The African Topographical lists of the New Kingdom and the Historical Geography of Nubia in the Second Millenium BCE

ORIENTALIA LOVANIENSIA ANALECTA ————— 273 ————— PUBLICATIONS DE LA MISSION ARCHÉOLOGIQUE SUISSE À KERMA 1 NUBIAN ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE XXIST CENTURY Proceedings of the Thirteenth International Conference for Nubian Studies, Neuchâtel, 1st-6th September 2014 edited by MATTHIEU HONEGGER PEETERS LEUVEN – PARIS – BRISTOL, CT 2018  CONTENTS preface � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �XIII acknowledgments � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � XV maIn papers prehIstory In central sudan �������������������������������������������������������������������3 Donatella Usai new data on the orIgIns of kerma � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 19 Matthieu Honegger kerma ancIen cemeterIes: from the batn el-hajar to the fourth cataract � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 35 Derek A. Welsby the nubIan ceremonIal cIty of dokkI gel-kerma and the menenu of thutmose I� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 65 Charles Bonnet colonIal entanglements� ImmIgratIon, acculturatIon and hybrIdIty In new kIngdom nubIa (tombos) � � � � � 71 Stuart Tyson Smith InsIght Into the perceptIon of royal and dIVIne powers among kushItes and egyptIans � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 91 Luc Gabolde about the autonomy of the arts of ancIent sudan � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 105 Dietrich Wildung the perIods of kushIte hIstory � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 113 László Török long dIstance trade: the eVIdence from sanam � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 127 Irene Vincentelli back to the sources: egyptIan-nubIan relatIons under baybars (1260-1277) accordIng to the earlIest arabIc accounts � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 135 Robin Seignobos nubIan fortIfIcatIons In the mIddle ages � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 149 Bogdan Żurawski, Mariusz Drzewiecki, Marcin Wiewióra and Aneta Cedro the makurIan church and Its church archItecture � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 161 Włodzimierz Godlewski note on the qatar-sudan archaeologIcal project (qsap) InternatIonal cooperatIon for the promotIon of the antIquItIes of the mIddle nIle regIon � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 173 Salah Eldin Mohammed Ahmed VI prehIstory acheulean stone tools from jebel elgrIan sIte east of the lower atbara rIVer, sudan: techno-typologIcal study � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 179 Ahmed Hamid Nassr the productIon and consumptIon of ostrIch eggshell beads at the mesolIthIc sIte of sphInX (sbk�w-60), jebel sabaloka: VIew from trench 2 (2012) � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 195 Zdeňka Sůvová, Lenka Varadzinová, Václav Cílek, Martin Odler, Petr Pokorný, Ladislav Varadzin the fIrIng IndeX of the prehIstorIc pottery In sudan � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 203 Abdelrahim Mohammed Khabir stratIgraphy of the kadero neolIthIc cemetery � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 215 Marek Chłodnicki jebel uweInat: more than rock art � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 223 Maria Emilia Peroschi, Flavio Cambieri and Maria L. De Santis protohIstory the ‘end’ of an era: a reVIew of the phasIng system for the late c-group and pan-graVe cultures � � � � � � 233 Aaron de Souza nubIan pottery assemblage from the c-group cemetery hk27c at hIerakonpolIs � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 243 Marie-Kristin Schröder decolonIzIng reIsner: a case study of a classIc kerma female burIal for reInterpretIng early nubIan archaeologIcal collectIons through dIgItal archIVal resources � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 251 Elizabeth Minor the chronology of the transItIon between the gash group and the jebel mokram group of eastern sudan (2nd mIllennIum bc)� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 263 Andrea Manzo egypt eXploItIng the southern lands: ancIent egyptIan quarryIng, mInIng, and trade mIssIons to nubIa and punt durIng the old kIngdom � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 277 Maksim Lebedev the fortIfIed pharaonIc town on saI Island: new results from current fIeldwork (2013-2014) � � � � � � � � � 293 Julia Budka the three faces of IsIs � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 301 William Yewdale Adams and Nettie K. Adams  VII napata lIfe and death In upper nubIa durIng the transItIon to nubIan rule: thIrd IntermedIate and napatan perIod tombos � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 309 Michele R. Buzon the boston museum of fIne arts pottery from the twenty-fIfth dynasty tombs at el-kurru and nurI� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 317 Lisa A. Heidorn recent work In the 25th dynasty tombs of queen qalhata and kIng tanwetamanI at el kurru � � � � � � � � � � 333 Rachael Jane Dann sedeInga: a regIonal capItal In the kIngdom of kush � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 339 Vincent Francigny legItImacy and erasures: aspelta as kIng of kush � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 345 Roberto Bruno Gozzoli the book of the dead In the napatan perIod� the fIrst eVIdence of chapter lIX on a royal offerIng table datIng from the 5th century bce � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 353 Simone Petacchi functIon and sIgnIfIcance of the napatan cylIndrIcal sheaths � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 365 Amarillis Pompei meroe defInIng the meroItIc palace � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 377 Sarah M. Schellinger new lIght on three statues from the barkal cemetery � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 389 Nashat Alzohary ItalIan eXcaVatIons In the palace of natakamanI at napata (b 1500)� notes from the seasons 2011-2013 � � 397 Emanuele M. Ciampini recent dIscoVerIes at dangeIl, nIle state: eXplorIng the amun temple compleX � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 407 Julie Renee Anderson, Mahmoud Suliman Bashir and Salah Mohamed Ahmed the typhonIum of wad ben naga � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 415 Pavel Onderka and Vlastimil Vrtal the remnants of a temple compleX at abu erteIla I � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 423 Eleonora Kormysheva archItectural eVIdences from abu erteIla � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 439 Eugenio Fantusati a new meroItIc compleX – abasseya project (karIma, sudan) � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 449 Montserrat Díaz-De-Cerio VIII nos premIères sources sur le bélIer de soba rem 0001: le bourguIgnon pIerre trémauX, johannes dümIchen et le VénItIen gIoVannI mIanI � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 457 Vincent Rondot and Daniel Claustre the amIr abdallah cemetery (abrI, sudan) and the emergence of meroItIc socIal compleXIty � � � � � � � � � � 473 Víctor M. Fernández funerary ceramIcs and meroItIc economy: a fIrst InsIght� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 481 Romain David meroItIc pottery from temple b 560 at jebel barkal � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 489 Dobiesława Bagińska meroItIc pottery from natakamanI’s palace In jebel barkal: prelImInary report on 2011-2013 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 505 the results of seasons Grażyna Bąkowska-Czerner the pottery to the south of the royal cIty of meroe: the case of abu erteIla as a potentIal