Intrapersonal Communication As a Lifelong Learning Skill in Engineering Education

Derleme / Literature Review www.yuksekogretim.org Intrapersonal Communication As a Lifelong Learning Skill in Engineering Education Mühendislik e¤itiminde yaflam boyu ö¤renme becerisi olarak içsel iletiflim Tanju Deveci1, Roger Nunn2 Department of English, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, Abu Dhabi, the UAE 1 Department of Writing Studies, The American University of Sharjah, Sharjah, the UAE 2 Özet Abstract Mühendislerin yaln›zca teknik becerilerle yetinebilece¤ine iliflkin tart›flmalar A discussion as to whether technical skills per se are enough for engineers art›k geçerlili¤ini yitirmifl bulunmaktad›r. Gerek mesleklerinde gerekse ya- may no longer be relevant. In order to succeed as lifelong learners, they also flam boyu ö¤renme konusunda baflar›l› olabilmek için bir tak›m sosyal bece- need a variety of soft-skills. Despite this, engineering curricula in general rilere de sahip olmalar› gerekmektedir. Ancak mühendislik e¤itimi veren ku- seem to pay relatively little attention to cultivating communication skills in rumlardaki müfredatlarda, ö¤rencilerin iletiflim becerilerini gelifltirmelerine students. One of the most essential of these is intrapersonal communication. yard›mc› olacak türden ders içerik ve uygulamalar› yeterince yayg›n de¤ildir. In this non-research, discussion paper, we discuss the meaning and impor- Bu becerilerin en önemlilerinden bir tanesi, kiflinin kendisiyle (içsel) iletiflimi- tance of intrapersonal communication in relation to ‘lifelong learning’: dir. Görüfl türünde haz›rlanm›fl bulunan bu makalede içsel iletiflimin anlam› awareness of the importance of intrapersonal communication helps us ve yaflam boyu ö¤renmeye iliflkin önemi tart›fl›lmaktad›r. Bu iletiflim türünün understand ourselves as individuals and make informed, ethical and society- önemine dair fark›ndal›k, kendimizi tan›mam›za, bilinçli, etik ve topluma fay- friendly judgments. Considering the overall goal of lifelong learning to make dal› kararlar vermemize yard›mc› olacakt›r. Yaflam boyu ö¤renmenin, birey- useful contributions to individual development and society, we will argue lerin ve toplumun geliflmesine iliflkin hedefini göz önünde bulundurarak mü- that improving intrapersonal communication is essential for engineers, who hendislerin mesleklerinde yaflam boyu ö¤renme tutumu gelifltirmeleri gerek- need to adopt a lifelong learning approach to their profession. Intrapersonal ti¤ini savunaca¤›z. Bunun için ise içsel iletiflim becerilerinin gelifltirilmesi ge- communication is also essential for effective interpersonal communication. rekti¤inin alt›n› çizece¤iz. Ayr›ca içsel iletiflimin, kifliler aras› iletiflimin etkin- This paper will briefly describe some intrapersonal activities engineers need li¤i aç›s›ndan önemini tart›flaca¤›z. Bu amaçlar ›fl›¤›nda mühendislerin ger- to engage in, and the intrapersonal skills that they need to acquire with illus- çeklefltirmeleri gereken içsel iletiflim becerilerini ve aktivitelerini betimleye- trative extracts from students’ writing. We will also discuss how reflective ce¤iz. Yap›land›rmac› ö¤renme kapsam›nda, yans›mac› düflünme, imgeleme writing, visualization, and progress reports can support intrapersonal com- ve geliflim raporu gibi e¤itim uygulamalar›n›n ö¤rencilerin içsel iletiflim be- munication and experiential learning within a constructivist approach to cerilerine ve dolay›s›yla yaflam boyu ö¤renmeye katk›lar›n› tart›flaca¤›z. learning, allowing students to assume lifelong learning responsibilities. Anahtar sözcükler: Bireyler aras› iletiflim, içsel iletiflim, mühendislik e¤i- Keywords: Intrapersonal communication, engineering education, reflective timi, sosyal beceriler, yans›mac› yazma, yaflam boyu ö¤renme. writing, lifelong learning, soft-skills. T he engineering discipline is comprised of a range of ating large structures (such as roads and bridges) or new products specialized fields making it difficult to define. or systems by using scientific methods.” Taken together, these However, the roots of the word ‘engineering’ offer definitions suggest that the engineering discipline aims at some insights. It derives from the Latin words ‘ingenium’ and inventing, designing and improving tools, materials, ‘ingeniare’. The former means ‘cleverness’ while the latter machines, etc. in clever and scientific ways with the overall means ‘to contrive, devise.’ The term is defined in the aim of enhancing our lives. Neil Armstrong (cited in Landis, Merriam-Webster dictionary as “the work of designing and cre- 2013, p. 37) agrees with this sentiment: “Engineering turns … Yüksekö¤retim Dergisi 2018;8(1):68–77. © 2018 Deomed ‹letiflim / Correspondence: Gelifl tarihi / Received: Kas›m / November 10, 2016; Kabul tarihi / Accepted: Mart / March 19, 2017 Assistant Professor Tanju Deveci Bu makalenin at›f künyesi / Please cite this article as: Deveci, T., & Nunn, R. (2018). Dept. of English, Khalifa University Intrapersonal communication as a lifelong learning skill in engineering education. of Science and Technology, Sas Al Yüksekö¤retim Dergisi, 8(1), 68–77. doi:10.2399/yod.17.009 Nakhl Campus (the Petroleum Institute), Abu Dhabi, the UAE e-mail: [email protected] Çevrimiçi eriflim / Online available at: www.yuksekogretim.org • doi:10.2399/yod.17.009 • Karekod / QR code: Intrapersonal Communication As a Lifelong Learning Skill in Engineering Education explanations and understandings into new or improved machines, address the skills we identify here appear to be embedded in technologies, and processes – to bring reality to ideas and to provide the third criterion which highlights solutions to societal needs.” The idea of serving society and an ability to identify, formulate, and solve engineering enhancing our lives is also intrinsic to the definition adopted problems by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology an understanding of professional and ethical responsibili- (ABET) (2014): ty “Engineering