1|Page Right Based Approach for sustainable livelihood in Jharkhand :with special focus to the Tribal's rights & protection 2|Page Right Based Approach for sustainable livelihood in Jharkhand :with special focus to the Tribal's rights & protection By: Ragini Sinha and Dr. Asha Kumari Prasad ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- Abstract Strengthening livelihood especially ensuring food security and increasing income opportunities for local communities for Tribal's is one of the greatest challenges of state like Jharkhand. Many efforts are made in these directions by policy makers, civil society organizations, NGOs but the challenge to combat hunger and ensuring a quality life is still a major hurdle to deal with. Hence there is a need to relook into the existing situation with community perspective and how with community initiatives and realization of their own rights can help in addressing these gaps. (Gneiting,2009) The Right to sustainable livelihood must ensure peace, security, justice and dignity for all individuals in the community without any disparity and discrimination. All people have the fundamental human right to fulfilling, dignified work and livelihood, including equal access to land and productive resources, and to basic labor protections. Hence a Right Based Approach is needed to ensure the protection of tribal rights in Jharkhand. All people have the fundamental human right to fulfilling, dignified work and livelihood, including equal access to land and productive resources, and to basic labor protections. The right based approach put people in centre and in this people centric approach every human being is recognized both as a person and as a right-holder. This approach ensures freedom, dignity, well being and security for all the people everywhere. This approach ensures that people are aware, motivated to help themselves, understand their situation, know about their strength and weakness and able to chalk out their own development plan. The rights-based approach also supports mechanisms to ensure that entitlements are attained and safeguarded. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- KEYWORDS: Right to sustainable livelihood, labour protections, community initiatives, realization of rights 3|Page Introduction Rights-based approach to development is an approach to achieve a positive transformation by creating an enabling environment where self realization of rights and duties takes place simultaneously. There are two stakeholder groups in rights-based development—the rights holders (who do not experience full rights) and the duty bearers (the institutions obligated to fulfill the holders' rights). Rights-based approaches aim at strengthening the capacity of duty bearers and empower the rights holders of power relations among the various development actors. This practice blurs the distinction between human rights and economic development. (Gneiting,2009) Human rights came into global discourse after the United Nations passed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. This was the first global recognition that all humans are inherently entitled to rights. Then in 1976 the UN signed the United Nations Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, officially endorsing democracy. Forsythe, David (1997). The inclusion of human rights into development discourse has also brought along a certain language of rights. This brings a moral resonance to development rhetoric and makes it hard to avoid in today's discourse. Rights are defined as entitlements that belong to all human beings regardless of race, ethnicity, or socio-economic class. All humans, therefore, are rights holders, and it is someone’s duty to provide these rights. Who is responsible to give these rights, in other words the duty bearers, has been largely debated. In rights-based approach it is the person’s government that assumes the duty bearer position, but most of the time the said government does not have the resources to fulfill this role. This is where the NGOs/private partners come and try to help these governments fulfill their roles and duties to their people by giving them resources. These resources can be monetary or more sustainable such as training to government officials. Nussbaum, Martha (1998). Need of Right Based Approach in development 4|Page Currently there is an under-fulfillment of human rights, which has been directly linked with poverty. Poverty includes the assessment of standard of living, health, and well being. These are social and economic human rights, also known as second-generation rights, which have just recently been included in development discourse. First generation rights, or civil and political rights, have dominated public policy in the past. However with poverty on the rise and public policy failing, social and economic rights are