productIon center � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 513 Svetlana Malykh archaeometry and new technologIes In kushIte nubIa � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 519 Marco Baldi, Fabio Bellatreccia, Armida Sodo, Annalaura Casanova Municchia and Mario Gaeta the quarry landscape at meroe, sudan � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 529 Brigitte Cech, Frank Stremke, Alexandra Steiner, Thilo Rehren and Ali Mohamed Abdelrahman reflectIons on hafIrs In the butana regIon � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 543 Negood Hassan Bashier beauty and the beast – a tale of small fInds from the muweIs eXcaVatIons � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 547 Elisabeth David Venerated elders: age as potentIal socIal construct In meroItIc kush � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 553 Debora Heard an unusual object from the palace at wad ben naga: the fragment of ‘tIle’, khartoum snm 62/10/87� an essay of InterpretatIon� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 565 Aminata Sackho-Autissier mIddle ages meroItIc cemetery 100 of gammaI and Its hIstorIcal background � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 571 Tsubasa Sakamoto the dIscoVery of ezana’s capItal In the heartland of ancIent meroe � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 581 Ali Osman Mohammed Salih short and long dIstance contacts of late antIque nubIa: a VIew through the bead hole � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 587 Joanna Then-Obłuska  IX from cottonfIelds to pastures: the transItIon from cotton to wool clothIng In nubIa� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 597 Nettie K. Adams Iron technology In the fortIfIed cIty of mao (central darfur) In the fIrst mIllennIum ad � � � � � � � � � � � � � 605 Ibrahim Musa seVenth century pottery from old dongola In the lIght of recent fInds from palatIal buIldIng b�I� � � � � � 609 Katarzyna A. Danys the kIng and the cross, the Iconography of a paIntIng In the throne-hall of dongola � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 615 Karel Innemée and Dobrochna Zielińska costume and IdentIty: the mInIature of ms� or� quart� 1020 (berlIn, staatsbIblIothek)� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 625 Magdalena M. Wozniak progress of work on the corpus of old nubIan teXts from sr022�a � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 631 Alexandros Tsakos archaeology, trade and pIlgrImage at suakIn � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 635 Laurence Smith, Jacke Phillips, Shadia Taha, Michael D. S. Mallinson, Katherine S. Ashley and Abdelrahman Ali Mohamed towards a hIstorIcal archaeology of ottoman nubIa � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 645 David Edwards epIgraphy and lInguIstIcs the contrIbutIon of epIgraphIc data to the hIstory of the sIte of dukkI gel/pnubs after twenty years of eXcaVatIon � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 663 Dominique Valbelle the afrIcan topographIcal lIsts of the new kIngdom and the hIstorIcal geography of nubIa In the second mIllennIum bce � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 669 Julien Cooper the kIng of meluhha Is not a kIng of kush, but probably a medjay chIeftaIn, once agaIn and more about It � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 681 Danièle Michaux-Colombot a study of the meroItIc InscrIptIon rem1141 � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 701 Gilda Ferrandino a short hIstory of bIble translatIon Into nIle nubIan In the 19th and 20th centurIes � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 717 Gerald Lauche ezana of aXum InVasIon of the land of the meroItes� ‘a local commIssIon’? � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 723 Omer Hag Elzaki eXplorIng nubIan toponymy In Its tradItIonal enVIronment � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 731 Herman Bell X fortIfIcatIons recent work at hIsn al-bab � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 741 Pamela Rose the castle of ez-zuma: an uneXplored eXample of medIeVal presence near karIma � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 749 Mohammed El Toum gala abu ahmed - beads In a fortress � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 753 Miriam Lahitte and Małgorzata Daszkiewicz the role of marrIage In spatIal patternIng: jawgul VIllage case study � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 759 Mariusz Drzewiecki cultural herItage the spheres and challenges of herItage conserVatIon In the sudan � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 769 Marc Bundi early photography and the ancIent monuments of sudan� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 773 Michael H. Zach photographs of spanIsh eXcaVatIons In sudanese nubIa� an unpublIshed album� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 785 Salomé Zurinaga Fernández-Toribio nubIa and nubIans: ‘dIggIng’ In museums � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 799 Costanza De Simone bIoanthropology bIologIcal affInIty of the mesolIthIc and neolIthIc populatIons from el-barga, sudan: the dental remaIns � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 805 Anne-Sophie Benoiston, Priscilla Bayle and Isabelle Crevecoeur populatIon from the kerma eastern cemetery : bIologIcal IdentIty and funerary practIces � � � � � � � � � � � � 817 Camille Fallet archery In the meroItIc perIod: new bIoarchaeologIcal eVIdence from wtc cemetery, dangeIl, sudan �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 823 Anna Pieri and Mahmoud Suliman Bashir human and anImal remaIns at abu erteIla: lIfe and death at a meroItIc and medIeVal ‘chrIstIan’ sIte � � � 831 Richard Lobban and Angel Desmarais all that remaIns ? a VIrtual collectIon for the archaeologIcal surVey of nubIa � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 835 Jenefer Cockitt, Norman MacLeod and Rosalie David  XI man and anImal the deformatIon of cattle horn In past and present socIetIes: a persIstent pastoral tradItIon In afrIca 845 Jérôme Dubosson honey huntIng and managed beekeepIng In ancIent and contemporary sudan � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 855 Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban anImal eXploItatIon at mouweIs (sudan) durIng the meroItIc: prelImInary results � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 861 Caroline Lachiche and Louis Chaix the role of mollusca In ancIent nubIa and the sudan: archaeologIcal and ethnoarchaeologIcal approaches � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 865 Hamad Mohamed Hamdeen and Ali Osman Mohamed Salih surVey and fIeldwork archaeologIcal satellIte Imagery-based remote sensIng In the bayuda and the western desert (northern sudan) � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 873 Jana Eger wadI abu dom ItInerary, general oVerVIew oVer the fIrst fIVe seasons� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 879 Angelika Lohwasser some ruIns on the west bank of the rIVer nIle In kalI VIllage close to the bajrawIya pyramIds � � � � � � � � � 887 Nada Babiker Mohammed Ibrahim the recent archaeologIcal dIscoVerIes along the eastern bank of the whIte nIle – the 9th season � � � � � 893 Khider Adam Eisa wad shanaIna sIte from the realIty of the archaeologIcal eVIdences � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 899 Mohammed Alfatih Hayati the pottery of the late phases of the eastern sudan cultural sequence (ca� mId-1st mIll� bc-mId� 2nd mIll� ad): a prelImInary agenda � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 905 Valentina Perna new sItes for the