PAULO FREIRE
PEDAGOGY
of the
OPPRESSED ;
• 30TH ANNIVERSARY EDITION •
Translated by Myra Bergman Ramos
With an Introduction by Donaldo Macedo
•
A continuum
I f N E W YORK • LONDON
2005
The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc
15 East 26,h Street, New York, NY 10010
The Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd
The Tower Building, 11 York Road, London SE1 7NX
Copyright © 1970, 1993 by Paulo Freire
Introduction © 2000 by Donaldo Macedo
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
or otherwise, without the written permission of
The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc.
Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress CataloginginPublication Data
Freire, Paulo, 1921
[Pedagogia del oprimido. English]
Pedagogy of the oppressed / Paulo Freire ; translated by Myra
Bergman Ramos ; introduction by Donaldo Macedo.—30th anniversary ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0826412769 (alk. paper)
1. Freire, Paulo, 1921 2. Education—Philosophy. 3. Popular
education—Philosophy. 4. Critical pedagogy. I. Title.
LB880.F73 P4313 2000
370.11*5—dc21 00-030304
To the oppressed,
and to those who suffer with them
and fight at their side
Contents
Publisher's Foreword 9
Introduction to the Anniversary Edition
b y DONALDO MACEDO 11
Foreword by RICHARD SHAULL 29
Preface ^ 35
Chapter 1 43
The justification for a pedagogy of the oppressed; the contradiction
between the oppressors and the oppressed, and how it is overcome;
oppression and the oppressors; oppression and the oppressed;
liberation: not a gift, not a self-achievement, but a mutual process.
Chapter 2 71
The "banking" concept of education as an instrument of oppression—
its presuppositions—a critique; the problem-posing concept of
education as an instrument for liberation—-its presuppositions; the
"banking" concept and the teacher-student contradiction; the
problem-posing concept and the supersedence of the teacher-
student contradiction; education: a mutual process, world-mediated;
people as uncompleted beings, conscious of their incompletion, and
their attempt to be more fully human.
8•CONTENTS
Chapter 3 87
Dialogics—the essence of education as the practice of freedom;
dialogics and dialogue; dialogue and the search for program
content; the human-world relationship, "generative themes," and
the program content of education as the practice of freedom; the
investigation of "generative themes" and its methodology; the
awakening of critical consciousness through the investigation of
"generative themes"; the various stages of the investigation.
Chapter 4 125
Antidialogics and dialogics as matrices of opposing theories of
cultural action: the former as an instrument of oppression and the
latter as an instrument of liberation; the theory of antidialogical
action and its characteristics: conquest, divide and rule,
manipulation, and cultural invasion; the theory of dialogical
action and its characteristics: cooperation, unity, organization, and
cultural synthesis.
Publisher's Foreword
This is the thirtieth anniversary of the publication in the United States
of Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Since the original publication, this rev-
olutionary work has gone into more than a score of printings and sold
over 750,000 copies worldwide.
In his foreword to the first edition, which is included in this one,
Richard Shaull wrote:
In this country, we are gradually becoming aware of the work of
Paulo Freire, but thus^far we have thought of it primarily in terms
of its contribution to the education of illiterate adults in the Third
World. If, however, we take a close look, we may discover that
his methodology as well as his educational philosophy are as im-
portant for us as for the dispossessed in Latin America.... For
this reason, I consider the publication of Pedagogy of the Op-
pressed in an English edition to be something of an event.
These words have proved prophetic. Freire's books have since taken
on a considerable relevance for educators in our own technologically
advanced society, which to our detriment acts to program the indi-
vidual—especially the disadvantaged—to a rigid conformity. A new
underclass has been created, and it is everyone's responsibility to react
thoughtfully and positively to the situation. This is the underlying
message of Pedagogy of the Oppressed.
As times change so do attitudes and beliefs. The translation has
been modified—and the volume has been newly typeset—to reflect
the connection between liberation and inclusive language. An impor-
tant introduction by Donaldo Macedo has been added.
This revised thirtieth-anniversary edition of Pedagogy of the Op-
pressed thus represents a fresh expression of a work that will continue to
stimulate and shape the thought of educators and citizens everywhere.
Introduction
Never in my wildest dreams would I have imagined when I first read
Pedagogy of the Oppressed in 1971 that, a decade later, I would be
engaged in a very close collaboration with its author, Paulo Freire—
a collaboration that lasted sixteen years until his untimely death on
May 2, 1997. Never in my wildest dreams would I have thought that,
today, I would have the honor to write an introduction to commem-
orate the thirtieth anniversary of the publication of Pedagogy of the
Oppressed, a book that according to Stanley Aronowitz, "meets the
single criterion of a 'classic' " in that "it has outlived its own time and
its authors."