becoming increasingly important in development of policies. Pogge, Thomas (2005) There have been 3 growing trends in relation to the rights-based approach to development that have been implemented into practice. The first trend is focusing attention onto a rights-based approach to development. The second trend is the joint advocacy by development partners and human rights NGOs to work together towards a common goal. The third trend is to expand the attention to economic and social rights as well. Nelson, Paul; Dorsey, Ellen (2003). These new trends have a significant impact and a possible paradigm shift. From looking at development as a gift turning to development as a human right puts the responsibility on the government. However, this is not just the home country, the responsibility of development resides in the hands of wealthy countries as well. To switch to a rights-based approach to development would then lead to using internationally agreed upon human rights as a responsibility of governments to provide. Within this theory development will no longer be viewed as a gift or a need, but rather a right that states and governments are held accountable for. (Nelson, Paul J. (2007).) Material & Methods: Articles and Journals were reviewed to assess the importance of right based approach to the development with special relation to Tribal Right's protection and sustainable livelihood. Articles and journals on rights based approach and ways for their sustainable livelihood is reviewed in this paper and presented in a new approach form for development of tribal's of Jharkhand through right based approach to sustainable livelihood. 5|Page Online publication, blogs and views were also taken into note for reviewing various views related to Right based Approach to the development and its role towards ensuring sustainable livelihood in Jharkhand. Objectives of the proposed paper 1. To review the importance of rights-based development in today's context. 2. To understand the principles and practices of rights-based development and how to gain confidence in applying a rights-based approach in development sector particularly in Jharkhand with special context to protection of Tribal rights. 3. To propose a framework for Right Based approach for sustainable livelihood current welfare schemes in policy and practice for tribals in Jharkhand. Review of Literature The Human Right to Livelihood is the human right of all women, men, youth and children to earn their own choice of livelihood and live a dignified and productive life. The Right to Livelihood must ensure peace, security, justice and dignity for all individuals in the community without any disparity and discrimination. All people have the fundamental human right to fulfilling, dignified work and livelihood, including equal access to land and productive resources, and to basic labor protections. ( Thomas , 2005) Human Right to livelihood must ensure following components a) right to freely choose the work that contribute to an adequate standard of living b) freedom from forced labour , safe working conditions, equal pay for equal work and adequate pay for dignified living c) freedom from discrimination based on gender, race, ethnic identity, or any other status d) right to full equality before the law, including equality in rights to own land or to inherit e) Right to equal access to productive resources, including land, credit, and technology f) right to equal access to education and training. g) right of indigenous peoples to maintain their own ways of life, including the right to use lands to which they have traditionally had access for subsistence h) right of indigenous peoples to use, manage and safeguard the natural resources pertaining to their lands i) right to security of tenure and freedom from forced eviction j) right of all people and peoples to full and effective participation in shaping decisions and policies, including policies of development and agrarian reform, concerning themselves and their community, at the local, national. ( Human Development Report 2005) 6|Page The right based approach put people in centre and in this people centric approach every human being is recognized both as a person and as a right-holder. This approach ensures freedom, dignity, well being and security for all the people everywhere. This approach ensures that people are aware, motivated to help themselves, understand their situation, know about their strength and weakness and able to chalk out their own development plan. The rights-based approach also supports mechanisms to ensure that entitlements are attained and safeguarded. ( Earthscan, 2005) Rights can be understood from following perspective  To understand our own need and responsibilities, available resources, choices, our goal and objectives.  To respect a right i.e. refraining from interfering with the enjoyment of the right.  