is the profession in which a knowledge of the an ability to communicate effectively mathematical and natural sciences gained by study, experience, and the broad education necessary to understand the impact practice is applied with judgment to develop ways to utilize eco- of engineering solutions in a global, economic, environ- nomically the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of mental, and societal context mankind.” a recognition of the need for, and an ability to engage in We attach particular importance to the word ‘judgment’ life-long learning in the above definition since it requires practicing engineers a knowledge of contemporary issues. to make informed decisions in order to benefit society. We believe that these objectives cannot be achieved by Judgment is related to using reflection and critical thinking to teaching hard skills alone. While specialists may concur with address problems which arise or to prevent them through this view, it is still not normally the case that sufficient pre-emptive enlightened designs. Engineers also need to resources are accorded to focus on essential soft skills. address ethical, environmental and safety issues. To this end, Watson (2013) points out that this leaves new graduates defi- they need to engage in effective intrapersonal communica- cient in skills necessary for lifelong learning and effective tion. Despite the role intrapersonal communication plays in communication. In a competition for employment against engineers’ success, there seems to be limited attention paid to this soft skill. We believe that intrapersonal communication experienced rivals, they have to rely on hard skills that they gives engineers the foundation on which they base their judg- have not yet applied in real life situations. This inevitably has ments. It supports their communication with other engineers a negative impact on their employability and their ability to and the public they serve. Effective use of intrapersonal com- serve society. Engineering education curricula, therefore, munication also facilitates the process in which they engage need to incorporate various soft skills such as learning the in learning beyond their formal training. meaning of ethical responsibility (criterion 3f and 3h). In order to achieve this, they need to engage in both intra and Therefore, in this paper, we will consider the importance interpersonal communication, which is emphasized in criteri- of intrapersonal communication in relation to lifelong learn- on 3g. These are not possible through small-scale occasional ing and the ability to make informed, ethical and society- efforts, but require a serious commitment to life-long learn- friendly judgments. We will also argue that faculty training future engineers need to provide their students with an ing (criterion 3i). Lieb-Brilhart (1978, p. 140) also notes that awareness of intrapersonal communication skills as a basis for “The overall goal of the life-long learning movement is that all of lifelong learning. To this end, we will first briefly discuss why us participate fully in and contribute to society throughout our soft-skills in general are essential for the engineering disci- lives.” This requires individuals to continuously seek opportu- pline according to ABET (2014), and why they are significant nities for new skills, knowledge and understandings (criterion for engineers as lifelong learners. Following this, we will pro- 3j). To do this, engineers first need to gain awareness of their vide a definition of intrapersonal communication and some own personal and professional needs and abilities. We will related-concepts such as ‘self’, ‘needs’, and ‘emotional intelli- argue that engagement in effective intrapersonal communica- gence’. This will be followed by discussion on why intraper- tion is a prerequisite for this. Therefore, it is essential that we sonal communication is important in engineering education. activate the concept of intrapersonal communication and bet- In doing so, we will list some of the intrapersonal activities ter understand how it relates to our communication with oth- that engineers often engage in and describe some learning ers more closely. activities from our teaching context that promote students’ intrapersonal communication. Intrapersonal Communication and Its Relationship with Interpersonal Soft Skills for Engineers and Lifelong Learning Communication ABET criteria (2014) for the 2015–2016 cycle for engineer- The adjective ‘intrapersonal’ is defined in the American ing programs set certain educational objectives. Those that Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (n.d.) as “exist- Cilt / Volume 8 | Say› / Issue 1 | Nisan / April 2018 69  Tanju Deveci & Roger Nunn ing or occurring within the individual self or mind.” Graeme and about ourselves, which includes our personal attributes as well Dimbleby (2006, p. 1) define intrapersonal communication as as who and what the self is. Therefore, the answer to the ques- “communication within the self, and of the self to the self.” We tion ‘Who am I?’ gives indications of what the self is (Myers, believe different communication styles cannot be seperated 2009). from each other since they are interwoven and interdepend- Possible answers to this question include our physical char- ent. That is, we cannot imagine intrapersonal communication acteristics such as gender and age, as well as psychological ones taking place in a vacuum since “the process of communication is such as identity and personality. A distinction is also made really one whole thing” (Graeme & Dimbleby, 2006, p. 1). between the ‘outer’ self and the ‘inner’ self. The former refers Indeed our communication with others (interpersonal com- to our physical characteristics mentioned above, while the lat- munication) leads us to communicate within ourselves, or our ter refers to our values, beliefs and ideals (Ferguson, 2013). The communication within ourselves more often informs our inner self, or private