deposition on which a few potsherds of P.G and N.B.P. wares were discovered. The size of the bricks of the first phase was 41 x 25 x 8 cm. In the second phase and the Sunga period bricks were 42 x 32 and 41 x 25 cm. in size respectively. About 4.57 m. to the north of the former big stupa, a small stupa measuring 7.924 m. in diameter was built in only one phase with wedged shaped bricks. Only eight courses of bricks are there. It may have been a votive stupa constructed by the devotees between the third and the fourth phase of the big stupa. Lumbini, being the birth place of Gautam Buddha, may have contained many stupas in past in the pre-Mauyan period. However, almost all the stupas found here seem to have been 7 constructed during the Maunyan period. Their original shape and size were changing from time to time due to the repair work and their enlargement. Various phases of the monuments have been described when discovered in archaeological excavations 28. Mauryan stupas of the region are plain with their basements having two steppings 29. These seem to have been built with kiln-burnt bricks. The interior portion of these stupas was filled up with clay-lumps. They carry low hemispheres on their squarish drums including harmikas on the top. In course of excavation, Mukherji had postulated that the foundation of the original temple of Mayadevi is embedded in the mound. This could be proved only after a scientific excavation of this site. During the archaeological excavations of the Joint Team of Department of Archaeology, Lumbini Development Trust and Japanese Buddhist Federation, foundation of the present temple was exposed. The foundation of Mayadevi temple is based upon fifteen square chambers in the grid of five rows from east to west and three columns from south to north. Two kinds of N.B.P. (Black and Brown), typical red ware, punch-marked coins and copper coins were recovered in the chambers belonging to Mauryan period. A piece of natural rock (a hard conglomerate) having dimensions of 70 cm x 40 cm x10 cm. with its axis running in south to north direction was found in the central chamber. It has been interpreted that Ashoka had built a square Bodhi mandal chaitya consisting of nine box chambers with the stone marking the 'birth spot' in the first central chamber. In the second phase six more chambers were added to make a total of it 15 within the centre of a concentric square huge Bodhi stupa at the spot30. In third century BCE, the Mauryan emperor Ashoka had opened the seven original stupas and redistributed relics of Lord Buddha into 84,000 parts on which equal number of stupas were built all over the Jambudipa. During this period he might have built the brick stupa and erected the monolithic stone pillar at Lumbini. During the excavation of the site Mukherji had exposed many stupas in the periphery of the Ashokan monolithic stone pillar in Lumbini. 15.24m. south-west of the pillar a mound of rubbles of brick-walls was discovered on its southern and western slopes. It was thought to be the cross-walls of a stupa 31. 4.87 m. north of the Mayadevi temple one another stupa was discovered. It was already exposed by a saint. To the west of the hermitage a third stupa of kiln- burnt bricks, square in plan, was also exposed by him. To the south-west of the temple he exposed the remains of the next stupa, which was defaced on the north-west side. It was square in plan with rectangular projections on all its sides, rising in regular gradations of courses in rather plain mouldings. The lower portion of the round form stupa represented some moulding remains. To the west of the pillar two votive stupas were exposed during the archaeological excavations of Rijal. To the north of Mayadevi temple remains of a group of sixteen stupas were found.The 8 original structure of these stupas was lost due to their reconstruction from time to time. Besides these stupas, there are five other stupas in a row. One of them, the first stupa from the east, is ruined down to the core. Its original structure was reconstructed. The second stupa, belonging to the Mauryan period, was disintegrated by the tropical climate of the Terai region. Its top was made watertight in course of its repair. The third was ascribable to the phase of the second stupa. It was erected in round shape by adding clay and brick-bats all around. Remaining other two stupas are also ruined upto the core. They were repaired in their original form. The top course of the fifth stupa was completely lost, but it was reconstructed with the brick-bats of the Mauryan period 32. In course of excavation, Mishra had discovered some very important stupas among the ninteen big and small stupas in the complex of Mayadevi temple in Lumbini. They belong to different periods. They were of various size and shapes 33. One of it is 10.66 m. to the north of Mayadevi temple, and the other, is inside a big square stupa. Two rectangular