To protect the right means enacting laws that creates mechanisms to prevent violation of the right by state authorities or by others. This protection is to be granted equally to all.  To fulfill the right means to take active steps to put in place institutions and procedures, including the allocation of resources to enable people to enjoy the right. A rights-based approach develops the capacity of community/individuals to understand their situation, initiatives need to be taken by the community to improve their own life situations, work collectively to achieve for the set goals of life and encourages them to demand for their rights , access their rights in right mode . Rights are indivisible, interdependent and interrelated. The human rights-based approach focuses on every individual but especially important for those who are most vulnerable, excluded or discriminated Dzodzi (2009). Livelihood scenario of India Poverty reduction is one of the major challenges which India is facing and it is widespread and deeply entrenched in the society. The recent estimates of India suggest that 37 percent of the population lives below the poverty line and hence reducing poverty is the main aim of the Government. Sixty Nine per cent of India’s population i.e. around 833 million people live in rural areas. (Census 1991; 2001; 2011). The economic growth rate of rural population has declined substantially to just 1.2 percent during 2011-2012 from 1.7 percent per year during 1991-2001. The markedly lower rural growth rate is due to various reasons like dependence of agriculture on monsoon, poor availability of water for farming, reducing workforce in 7|Page agricultural sector, less use of modern agriculture tools, rural to urban migration, reclassification of village as urban units, small holder farming, movement of rural workforce to urban areas in search of better employment, less facilities for healthcare, education and other basic amenities of life. All these have been major bedrocks of rural life which is leading to decreasing growth rate and thus more poor in the country. (India Rural Development Report 2012- 2013). Agriculture has been one of the most prominent sectors of Indian economy since independence. Although contribution of agriculture and allied activities like forestry, logging and fishing in Gross Domestic Products has declined from 51.9 per cent in 1950-51 to 35percent in the 1980’s to 18percent in 2006-2007 to 13.7 percent in 2012-13.( Central Statistics Office Report 2012- 13, Government Of India ). This decline is because of the shift from traditional agrarian economy to industry and service dominated one. Still in India almost 60 percent of the population, continues to depend upon agriculture and its allied sector for their livelihood .Agriculture is the heart of rural livelihoods in India and there is transformation of subsistence agricultural production into a market oriented agricultural economy though this pace is still low. The reason for slow pace is due to various changes which have developed in course of time. The first and foremost reason is the land fragmentation because of inter-generation transfers and sub division of holdings among children. The average size of operational holdings in India has diminished progressively from 2.28 ha in 1970-71 to 1.55 ha in 1990-91 to 1.23 ha in 2005-06 (Fig. 1.2). As per Agriculture Census 2005- 06, the proportion of marginal holdings (area less than 1 ha) has increased from 61.6 percent in 1995-96 to 64.8 percent in 2005-06. This is followed by about 18 percent small holdings (1-2 ha.), about 16 percent medium holdings (more than 2 to less than 10 ha.) and less than 1 percent large holdings (10 ha. and above). 8|Page Fig 1.2: Average size (ha) of holdings as per different Agriculture Census (For all size groups) Source: Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Agricultural Census Division, Ministry of Agriculture. By 2010-11, roughly 67 percent of landholdings were marginal (less than 1 hectare or 2.5 acres) including another 18 percent land held by small farmers (1 to 2 hectare). As a result of this land fragmentation there are smaller outputs from land. Other important reasons for slow pace in agricultural economy are poor market strategy, poor access to modern storage facilities for perishable items, poor distribution networks, less updates about the recent market strategy, less negotiation skills etc. (India Rural Development Report 2012-13) Sustainable Livelihood Carney (1998) holds that a livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including both material and social resources) and activities required for a means of living. While Chambers and Conway’s work (1992) define sustainable livelihood sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stress and shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not undermining the natural resource base. The term Sustainable Livelihood has a broad meaning and it offers a more coherent and integrated approach to poverty. The sustainable livelihood idea was first introduced by the Brundtland Commission on Environment and Development and expanded the concept, advocating for the achievement of sustainable livelihoods as a broad goal for poverty eradication. 