study of ancIent eastern sudan: recent deVelopments In the study of settlement pattern In kassala regIon � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 913 Vincenzo Zoppi a case-study on the InterpretatIon of socIo-cultural practIce of kenuz-nubIans � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 919 Lilli Zabrana contrIbutors � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 927  THE AFRICAN TOPOGRAPHICAL LISTS OF THE NEW KINGDOM AND THE HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NUBIA IN THE SECOND MILLENNIUM BCE Julien COOPER Introduction nak (Jacquet-Gordon 1981), meaning that such lists were already commonplace in the early New Kingdom. An enduring genre of onomastica in the New King- The most comprehensive list is that of Thutmosis III dom are the so-called ‘Topographical Lists’, a list of (Urk.,9DIWHUZKLFKWKHOLVWVDUHDUHODWLYHO\ place names inscribed on temple façades and statues, frequent feature of temple and statue epigraphy enumerating foreign places, which at least in Egyptian throughout the New Kingdom and later. A complete rhetorical dogma were considered to be ritually con- inventory of all the separate lists is present in Zibelius quered.1 The lists were epigraphically divided into two Afrikanische Orts- und Völkernamen. Later lists appear sections, a ‘southern’ Nubian section, and a ‘northern’ to copy the same stock of place names in the Thutmosis Asiatic section. A holistic study of these lists, taking III list, but some lists also added ‘new’ toponymic into account scribal copying, epigraphic and textual material. As the Thutmosis III list contains by far the analysis as well as linguistic concerns would quickly greatest number of place names, this list is usually the ¿OODPRQRJUDSK7KLVVWXG\SURYLGHVDQDQDO\VLVRIWKH entry point in all studies of historical geography, as it some geographic and linguistic problems posed by the is considered somewhat canonical, providing a reper- VRXWKHUQOLVWV0RUHVSHFL¿FDOO\WKLVSDSHULVFRQ¿QHG toire of several hundred place names in the Middle Nile to notes on a locational analysis of toponyms in the region. However, it is not clear if this list is in itself a lists, as well as commenting on the phonology of the redaction from a much larger Hauptvorlage, or indeed place names in order to trace the linguistic history of if the Thutmosis III list represented the ‘canon’ of the Middle Nile region. known place names in the early New Kingdom. These lists in themselves have been the subject of various studies by Tomkins (1889), Schiaparelli (1916), Zyhlarz (1958), Zibelius (1972), and Priese (1984) and Place names in the list recent contributions by Minault-Gordon (1994) and If it were not for the existence of well-known topo- 6WRFN¿VFK  KDYH HYDOXDWHG VRPH RI WKH JHR- nyms in the list, the geographic interpretation would graphic and copying issues related to the southern lists. indeed be impossible. Most southern lists begin with Indeed, all these authorities have at various points prof- the toponymic ‘headword’ of ‘Kush’, while the long fered locations for a number of place names in the list, Thutmosis III list includes other entities such as Irem but only Priese’s and Zibelius’ analyses were based on (Irm), Wawat (WAwAt), Punt (Pwnt), Wetenet (Wtnt), any established method and comparison with other and Libya (*Hnw). Using these well-known place toponymic traditions. Priese compared a number of names as a guide, most scholars have seen in these top- place names in the list to modern toponyms as well as onyms ‘headwords’, each beginning a new section of toponyms known from Arabic and Classical sources, SODFHQDPHVZLWKLQHDFKUHJLRQ2¶&RQQRU while Zibelius’s compendium summarised many of the (VSLQHO   7KH JHRJUDSKLFDO LQWHUSUHWD- arguments for the location of these place names in pre- WLRQRIWKH7KXWPRVLV,,,OLVWKRZHYHUEHFRPHVGLI¿- vious scholarship. Even after these works, there is very cult after the Medja section. In the jargon of toponymy, OLWWOH LQ WKH ZD\ RI SRVLWLYH LGHQWL¿FDWLRQV EHWZHHQ each of these ‘headword’ names can be considered place names in the Topographical Lists and contempo- ‘choronyms’, place names that designate a large areal rary locations in modern Egypt and Sudan. expanse. Each ‘choronym’ thus acts as a heading for 7KH¿UVWFKURQRORJLFDOLQVWDQFHRIWKH7RSRJUDSKLFDO SUHVXPDEO\PRUHVSHFL¿FDQG¿QLWHSODFHQDPHVZLWKLQ Lists is a fragment belonging to Thutmosis I from Kar- each region. The alternative suggestion entertained by 1 Posener (1958, 47-49) in relation to the place name I would like to thank Ellen Ryan for assisting me with tabulating the data for this paper and Milena Kooyman for commenting on Kush (KS), namely that these headwords refer to small a draft of this work. regions and only by association referred to larger areas,  J. COOPER is unconvincing, as even by the Middle Kingdom place but few of these should be retained as they are little names like Punt, Wawat, and Medja designated large more than guesswork and do not accord to the broad regions and not small regions or towns. It is unclear if structure of the lists. A few possibilities were also iden- each successive place name listed under a headword WL¿HGE\3ULHVHLQKLVFRPSDULVRQRIWKHFODVVLFDOLWLQ- designates a settlement, a natural feature, or even a HUDULHV RI -XED DQG %LRQ 3ULHVH  FHN ,,,  tribe, but comparisons with the Asiatic list might sug-  7|U|N   6RPH RI 3ULHVH¶V gest the possibility that Egyptians included all of the LGHQWL¿FDWLRQVVHHPTXLWHFRQYLQFLQJIRUSKRQHWLFUHD- above in the Topographical Lists (see Redford 1982, sons, for instances no. 46 IspAw ‫ݕݦ‬SOX‫ ޝ‬IRU PRGHUQ :LOVRQ Shablul or 25. IAntm‫ݦ‬OQWPIRU%LRQ¶VLintuma (some- 7KH FKRURQ\PV DUH LQ WKH RUGHU .XVK QRV  where near Abka). Other equations, like no. 2 Itr for Irem (11-23), Wawat (24-47), Punt (48-63), Wetenet modern Atiri (near Semna) seem possible phonetically, (64-77), Medja (77-85), and ‘Others’ (maybe Libya or but can hardly be admitted on geographical criteria as (DVWHUQ'HVHUW7KHODVWVHFWLRQLVGLI¿FXOWWR Itr is listed next to Miw, the name for the region near analyse, and it cannot be certain if the place names are Kurgus. Such problems might come about due to the located in riverine Nubia or perhaps the Eastern or use of common toponymic generic terms amongst lan- Western Desert of Lower or Upper Nubia (Fig. 1). guages of the Middle Nile. There is also the so-called ‘Supplementary List’, which Some place names in the list seem to have cognates haphazardly reproduces some names from the previous with the Florence-Buhen Stele of Senwosret I (Edel list, but most of the names are unknown from Topo- 6R!Aw of the Florence Stele is probably graphical Lists or indeed any Egyptian document. The the same as IhAw of the New Kingdom list. The YA of locations of these ‘choronyms’ in the Thutmosis III list Florence stele may be equated with YwA of the New gives a broad idea of where the respective names may Kingdom list. The place name ISmk of the Florence- be located. The Kush names are likely to be located in %XKHQ 6WHOH LV OLNHO\ LGHQWL¿DEOH ZLWK DQ LVODQG VWLOO Upper Nubia from the Third Cataract and extending at called ‘Ashmeik’ north of Sai, so a few of the place least towards Abu Hamed. The Irem names may be names in the Lower Nubian section have good cognates south beyond this frontier. The Wawat names must in an earlier Middle Kingdom list (Priese 1974, 32). A include places in Lower Nubia, perhaps as far as the few names in this list, such as no. 19. Mrkr, may also Second or Third Cataract. Scholarly consensus usually be compared with an earlier form (MAkA) in the Execra- places Punt in the coastal regions of Sudan and Eritrea tion Texts (Priese 1974, 32-33). No. 8 %rnyk /sdnjk/ is .LWFKHQ  )DWWRYLFK 7KLV UHJLRQ ZDV FHU- most likely still extant in the modern toponym Sede- WDLQO\DFFHVVLEOHDORQJWKH5HG6HDFRDVWDVWKH¿QGV inga (Khalil 1988, 17), especially given that Egyptian at Mersa Gawasis demonstrate (Bard & Fattovich r could correspond to foreign /d/ (Hoch 1994, 63-64, 7KHUHZDVDOVRDQLQODQGURXWHWR3XQWNQRZQ =LEHOLXV&KHQ'DYLHV¶VFRP- as the wA.wt-Hr.