stupas of the Mauryan period were also discovered. They were plain and with two steppings in the basement. To the south-east of Mayadevi temple a big square stupa, belonging probably to the Ashokan period (3rd century BCE), was exposed during excavations in 1984 and 1985. It represented various periods of repair from time to time, and had contained casket and other relics in it. At a gap of 60.9 cm. from the original structure a line of 63.47cm thick wall was added encasing the earlier stupa providing a new outer elevation to the stupa. At a gap of 1 m. 52.3 cm. from the interior face of the stupas during second century BCE, a processional path had been made by filling the gap between the structure with earth and a 63.4 cm. thick wall around it. It was reconstructed on the top and 1.21 m wall was added all around the square basement during the Kushan and Gupta periods respectively. On the top of the stupa, nine votive stupas survived in the medieval period. Thus, it is clear that the shape and size of the original stupa was changed from time to time. As noted by Fa-Hien, Hiuen-Tsiang and mentioned in the Buddhacarita of Asoghosa and other early texts, there were many stupas, which were built to mark the places associated with Buddha before his Mahabhiniskramana. Some of these stupas were identified with the excavated stupas of Kapilavastu area by Mukherji. According to him, to the north-east of the vihāra was an Asita stupa. In course of excavation he has traced the foundations of two edifices, one sixteen-sided and the other cruciform in plan. Sixteen-sided structure, of which every alternate side was in recess, was of solid brick construction in its interior portion. Hastigarta stupa was built in front of the southern gate of the palace. It is identified with an elevated mound of Sandawa which was not excavated. The stupa of Kanthaka is also 9 mentioned in Latitavistara. It was identified with the mound to the east of the eastern gate complex of Tilaurakot, which was once excavated by Waddell. Tournament and Athletic stupas are identified with the mounds of Bari Taulihawa and Derawa, which are not yet excavated. The ploughing stupa is indicated in the area of Jhahadi village, to the north-east of fortified complex of Tilaurakot. The Nigrodharam and the Kasaya stupas were identified with the mounds of Lori Kudan. However, Mitra has pointed out that these structures are considered as the temple of Śiva. Conclusion All the above-mentioned evidences reveal that the tradition of stupa was developed from PreMauryan period to the medieval period in Nepal, especially in Kathmandu valley, Kapilavastu, Tilaurakot and Lumbini complexes. However, their main features are not clear due to the repair and reconstruction of these monuments from time to time. Pre-Mauryan and Mauryan stupas also reflect the impact of the Sunga and Kushana periods in the region. The shape of the stupa is in the form of a hemispherical dome of solid brick work which is filled with earth-packing. Procession-path is also constructed round the exterior of the drum with railings. Small votive stupas were also built in Lumbinī by the pilgrims. Earlier stupas were built on a low hemispherical dome rose on a cylindrical base and were provided with harmika and chhatravali. The exterior components of the solid brick work was smoothened with lime, clay or concrete plaster. The medhi was filled-up with mud or other appropriate packing materials to provide additional strength to bear the weight of hemisphere. However, all the ancient stupas were disturbed. Stupas of later period are well-decorated and its various components i.e. chhatravali, amalaka, Kalasa and vayupuraka were added to the superstructure. A comprehensive knowledge of these can be obtained only after an extensive archaeological excavation in future. References 1. R.L. 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R.N.Pandey, "Archaeological Remains of Lumbinī: The Birth- place of Lord Buddha"Contribution to the Nepālese Studies; (Kathmandu: Tribhuvan University, CNAS, August 1985, vol.12, No.3), p.54. 24. B.K.Rijal "Archaeological Activities in Lumbinī, 1976-77" Ancient Nepāl; No.3039,(Janu.1975-April 1977), English section, p.32. 25. Ibid. 26. T.N. Mishra, "Tilaurākoţ Excavations, (2023-2029 V.S)", Ancient Nepāl; Nos.41-42, (Bhadra-Marga, 2034 V.S.), pp.17-19. 27. Krishna Dev, Buddhist Art of India and Nepāl, (Varanasi: Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, 1987), p.13. 28. T.N. Mishra, "The Archaeological Activities in Lumbinī"Ancient Nepāl,No.139 (June,1996), p.42. 29. Ibid. 30. B.K.Rijal, "A Great Descovery at Māyādevī Temple in Lumbinī" Lumbinī, (Lumbinī: International Buddhist Society, 1997), No.3, p .5. 31. Mukherji, op.cit., p.35. 32. B.K. Rijal, Archaeological Remains of Kapilvastu, Lumbinī and Devadaha; (Kathmandu: Educational Enterprises Pvt. Ltd., 1979), pp. 17-19. 33. Mishra, op.cit.(n.28), p.42. END 12