Crucifixion Reconsidered

Crucifixion Reconsidered GUNNAR SAMUELSSON University of Gothenburg Dept. of Literature, History of Ideas and Religion Box 200, SE‑405 30 Göteborg, Sweden ABSTRACT: What is a crucifixion? A simple yet crucial a question. Numerous monographs, articles, dictionaries, and com‑ mentaries, which deal with Jesus or the Gospels, offer answers to the question. It does not take more than a glimpse to find a full blown and colorful depiction of the crucifixion punishment in general and the crucifixion of Jesus in particular. It does not matter whether the author is, e.g., conservative, evangelical, liberal, progressive, or agnostic. They all elucidate in detail what a crucifixion is. But from where do they acquire their knowledge? The common answer—ancient texts—could be seen as a three‑step rocket. On level one are the passion narratives. Level two, brings the rest of the Bible, and on the third level is the pre‑Christian Greco‑Roman literature found. The present paper will argue for that these three groups are insufficient when it comes to deliver information about the crucifixion punishment. The information that could be acquired from these ancient sources appears not to match the vast information the scientific contributions offer. How do we know? From where do we get our knowledge about this epic event? Ecclesiastical pictures are not the kind of sources I am asking for, they are from a too late date. That is also true when it comes to movies about Jesus. These graphic and detailed accounts are frequent and we have all seen them, and they have affected us in the sense that we have quite a clear picture about what happened on Calvary. But they are not alone when it comes to offer a clear view of SBL 2011 the events on Calvary. In the scholarly literature there are an abundance of depictions as well. I want to mention a selec‑ tion of some in my eyes significant contributions, but you could pick anyone on your shelf at home or in the library – they will tell about the same story as these you will hear to‑ day. The first comes from Anna‑Maria Schwemer and Mar‑ tin Hengel’s recent monograph Jesus und das Judentum. Das Kreuz bestand aus einem in die Erde gerammten Pfahl und dem Querholz. Der Verurteilte, der das Querholz (patibulum) selbst an die Richtstätte zu tragen hatte, wurde zuerst mit beiden Händen am Querholz angenagelt oder festgebunden und dann am Pfahl hochgezogen. Die Annagelung war wohl das Übliche. Sie führte zusammen mit der Geißelung durch den Blutverlust schneller zum Tode. Es gab zwei Formen: Die crux commissa glich einem T, die crux immissa unserem Kreuz. Die Höhe war sehr verschieden, die Füße befanden sich oft nur wenige Zentimeter über dem Boden. In der Regel hatte das Kreuz eine kleine Sitz‑ stütze, das sog. sedile. In dieser schrecklichen Lage konnten die Gekreuzigten bei kräftiger Statur tagelang am Leben blieben, bis sie durch die Hitze, den Blutverlust, vor allem aber durch Kreis‑ laufkollaps infolge völliger Unbeweglichkeit starben.1 Hengel and Schwemer present several distinct features such as a two‑parted cross, the pole standing on the execution place and the crossbeam, which the criminal carried himself, usually nailed to it; the criminal suspended with his feet a few centimeters above the ground, sitting on a wooden plug. Ethelbert Stauffer’s description in Jerusalem und Rom is quite similar. Der Verurteilte wird zunächst erbarmungslos gegeißelt. Dann schleppt er den Querbalken seines Kreuzes durch die Stadt auf den Richtplatz, wo der senkrechte Kreuzesstamm bereits