(w)t ‘upper-roads’ in Hatshepsut’s Punt mentary of an inscription mentioning Miw (no. 4) at narrative (Urk ,9  7KLV URXWH PD\ KDYH OHG Hagr el-Merwa has demonstrated that this place name over the Red Sea Hills from somewhere in Upper likely refers to the local region around Kurgus and Abu Nubia, perhaps using the Atbara River or else striking +DPHG 'DYLHV   6XJJHVWLYHO\ RWKHU WRS- south-east from the Fifth Cataract. The toponym Wtnt onyms in the Kush list near Miw might designate places is known to be on the Red Sea from a cosmographical in this region between Abu Hamed and Dongola (the text of the The Book of the Day 0OOHU5RWK  Fourth Cataract). This may place the preceding place 155-156), and was the location of ebony and baboons names, Itr and Itrmiw, south of the Kurgus frontier in (GHO$VVPDQQVRLWWRRPLJKW the Fifth Cataract region. The place name KAAm (no. have been located on a relatively fertile part of the Red 72) of the Wtnt list was compared by Zibelius (1972, Sea coast, perhaps near Tokar or Suakin. The Medja  WR KAAw of the biography of Weni. These names must be somewhere in the Eastern Desert of place names may well be identical, but both can be Lower and Upper Nubia, in the broad region of the Red explained by a common Cushitic root for ‘river-valley’, Sea Hills. kwԥr(O6D\HGIRUUHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWKH Apart from these headwords, the individual place URRWVHH$SSOH\DUGVRWKH\GRQRWQHFHVVDU- QDPHV DUH KRZHYHU GLI¿FXOW RU LPSRVVLEOH WR ORFDWH ily refer to the same locality. The vexed problem of the =\KODU]DWWHPSWHGDJUHDWPDQ\LGHQWL¿FDWLRQV location of Irem means that the location of the top-  THE AFRICAN TOPOGRAPHICAL LISTS 671 onyms in the Irem-list (no. 11-23) are as yet unknown. Irem has been variably located to the east of the Nile (Zibelius-Chen 1994, 414-415), as well as in Butana- Shendi in the analysis of O’Connor (1987). The name Gwrwb (no. 15) was equated with Kulbenarti, Old Nubian ‘Island-of-Kulb’ by Bechhaus-Gerst (1989,  %XW WKLV SODFHPHQW ZRXOG LQWHUUXSW WKH ORJLF RI the list somewhat as it is in the Irem section. The word Gwrwb itself can explained via a connection to the common Cushitic root for ‘knee’, gulub (see Appleyard   3HUKDSV WKHQ WKLV SODFH QDPH OLNH kwԥU above) might be a common element in several different Nubian toponyms. The place name &p-Nxb ‘Head of Nekheb’ (no. 91) was considered by O’Connor (1982, 931) to refer to a region proximal to Nekheb (El-Kab), perhaps suggest- ing the peninsula of Ras Banas on the Red Sea shore near Berenike. The toponym @wa.t is known from the so-called Bubastite fragment of Amenhotep III )DXONQHU7RSR]DGDEXWWKHUH is little agreement on where this campaign took place. No. 85 ZATw returns to somewhere on the Nubian Nile Figure 1. Map of the Middle Nile Region following the according to its use in Old Kingdom texts (Zibelius Topographical Lists of Thutmosis III, with place names &RRSHUDQGQRBAk.t occurs mentioned in the text. Dotted red-lines represent postulated itineraries. elsewhere in a relief of Sahure’s Funerary Temple (Bor- FKDUGW¿JZKHUHLWLVDVVRFLDWHGZLWK/LE\DQV But no. 88 *Hnw and no. 92 BASDUHGH¿QLWLYHO\/LE\DQ place names, so the list seems to produce a haphazard geographical sequence after the Medja place names. guarantee that aleph was a vowel in the name for Mersa The place name Knzt (no. 86) well-known from myth- Gawasis (A usually equals /r/ in the Middle Kingdom). ological texts, has not been located, and it probably 8OWLPDWHO\LWLVGLI¿FXOWWRORFDWHWKHVHSODFHQDPHV referred to some broad Nubian region (see Junker 1917, due to the fact that we only have sporadic local records  6RPH RI WKH QDPHV OLVWHG DIWHU *Hnw have of local toponymy. Successive migrations of various Eastern-Sudanic peoples and other linguistic groups Egyptian etymologies, so it would make sense if the list probably changed much of the toponymic repertoire of is moving into territory closer to Egypt, perhaps in the the Nile Valley even before the Arabisation of Sudan in Eastern or Western Deserts. Apart from &p-Nxb, there the late medieval period. The migration events that is &A-smi ‘Land of Pasture’ (no. 94), #As.t ‘Hill-coun- caused Nara and Kunama to occupy regions of Eritrea try’ (no. 95), BHs.t µ+XQWLQJRQH¶ QR  Zwi ‘to have great potential to change our picture of the lan- drink’ (no. 111), @w.t-ZmA.w ‘mansion of landing’ (no. guages of the Nile Valley. Thus, the Middle Nile has 114), IAw ‘old’ (no. 115).2 The place name Zwi was precious few contemporary place names datable to the considered by Sayed and O’Connor (1982, 931) and Second Millenium BCE, especially in comparison to Sayed (1977, 175) to be a variant of ZAww, the name the Egyptian Nile. for Mersa Gawasis (see also Gomaà 1987, 277), but It is striking that none of the well-known Egyptian one should caution against this approach as there is no centres in Lower or Upper Nubia such as Buhen (Bhn), Aniba (Miam), Sai (^Aa.t), Gebel Barkal (Nsw-tA.wy) are 2 @w.t-zmA.w is translated here on the analogy with the expression included in these lists. The reasons for this absence is tA-zmA ‘landing place’ (Wb. 3, 448). The word could also refer to zmA.w ‘branches, twigs’ (Wb.UDWKHUWKDQDYHUEDOURRW unknown, but might be because there was no need to zmA ‘to land, join’. include Egyptian establishments and forts in the list as 672 J. COOPER these names were Egyptian establishments tacitly under lists, namely that ‘new additions’ in the lists might rep- Egyptian control. A comparison with the Asiatic list resent the inclusion of contemporary campaigns. Many shows that it too did not include frontier forts on the additions occur in the Topographical Lists of the New Ways of Horus or localities in the Sinai mining regions. Kingdom, but the lack of distinctive headwords in these ,W PLJKW EH WKHQ WKDW WKH 7RSRJUDSKLFDO /LVWV VSHFL¿- OLVWVPDNingLWGLI¿FXOWWRLGHQWLI\WKHORFDWLRQRIWKHVH cally included foreign locales beyond direct Egyptian names. control. The only restriction to this was of course the fact that the southern lists often included &A-Sma.w Nubian Itineraries ‘Upper Egypt’, meaning that Egypt and Egyptians were also capable of interrupting order. This may relate to The toponymy of the northern Asiatic lists is, in the ritual function of the list, which were clearly relative terms, much easier to analyse, as the place designed to communicate the subservience of foreign names may be compared with names found in Near places (and peoples) to Egypt. In such a ritual purpose, Eastern texts, particularly the Amarna letters. Indeed, places that were already under Egyptian hegemony or many place names in this list survive to the modern colonial control would not need to be included. There day, such as ak > Akko, ISqln > Ashkelon, &msq > are however, problems with this approach, as in some Damascus. Some scholars have considered certain por- renditions of the lists ‘Upper Egypt’ (Sma.w) is included. WLRQV DV UHSUHVHQWLQJ ¿QLWH µLWLQHUDULHV¶ WKDW LV JURXSV The function of the lists was thus apotropaic, including of place names in the list represent a route through a places that had the potential to disturb universal order given region of the Levant, such as a Transjordanian (mAa.tVHH:LOVRQ0DUWLQH] route leading to Damascus or routes in the Beqa Valley It