9|Page It is beyond conventional definition of livelihood as it does not focused only on certain aspects or manifestations of poverty, such as low income but has thrown light on other aspects like vulnerability and social exclusion. It is now recognized that more attention must be paid to the various factors and processes which either constrain or enhance poor people’s ability to make a living in an economically, ecologically, and socially sustainable manner. Demographic Profile of Jharkhand The Population of Jharkhand according to the 2011 census stands at about 32 million, making it the 13th most populated state in India. Thus total population of Jharkhand as per 2011 census is 32,988,134 of which male and female are 16,930,315 and 16,057,819 respectively. In 2001, total population was 26,945,829 in which males were 13,885,037 while females were 13,060,792. The state makes up about 3.5% of the country's population a figure which was about 3% during the last census in 2001. The state is spread over an area of about 79000 sq. km. one of the smaller states in the country in terms of area. The density of population per sq. Km. is about 414, which is above the national average by a good 30 points. The state has a growth rate of about 22% which slightly exceeds the national growth rate of about 17%.(Census 2011) The literacy rate in the state is about 67% of that, male literacy stands at 76.84 percent while female literacy is at 52.04 percent. In 2001, literacy rate in Jharkhand stood at 53.56 percent of which male and female were 63.83 percent and 38.87percent literate respectively. (Census 2011) Total area of Jharkhand is 79,716 sq. km. Density of Jharkhand is 414 per sq km which is higher than national average 382 per sq km. In 2001, density of Jharkhand was 338 per sq km, while nation average in 2001 was 324 per sq km (Census 2011).Sex Ratio in Jharkhand is 948 i.e. for each 1000 male, which is below national average of 940 as per census 2011. In 2001, the sex ratio of female was 941 per 1000 males in Jharkhand. (Census 2011) 10 | P a g e Scheduled Tribe (ST) population constitutes 26.2% (rural 31.4% and urban 9.8%). During Census 2001 it was 26.3%. The Scheduled Caste ( SC) population in the state is 12.1% as against 11.8% in 2011.The highest proportion of tribal population has been recorded in Khunti where 73.3% of the total population is scheduled tribe. The lowest is in Koderma where only 1% of the total population in the district is tribal.The rural–urban distribution of population in Jharkhand shows that a higher proportion of people live in rural areas (75.95%) as compare to urban population (24.05%).The density of population is 414 per sq km also marginally higher than the all-India average density of 382 persons/km2. (Census 2011) Economic profile of the state of Jharkhand In a survey conducted in the year 2004, of 20 states based on 8 economic parameters (investment scenario, budget and prosperity, infrastructure, health, education, law and order, agriculture and size of the consumer market), Jharkhand was ranked 19th after Bihar. The real Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) increased at an impressive compound rate of 9% per annum during 2000–01 to 2007–08. However, the real per capita income (at 1999–00 prices) was only Rs 15,904 in 2006–07, about 30% lower than the national average real per capita income. Due to the low per capita income, the average monthly per capita consumption expenditure (MPCE) is a meagre Rs 425 in rural and Rs 985 in urban areas (2004–05). About 10.3 million rural and 1.3 million urban persons are unable to meet the daily per capita expenses of Rs 12 (rural) and Rs15 (urban), respectively. The dimensions of poverty with overall Head Count Ratio (HCR) of 40% are amongst the bottom of four states. Jharkhand Irrigation Coverage As the proportion of barren, waste and fallow land is very high in Jharkhand, the net sown area (NSA) is only 22% of the total geographical area and the state irrigation coverage is only about 10 % which is quite low as compare to other states of India and thus leading to major challenges in agricultural sector. 