im Bo‑ den eingerammt ist. Dort wird er nackt ausgezogen. Dann nagelt man ihn mit ausgespannten Armen an den Querbalken an, zieht 1 HENGEL and SCHWEMER, Jesus und das Judentum, 612. ‑2‑ SBL 2011 den Balken am Kreuzesstamm hoch und befestigt ihn zwei bis drei Meter über dem Erdboden, so daß dass fertige Kreuz nor‑ malerweise die Form eines lateinischen T hat. Nun nagelt man die Füße des Verurteilten am Kreuzesstamm fest. Über dem Kopf des Gekreuzigten aber bringt man den Titulus an, eine Tafel mit kurzer Urteilsbegründung.2 Stauffer mentions in addition that the criminal was sus‑ pended naked, that his feet were nailed to the trunk of the T‑ shaped cross, and that a sign telling the nature of the crime was attached over his head. Josef Blinzler’s account in Der Prozeß Jesu, follows the same path. Der Verurteilte wurde entkleidet und – nach vollzogener Geiße‑ lung, die bei Jesus vorweggenommen war – am Boden mit ausgestreckten Armen an das Querholz genagelt, das er selbst zur Richtstatt hatte tragen müssen. Das Querholz wurde dann mit dem Körper hochgezogen und an dem senkrecht in der Erde stehende Pfahl befestigt, worauf die Füße angenagelt wurden. Ein ungefähr in der Mitte des Pfahls angebrachter Holzklotz stützte den hängenden Körper; von einer Fußstütze wissen die al‑ ten Berichte nichts. Das aus Pfahl und Querholz gebildete Kreuz hatte entweder die Form eines T (crux commissa) oder eines + (crux immissa). Die Höhe des Kreuzes war verschieden. Meist war es aufgerichtet wenig mehr als mannshoch, so daß die Füße des Gekreuzigten den Boden fast berührten.3 Blinzler adds that the feet were nailed just above the ground and that the cross had a seat in the form of a wooden plug. Paul Winther offers a quite similar description in his book On the Trial of Jesus. After sentence had been passed, the condemned person was scourged, the scourging being of such a severe nature that loss of blood and frequently a general weakening in the condition of the doomed man took place. This evidently happened in the case of 2 STAUFFER, Jerusalem und Rom, 127. 3 BLINZLER, Der Prozeß Jesu, 360. ‑3‑ SBL 2011 Jesus, making it necessary for the executioners to compel a man who passed by to assist him in carrying the cross (Mc 15, 21) after his flagellation (Mc 15, 15). A heavy wooden bar (patibulum) was placed upon the neck of the condemned man, and his out‑ stretched arms were fasted to the beam. In this position, he was led to the place of execution. There he was lifted up, the beam be‑ ing secured to a vertical stake (simplex), fixed in the ground, so that his feet hung suspended in the air. The arms of the prisoner were usually tied with ropes to the patibulum, though sometimes nails may have been driven into the prisoner’s palms. No nails were used for affixing the feet. They were either left dangling a short distance above the ground, or were fastened to the post by ropes. Stripped of his clothes, the condemned was left on his cross till death intervened.4 Winther adds that the feet were left dangling or tied just above the ground. Johannes Schneider mentions in his lengthy article on σταυρός and σταυρόω in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament a detailed account of the same kind as the earlier and mentions also the wooden seat of the cross. Crucifixion took place as follows. The condemned person carried the patibulum (cross beam) to the place of crucifixion – the stake was already erected. Then on the ground he was bound with out‑ stretched arms to the beam by ropes, or else fixed to it by nails. The beam was