may have been redundant for Egyptians to include LQ /HEDQRQ 5HGIRUG  .LWFKHQ   fortresses, temples, and other Egyptian establishments The list of Greek and Cretan names at Amenhotep III’s in such lists if the express purpose of the list was to funerary temple at Kom el-Hettan is also considered to ritually quell any foreign insubordination. be a cyclical maritime itinerary through Aegean isles, Additions to the Thutmosis III list – Ikyt and Ibht although this has been placed in some doubt by recent In a list dating to the reign of Thutmosis IV, a new UHVHDUFKRQ$HJHDQWRSRQ\P\&OLQH 6WDQQLVK place name, Ikyt, was added to the ‘canonical’ list of 11). Whether such a route or itinerary logic is also at Thutmosis III (El-Razik 1971). Indeed, after this reign play in the Nubian lists is indeed possible, but there is it became quite common for lists to add newer place little proof of this as too few toponyms have a safely QDPHV 7KHVH SODFH QDPHV DUH HDVLO\ LGHQWL¿DEOH QRW LGHQWL¿DEOH ORFDWLRQ 1HYHUWKHOHVV VFKRODUV KDYH DOVR only by their absence in the earlier Thutmosis III list, supposed that such itineraries do exist in the southern but also by their orthography, as all new names seem list. In particular, Schiaparelli (1916, 124) and de Rom- to use consonant-vowel groups (particularly CA) in the anis (1996, 147-156) proposed a Red Sea itinerary for so-called ‘group-orthography’ common in New King- the Puntite place names. The names of the Kush and dom loanwords. The name Ikyt (IkAyt) is well known Wawat sections of the Thutmosis III list may represent from New Kingdom texts as the location of goldmines itineraries along the Nile in Upper and Lower Nubia. in the Wadi Allaqi (Zibelius-Chen 1994). It might not But there are indeed a myriad of possible routes and EHFRLQFLGHQWDOWKDWWKLVQDPHLV¿UVWIRXQGLQDOLVWRI tracks that could produce such itineraries. Egyptians Thutmosis IV, as in his Konosso Stele (Urk. IV, may have included place names east and west of the 1547.17) he enumerates a campaign against the ‘secret Nile. The Medja-section could enumerate place names valleys’ (in.wt-StA.w) of the Eastern Desert (xAs.t-iAb.t). along the Wadi Allaqi and/or the Korosko Road (Piotro- Ikyt occurs along with another Eastern Desert place YVNL'DYLHV7KH,UHPFDPSDLJQRI6HWL, name Ibht on the statue base list of Amenhotep III travelled overland (O’Connor 1987, 111-112) from the (Louvre A18, see Varille 1935, 161-171). The Upper Nile, possibly by means of the Wadi Abu Dom or some Nubian place name Karoy (Qry/Kry), the Egyptian RWKHUURXWHLQWKH%D\XGD'HVHUWVHH/RKZDVVHU VRXWKHUQIURQWLHURFFXUVIRUWKH¿UVWWLPHLQWKH7RSR- 425-435). One might also entertain routes leading west graphical lists on a small chariot-list of Thutmosis IV of the Nile along Wadi el-Malik or Wadi Howar where and is a somewhat regular feature in the lists thereafter 1DSDWDQ HUD IRUWV KDYH EHHQ GLVFRYHUHG .U|SHOLQ (Urk. ,9  7KH DSSHDUDQFH RI µQHZ¶ QDPHV 7KHLQFOXVLRQRI*Hnw in the list might refer to brings up a crucial point relating to the creation of the a Libyan itinerary following the Marmarica coast or  THE AFRICAN TOPOGRAPHICAL LISTS 673 some desert routes leading away from the oases. These 6FKQHLGHU%UH\HUEXWWKH itineraries and routes must remain mere hypotheses, evidence for these languages in historical Nubia is rel- and further research from the perspective of toponymy atively scarce and is restricted to a few lexical items LVUHTXLUHGWREHFHUWDLQRIWKHVHLGHQWL¿FDWLRQV(YHQ 5LOO\,QGHHGZKLOHWKHUHLVHYLGHQFHRI%HUEHU with this knowledge, no itinerary can be easily recon- lexical items in ancient Egyptian texts, there is nothing VWUXFWHG 7DNH IRU LQVWDQFH WKH .XVKOLVW QRV  in the lexical evidence that would readily suggest that Position 4 is Miw, near Kurgus, but position 8 is %rnyk, Berber was spoken on or near the Nubian Nile rather Sedeinga ,I WKHVH LGHQWL¿FDWLRQV DUH FRUUHFW WKHQ WKH than regions of the Western Desert. list is not a local level itinerary at all, but enumerates It is indeed likely that other Eastern-Sudanic lan- presumably major centres between the Fifth and Sec- guages were spoken on the Middle Nile such as Nara. ond Cataracts. Such an order is consistent with the pat- Both Eastern-Sudanic and Cushitic languages can be tern in the Asiatic lists which begin with localities fur- FRQ¿UPHG IURP WKH ([HFUDWLRQ 7H[WV DQG RWKHU RQR- ther from Egypt and then continue with names closer PDVWLFDLQWKH0LGGOH.LQJGRP5LOO\7KH to Egypt. Nubian languages of the Nile River (Old Nubian, Kenzi, Dongolawi and Nobiin) are generally consid- ered to be the result of a much later migration to the The Languages of Nubia Nile who may have displaced a pre-Nara speaking Place names have been used by many linguists and SRSXODWLRQ5LOO\DQGDUHDVVXFKQRWUHO- historians to illustrate the historical presence of ethno- evant to the discussion here. One cannot preclude the linguistic groups, for example, Norse speakers in the existence of unknown relict populations of other phy- British Isles or Arabic speakers in Andalusia. The dif- lums of Afroasiatic or Nilo-Saharan languages in his- ¿FXOW\RIXVLQJWKLVPHWKRGLQWKH0LGGOH1LOHLVWKDW torical Nubia. Nor is the ancient location and distribu- there were probably many phases of migrations undoc- tion of much of the Cushitic phylum ascertainable, so umented by history. The relatively modern migration of it may well be that a member of the Agaw or Highland Arabic speakers into the region has also eradicated East Cushitic group was spoken on the Nile or Atbara much of the older strata of toponyms. The Middle Nile rivers in antiquity. has a highly complex linguistic make-up, and there are A number of names from the Thutmosis III list can a number of problems in reconstructing the ancient lin- be tentatively associated with lexical items in these lan- guistic map of Nubia (see Bechhaus-Gerst 1989 and guages. No. 67 IbPLJKWEH%HMD‫ݦ‬DEEDµZDGL¶DQGQR 5LOO\ 74. Ift appears to be a common Afroasiatic (Cushitic/ The only certainly known ancient languages of the (WKLRVHPLWLF ZRUG IRU µPRXWK¶ ‫ݦ‬I3 The place name Second Millenium BCE in the Middle Nile region is IwSi (no. 84) of the Medja-list can be compared with Meroitic and Beja, or more correctly pre-Meroitic and Beja yuwaš ‘dirt’ or ušee ‘district, place’ and _wh (no. pre-Beja. In a series of publications Rilly has shown  PLJKW EH IDYRXUDEO\ LGHQWL¿HG ZLWK %HMD daiw that Meroitic was likely a migrant to the Middle Nile ‘khor with trees’ VHH%ODåHN5HLQLVFK IURPUHJLRQVIXUWKHUZHVW5LOO\IRUDQ 1895, 243).4 The ‘new list’ of statue Louvre A 18 of RYHUYLHZVHHDOVR%UH\HU7KHPRGHUQ Amenhotep III (Urk. IV, 1742. 11) preserves a name distribution of Nilo-Saharan languages leaves many PArAmk /pVdVmk/, which could be an early form of the questions as to the distribution of Eastern Sudanic lan- Meroitic god’s name Apedemak.5 Many of the names guages in the Ancient Middle Nile. Lexical studies by on this stele begin with the segment p- (Pmyk, Pmyw, =LEHOLXV&KHQDQG(O6D\HGKDYHSURYHQ PTkwy, Prmk) possibly alluding to a morphological pre- the existence of a pre-Beja language in the Eastern Desert. Based on the presence of certain loanwords in 3 In geographic parlance, this root could have meanings like Egyptian, it is likely that the Middle Nile was also ‘entrance, edge, border’, see Leslau 1991, 8-9. 