11 | P a g e Net Sown Area & Crop Intensity of Jharkhand An analysis of the net sown area, extent of irrigation and cropping intensity reveals that Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu have ample scope to increase their cropping intensity as they have fairly large acreage under irrigation. States with high irrigation can have higher cropping intensity with a suitable change in cropping pattern by growing crops and varieties with durations that suit the crop growth and fit into the crop sequence. But Jharkhand because of poor irrigation coverage and poor net sown area status, the crop intensity is less and thus the challenge to meet rural livelihood are many. The productivity status of crops in Jharkhand In Jharkhand if we analyze the crop production we found that Paddy occupies almost 72% of the sown area followed by pulses (7%), maize (6%), wheat (3%) and oil seeds (3%). The productivity of all the crops except pulses trails behind the levels of the highest yielding states and the all-India average yield levels. The Status of Land Resource in Jharkhand In Jharkhand the land resource Category % of operational holding available with the cultivators is also Marginal ( < or = 1.000 ha) 79.9 very limited. Nearly 80% of the Small ( 1.001 – 2.000) 14.6 agricultural holdings are below 1 ha Semi Medium ( 2.001-4.000) 4.1 and another 15% are small holdings Medium ( 4.001- 10.000) 1.3 (1–2 ha). This implies that a majority Large ( > or = 10.001) 0.1 of the rural workforce has to be provided with non-crop income generating opportunities to improve their livelihoods. ( NSSO , Report No.492)  12 | P a g e Poverty and Hunger indicators of Jharkhand (Table 3) indicate the Indicators Jharkhand India poverty profile of Jharkhand. The 2009-10 2009-10 Poverty Head Count Ratio 39.1 29.8 poverty head count ratio of (%) Total Number of Poor (in 12.62 354.68 Jharkhand is 39.1% which is higher Millions) Multi Dimensional Poverty 0.441 0.283 than national figure which is 29.5 % Index ( MPI) Multi Dimensional Poverty 74.8 53.7 (Tendulkar Report 2009, Planning Headcount ( %) Number of Multi 23.1 612 Commission). The total number of Dimensional Poor (in Millions) poor in Jharkhand is 12.62 Million as Global Hunger Index 28.67 23.3 ( GHI) compare to the national figure which GHI Rank ( out of 17) 16 is 354.65 Million (MPI Data & Prevalence of Calorie Under 19.6 20 nourishment ( %) updates for 2011, OPHI). The multi Prevalence of Underweight 57.1 42.5 Children under 5 Years of dimensional poverty index of age ( %) Human Development 0.376 0.467 Jharkhand is 0.441 while that of India Value Index ( HDI) HDI Rank Out of 23 19 is 0.83. (MPI Data & updates for Gender Development 0.558 0.590 2011, OPHI). Jharkhand stands at 16 Index ( GDI) GDI rank out of 35 29 122 ranks in Global Hunger index Gender Empowerment 0.435 0.497 indicator out of 17 which is an Measures ( GEM) GEM Rank out of 35 26 alarming indicator. There are 19.6 % Inequality adjusted 0.308 0.343 children in Jharkhand which are Human Index Value ( IHDI) undernourished in the state. Inequality adjusted 14 Human Index rank out of ( Tendulkar Report 2009, MPI Data 35 2011,India State Hunger Index 2009) Loss in HDI due to 33.67 32 inequalities 13 | P a g e Discussion and suggestions: There are various challenges to the rural livelihoods in Jharkhand. The important ones are: 1.Dependence of agriculture on monsoon and poor skills of water conservation practices: Rainfall is the main source of water for agriculture in India. However, in the absence of adequate soil and water conservation practices, the agricultural production of Jharkhand gets affected. In the absence of adequate training and demonstration, farmers believe that excess water can enhance their crop yields. As a result of poor soil and water conservation measures, the average yield of food crops is poor and thus this situation poses a serious threat not only to food security but also to the biodiversity and to the environment. 2. Challenges in Market Linkages: For small and marginal farmers, marketing of their products is the main problem apart from credit and extension. There is a big gap between producer prices and consumer prices. There are different models for marketing practiced in other parts of the States successfully may be tried in Jharkhand as well. These models are: self help group model, co-operative model, small producer co-operatives and contract farming. 3.Lack of maintaining common resources: In each village there are lands which are used for livestock grazing and which belong to Commons. The ownership of this land is with the Village Panchayat (Local Government) and all the members of the community have free access. But there is lack of maintenance of such common resources in the village. The Panchayat has no control over the use of common resources while the community does not consider it to be their responsibility to manage such resources. This has resulted in over-exploitation of the same. The same situation prevailed on village woodlots and community forests. Thus, in spite of land scarcity, over 50% of the total lands are either idle or under-utilized in Jharkhand. Such wastelands, unable to retain the rainwater are promoting soil erosion. They are also hosting a wide range of pests and diseases. Management of these wastelands to improve the productivity can revive the supply of fodder and fuel, facilitate the percolation of rainwater and improve agricultural production. 