I remember vividly my first encounter with Pedagogy of the Op-
pressed, as a colonized young man from Cape Verde who had been
struggling with significant questions of cultural identity, yearning to
break away from the yoke of Portuguese colonialism. Reading Peda-
gogy of the Oppressed gave me a language to critically understand the
tensions, contradictions, fears, doubts, hopes, and "deferred" dreams
that are part and parcel of living a borrowed and colonized cultural
existence. Reading Pedagogy of the Oppressed also gave me the inner
strength to begin the arduous process of transcending a colonial ex-
istence that is almost culturally schizophrenic: being present and yet
not visible, being visible and yet not present. It is a condition that I
painfully experienced in the United States, constantly juggling the
power asymmetry of the two worlds, two cultures, and two languages.
Reading Pedagogy of the Oppressed gave me the critical tools to re-
flect on, and understand, the process through which we come to know
what it means to be at the periphery of the intimate yet fragile rela-
tionship between the colonizer and the colonized.
12 • INTRODUCTION
Paulo Freire's invigorating critique of the dominant banking model
of education leads to his democratic proposals of problem-posing ed-
ucation where "men and women develop their power to perceive crit-
ically the way they exist in the world with which and in which they
find themselves; they come to see the world not as a static reality but
as a reality in the process of transformation." This offered to me—
and all of those who experience subordination through an imposed
assimilation policy—a path through which we come to understand
what it means to come to cultural voice. It is a process that always
involves pain and hope; a process through which, as forced cultural
jugglers, we can come to subjectivity, transcending our object position
in a society that hosts us yet is alien.
It is not surprising that my friends back in Cape Verde—and, for
that matter in most totalitarian states—risked cruel punishment, in-
cluding imprisonment, if they were caught reading Pedagogy of the
Oppressed. I remember meeting a South African student in Boston
who told me that students would photocopy chapters of Pedagogy of
the Oppressed and share them with their classmates and peers. Some-
times, given the long list of students waiting to read Freire, they
would have to wait for weeks before they were able to get their hands
on a photocopied chapter. These students, and students like them in
Central America, South America, Tanzania, Chile, Guinea-Bissau and
other nations struggling to overthrow totalitarianism and oppression,
passionately embraced Freire and his proposals for liberation. It is no
wonder that his success in teaching Brazilian peasants how to read
landed him in prison and led to a subsequent long and painful exile.
Oppressed people all over the world identified with Paulo Freire's
denunciation of the oppressive conditions that were choking millions
of poor people, including a large number of middle-class families that
had bitterly begun to experience the inhumanity of hunger in a po-
tentially very rich and fertile country.
Freire's denunciation of oppression was not merely the intellectual
exercise that we often find among many facile liberals and pseudo-
critical educators. His intellectual brilliance and courage in denounc-
ing the structures of oppression were rooted in a very real and
material experience, as he recounts in Letters to Cristina:
INTRODUCTION • 13
It was a real and concrete hunger that had no specific date of
departure. Even though it never reached the rigor of the hunger
experienced by some people I know, it was not the hunger ex-
perienced by those who undergo a tonsil operation or are dieting.
On the contrary, our hunger was of the type that arrives unan-
nounced and unauthorized, making itself at home without an end
in sight. A hunger that, if it was not softened as ours was, would
take over our bodies, molding them into angular shapes. Legs,
arms, and fingers become skinny. Eye sockets become deeper,
making the eyes almost disappear. Many of our classmates ex-
perienced this hunger and today it continues to afflict millions of
Brazilians who die of its violence every year.1
Thus, Pedagogy of the Oppressed has its roots in Paulo Freire's lived
experiences.
The experience of hunger as a child of a middle-class family that
had lost its economic base enabled Freire to, on the one hand, identify
and develop "solidarity with the children from the poor outskirts of
town"2 and, on the other hand, to realize that "in spite of the hunger
that gave us solidarity... in spite of the bond that united us in our
search for ways to survive—our playtime, as far as the poor children
were concerned, ranked us as people from another world who hap-
pened to fall accidentally into their world."3 It is the realization of
such class borders that led, invariably, to Freire's radical rejection of
a class-based society.
Although some strands of postmodernism would dismiss Freire's
detailed class analysis in Pedagogy of the Oppressed, it is an enormous
mistake, if not academic dishonesty, to pretend that we now live in a
classless world. Although Freire understood very well that "material
oppression and the affective investments that tie oppressed groups to
the logic of domination cannot be grasped in all of their complexity
within a singular logic of class struggle/'4 he consistently argued that
a thorough understanding of oppression must always take a detour
through some form of class analysis.