self, cannot easily be observed by others, interaction with other individuals. Interestingly, critical and we may not be fully aware of the inner self ourselves either. thinking (Facione, 2011) also highlights “self-regulation”, the However, when we gain consciousness of our flow of thoughts need for students to take control of their own thinking. and feelings, we can face our inner/private self (Markus & Philosophers also (Gadamer, 1975 [2004] and Husserl, 1960 Kitayama, 1991). Individuals may choose to use their outer self [1931]) have discussed the relationship between ‘subjective’ to disguise their inner self for one reason or another. It is also (intrapersonal) judgment, intersubjective (interpersonal) important to note that individuals may project different selves judgment and scientific (objective) judgment. We further dis- depending on the social roles they play. This suggests that our cuss the reasons for this and its implications below. However, self-concepts are influenced by our interactions with others we will first elaborate the concept of intrapersonal communi- within various social contexts (Roberts & Donahue, 1994). cation. There are several related words and concepts that are of The term communication is defined as “a two-way process importance in this respect such as self-concept, self-image, self- in which there is an exchange and progression of ideas towards a esteem, self-confidence, self-perception, and self-awareness. mutually accepted direction or goal” (Kaul, 2015, p. 2). This def- No two ‘synonyms’ have exactly the same meaning, but they inition appears to emphasize our communication with others are all related. When a social event such as failing a test is able (interpersonal communication). However, it can also be to destroy our self-confidence, we may need to improve our informative to consider the intrapersonal side of communica- self-awareness about this as it might affect the way we react to tion if a two-way process is perceived as ‘from self to self’. In just one result. Good communication with others is a prerequi- interpersonal communication the sender and receiver of the site for effective intrapersonal communication (Schafer, 1998). message are two different “selves”. On the other hand, in Taken together, these highlight the interplay between intra and intrapersonal communication both the sender and the receiv- interpersonal communication. We may need to work on er of the message is one self. On the surface, it may seem that such communication is simple and quick because the intend- improving the balance between interpersonal events and the ed message may be expected to be clear to the self, and com- impact this has on our self. munication barriers may be thought to be eliminated more Passarelli and Kolb (2011) draw attention to the notion of easily when the self does not involve others in the process. ‘learning identity’ as a factor contributing to lifelong learning. However, given the complexities of what constitutes the self, They observe that many people fail to think about what learn- and the multitude of contexts in which communication ing means, and that they do not realize their unique way of occurs, how our needs trigger communication with ourselves learning, leaving them unaware of their characteristics as learn- and others, and the role of emotions in both types of commu- ers. This may lead them to have a fixed view of their selves, see- nication, we may underestimate how complicated intraper- ing themselves as ‘incapable of learning’. Such a negative per- sonal communication can be. Therefore, the following sec- ception of learning reduces individuals’ expectations, motiva- tions will discuss the different roles self, needs, and emotion- tion and confidence, which McGivney (1993) calls ‘a disposi- al intelligence (EI) play in communication processes. tional barrier’. Research has shown that a lack of confidence is very likely to make learners self-critical, doubtful of their abili- Self ties, nervous and insecure, reducing their ability to communi- As can be seen in the discussion above, the notion of the self cate and interact with others (Norman & Hyland, 2003). Such is at the heart of intrapersonal communication. Baumeister negative feelings prevent them from engaging in lifelong learn- (1999) states that our self-concept is determined by our beliefs ing activities. 70 Yüksekö¤retim Dergisi | Journal of Higher Education Intrapersonal Communication As a Lifelong Learning Skill in Engineering Education These problems can be eliminated through self-awareness These definitions emphasize not only the awareness of exercises engaging individuals in the identification of their self our emotions, but also our recognition of others’ emotions. worth and inborn capacities to learn throughout life. Learners They also require informative decisions and actions on per- can be encouraged to reassess their beliefs about how they learn sonal and interpersonal levels. This, again, highlights the and what they are good at, to monitor the message they send interdependency of the two communication types. That is, a themselves, to redefine their relationship to failure, to control person cannot be said to be an effective communicator if s/he emotional responses to learn from failure, to balance their suc- only heeds her/his own emotions. In fact, some researchers cess-failure accounts, and risk losing (Passarelli & Kolb, 2011), study emotional intelligence as an integration of intraperson- all of which are intrinsic to lifelong learning. al and interpersonal intelligences (Pishghadam, 2009a). Research has provided evidence for the relationship between It is also important to consider how our communication is the two types of communication. For instance, Pishghadam influenced by our needs. This is because the shift in our percep- (2009b) found that learners engaging in more intrapersonal tion of self and consequent changes in behaviors and attitudes activities enhanced the communicative skills which are with others