4 Other Beja geographical terms like doi ‘path’, dhi ‘ravine’, or likely inhabited by speakers of other Cushitic languages dauha ‘Linaria macilenta¶DÀRZHUVKRXOGDOVREHQRWHGVHH (Bechhaus-Gerst 1989, 88-89) from the Highland East- %OD]HNDQG5HLQLVFK Cushitic, Agaw, or Lowland East Cushitic families (see 5 3UREDEO\WREHUHFRQVWUXFWHGDV S‫ܩ‬PNVHH5LOO\ GH9RRJW 7DNiFV   2WKHU VFKRODUV KDYH SURSRVHG WKH $QRWKHUDSSURDFKZRXOGEHWRHTXDWHWKLVSODFH name with the Meroitic name for Amara or Qasr Ibrim (both presence of Berber languages on the Nubian Nile due PedemeZLWKWKHVXI¿[–k attached, for the Meroitic names see to some Berber cognates in foreign onomastic material 5LOO\ GH9RRJW 674 J. COOPER ¿[ LQ WKHVH QDPHV $ QHZ 5DPHVVLGH OLVW .RI II, loanwords. Satzinger has shown that aleph occurs too 192.12-14) includes the names Idr and %lq which have frequently in the African Execration lists for it to be good cognates in Beja adar ‘red’ and šallag ‘beach’ consonantal /r/ or /l/ on every occasion (Satzinger %HFKKDXV*HUVW   %ODåHN  6 The 1994, 192-195). This observation also proves that JHQHUDOGLI¿FXOW\LQDVVRFLDWLQJWKHVHSODFHQDPHVZLWK scribes compiled onomastic texts from individual tradi- VSHFL¿FURRWVLQ&XVKLWLFRU(DVWHUQ6XGDQLFODQJXDJHV tions so that individual graphemes may have different is a product of the fact that research on the lexicon of phonemic values in different geographic sections of Proto-Cushitic and Eastern-Sudanic is still ongoing and these lists. This might be due to different schools of the absence of any ancient written material in the translators and interpreters and perhaps was also dic- Cushitic phylum makes reconstructing ancient lexical WDWHGE\WKHVSHFL¿FODQJXDJHVEHLQJWUDQVFULEHG'LI- LWHPVGLI¿FXOW fering transcription methods for the same name in the same epoch can be proven through a new Kushite name Phonological Analysis discovered on an inscription at Bir Murrat (Davies   7KH LQVFULSWLRQ SURYLGHV WKH QDPH RI D As most languages have a distinct phonetic reper- Kushite king, &rh, which must be the same as a Kush- toire, it is possible to analyse onomastica phonologi- ite ruler in the Execration texts whose name is repro- FDOO\WRLGHQWLI\WKHLUOLNHO\OLQJXLVWLFDI¿OLDWLRQHYHQ duced as &riAhi VHH (O6D\HG   7KH if etymological reconstruction of individual names is alternative transcriptions of the same name prove that impossible. Such a study was conducted by Rilly with the African Execration Texts do use aleph, at least names from the Middle Kingdom Execration Texts selectively, as a vocalic marker, while in this rock 5LOO\  7KH UHVXOWV RI WKLV VXUYH\ VKRZHG inscription at Murrat, no vocalic markers were neces- that the regions around Sai and Kerma, the historical sary. This is probably attributable to the different pur- Kush, were occupied by Nilo-Saharan speakers, pose of the texts. For the ritual-magical purpose of the whereas the regions associated with the Eastern Desert Execration Texts, correct pronunciation of a foreign (WbAt-spt and AwSq) were associated with speakers of QDPHZDVUHODWHGWRWKHHI¿FDF\RIWKHH[HFUDWLRQULW- an Afroasiatic language. This was considered to relate ual. For rock inscriptions or historical texts there was to the likely Meroitic population on the Nile and the no need to mark vowels as proper pronunciation was possible Beja populations in the Eastern Desert. A not relevant to the textual purpose. caveat against this approach is that each region might Even a cursory glance at the distribution of graph- represent multiple languages and/or fuzzy linguistic emes (Fig. 2) in the list of Thutmosis III reveals some boundaries, so the groupings in the Topographical Lists interesting patterns. The grapheme r is present only might not necessarily correspond to tightly bound lin- twice amongst the 241 consonants of the Wawat-Punt- guistic zones. Medja sections, but is the most common consonant in 3KRQRORJLFDODQDO\VLVRIWKHOLVWLVPDGHGLI¿FXOWE\ the Kush-Irem section (19%). This distribution cannot the reconstruction of the phonology of Egyptian graph- be explained purely by linguistic differences, unless emes, and their possible correspondences in African one argues that a phonemic /l/ or /r/ were completely languages. Unlike Semitic loanwords in Egyptian, the absent from the languages of Wawat, Punt, and Medja. analysis of African lexica is in its formative stages. Instead, in this part of the list, aleph (A) must have been 7KDQNIXOO\ VWXGLHV E\ (O6D\HG  DQG =LEHOLXV used to transcribe liquid phonemes, as it did in the Asi- &KHQDUHLPSURYLQJWKLVVLWXDWLRQ1HYHUWKHOHVV atic section of the Execration Texts, i.e. AwSAmm for (U) there are still crucial problems in reconstructing the rušalimum 3RVHQHU   %XW WKH .XVK,UHP phonology of African loanwords written in Egyptian. names were conveyed with a different system, which Chief amongst these is the value of aleph in African used r to convey /r/, but also used this grapheme to reproduce several other sounds like /l/, /d/, and even the UHWURÀH[‫ܩ‬,WVKRXOGEHQRWHGWKDWPDQ\RIWKH$IUL- 6 This name, written as with the group , FDQOH[LFDOFRJQDWHVLGHQWL¿HGE\=LEHOLXV&KHQVKRZ which is probably transcribing l, is sometimes written in this a value of /d/ for Egyptian r, and one can also note the manner instead of the more regular group for l (nr) (see well-known reproduction of Egyptian apr for Semitic Hoch 1994, 24). If it is to be read as %nk, the word might instead be connected with the semantically similar Beja word šonki रEG ‘servant’ (Quack 1992, 76-77). This explains why µHGJHVHDVKRUH¶%ODåHN Egyptian r occurs so frequently in the Kush-Irem list,  THE AFRICAN TOPOGRAPHICAL LISTS 675 as it is reproducing several foreign consonants more explained by r being used to render Meroitic /d/, but than simply /r/. Because of this disparity between the where r is not present in the other lists d does occur lists, the Egyptian scribes must have used different VSDULQJO\ ,W LV GLI¿FXOW WR DVFHUWDLQ ZKHWKHU D and T transcription systems to record names from different retained their palatal values in these lists, as these pho- African languages, one system existing for Kush-Irem nemes had probably already undergone palatal fronting place names, with a different system in place for Lower by Middle Egyptian (Peust 1999, 123-125). Different Nubia and the Eastern Desert (Punt, Wetenet, Medja). copies record these place names interchangeably with T 7KHUHDUHVRPHRWKHUVWUDQJH¿QGLQJVIURPWKLVSKR- and t, so there was probably real confusion on the part nological inventory. Egyptian f, phonemic /f/, does not of the scribe concerning the original pronunciation. So- occur in the list at all, except once in the Wetenet sec- called ‘hypercorrections’ also probably occurred, tion. It is unlikely that Meroitic ever had a phonemic whereby an original t was later transcribed as T (see /f/, but surely not all these East African languages (GHO(GHODOVRGRFXPHQWHGPDQ\PRUH lacked /f/, and one might conclude that p was used errors in the list which were based on copying errors intermittently for /f/, especially given that Egyptian p from a hieratic document. may have sometimes had an aspirate value [ph] (see The most obvious candidate for the Kush-Irem +RFK3HXVW7KH names is of course an early form of Meroitic. The pho- lack of p in the Kush list is not a problem, as it has nological inventory of the Kush-Irem list in the New been noted that Meroitic p may have actually disguised Kingdom place names is largely consistent with this D SKRQHPLF E 5LOO\  GH 9RRJW   view. The lack of laryngeal consonants, such as a, h, Egyptian w occurs far too frequently in this list for it and H in this list matches the phonological system of to be consonantal in every instance, and it must func- 0HURLWLFRU1DUD5LOO\ GH9RRJW%HQGHU tion similar to the principal of matres lectionis, being 2). Importantly, this analysis also shows that Irem and used both as a vowel and a consonant. The double-reed Kush have similar phonological repertoires and there- sign (y) occurs very infrequently, so it is plausible that fore may be considered allied languages. If Irem is con- Egyptian