4.No focused measures to protect the forest: Forests have been providing many direct and indirect benefits to rural communities. The tribals of Jharkhand who are dependent on forest products for livelihood, has been threatened because of the various factors. Ill-effects of deforestation are evident in the form of shortage of fodder, fuel, timber, medicinal herbs and others. The indirect losses in the form of soil erosion, deepening of ground water table and reduction in green cover are far more 14 | P a g e serious. Deforestation has been directly suppressing agricultural production, which is yet to be realized by a major section of the rural society. Like community wastelands, the forests are under the ownership of the Government but these precious resources cannot be protected unless the local communities come forward to conserve it. 5.Less care on livestock: Livestock is an important source of supplementary income. Mixed farming has been serving as an insurance against natural calamities, while supporting food security and nutrient recycling. Jharkhand many livestock, which include cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats. Among them, cattle and buffaloes are popular for milk production. As milk is an important part of the Indian diet and bullock power is essential for farming and rural transportation, rural families maintain 2-3 animals but over 70% of them are uneconomical due to low genetic base and poor management. 6.Migration to urban areas: Poor productivity of the land and livestock and inefficient use of forests causes seasonal migration in villages. Small farmers work only for 100-120 days for growing one crop in a year, which is not adequate to sustain their livelihood. Hence, they have to struggle to earn additional wages by working in irrigated areas or migrate to urban areas. The migration pattern varies with the region, opportunities and socio-economic status of the families. The poorest families, particularly the landless and marginal holders owning poor quality land tend to migrate with the entire family. Many tribal families migrate to cities as construction workers and return at the onset of the rains. Such migrations severely affect the quality of life, due to poor health, lack of education and social pressures leading to erosion of moral values. 7.Lack of training in Modern Agriculture: There is major lack of training of farmers in modern agriculture methods in Jharkhand. The farmer treats agriculture as a family tradition, following age old practices. The old agricultural practices are unable to cope with the adversities and the chances of crop failure on untreated lands are very high. The farmers generally do not invest in external inputs like improved seeds, fertilisers and plant protection measures and end up with poor crop yields, even during normal years. Right Based Approach to sustainable livelihood A rights-based development is different from a needs-based development. Needs are met, if at all, by charity, does not ensure a long term solution to the problems. But if right based approach 15 | P a g e is followed the development process is more decentralized, participatory and long term. The proposed paper is mainly focused towards Right Based Approaches (RBA) is an emerging solution to the challenge of ensuring livelihood to everyone. This is vibrant area of exploration and learning from our own environment. Rights can be understood as all people are, by virtue of being human, inherently entitled to minimum standards of freedom and dignity, regardless of nationality, place of residence, gender, origin, colour, religion, language, or any other status. Human rights are often, though not always, recognized in law whether at State, national or International level. Right can be broadly categorized in two broad categories 1. procedural rights, such as to participate in decision making, acquire Information and access justice, and 2. substantive rights, such as to live with dignity, personal security, health, an adequate Standard of living, education, freedom to practice culture and freedom from all forms of discrimination A key feature of human rights is their corresponding responsibilities. All human beings are rights holders. The individuals and groups responsible for upholding and enabling the realization of rights also have important responsibilities. The proposed project is focused towards human rights-based approach a way towards sustainable development. And the project main focus is to help the rural communities in