then raised with the body and fastened to the up‑ right post. About the middle of the post was a wooden block which supported the suspended body; there was no foot‑rest in ancient accounts. The height of the cross varied; it was either ra‑ ther more than a man’s height or even higher when the offender was to be held up for public display at a distance. On the way to execution a tablet was hung around the offender stating the causa poenae, and this was affixed to the cross after execution so that all could see. 5 4 WINTER, On the Trial of Jesus, 95–96. 5 SCHNEIDER, “σταυρός κτλ.,” 573–74. ‑4‑ SBL 2011 The famously critical scholars Marcus J. Borg and John Dom‑ inic Crossan set out, from the gospel of Mark, to “retell a sto‑ ry everyone thinks they know too well and most do not seem to know at all.” The description of the events on Calva‑ ry by Borg and Crossan extends over several pages. Prisoners condemned to death by crucifixion were normally re‑ quired to carry the horizontal bar of the cross to the place of exe‑ cution, where the vertical bar was a post permanently positioned in the ground. But Mark tells us that the soldiers compelled a passerby, Simon of Cyrene, to carry Jesus’s cross [sic]. Though Mark does not say why, presumably it was not an act of kindness toward Jesus, but because Jesus had become too weak to carry the wooden beam himself. (…) At 9 AM, at the place named Golgotha, “the place of the skull,” the soldiers crucified Jesus. Mark refers to the event itself with only a short phrase: “And they crucified them (15:24). He did not need to say more, for his community was very familiar with the Roman practice of crucifixion. But we today may need some explanation. (…) As a form of public ter‑ rorism, the uprights of the crosses were usually permanently in place just outside a city gate on a high or prominent place. The victim usually carried or dragged [sic] the crossbar along with no‑ tice of the crime to be attached to one of those uprights at the place of execution. (…) [V]ictims were often crucified low enough to the ground that not only carrion birds but scavenging dogs could reach them. And they were often left on the cross after death until little was left of their bodies for a possible burial.6 Beside the clear‑cut use of the carried crossbeam and the fixed pole, they add the dragging of the crossbeam and dog‑ friendly height of the crucified victim – both features absent in the text studied in the present investigation. The Encyclopedia Britannica as well as the majority of all encyclopedias follows the scholars on all levels. 6 BORG and CROSSAN, The Last Week, 145–46. ‑5‑ SBL 2011 There were various methods of performing the execution. Usual‑ ly, the condemned man, after being whipped, or “scourged,” dragged the crossbeam of his cross to the place of punishment, where the upright shaft was already fixed in the ground. Stripped of his clothing either then or earlier at his scourging, he was bound fast with outstretched arms to the crossbeam or nailed firmly to it through the wrists. The crossbeam was then raised high against the upright shaft and made fast to it about 9 to 12 feet (approximately 3 metres) from the ground. Next, the feet were tightly bound or nailed to the upright shaft. A ledge insert‑ ed about halfway up the upright shaft gave some support to the body; evidence for a similar ledge for the feet is rare and late. Over the criminal’s head was placed a notice stating his name and his crime. Death, apparently caused by exhaustion or by heart failure, could be hastened by shattering the legs (cru‑ rifragium) with an iron club, so that shock and asphyxiation soon ended his life.7 It is safe to say that there is a clear consensus about certain features that happened to Jesus on Calvary. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 7 that scourging preceded the crucifixion that the arms were attached, usually by nailing, to the cross‑beam (patibulum) that the cross‑beam was carried out to the execution place where a standing fixed pole was waiting that the victim and the cross‑beam were lifted up and attached to the standing pole that the cross was T‑shaped (crux commissa) or as a traditional cross ‑ † (crux immissa) that the victim was hanging with the feet nailed or dangling just above the ground that a seat (sedile) on the middle of the cross togeth‑ er with a footrest (suppenadeum) gave support for the victim that a sign (titulus) which stated the nature of the crime was attached to the cross S.v. EB. ‑6‑ SBL 2011 Dictionaries and Encyclopedias follow this general view. Encyclopedia Britannica – Crucifixion is a capital punishment. Crucifixion – an important method of capital punishment, partic‑ ularly among the Persians, Seleucids, Carthaginians, and Romans from about the 6th century BC to the 4th century AD. Constan‑ tine the Great, the first Christian emperor, abolished it in the Ro‑ man Empire in AD 337, out of veneration for Jesus Christ, the most famous victim of crucifixion.8 The Oxford English Dictionary – Crucifixion is an execution. crucifixion 1. a. The action of crucifying, or of putting to death on a cross. b. spec. the Crucifixion: that of Jesus Christ on Calvary. crucify 1. a. trans. To put to death by nailing or otherwise fas‑ tening to a cross; an ancient mode of capital punishment among Orientals, Greeks, Romans, and other peoples; by the Greeks and Romans considered especially ignominious.9 MacMillan – Crucifixion is to kill someone. cru∙ci∙fix∙ion noun 1 [C/U] a method of killing someone by fas‑ tening them to a CROSS with nails or rope 2 the Crucifixion the occasion when Jesus Christ was killed on the CROSS according to the Bible. cru∙ci∙fy verb [T] 1 to kill someone by fastening them to a with nails or rope.10 CROSS Webster’s – Crucifixion is putting to death. 8 S.v. EB. 9 S.v. Oxford English Dictionary. 10 S.v. Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners of American English. ‑7‑ SBL 2011 cru∙ci∙fix∙ion l a : the act of crucifying b usu cap : the crucifying of Christ – usu. used with the 2 : the state of one who is crucified : death upon a cross 3 : extreme and painful punishment : intense persecution, afflic‑ tion, or suffering : TORTURE : mental suffering for a principle or cause. cru∙ci∙fy l : to put to death by nailing or binding the hands and feet to a cross 2 : to destroy the power or ruling influence of : subdue completely : MORTIFY (they that are Christ’s have crucified the flesh — Gal 5:24[AV]) 3 a : to treat cruelly (as in severe pun‑ ishment) : TORMENT, TORTURE b : to harry, persecute, or pillory esp. for some cause or principle : DENIGRATE (‑ a political lead‑ er).11 The Oxford Classical Dictionary offers a familiar and de‑ tailed account of the events on Calvary, and adds that cruci‑ fixion is a slow death. Crucifixion (…) The general practice was to begin with flagella‑ tion of the condemned, who was then compelled to carry a cross‑ beam (patibulum) to the place of execution, where a stake had been firmly fixed in the ground. He was stripped and fastened to the cross‑beam with nails and cords, and the beam was drawn up by ropes