i FRXOG FRQYH\ ERWK D JORWWDO VWRS ‫ ݦ‬DQG D sidered to be located in the Berber-Shendi region, then palatal approximant /j/. The group was used in this neatly explains its linguistic similarity to the Kush some later copies of the African lists, where presum- place names, as this would be the region later domi- ably, like in Semitic loans, it encoded a glottal stop. nated by Meroë and Meroitic speakers. The presence of The velar fricative x is never used in the list, which is the pharyngeals H and a, typically Afroasiatic sounds, somewhat strange given this is a productive phoneme in the other sections of the list in Lower Nubia, Punt, in many Cushitic and Ethiosemitic languages. The and Medja probably points to a series of Afroasiatic complete lack of X is to be expected as this is a very languages occupying these regions of the Eastern Des- VSHFL¿F FRQVRQDQW LQ (J\SWLDQ DQG ZDV DOVR QHYHU ert and Lower Nubia. From other onomastic studies, it used in Semitic loanwords (Hoch 1994, 436). The is known that an old form of Bedauye or Beja was sound accorded by Egyptian a ‫ ݧ‬RFFXUV RQO\ LQ WKH VSRNHQLQWKLVUHJLRQ6DW]LQJHU(O6D\HG Punt-list, except for one instance in the Lower Nubian so presumably the Medja and perhaps Wetenet sections (Wawat) section. This distinction is important as both of the list included some Beja place names. The recon- the Lowland East Cushitic languages and the Ethiose- struction of the language of Lower Nubia (WAwAt) here mitic languages along the Red Sea coast contain pha- is a problem. Lower Nubian names contain a, H, and D ryngeal phonemes. In North Africa, the presence of this which are unlikely to occur in Eastern Sudanic lan- pharyngeal phoneme is considered as an areal-feature guages unless they refer to different consonants than of the Ethiopian highlands and Red Sea, making it dif- their Egyptian counterparts. If we add this data with ¿FXOWWRXVHWKHSUHVHQFHRIWKLVVRXQGDVDGLDJQRVWLF other place names known from Lower Nubia such as LGHQWL¿HU RI VSHFL¿F ODQJXDJHV &UDVV   1687).7 The lack of Egyptian d in the Kush-Irem list is Eastern Desert in antiquity than the present day (Beja now has QR VRXQG ‫ ݧ‬7KHUH DUH KRZHYHU IHZ RWKHU XQDPELJXRXV 7 It should also be noted that the Eastern Desert place name amw instances of this phoneme in African loanwords in Egyptian (Zibelius 1972, 99) and a native of Ikyt (Wadi Allaqi), called documents from the New Kingdom. This sound does occur in anytn =LEHOLXV&KHQ   DOVR UHFRUG WKLV VRXQG LQ WKH the African Execration Texts, but it is unclear whether in earlier languages of the Eastern Desert in the New Kingdom. These documents it represents /d/, for which see the interpretation of names suggest that this phoneme was more widespread in the (O6D\HG 676 J. COOPER Egyptian Pronunciation (Middle Egyptian > Kush- Hieroglyphic Late Irem Wawat Punt Wetenet Medja Grapheme Egyptian) (no. 1-23) % (24-47) % (48-63) % (64-77) % (78-84) % A /r/ ~ /V/ 10 10% 18 18% 5 7% 9 20% 1 2% i /࡫ͬΕͬŝ।ͬ 8 8% 10 10% 3 4% 5 11% 2 4% y /j/ 1 1% 1 1% - - - - - - a /࡬/ ~ /d/ (?) - - 1 1% 5 7% - - - - w ͬǁͬΕͬƵ।ͬ 14 13% 22 22% 16 21% 3 7% 3 7% b /b/ 5 5% 6 6% 2 3% 3 7% 3 7% p /p/ - - 4 4% 1 1% - - 1 2% f /f/ - - - - - - - - - - m /m/ 6 6% 7 7% 10 13% 5 11% 2 4% n /n/ 4 4% 6 6% 3 4% 2 4% 1 2% r /r/, /l/ 20 19% - - 2 3% - - - - h /h/ - - 2 2% 6 8% 1 2% 1 2% H ͬŜͬ - - 4 4% 3 4% 2 4% - - x /x/ - - - - - - - - - - X /ç/ - - - - - - - - - - s /s/ 3 3% 2 2% 3 4% 3 7% 2 4% S /࡚/ 2 2% 1 1% 1 1% - 0% 1 2% q /q/ 1 1% - - - - - 0% - - k /k/ 12 11% - - 1 1% 3 7% - - g /g/ 4 4% - - 1 1% - - - - t /t/ 12 11% 6 6% 5 7% 8 18% 3 7% T /c/ > /t/ - - 6 6% 2 3% 1 2% 3 7% d /d/ ~ /t’/ - - 1 1% - - 1 2% 1 2% D /࠵/~/c’/ > /d/ 1 1% 4 4% 3 4% - - 1 2% /࡫/ 2 2% - - - - - - - - Total 105 101 73 46 25 Figure 2. Frequency of Egyptian graphemic phonemes in the Topographical List of Thutmosis III (Urk. IV, 796-799). Miam ‘Aniba’ and &Hxtµ'HEHLUD¶=LEHOLXV it clear what citation forms in which the names were ZKLFKKDYHW\SLFDO$IURDVLDWLFFRQVRQDQWVa and transcribed. The Kush-Irem list has six place names x), it is indeed possible that Lower Nubia was peopled (26%) terminating in kZKLFKLVSDUDOOHOHGE\DVXI¿[ by an Afroasiatic (probably Cushitic) as well as an k/kw in Meroitic, the so-called ‘postposition of place’ Eastern Sudanic people. Indeed, the name of the ruler 5LOO\ GH9RRJW7KH:DZDWVHFWLRQEHJLQV (wr) of &Hxt in the New Kingdom, Rwiw, has a good with i- in approximately a third of cases which might cognate in Beja from rau ‘friend, companion’ (Zibel- VXJJHVWDSUH¿[MRU‫ݦ‬DQGDOPRVWWKUHHTXDUWHUVRI LXV&KHQ   VR LW PLJKW EH WKDW /RZHU the names terminate with –w7KHSUH¿[PLJKWKDYHD Nubia was inhabited by Cushitic speakers as well as counterpart in Beja morphemes, for instance the pre- Eastern Sudanic speakers. While it is generally danger- ¿[HVLGHQWL¿HGE\%URZQHLQ&RSWLFRVWUDFDDVi"h (\Ɨ, ous to postulate archaeological correlates for linguistic nominative plural,) and i"a (\Ɲ, accusative plural) horizons, it is possible that Eastern Sudanic languages %URZQH   7KH VXI¿[ w might be a u-vowel, on the Middle Nile were marked by the northernmost corresponding to the reconstructed Pre-Beja masculine spread of the Kerma culture somewhere near Akasha VLQJXODUSUH¿[ –u.8 Puntite place names often begin or *UDWLHQOHDYLQJWKH1LOHQRUWKRIKHUHWR end with Egyptian m. There are not enough names in be occupied by another possibly linguistically diverse the Wetenet and Medja lists to make any conclusions, population possibly correlated with the C-Group. 8 The reconstruction of Pre-Beja morphological system is recon- ,WLVGLI¿FXOWWRREWDLQGDWDRQPRUSKRORJLFDODI¿[HV VWUXFWHGLQ$SSOH\DUGZKRUHFRQVWUXFWVWKHVLQ- from the list, as vowels are not always revealed, nor is JXODUQRPLQDWLYHVXI¿[LQ3UH%HMDDV*-u.  THE AFRICAN TOPOGRAPHICAL LISTS 677 EXW ¿QDO t occurs in a third of the place names in the respondence of Egyptian D for the Semitic ‫܈‬or z (Hoch :HWHQHW OLVW SRVVLEO\ UHÀHFWHG LQ WKH %HMD IHPLQLQH 1994, 437), MHDm might be related to Ge‘ez P‫]ۊ‬ ending as is frequently encountered in Beja place ‘waterway’ while @kAht could accord to ‫ۊ‬TO µ¿HOG¶ QDPHVWRWKHSUHVHQWGD\%HFKKDXV*HUVW /HVODX    3ODFH QDPH QR  IawDm / 153). \‫ݧ‬XৢP KDV D JRRG FRJQDWH LQ WKH 6HPLWLF URRW र‫܈‬P µERQH¶ /HVODX   ZLWK D SUH¿[ y or ’. Some Puntite Place names names like ahAw‫ݧ‬KUZRUaAwh‫ݧ‬UZKKDYHJRRG/RZ- land East Cushitic cognates in रƝOD‘well’ (pl. रƝOZD) or There are 15 place names listed after ‘Punt’ in the रDUXZDµKRXVH¶IRUWKHZRUGVLQ$IDUVHH0RULQ Topographical Lists, suggesting that these names are 167). This lexical research on Puntite names should be VRPHZKHUHZLWKLQWKHFRQ¿QHVRIWKLV5HG6HDUHJLRQ considered preliminary,12 and future research may more The Puntite place names show the distinct feature of clearly identify the morphological and lexical origins having ayin, frequently in the combination –ah-. Pho- RI WKHVH 3XQWLWH SODFH QDPHV7KHUH LV JUHDW GLI¿FXOW\ notactically, this is a strange combination as in most in comparing words from the Second Millenium BCE languages these phonemes do not co-occur in the same to the contemporary lexicons of Cushitic lexicons, or root.9 The language of Punt on the Red Sea has not even the Ge‘ez of the First Millenium CE, when there been discussed extensively in the literature. El-Sayed is no contemporary lexical material. Furthermore, it is isolated a few possible Puntite loanwords like dAng unclear whether these Puntite names are from the Afri- µS\JP\ GZDUI¶ (O6D\HG   DQG SUR- can or Arabian coasts, as recent scholarship has sug- posed a Lowland East Cushitic population in historical gested that the Egyptian term ‘Punt’ might encompass 3XQW%XWWKHVWDWXVRIWKHVHZRUGVDVGH¿QLWLYHO\µ3XQ- ERWK RI