are largely dependent on our personal needs, which required for effective interpersonal communication. Deveci are briefly explained below. (2015), on the other hand, found a positive correlation between communication students’ EI levels and team-work Needs satisfaction levels, suggesting that emotionally intelligent stu- In addition to our basic survival needs like food and shelter, dents improved their interpersonal communication with their we have personal needs such as recognition, affection and cre- team-members; they, therefore, enjoyed increased harmony ativity and self-actualization at the higher levels of the hierar- in their teams. Similarly, research by Aslan, Ozata and Mete chy of needs (Maslow, 1943). Our engagement in intraper- (2008) showed that emotionally intelligent social work groups sonal communication prompts us to take action to meet our were respectful to each other, which provided positive ener- needs, which often requires interaction with others. For gy and helped them work systematically in their teams. Taken example, the basic need for shelter lead a fragile person to together, the evidence from research indicates that intraper- approach a friend whom he regards as protective. On the sonal communication benefits from emotional intelligence, other hand, in a project-based environment, as is the case in which in turn improves our interaction with others. our own teaching context, the need for recognition can deter- Consequently, individuals can meet their higher level needs mine a person’s behaviors and attitudes towards members of such as recognition, acceptance and self-actualization. his team. Self-actualization may be fulfilled through the suc- This notion also has support from the world of philoso- cessful completion of a demanding task such as a semester- phy, Husserl (1931, p. 34), for example, argues that a scholar long project (Nunn & Brandt, 2016). Our success in achiev- must sometimes “withdraw into himself” and “build anew”. ing our intrapersonal and interpersonal needs is greatly influ- According to Husserl, we inevitably enter and perceive the enced by our ability to become aware of our own and others’ social world of others through our own perceptions and so do emotions, and using this ability intelligently. This notion has other people. “I can enter no world other than the one that gets its been discussed in relation to emotional intelligence (EI), sense and acceptance or status in and from me, myself” (p. 61). which is discussed in detail below. However, significantly, Husserl also emphasizes the impor- tance of accepting that other people also have a self, so (sub- Emotional Intelligence jective) interpersonal communication and (intersubjective) Intrapersonal communication has brought about the mainly intrapersonal communication need to be seen as closely relat- intrapersonal notion of emotional intelligence (EI). EI is ed. defined as “the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings Honeycutt, Zagacki and Edwards (1989) also emphasize and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this informa- that intrapersonal communication is much more than talking tion to guide one’s thinking and actions” (Mayer, DiPaolo & to oneself. They suggest that we do more internally than talk Salovery, 1990, p. 189). Goleman (1995, p. 34) added to this to ourselves. We also imagine ourselves talking to others. definition “[the] abilities such as being able to motivate oneself and “Thus, we surmise that imagined interactions are an extended form persist in the face of frustrations; to control impulse and delay grat- of intrapersonal communication” (Honeycutt et al., 1989, p. ification; to regulate one’s moods and keep distress from swamping 168). Imagined interactions may help us prepare for real the ability to think; to empathize and to hope.” interaction. However, it is also clear that imagining or reliv- Cilt / Volume 8 | Say› / Issue 1 | Nisan / April 2018 71  Tanju Deveci & Roger Nunn ing interaction with others does also have an impact on our require students to support society whether at home or intrapersonal identity. There is therefore a two-way process. abroad. These have included designing a sustainable village. Medel, Ohsako and Mauch (2001) note that awareness of One team chose the Northern Emirates as their location, EI helps integrate our thinking, feeling and action. They also another an Ethiopian village. This required students to self- add that it helps individuals to take advantage of different evaluate their designs in terms of sustainability, health and learning settings, whether in-school or out-of-school, formal safety and ethical considerations, which often includes envi- or informal. This highlights the key role EI plays in promot- ronmental impact and other relevant ethical considerations. ing lifelong learning. According to Medel et al. (2001), learn- While it is not our specific focus in this paper, it is inter- ers with high EI are more likely to enjoy lifelong learning, esting to note that reports of such projects often favor a which can prevent negative habits and behaviors from affect- strong first-person voice. Projects do not only adopt an ing their learning experiences. Lifelong learning helps learn- impersonal scientific approach, they also include a personal ers in coping with past experiences, channeling their energy engagement to society and to sustainability. This is notable in into constructive professional and social activities. This helps extract 1 below, where first-person uses are underlined. learners to develop positive attitude toward learning and higher-order thinking skills, which are among essential life- Extract 1 long-learning skills (Cotton, 1998). Given its potential effect Following the requirements from our client, we have perceived on motivation for learning, effective use of EI will encourage a design for a sustainable village. We named it after the great students as lifelong learners to assume greater responsibility leader late Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan. Our client was looking for a village which in itself will be a community to sup- for their own learning. Their self-awareness will also help port 50 culturally diverse families. A sustainable living, energy, them identify their strengths and weaknesses, allowing them architecture and construction were our main focus. Sustainable to devise learning plans. Their awareness of others’ needs, energy for us means free energy. By that we mean that the desires, and emotions will nurture a learning environment of source of energy should not pollute the environment or the surroundings such as wind power and solar energy. While care and cooperation, contributing to their success in inter- designing the village, we faced many constraints and limitations personal communication. These will contribute to students’ which hindered progress of our design. success at school and in life beyond school. The notions of self, needs, and emotional intelligence are In extract 2 below, students reflect on their intrapersonal/ of great importance in any field, and as a field aiming to interpersonal thought processes in writing. Again they are con- enhance our overall life quality, engineering might be partic- sidering sustainability. ularly required to recognize their significance, which we briefly discuss below giving examples from our teaching con- Extract 2 text. By referring to this definition, we comprehend that sustainabil- ity is about maintaining the production and consumption rates of products equal for a very long time. To achieve this goal, we The Place of Intrapersonal Communication in had to work out methods of saving all the natural resources, Engineering Design Education therefore, we decided to use water and electrical sensors and The discussion above suggests that engineers whose main timers that will control the supply and reduce the wastage of these resources. We thought of timers for the water supply, responsibility is to enhance people’s lives at large need to that will time the amount of water supplied to the user, in order engage in intrapersonal communication for various reasons. to prevent its wastage or misuse. For one thing, improving others’ lives requires them to be aware of their own as well as others’ needs. This requires As the first person plural in the extracts above indicate, increased levels of EI and the ability to empathize. For exam- engineers need to work in collaboration with other engineers ple, a physically fit engineer whose EI is low may not feel the from the same or different engineering disciplines as well as urge to improve the life of disabled people through innova- other fields. As is discussed above, technical skills they possess tive design initiatives. However, it is possible to make minor will not suffice per se. They need the aptitude and skills to modifications to design project teaching that inevitably inte- understand their thought processes and feelings. This entails grates EI. Petroleum Engineering students in our context for that they be emotionally intelligent in order to have a work- example are required to consider ethical issues of design ing interpersonal relationship with them. Therefore, EI as a including health and safety and environmental impact. soft-skill should be incorporated into engineering education Topics that have been required in early design courses also curricula which engage students in project work requiring 72 Yüksekö¤retim Dergisi | Journal of Higher Education Intrapersonal Communication As a Lifelong Learning Skill in Engineering Education them to use various elements of intrapersonal communica- Examples of Intrapersonal Activities and tion, as illustrated briefly above. Riemer (2003) notes that Their Exploitation in Our Teaching Context such an approach promotes student-centeredness and sup- Intrapersonal communication involves both internal and ports the underpinnings of experiential learning and the con- external activities. Former is related to thought processes not structivist approach. However, Lappalainen (2011) argues spoken out loud, while the latter involves verbalized commu- that limited training and lack of reward for social competence nication between the self and the self (Graeme & Dimbleby, in engineering education may reduce future engineers EI 2006). Some examples of every day internal activities are abilities, and suggests that higher education needs to be thinking what to do tomorrow, trying to decide what to wear, reformed to address this by focusing on intrapersonal skills in etc. On the other hand, external activities are those that general, and on EI in particular. One such initiative was taken involve external expression of thoughts, such as talking to by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in the States where rap- ourselves or keeping a journal or diary. Some activities, how- port, empathy, persuasion, cooperation and consensus build- ever, involve both. For example, self-talk can be an internal or ing skills were incorporated into the syllabus. Students’ externalized inner voice. Moran (1996) emphasizes that self- awareness was increased through recognition exercises con- talk can be negative or positive. Negative self-talk involves ducted in groups, which enhanced their interpersonal skills in criticism and self-preoccupation, the results of which are gen- teams (Goleman, 1998). erally undesirable. On the other hand, positive self-talk Despite the acknowledged benefits of intrapersonal com- involves praise and encouragement. Hackfort and munication for engineering students, it seems that not all Schwenkmezger’s (1993, p. 355) definition of self-talk under- engineering education practice emphasizes it enough. In a scores the use of self-talk: “an internal dialogue [in which] the study carried out with 10 recent engineering graduates individual interprets feelings and perceptions, regulates and changes evaluations and convictions, and gives him/herself instructions and employed in the States, Watson (2013) identified certain reinforcement.” The idea of self-talk is related to reflective intrapersonal skills that were lacking in university courses. thinking and writing, which we explain in detail below. The first one was time management skills, required when engineers had to cope with technical and nontechnical tasks Reflective Thinking and Writing in their design work. The stress caused by lack of training in Defined as “the kind of thinking that consists in turning a subject time-management during their stay at university obliged over in the mind and giving it serious and consecutive consideration” them to acquire the necessary skills on the job at an individ- (Dewey, 1933, p. 3), reflective thinking engages individuals in ual level. The second theme was related to confidence. The intensive intrapersonal communication through introspection. need for this attribute emerged when the engineers had to It engages individuals in the analysis of their own and others’ defend their projects communicating their confidence to oth- ideas, feelings and emotions about experiences. Gibbs (1988) ers. Another ability that they appeared to neglect was the notes that having an experience per se is not sufficient for learn- ability to respond to criticism, which they did not practice ing to take place since it can easily be forgotten without reflec- sufficiently at university either. Efficient response to criticism tion, and states that “[i]t is from the feelings and thoughts emerging requires high levels of EI since one would need to have con- from this reflection that generalizations or concepts can be generated. trol over one’s feelings, and respond to criticism intelligent- And it is generalizations that allow new situations to be tackled effec- ly. Adapting to the real world emerged as another necessary tively” (p. 9). Reflective thinkers are self-directed learners per- skill which involved decision making not necessarily stipulat- forming intellectual tasks by employing a variety of critical ed in course-books. This requires the intrapersonal skill of thinking strategies (Lewittes, 2009), which helps them in decision making ‘on the go’ by being logical and emotionally becoming lifelong learners. stable. Reflective writing, on the other hand, is the external Given the place of intrapersonal communication skills for expression of some of the mental processes of reflection engineering education discussed above, it is important to cre- (Moon, 2004). Through reflective writing, we increase our ate opportunities for students to develop their intrapersonal awareness about ideas, feelings and gain new insights into communication skills. Therefore, in addition to the design every day experiences. However, it is unlikely that the expres- projects mentioned above, we identify below some common sion of reflection may be exactly the same as what takes place intrapersonal communication activities and describe how we in the head (Moon, 2004). Reflective writing emphasizes a use them in our own teaching context. reflective cycle through which the writer activates emotional Cilt / Volume 8 | Say› / Issue 1 | Nisan / April 2018 73  Tanju Deveci & Roger Nunn intelligence as well as rational intelligence to reflect on expe- Extract 3 rience. In this sense, reflective writing engages people in Last semester I was a floor supervisor in the Petroleum Institute intrapersonal communication. An initial description of expe- dorms. As this job required me to communicate a lot with PI female rience includes not only what happened in context but also a students and with the residence supervisors, I was put in many situa- description of the writer’s feelings about this experience. In a tions. Today, I will share with you one of those situations in order to explain intrapersonal and the interpersonal communication. second phase, the writer then stands outside the experience to The residence supervisors used to give me some duties daily such as evaluate and analyse what happened. This also includes EI in doing the attendance for the students on my floor, checking if any that a reflection includes evaluating our initial affective reac- apartment in the floor has problems for example with the electricity or with water supply and then tell them about it, solving the floor’s tion to the experience. The final stage is normally an attempt small problems if there was no need for them to intervene, …etc. One to suggest what we have learnt from the experience in order day, I entered the apartment no 506 to do the attendance for the stu- to improve future experience. This cycle can be embedded in dents. One of the residence supervisors was there. She asked me in front of the students “Maithah why are the lights not working here?” almost any curriculum. I was shocked and I asked myself “does she think I am a technician to Reflective writing also helps us engage in interpersonal ask me about this or what?” I felt very sad and I was very embar- rassed because it happened in front of my friends. Therefore, I left the communication since it allows us to explain our rationale and apartment without saying anything and then I went to my room. thought processes to others (Brown, 2016). Considering Gibbs’ Moreover, I kept thinking about why she asked me about that and argument (cited in Rodgers, 2002, p. 845) that “reflection requires what my friends would think of me. After a while, I remembered that attitudes that value the personal and intellectual growth of oneself and one day I was checking if the lights were working in the floor and in the apartment no 506, there was nobody when I was checking so that of others” and “reflection needs to happen in community, in interac- is why the students did not know that I had come and checked the tion with others”, the value of sharing reflection through writing lights. On the other hand, I was surprised because I have alerted the where applicable becomes more evident. residence supervisors about the problem and they knew about it. A day later, I asked