Until his death, he courageously denounced the neoliberal position
that promotes the false notion of the end of history and the end of
class. Freire always viewed history as possibility, "recognizing that
History is time filled with possibility and not inexorably determined—
14 • INTRODUCTION
that the future is problematic and not already decided, fatalistically,"5
In like manner, Freire continued to reject any false claim to the end
of class struggle. Whereas he continually revised his earlier class anal-
yses, he never abandoned or devalued class as an important theoret-
ical category in our search for a better comprehension of conditions
of oppression. In a long dialogue we had during his last visit to New
York—in fact, the last time we worked together—he again said that
although one cannot reduce everything to class, class remains an im-
portant factor in our understanding of multiple forms of oppression.
While poststructuralists may want to proclaim the end of class anal-
ysis, they still have to account for the horrendous human conditions
that led, as Freire recounted, a family in Northeast Brazil to scavenge
a landfill and take "pieces of an amputated human breast with which
they prepared their Sunday lunch/' 6
Freire also never accepted the ' poststructuralism tendency to trans-
late diverse forms of class, race, and gender based oppression to the
discursive space of subject positions/'7 He always appreciated the the-
oretical complexity of multifactor analyses while never underestimat-
ing the role of class. For example, he resisted the essentialist approach
of reducing all analysis to one monolithic entity of race. For instance,
African functionaries who assimilate to colonial cultural values con-
stitute a distinct class with very different ideological cultural values
and aspirations than the bulk of the population. Likewise, it would be
a mistake to view all African Americans as one monolithic cultural
group without marked differences: United States Supreme Court Jus-
tice Clarence Thomas is black, after all (and conservative). Somewhat
similar gulfs exist between the vast mass of African Americans who
remain subordinated and reduced to ghettoes and middle-class Afri-
can Americans who, in some sense, have also partly abandoned the
subordinated mass of African Americans. I am reminded of a discus-
sion I had with a personal friend of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., who
had joined him in the important struggle to end segregation and op-
pression during the 1960s. During our discussion, King's friend re-
marked, "Donaldo, you are right. We are using euphemisms such as
Economically marginal' and avoid more pointed terms like 'oppres-
I N T R O D U C T I O N • 15
sion/ I confess that I often feel uneasy when I am invited to discuss
at institutions issues pertaining to the community. In reality, I haven't
been there in over twenty years." Having achieved great personal
success and having moved to a middle-class reality, this African Amer-
ican gentleman began to experience a distance from other African
Americans who remain abandoned in ghettoes.
In a recent discussion with a group of students, a young African
American man who attends an Ivy League university told me that his
parents usually vote with the white middle class, even if, in the long
run, their vote is ^detrimental to the reality of most black people. Thus,
we see again that race, itself, is not necessarily a unifying force.
Freire never abandoned his position with respect to class analysis
as theorized in Pedagogy of the Oppressed. However, as he continually
did, he reconstituted his earlier position throughout the years, partic-
ularly in our co-authored book Ideology Matters. In it Freire argues
that whereas, for example, "one cannot reduce the analysis of racism
to social class, one cannot understand racism fully without a class
analysis, for to do one at the expense of the other is to fall prey into
a sectarianist position, which is as despicable as the racism that we
need to reject."8 In essence, Freire's later works make it clear that
what is important is to approach the analysis of oppression through a
convergent theoretical framework where the object of oppression is
cut across by such factors as race, class, gender, culture, language,
and ethnicity. Thus, he would reject any theoretical analysis that
would collapse the multiplicity of factors into a monolithic entity, in-
cluding class.
Although Freire was readily embraced in societies struggling
against colonialism and other forms of totalitarianism, his acceptance
in the so-called open and democratic societies, such as the United
States and the nations of Western Europe, has been more prob-
lematic. Even though he has an international reputation and follow-
ing, his work is, sadly, not central to the curricula of most schools of
education whose major responsibility is to prepare the next genera-
tion of teachers. This relative marginality of Freire's work in the
school-of-education curricula is partly due to the fact that most of
16 • I N T R O D U C T I O N
these schools are informed by the positivistic and management models
that characterize the very culture of ideologies and practices to which
Freire was in opposition all his life. For example, the Harvard Grad-
uate School of Education sanctions a graduate course called "Literacy
Politics and Policies" without requiring students to read, critique, and
analyze the work of Freire. In fact, one can get a doctoral degree
from this school, or from others, without ever learning about, much
less reading, Paulo Freire. This is tantamount to getting a doctoral
degree in Linguistics without ever reading Noam Chomsky, The fol-
lowing illustrates my point. In a lecture at Harvard that analyzed
Paulo Freire's theories, given by Professor Ramon Flecha from the
University of Barcelona, a doctoral student approached me and asked
the following: "I don't want to sound naive, but who is this Paulo
Freire that Professor Flecha is citing so much?" I wonder, how can
one expect this doctoral student to know the work of "perhaps the
most significant educator in the world during the last half of the cen-
tury" in the words of Herbert Kohl,9 when his graduate school pre-
tends that Paulo Freire never existed?