WKHVH UHJLRQV %DODQGD   7DOOHW tite’ lexical items should be questioned as they may 7KLVK\SRWKHVLVZRXOGDOVROHDYHRSHQ well have arrived into Egyptian from other African lan- the possibility that Puntite names may have arrived to JXDJHV IRU WKH SUREOHPV LQYROYHG VHH %UH\HU  Egyptian ears via Arabian intermediaries speaking an 7DNiFV7KXVWKHRQO\FHUWDLQO\3XQWLWH Epigraphic South Arabian (Sayhadic) or another Pre- words are onomastic in nature. The Punt expedition of Islamic Arabian language. Hatshepsut preserves the names PArhw and Ity which have been analysed in an upcoming article of Breyer Conclusion (in press) as being Ethiopic in origin, that is from a Proto-Ge‘ez or other Ethiosemitic language. This seems This research naturally raises more questions than it very likely, as the name PArhw has a good cognate with answers, but an analysis of the list, particularly its pho- the Ethiopic root brh ‘be bright’ (per Breyer) or frh ‘to nology and orthography, demonstrates the inner com- IHDU¶7DNiFV plexities of the list. The use of aleph for /r/ in the The Puntite place names in the Topographical List :DZDW3XQW0HGMDVHFWLRQWHQGVWRFRQ¿UP=\KODU]¶V DUHPRUHGLI¿FXOWWRFRQQHFWZLWKDSDUWLFXODUODQJXDJH assessment that these New Kingdom lists had earlier but there are a number of features in the words which exemplars and probably originated from the Middle surprisingly appear (Ethio)semitic in origin. Place Kingdom, as by the New Kingdom aleph was generally name no. 88 MnsiwPQV‫ݦ‬X‫ޝ‬KDVDJRRGPDWFKLQWKH no longer pronounced as a liquid (Peust 1999, 127- Semitic root nš’ ‘to rise’.11 Given the well-known cor- 128). The Kush list may have also originated from ear- lier Middle Kingdom documentation, and the place names are written in a manner similar to the African 9 In Epigraphic South Arabian and Arabic these consonants occur together through a shift of w to h, so रZG to रKG, see Medenhall personal names in the late Middle Kingdom papyri 1984, 98. S0RVFRZVHH5LOO\7KLVGDWDUHYHDOVWKDW  In New Kingdom group-writing, the aleph-phoneme is used in the lists cannot be treated as a unitary whole, and indi- CA groups. vidual parts of the list were compiled using different 11 Several of the Puntite names begin or terminate with m, which LVDFRPPRQDI¿[LQ(WKLRVHPLWLFDQG6HPLWLFODQJXDJHV7KH transcription methods from different sources. This may mVXI¿[ PLPDWLRQ LV HQFRXQWHUHG LQ (SLJUDSKLF 6RXWK$UD- be explained by different schools or traditions of scribes bian, particularly Sabaean place names (Harding 1971), but the WLPHGHSWK RI WKHVH SODFH QDPHV F  %&( PHDQV WKDW LW LPSRVVLEOH WR FRQ¿UP ZKHWKHU WKLV ZDV D IHDWXUH RI µDQFLHQW¶ 12 The lexical analysis of Puntite place names is the subject of 3URWR(WKLRVHPLWLFVHH$O-DOODG continued research by the author. 678 J. COOPER and interpreters encoding different languages with var- Assmann, J. 1969. Liturgische Lieder an den Sonnengott. ied transcription methods in different periods. What- Berlin. ever the reason for these differences, lexical and pho- %DODQGD 6  µ7KH VRFDOOHG ³0LQH RI 3XQW´ DQG ,WV QRORJLFDODQDO\VLVRIWKH7RSRJUDSKLFDO/LVWVFRQ¿UPV Location’, Journal of the American Research Center in the existence of a Meroitic-like language in historical Egypt 42, 33-44. %DUG . DQG 5 )DWWRYLFK HGV  Harbor of the Pha- Kush, with differentiated Afroasiatic languages in the raohs to the Land of Punt. Napoli. (DVWHUQ'HVHUW7KHGLI¿FXOW\LQORFDWLQJPDQ\RIWKH Bechhaus-Gerst, M. 1989. Nubier und Kuschiten im Niltal: place names in the list inhibits any conclusions regard- Sprach- und Kulturkontakt im ‘no man’s land’. .|OQ ing discrete itineraries, but the list would seem to be a %HFKKDXV*HUVW 0  µ$ 6WXG\ RI %HMD 3ODFHQDPHV¶ combination of different sections probably involving Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere  places on routes along the Nile, within the deserts as Bender, M. 1968. ‘Analysis of a Barya word-list’, Anthropo- well as the Red Sea coast. The phonological evidence logical Linguistics  concords well with hypotheses of the inhabitants of the %ODåHN9µ1DWXUDO3KHQRPHQD7LPHDQG*HRJUDSKL- Middle Nile, and the toponymic data reveals the likeli- cal Terminology in Beja Lexicon: Fragment of a Com- hood that the Kushite kingdom was dominated by an parative and Etymological Dictionary of Beja: (I)’, Eastern-Sudanic speaking people in the Second Millen- Babel und Bibel  nium BCE, with Cushitic speakers in the Eastern Desert %ODåHN9µ1DWXUDO3KHQRPHQD7LPHDQG*HRJUDSKL- and Lower Nubia and the possibility of Ethiosemitic cal Terminology in Beja Lexicon: Fragment of a Com- parative Etymolgoical Dictionary of Beja (II)’, Babel speakers in historical Punt. und Bibel 3, 383-428. Borchardt, L. 1913. 'DV*UDEGHQNPDOGHV6D‫ۊ‬XUH,,. Leip- Abbreviations zig. %UH\HU)µZwerg:|UWHUXQGlJ\SWLVFKNXVFKLWLVFKHU FHN III = Eide, T., T. Hägg, R. H. Pierce and L Sprachkontakt bzw. –vergleich. Zur sprachlichen Situa- 7|U|NHGVFontes Historiae Nuborium, Textual tion im mittleren Niltal des 3.-2. Jts. v. Chr’, Studien zur Sources for the History of the Middle Nile Region Altägyptischen Kultur 41, 99-112. between the Eighth Century BC and the Sixth Century %UH\HU)Einführung in die Meroitistik. Berlin. AD. Vol. 3, From the First to the Sixth Century AD. Breyer, F., in press. ‘Äthiopisches in altägyptischen Quellen? Bergen. Eine Kritische Evaluation’, in H. Elliesie (ed.), Multi- disciplinary Views on the Horn of Africa. KRI II = Kitchen, K. 1996. Ramesside inscriptions, %URZQH *  Textus Blemmyicus Aetatis Christianae. translated & annotated: translations, volume II. Champaign (Illinois). Ramesses II, royal inscriptions. Oxford, Cambridge. &OLQH ( DQG 6 6WDQQLVK  µ6DLOLQJ WKH *UHDW *UHHQ Urk. IV = Sethe, K., H. W. Helck, H. Schäfer, H. 6HD" $PHQKRWHS ,,,¶V ³$HJHDQ /LVW´ IURP .RP HO Grapow and O. Firchow (eds)  Urkunden Hetan, once more’, Journal of Ancient Egyptian Inter- des ägyptischen Altertums. Vol. 4. Leipzig – Berlin. connections 3, 6-16. Wb. 3 = Erman A. and W. Grapow (eds) 1926-1931. &UDVV-µ(MHFWLYHVDQGSKDU\QJHDOIULFDWLYHV7ZRIHD- Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache. Vol. 3. Berlin. tures of the Ethiopian language area’, in B. Yimam, R. Pankhurst, D. Chapple, Y. Admasu, A. Pankhurst and B. Teferra (eds), Ethiopian Studies at the End of the Sec- ond Millennium. Proceedings of the XIVth International Conference of Ethiopian Studies. Addis Ababa, 1679- 1691. Bibliography &RRSHU-µ5HFRQVLGHULQJWKHORFDWLRQRI<DP¶Jour- nal of the American Research Center in Egypt 48, 1-22. $O-DOODG$  µ)LQDO 6KRUW 9RZHOV LQ *ԥǥԥ] +HEUHZ 'DYLHV 9  µ.XUJXV  WKH LQVFULSWLRQV DQG URFN ’attâ, and the Anceps Paradox’, Journal of Semitic Stud- drawings’, Sudan and Nubia 5, 46-58. ies 59, 315-327. 'DYLHV 9  µ7KH .RURVNR 5RDG 3URMHFW 5HFRUGLQJ $SSOH\DUG '  µ%HMD DV D &XVKLWLF /DQJXDJH¶ LQ * inscriptions in the Eastern Desert and elsewhere’, Sudan Takács (ed.), Egyptian and Semito-Hamitic (Afro-Asi- and Nubia  atic) Studies in Memoriam W. Vycichl. Leiden, 175-194. (GHO(µ'LHDIULNDQLVFKHQ1DPHQLQGHU9|ONHUOLVWH $SSOH\DUG'A Comparative Dictionary of the Agaw Ramses’ II. auf der Westmauer des Tempels von Luxor Languages. .|OQ (Simons, Liste XXI) und ihre Parallelen in anderen afri-  THE AFRICAN TOPOGRAPHICAL LISTS 679 NDQLVFKHQ 9|ONHUOLVWHQ¶ Studien zur Altägyptischen Khalil, M. 1988. Studien zum Altnubischen. Nubisch-Ägypti- Kultur  sche Beziehungen. Frankfurt am Main. Edel, E. 1983. ‘Beiträge zu den ägyptischen Sinaiinschrif- .U|SHOLQ 6  µ'LVFRYHU\ RI DQ DQFLHQW IRUWL¿FDWLRQ LQ ten’, Nachrichten der Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Northern Sudan’, Sahara  Göttingen 6, 158-185. Leslau, R. 1991. Comparative Dictionary of Ge‘ez. 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