until his feet were clear of the ground. Some support for the body was provided by a ledge (sedile) which projected from the upright, but a footrest (suppedaneum) is rarely attested, though the feet were sometimes tied or nailed. Death probably occurred through exhaustion: this could be hastened through breaking the legs. After removal of the body the cross was usually destroyed.12 So, on the one side we have detailed accounts from art, mov‑ ies, scholars, dictionaries and encyclopedias – but what is on the other side. Where are the sources of this massive knowledge? It is off course found in the passion narratives. Another source for 11 S.v. Webster’s Third New International Dictionary. 12 S.v. OCD. ‑8‑ SBL 2011 general knowledge of the punishment of crucifixion is the pre‑Christian Greco‑Roman literature. Let’s take a brief look at these. The text of Mark 15 might be the oldest gospel account but it does not differ from the other three in one sense – its level of information, or rather lack of information. NRSV NA‑27 Mark 15.20 After mocking him, they stripped him of the purple cloak and put his own clothes on him. Then they led him out to cruci‑ fy him. 21 They compelled a passer‑ by, who was coming in from the country, to carry his cross; it was Simon of Cyrene, the father of Al‑ exander and Rufus. 22 Then they brought Jesus to the place called Golgotha (which means the place of a skull). 23 And they offered him wine mixed with myrrh; but he did not take it. 24 And they crucified him, and divided his clothes among them, casting lots to decide what each should take. 25 It was nine o’clock in the morning when they crucified him. 26 The inscription of the charge against him read, “The King of the Jews.” 27 And with him they cruci‑ fied two bandits, one on his right and one on his left. 29 Those who passed by derided him, shaking their heads and saying, “Aha! You who would destroy the temple and build it in three days, 30 save your‑ self, and come down from the cross!” 31 In the same way the chief priests, along with the scribes, were also mocking him among them‑ Mark 15.20 καὶ ὅτε ἐνέπαιξαν αὐτῷ, ἐξέδυσαν αὐτὸν τὴν πορφύραν καὶ ἐνέδυσαν αὐτὸν τὰ ἱμάτια αὐτοῦ. Καὶ ἐξάγουσιν αὐτὸν ἵνα σταυρώσωσιν αὐτόν. 21 καὶ ἀγγαρεύουσιν παράγοντά τινα Σίμωνα Κυρηναῖον ἐρχόμενον ἀπ᾿ ἀγροῦ, τὸν πατέρα Ἀλεξάνδρου καὶ Ῥούφου, ἵνα ἄρῃ τὸν σταυρὸν αὐτοῦ. 22 Καὶ φέρουσιν αὐτὸν ἐπὶ τὸν Γολγοθᾶν τόπον, ὅ ἐστιν μεθερμηνευόμενον Κρανίου Τόπος. 23 καὶ ἐδίδουν αὐτῷ ἐσμυρνισμένον οἶνον∙ ὃς δὲ οὐκ ἔλαβεν. 24 Καὶ σταυροῦσιν αὐτὸν καὶ διαμερίζονται τὰ ἱμάτια αὐτοῦ, βάλλοντες κλῆρον ἐπ᾿ αὐτὰ τίς τί ἄρῃ. 25 ἦν δὲ ὥρα τρίτη καὶ ἐσταύρωσαν αὐτόν. 26 καὶ ἦν ἡ ἐπιγραφὴ τῆς αἰτίας αὐτοῦ ἐπιγεγραμμένη∙ ὁ βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων. 27 Καὶ σὺν αὐτῷ σταυροῦσιν δύο λῃστάς, ἕνα ἐκ δεξιῶν καὶ ἕνα ἐξ εὐωνύμων αὐτοῦ. 29 Καὶ οἱ παραπορευόμενοι ἐβλασφήμουν αὐτὸν κινοῦντες τὰς κεφαλὰς αὐτῶν καὶ λέγοντες∙ οὐὰ ὁ καταλύων τὸν ναὸν καὶ οἰκοδομῶν ἐν τρισὶν ἡμέραις, 30 σῶσον σεαυτὸν καταβὰς ἀπὸ τοῦ σταυροῦ. 31 ὁμοίως καὶ οἱ ἀρχιερεῖς ἐμπαίζοντες πρὸς ἀλλήλους μετὰ τῶν γραμματέων ἔλεγον∙ ‑9‑ SBL 2011 selves and saying, “He saved oth‑ ers; he cannot save himself. 32 Let the Messiah, the King of Israel, come down from the cross now, so that we may see and believe.” Those who were crucified with him also taunted him. 33 When it was noon, dark‑ ness came over the whole land until three in the afternoon. 34 At three o’clock Jesus cried out with a loud voice, “Eloi, Eloi, lema sabachthani?” which means, “My God, my God, why have you for‑ saken me?” 35 When some of the bystanders heard it, they said, “Lis‑ ten, he is calling for Elijah.” 