Whereas students in the Third World and other nations struggling
with totalitarian regimes would risk their freedom, if not their lives,
to read Paulo Freire, in our so-called open societies his work suffers
from a more sophisticated form of censorship: omission. This "aca-
demic selective selection" of bodies of knowledge, which borders on
censorship of critical educators, is partly to blame for the lack of
knowledge of Paulo Freire's significant contributions to the field of
education. Even many liberals who have embraced his ideas and ed-
ucational practices often reduce his theoretical work and leading phil-
osophical ideas to a mechanical methodology. I am reminded of a
panel that was convened to celebrate Freire's life and work at Harvard
after his death. In a large conference room filled to capacity and with
people standing in hallways, a panelist who had obviously reduced
Freire's leading ideas to a mechanized dialogical practice passed a
note to the moderator of the panel suggesting that she give everyone
in the room twenty seconds to say something in keeping with the
spirit of Freire. This was the way not to engage Freire's belief in
INTRODUCTION • 17
emancipation—unless one believes that his complex theory of op-
pression can be reduced to a twenty-second sound bite. Part of the
problem with this mechanization of Freire's leading philosophical and
political ideas is that many psudocritical educators, in the name of
liberation pedagogy, often sloganize Freire by straitjacketing his rev-
olutionary politics to an empty cliche of the dialogical method.
Pseudo-Freirean educators not only strip him of the essence of his
radical pedagogical proposals that go beyond the classroom bound-
aries and effect significant changes in the society as well: these edu-
cators also fail to understand the epistemological relationship of
dialogue. According to Freire,
In order to understand the meaning of dialogical practice, we
have to put aside the simplistic understanding of dialogue as a
mere technique. Dialogue does not represent a somewhat false
path that I attempt to elaborate on and realize in the sense of
involving the ingenuity of the other. On the contrary, dialogue
characterizes an epistemological relationship. Thus, in this sense,
dialogue is a way of knowing and should never be viewed as a
mere tactic to involve students in a particular task. We have to
make this point very clear. I engage in dialogue not necessarily
because I like the other person. I engage in dialogue because I
recognize the social and not merely the individualistic character
of the process of knowing. In this sense, dialogue presents itself
as an indispensable component of the process of both learning
and knowing.10
Unfortunately, in the United States, many educators who claim to
be Freirean in their pedagogical orientation mistakenly transform Fre-
ire's notion of dialogue into a method, thus losing sight of the fact
that the fundamental goal of dialogical teaching is to create a process
of learning and knowing that invariably involves theorizing about the
experiences shared in the dialogue process. Some strands of critical
pedagogy engage in an overdose of experiential celebration that offers
a reductionistic view of identity^ leading Henry Giroux to point out
that such pedagogy leaves identity and experience removed from the
problematics of power, agency, and history. By overindulging in the
18 • INTRODUCTION
legacy and importance of their respective voices and experiences,
these educators often fail to move beyond a notion of difference struc-
tured in polarizing binarisms and uncritical appeals to the discourse
of experience. I believe that it is for this reason that some of these
educators invoke a romantic pedagogical mode that "exoticizes" dis-
cussing lived experiences as a process of coming to voice. At the same
time, educators who misinterpret Freire's notion of dialogical teaching
also refuse to link experiences to the politics of culture and critical
democracy, thus reducing their pedagogy to a form of middle-class
narcissism. This creates, on the one hand, the transformation of dia-
logical teaching into a method invoking conversation that provides
participants with a group-therapy space for stating their grievances.
On the other hand, it offers the teacher as facilitator a safe pedagog-
ical zone to deal with his or her class guilt. It is a process that bell
hooks characterizes as nauseating in that it brooks no dissent. Simply
put, as Freire reminded us, "what these educators are calling dialog-
ical is a process that hides the true nature of dialogue as a process of
learning and knowing. . . .Understanding dialogue as a process of
learning and knowing establishes a previous requirement that always
involves an epistemological curiosity about the very elements of the
dialogue."11 That is to say, dialogue must require an ever-present cu-
riosity about the object of knowledge. Thus, dialogue is never an end
in itself but a means to develop a better comprehension about the
object of knowledge. Otherwise, one could end up with dialogue as
conversation where individual lived experiences are given primacy. I
have been in many contexts where the over-celebration of one's own
location and history often eclipses the possibility of engaging the ob-
ject of knowledge by refusing to struggle directly, for instance, with
readings involving an object of knowledge, particularly if these read-
ings involve theory.