my supervisor about why she asked me about that in From the educational standpoint, we pay close attention to that way. She told me that she did not mean to despise me in front of reflection since it allows for higher order thinking skills such as the others or to show them that I was not committed in doing my work, but she just wanted to check if the problem persisted because of analysis, evaluation, and application. These skills lend them- the lac in the lamps supply. selves to critical thinking and problem solving. Students who From this situation, it seemed that words do not mean anything in reflect on subject-specific topics in relation to their own expe- the dictionary but mean something between you and the other person. In fact, “the words we say can mean very different things depending riences can have an easier time integrating different pieces of on how they are said or in what context” [1]. So everyone should try information, comprehending concepts. This strengthens the to understand what the others mean by saying this thing or that to integration of learning and experience, and supports the forma- you. I believe that silence and leaving without saying anything are not the proper things to do in those situations because this may damage a tion of memories (Dzubak, 2013). Reflection gives students the good self-image [1] which I was trying to establish between me and opportunity to identify their strengths and weaknesses and the floor students as after this argument they might think that I was devise learning goals, which reduces anxiety (Perez & Ruz, not committed in doing my work so they would not trust me anymore. 2014). These are among the key lifelong learning skills. Below On the other hand, leaving the place on that day let me think about the situation in order to find a reason behind what had been said to we will provide a recent example of how we normally do it in me. Furthermore, when you engage in intrapersonal communication our local context. it helps you reflect, evaluate and solve the matter [2]. The intraper- sonal communication between me and the supervisor helped me a lot Reflective writing is an integral part of a variety of courses to understand the correct reason behind what had been said. Overall, in our teaching context. For example, after reading a text on the intrapersonal and the interpersonal communications are very interpersonal communication and another text on intraperson- important to use together as the intrapersonal communication moti- vate me to understand the other person and the interpersonal commu- al communication, and after a seminar discussion on these top- nication completely clarified the misunderstanding [2,3]. ics, the Communication Department students are asked to reflect in writing on a specific experience in which intraperson- The excerpt above indicates that reflective writing helped al experience influenced interpersonal experience. The follow- the student become aware of her own emotions as well as ing example illustrates the way one student describing her expe- those of others involved in the incident. Through reflection, rience used the texts to help understand the experience better. she seems to have gained more understanding of the interplay (The numbers in square brackets denote the IEEE references between different events, and how her feelings could predict the student used to argue her points): the way she behaves. This shows how her increased awareness 74 Yüksekö¤retim Dergisi | Journal of Higher Education Intrapersonal Communication As a Lifelong Learning Skill in Engineering Education regulates her thinking processes. Her reflection on experi- Example ence seems to have provided her with some insight into the In the figure, a crate of mass m=97 kg is pushed at a constant importance of suspending judgment to think before acting, speed up a frictionless ramp (0=26°) by a horizontal force F. and controlling moods, which is defined as self-regulation by The positive direction of an x axis is up the ramp, and the pos- Goleman (2004). Reference to academic texts on inter- and itive direction of a y axis is perpendicular to the ramp. (a) What intra-personal communication (as is indicated by the numbers is the magnitude of F? (b) What is the magnitude of the normal force on the crate? in the square brackets) helped her evaluate her own subjective experience. Kolb (1984) also suggests that reflection on expe- rience as part of an experiential learning cycle, encourages By asking the students to sketch learners to become life-long learners with a greater potential and then solve, it is possible to check for success in life. It helps students exercise skills they will whether a correct internal mental need as reflective practitioners upon graduation. Reflection image of the problem has been created equips them with problem-solving skills, and teaches them (intra-personally). See the image stu- learn how to learn (Helyer, 2015), both of which are intrinsic dents would be expected to create. to lifelong learning. Reflection also helps develop learning identity which “is determined not by past learning successes and Progress Report failures alone but by the self-attributions about these successes and The project-based courses our students are offered require failures that a person makes” (Passarelli & Kolb, 2011, p. 86). them to exercise critical thinking about their own research process and the quality of their research in the form of a struc- Visualization tured discussion attended by all the team-members. The dis- Defined in the Merriam-Webster dictionary as “formation of cussion is often built round a data retrieval system and a time mental visual images” and “the act or process of interpreting in visu- management system such as a Gantt chart. al terms or of putting into visible form”, visualization is used by One important purpose of a progress report is to make sure engineers extensively. It is particularly important for engineers that the team is on track to complete the project