36 And someone ran, filled a sponge with sour wine, put it on a stick, and gave it to him to drink, saying, “Wait, let us see whether Elijah will come to take him down.” 37 Then Jesus gave a loud cry and breathed his last. 38 And the curtain of the temple was torn in two, from top to bottom. 39 Now when the centuri‑ on, who stood facing him, saw that in this way he breathed his last, he said, “Truly this man was God’s Son!” ἄλλους ἔσωσεν, ἑαυτὸν οὐ δύναται σῶσαι∙ 32 ὁ χριστὸς ὁ βασιλεὺς Ἰσραὴλ καταβάτω νῦν ἀπὸ τοῦ σταυροῦ, ἵνα ἴδωμεν καὶ πιστεύσωμεν. καὶ οἱ συνεσταυρωμένοι σὺν αὐτῷ ὠνείδιζον αὐτόν. 33 Καὶ γενομένης ὥρας ἕκτης σκότος ἐγένετο ἐφ᾿ ὅλην τὴν γῆν ἕως ὥρας ἐνάτης. 34 καὶ τῇ ἐνάτῃ ὥρᾳ ἐβόησεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς φωνῇ μεγάλῃ∙ ελωι ελωι λεμα σαβαχθανι; ὅ ἐστιν μεθερμηνευόμενον∙ ὁ θεός μου ὁ θεός μου, εἰς τί ἐγκατέλιπές με; 35 καί τινες τῶν παρεστηκότων ἀκούσαντες ἔλεγον∙ ἴδε Ἠλίαν φωνεῖ. 36 δραμὼν δέ τις [καὶ] γεμίσας σπόγγον ὄξους περιθεὶς καλάμῳ ἐπότιζεν αὐτόν λέγων∙ ἄφετε ἴδωμεν εἰ ἔρχεται Ἠλίας καθελεῖν αὐτόν. 37 ὁ δὲ Ἰησοῦς ἀφεὶς φωνὴν μεγάλην ἐξέπνευσεν. 38 Καὶ τὸ καταπέτασμα τοῦ ναοῦ ἐσχίσθη εἰς δύο ἀπ᾿ ἄνωθεν ἕως κάτω. 39 Ἰδὼν δὲ ὁ κεντυρίων ὁ παρεστηκὼς ἐξ ἐναντίας αὐτοῦ ὅτι οὕτως ἐξέπνευσεν εἶπεν∙ ἀληθῶς οὗτος ὁ ἄνθρωπος υἱὸς θεοῦ ἦν. When it comes to the actual description of the execution form there is not much beyond the statement: they crucified him. That is the message of Mark, and that is the message of Matthew, Luke and John. The whole crucifixion account rests upon two words: σταυροῦν and σταυρός. There is not much of description beyond these two words. So as far as the Gospel accounts are concerned they do not offer much support for the eight mentioned areas of consensus. ‑ 10 ‑ SBL 2011 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. that scourging preceded the crucifixion that the arms were attached, usually by nailing, to the cross‑beam (patibulum) that the cross‑beam was carried out to the execution place where a standing fixed pole was waiting that the victim and the cross‑beam were lifted up and attached to the standing pole that the cross was T‑shaped (crux commissa) or as a traditional cross ‑ † (crux immissa) that the victim was hanging with the feet nailed or dangling just above the ground that a seat (sedile) on the middle of the cross togeth‑ er with a footrest (suppenadeum) gave support for the victim that a sign (titulus) which stated the nature of the crime was attached to the cross So, a huge burden on proof rests upon the meaning of σταυροῦν and σταυρός. The question of how they were used in the linguistic and cultural context of the New Testa‑ ment becomes urgent. How has the word been used up to the time of the New Testament? Herodotus and Xenophon use the verb σταυροῦν, here with the prefix ανα. Having killed him in a way not fit to be told Oroetes ¢nestaÚrwse [Polycrates].13 Who, even in the case of his full brother, when he already was dead, cut of the/his head and hands and ¢nestaÚrwsen them.14 13 Hdt. 3.125.3. ¢pokte…naj dš min oÙk ¢x…wj ¢phg»sioj 'Oro…thj ¢nestaÚrwse. 