realizing and understanding their own need, gap areas and steps which are required to improve their living conditions. Hence the Right Based Approach towards sustainable livelihood is simply can be understood as “simple” rights-based development which the proposed project is focused towards. “Rights” can cover any kind of rights which helps in achieving a dignified life like right to choose own mode of employment, right to have quality education , right to vote and choose the leader who is real representative of the community , right to have food etc. 16 | P a g e Various ways to incorporate Right Based Approach for sustainable livelihood for Jharkhand with special context to protect the tribal rights: 1.The Voice, Participation and Accountability is the major theme which need focus in all welfare schemes of Government. It should looks at the extent to which people are able to express their voices, share their opinions and participate in livelihood activities and takes accountability of their success and failure 2. Stop the voicelessness: Here comes the issue of accountability. The approach should always deal with like who is really accountable to whom, what role we have played and how much successful the schemes are. Particular focus should be towards the direction of accountability. 3. Power into the hand of community: This is a important feature of which should be focused in right based approach where people have to understand their own power to solve the problems. It looks at whether, and how, individuals, groups, organizations and institutions form links to work together and to work in partnership. 4. Strengthening Village based institution should be important aspects in rihgts based approach and hence it should rely on strengthening village based institution to address the important need raise voices and collectively fight for all adversities.  5. Sustained Change. The approach should see how to measure the sustained change in life of community. References 1. Gneiting, Uwe; Bruno-Van Vijfeijken, Tosca; Schmitz, Hans Peter (2009). "Setting Higher Goals: Rights and Development". Monday Development 27 (12): 19–20. Retrieved 4/5/2011. 2. "The Universal Declaration of Human Rights". United Nations. Retrieved 4/5/2011. 3. Hamm, Bridgitte (2001). "A Human Rights Approach to Development". Human Rights Quarterly 23 (4): 1005–103. Retrieved 4/5/2011. 4. Harris-Curtis, Emma (2003). "Rights-Based Approaches: Issues for NGOs". Development in Practice 13 (5). JSTOR 4029944. 5. "Our History". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 4/5/2011. 17 | P a g e 6. Nussbaum, Martha (1998). "Capabilities and Human Rights". Fordham Law Review 66 (2). 7. Pogge, Thomas (2005). "World Poverty and Human Rights". Ethics and International Affairs 19 (1): 1–7. 8. Sen, Amartya (2004). "Elements of a Theory of Human Rights". Philosophy & Public Affairs 32 (4). JSTOR 3557992. 9. Nelson, Paul; Dorsey, Ellen (2003). "At the Nexus of Human Rights and Development: New Methods and Strategies of Global NGOs". World Development 31 (12): 2013–2026. 10. Forsythe, David (1997). "The United Nations, Human Rights, and Development". Human Rights Quarterly 19 (2). 11. "Applying a HRBA to Developing Cooperation and Programming". UNDP Capacity Development Resource. Retrieved April 12, 2011. 12. Offenheiser, Raymond; Holcombe, Susan (2003). "Challenges and Opportunities in Implementing a Rights-Based Approach to Development: An Oxfam America Perspective". Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 32 (2): 268–301. 13. O'Dwyer, Brendan; Unerman, Jeffery (2010). "Enhancing the role of accountability in promoting the rights of beneficiaries of development NGOs". Accounting and Business Research 40 (5). 14. Nelson, Paul J. (2007). "Human rights, the millennium development goals, and the future of development cooperation". World Development 35 (12): 2041–2055. 15. Tsikata, Dzodzi (2009). "The Rights-Based Approach to Development: Potential for Change or More of the Same" 35 (4). 16. Nussbaum, Martha (1998). "Capabilities and Human Rights". Fordham Law Review 66 (2). 17. Commissioner for Human Rights, Draft Guidelines on a Human Rights Approach to Poverty. 18. Reduction Strategies (2002) and Human Rights and Poverty Reduction: A Conceptual Framework (2004), drafted by Professors Paul Hunt, Manfred Nowak and Siddiq Osmani, and also draws on consultations with various stakeholders (including Member States, intergovernmental and nongovernmental 19. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Human Development Report 2005: International cooperation at acrossroads: Aid, trade and security in an unequal world (New York, United Nations, 2005), p. 24. 20. United Nations Millennium Project, Investing in Development: A Practical Plan to Achieve the MillenniumDevelopment Goals (London and Sterling, VA, Earthscan, 2005)