as successful- since they often need to visualize in three dimensions. Lieu and ly as possible within the deadlines set. The discussion is struc- Sorby (2009) note that this is a skill engineers need to perform tured by dividing it into three parts: work completed, work in when they are given a drawing on a page. To do this effective- progress and work planned but not yet started. In each section ly, they need to use their intrapersonal skill of visualization. there is normally some discussion of any problems faced or This is also linked to creativity in design, for which they need expected and how these problems have been or will be solved. to think critically. This requires students to engage in both intra- and interper- sonal communication to solve any problems that are preventing For science and engineering students, visualization is progress. They must, for example, identify and show awareness acknowledged as a useful stage in problem solving. Boonen, of their own problems. For work in progress and to be complet- Van Wesel, Jolles and van der Schoot (2014, p. 1), have even ed contingency plans are also likely to be discussed. They are reported a research finding that “an accurate visual-schematic rep- also expected to identify and explain significant achievements resentation increased the chance of solving a word problem correctly already accomplished. Other general topics for discussion almost six times.” Visualization is seen as being especially impor- include the team’s ability to meet deadlines, reasons for any tant in the engineering domain and can of course include an changes in the schedule or modifications in the original plan internal mental representation of a word problem or an exter- and things that have been learnt from problems faced at earlier nal sketch. Our own recent classroom observation indicates stages of the project. Teams also need to be able to exploit the that self-awareness as to whether we have accurately visualized discussion to generate constructive and useful ideas to improve a problem is often vital in generating a correct solution. their project and show readiness and ability to adapt their plan The following example from a Physics class illustrates the in response to any reasonable criticisms that arise from the dis- point. If the diagram is provided, the visualization is no cussion. They should also be able to defend their project where longer an issue, but it is no longer done by the students. they don’t agree with criticism and counter any arguments that Observation indicated that where the students failed to visu- they do not agree with, based on evidence gathered so far. The alize correctly, for example failing to notice the importance of progress report ends with teams’ summary of what they have key words such as ‘horizontal’, they ended up with an incor- learnt from it, identifying actions to be taken as a result of the rect solution. discussion. The process, as a whole, engages students in inten- Cilt / Volume 8 | Say› / Issue 1 | Nisan / April 2018 75  Tanju Deveci & Roger Nunn sive intrapersonal communication encouraging students to related to their own contribution, their own needs, the needs identify how effectively they have been working individually of others when working with others, their own and others’ and as a team. This further requires them to communicate with motivation within project teams. We have given the example of their team members efficiently using a variety of intrapersonal progress-reports as a venue where all of these could be dis- communication skills such as self-talk, reflective thinking, cussed in great detail using intra and interpersonal communi- response preparation and emotional intelligence. cation skills. We have argued that ‘self-regulation’ is at the heart of critical thinking (Nunn, Brandt & Deveci, 2016). In a Conclusion project team, all members are potentially self-regulated thinkers who need to cooperate. But, more importantly for this In this paper, we have defined intrapersonal communication discussion, we have also argued that there is an emotional and and established its relationship with interpersonal communica- a rational side to academic and scientific behavior and that both tion, which are among the key soft skills engineering students need to be taken into account equally. Purely rational scientif- need to acquire to remain both employable and valuable to ic notions such as “objectivity” are philosophically untenable society. We argue that intrapersonal communication, along when they present so-called objectivity as something that is with other so-called soft skills, is on an equal footing with tech- somehow external to the intrapersonal self. We argue that its nical subject knowledge for engineers who wish to engage in meaning and value is inevitably negotiated through oneself and lifelong learning as an essential part of their professional and with others. When we claim to be “objective”, we are also mak- personal development. Engineers as lifelong learners need to ing an intra- and interpersonally mediated claim by communi- engage in effective intra and interpersonal communication to cating what we mean by objectivity to ourselves and to others. enhance their own and their society’s well-being and to ensure Engineering students do not just draw on scientific or mathe- that engineers’ intrapersonal make-up continues to evolve matical intelligence, they also need emotional intelligence to apace with technical knowledge itself. This is supported by enable them to achieve inner stability and to function success- ABET (2014) that emphasizes the need for engineers to use a fully in society (Deveci & Nunn, 2016). variety of intra and interpersonal communication skills to solve engineering problems and engage in lifelong learning. We have argued that this need can only be met if individuals are References aware that their emotions are heavily influenced by the extent ABET (2014, November 1). 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