14 Xen. An. 3.1.17. Öj kaˆ toà Ðmomhtr…ou ¢delfoà kaˆ teqnhkÒtoj ½dh ¢potemën t¾n kefal¾n kaˆ t¾n ce‹ra ¢nestaÚrwsen. Ctesias appears to offer the same description but he does not mention the impaling (FGrH 3c, 688 F 16.66. Cf. Xen. An. 1.10.1). ‑ 11 ‑ SBL 2011 They use the verb when dealing with suspension of corpses, as when Oroetes defiled Polycrates corpse, or body parts, as when Artaxerxes suspended the head and hands of his brother Cyrus, – per definition post‑mortem suspensions. This is something else compared to that witch The Oxford English Dictionary describes as a “crucifixion”. And there is more… Plutarch, Thucydides, Appian uses the verb and the noun in a way that rather points toward impaling. And to this day, in memory of the events that day, a suspended [¢nestaurwmšnoj] dog leads the procession, while a highly revered goose sits upon a very costly blanket in a litter.15 But the most hazardous part of the stockade was the hidden [part]: some of the poles which had been driven in did not appear above the water, so that it was dangerous to approach [them], for anyone who did not saw them was in danger of running the ship upon them, just as upon a reef. However, divers went down and sawed off these for reward, although the Syracusans put [them] back [™staÚrwsan] again.16 He filled all [the trenches] with pointed stakes [™staÚrwse p£nta xÚloij Ñxšsin]. And in addition to the stakes [to‹j stauro‹j] he palisaded [™car£kwse] the ditches.17 σταυρός is a pointed pole, not a cross. σταυροῦν, with or without the prefix, is used in connection the raising of point‑ ed poles, impaling or undefined suspension of corpses. The usage is not limited to that of “cross” or “to crucify”, and 15 Plut. De fort. Rom. 325D. pompeÚei dł mšcri nàn ™pˆ mn»mV tîn tÒte sumptwm£twn kÚwn młn ¢nestaurwmšnoj, c¾n dł m£la semnîj ™pˆ strwmnÁj poluteloàj kaˆ fore…ou kaq»menoj. 16 Thuc. 7.25.7. staurîn oÞj oÙc prospleàsai, m¾ oÙ toÚtouj kolumbhtaˆ ™staÚrwsan. calepwt£th d' Ãn tÁj staurèsewj ¹ krÚfioj: Ãsan g¦r tîn Øperšcontaj tÁj qal£sshj katšphxan, éste deinÕn Ãn proŽdèn tij ésper perˆ ›rma perib£lV t¾n naàn. ¢ll¦ kaˆ duÒmenoi ™xšprion misqoà. Ómwj d' aâqij oƒ SurakÒsioi 17 App. Pun. 119. ™staÚrwse p£nta xÚloij Ñxšsin. kaˆ ™pˆ to‹j stauro‹j t¦j młn ¥llaj t£frouj ™car£kwse. ‑ 12 ‑ SBL 2011 that is true also for other members of the group of words of‑ ten labeled as “crucifixion terminology”. They are all used in a wider sense, as Seneca and Jose‑ phus indicates. I see cruces there, not indeed of a single kind but different con‑ structions by different [people]. Some had suspended [their vic‑ tims] with the head toward the ground, others had driven stipes through the private parts [of the victims], others had spread out [their] arms on a patibulum. I see cords, I see scourges, and for each limb and joint there is an engine of torture.18 The famine made them bold [enough] for the excursions and it remained [for them, if] being unseen, to be taken by the enemy. And when caught they defended themselves out of necessity, and after a fight it seemed too late to beg for mercy. They were scourged and subjected to all kinds of outrage in torture until death and suspended [¢nestauroànto] opposite the walls. On the one hand, the calamity seemed pitiable to Titus, when five hun‑ dred or sometimes even more were caught every day; on the oth‑ er hand, he did not think it safe to release those caught by force, and to guard so many would make [them] a watch over those appointed to guard [them]. But surely, the main reason for not ceasing [with the suspensions] was that he believed that they might surrender at this sight, not to be handed over, having to suffer in the same way. So the soldiers, out of rage and hatred, nailed [pros»loun] the captured in different postures for amuse‑ ment, and by way of the multitude, room was wanting for the poles [to‹j stauro‹j] and poles [stauroˆ] [wanting] for the bod‑ ies.19 18 Sen. Dial. 6.20.3. video istic cruces ne unius quidem generis sed aliter ab aliis fabri‑ catas: capite quidam conversos in terram suspendere, alii per obscena stipitem egerunt, alii brachia patibulo explicuerunt; video fidiculas, video verbera, et membris singulis articulis singula nocuerunt machinamenta. 19 Joseph. BJ 5.449–51. tolmhroÝj dł prÕj t¦j ™xÒdouj Ð limÕj ™po…ei, kaˆ katele…peto lanq£nontaj e„j toÝj polem…ouj ¡l…skesqai. lambanÒmenoi dł kat' ¢n£gkhn ºmÚnonto, kaˆ met¦ m£chn ƒketeÚein ¥wron ™dÒkei. MastigoÚmenoi d¾ kaˆ probasanizÒmenoi toà qan£tou p©san a„k…an ¢nestauroànto toà te…couj ¢ntikrÚ. T…tJ młn oân o„ktrÕn tÕ p£qoj katefa…neto, pentakos…wn ˜k£sthj ¹mšraj œsti d' Óte kaˆ pleiÒnwn ¡liskomšnwn, oÜte dł toÝj b…v lhfqšntaj ¢fe‹nai ¢sfalłj kaˆ ful£ttein tosoÚtouj frour¦n tîn fulaxÒntwn ˜èra: tÒ ge m¾n plšon oÙk ™kèluen t£c' ¨n ™ndoànai prÕj t¾n Ôyin ™lp…saj aÙtoÚj <æj>, e„ m¾ parado‹en, Ómoia peisomšnouj. pros»loun dł oƒ stratiîtai di' Ñrg¾n kaˆ m‹soj toÝj ¡lÒntaj ¥llon ¥llJ sc»mati ‑ 13 ‑ SBL 2011 Notice also that Josephus depicts suspension of corpses. So, when it comes to σταυροῦν and σταυρός, it could hardly be said that they mean “to crucify” and “cross”. If we then return to the New Testament and consider the immense weight the two words to σταυροῦν and σταυρός had to car‑ ry, I think we have a problem. The description of the death of Jesus was as have been seen embedded in the semantics of to σταυροῦν and σταυρός, but the meaning of the words is far more ambiguous than commonly supposed. They are not so clear‑cut, as far as their meaning is concerned, as we might think. This affects Mark, as well as the other Gospels. If the passion accounts are taken at face value they show that: 1. Jesus was suspended alive in order to be killed. 2. That Jesus (John) and/or a passer‑by (the synoptics) was forced to carry a σταυρός to the place of execut‑ ion. 3. That Jesus was suspended on a σταυρός apparently by being nailed to his hands. Anything beyond that is simply not present in the texts, nei‑ ther in the biblical nor the older texts. So, if we return to the scholarly contributions regard‑ ing the punishment of crucifixion in general or the death of Jesus in particular, my suggestion is that it will have some consequences. The scholarly contributions are filled with in‑ formation that is not present in the studied texts. These words are without support. And what happens to the religious art? How did they know? What kind of support do the ancient texts lend to these detailed accounts? Not much… prÕj cleÚhn, kaˆ di¦ tÕ plÁqoj cèra t' ™nšleipe to‹j stauro‹j kaˆ stauroˆ to‹j sèmasin. ‑ 14 ‑ SBL 2011 So, my research has dealt with the level of information that could be found in the ancient text regarding how Jesus died. I have not dealt with the question if or why Jesus died. These questions are to be found on the historical and theo‑ logical level, and that is beyond the scope of my research. So, central Christian statements such as • • • • • That Jesus is the Son of God That he died for the sins of man That he has redeemed the world That he rose from the dead on the third day That he will return in glory to judge the living and dead have not been addressed by me. I have adressed the ques‑ tion about how the texts describe the event by which this was achieved. This was an attempt to illustrate the research that end‑ ed up in my doctoral thesis. Mohr Siebeck will publish it in the WUNT‑series later this summer. More information about my research and its reception could be found on www.exegetics.org. ‑ 15 ‑