As Freire himself decidedly argued,
Curiosity about the object of knowledge and the willingness and
openness to engage theoretical readings and discussions is fun-
damental. However, I am not suggesting an over-celebration of
I N T R O D U C T I O N • 19
theory. We must not negate practice for the sake of theory. To
do so would reduce theory to a pure verbalism or intellectual-
ism. By the same token, to negate theory for the sake of prac-
tice, as in the use of dialogue as conversation, is to run the risk
of losing oneself in the disconnectedness of practice. It is for
this reason that I never advocate either a theoretic elitism or a
practice ungrounded in theory, but the unity between theory
and practice. In order to achieve this unity, one must have an
epistemological curiosity—a curiosity that is often missing in di-
alogue as conversation.12
That is, when students lack both the necessary epistemological cu-
riosity and a certain conviviality with the object of knowledge under
study, it is difficult to create conditions that increase their epistemo-
logical curiosity in order to develop the necessary intellectual tools
that will enable him or her to apprehend and comprehend the object
of knowledge. If students are not able to transform their lived expe-
riences into knowledge and to use the already acquired knowledge as
a process to unveil new knowledge, they will never be able to partic-
ipate rigorously in a dialogue as a process of learning and knowing.
In truth, how can one dialogue without any prior apprenticeship with
the object of knowledge and without any epistemological curiosity?
For example, how can anyone dialogue about linguistics if the teacher
refuses to create the pedagogical conditions that will apprentice stu-
dents into the new body of knowledge? By this I do not mean that
the apprenticeship process should be reduced to the authoritarian
tradition of lecturing without student input and discussion. What be-
comes very clear is that the bureaucratization of the dialogical process
represents yet another mechanism used by even some progressive
educators to diminish Freire's radical revolutionary and transformative
proposals through a process that gives rise to politics without content.
Thus, it is not surprising that some liberals join conservative educators
to critique Freire for what they characterize as "radical ties." For
example, Gregory Jay and Gerald Graff have argued that Freire's pro-
posal in Pedagogy of the Oppressed to move students toward "a crit-
ical perception of the world"—which "implies a correct method of
approaching reality" so that they can get "a comprehension of total
20 • INTRODUCTION
reality"—assumes that Freire already knows the identity of the op-
pressed. As Jay and Graff point out, "Freire assumes that we know
from the outset the identity of the Oppressed' ahd their 'oppressors/
Who the oppressors and the oppressed are is conceived not as an
open question that teachers and students might disagree about, but
as a given of Freirean pedagogy."13 This form of critique presupposes
that education should be nondirective and neutral, a posture that
Freire always opposed: "I must intervene in teaching the peasants
that their hunger is socially constructed and work with them to help
identify those responsible for this social construction, which is, in my
view, a crime against humanity."14 Therefore, we need to intervene
not only pedagogically but also ethically. Before any intervention,
however, an educator must have political clarity—posture that makes
many liberals like Graff very uncomfortable to the degree that he
considers "Radical educational theorists such as Freire, Henry Giroux,
and Stanley Aronowitz . . . [as having a] tunnel-vision style of. . . writ-
ing . . . which speaks of but never to those who oppose its premises."15
The assumption that Freire, Giroux, and Aronowitz engage in a
"tunnel-vision style of. . . writing" is not only false: it also points to a
distorted notion that there is an a priori agreed-upon style of writing
that is monolithic, available to all, and "free of jargon." This blind
and facile call for writing clarity represents a pernicious mechanism
used by academic liberals who suffocate discourses different from
their own. Such a call often ignores how language is being used to
make social inequality invisible. It also assumes that the only way to
deconstruct ideologies of oppression is through a discourse that in-
volves what these academics characterize as a language of clarity.
When I was working with Freire on the book Literacy: Reading
the Word and the World, I asked a colleague whom I considered to
be politically aggressive and to have a keen understanding of Freire's
work to read the manuscript. Yet, during a discussion we had about
this, she asked me, a bit irritably, "Why do you and Paulo insist on
using Marxist jargon? Many readers who may enjoy reading Paulo may
be put off by the jargon." I was at first taken aback, but proceeded
to explain calmly to her that the equation of Marxism with jargon did
INTRODUCTION ' 2 1
not fully capture the richness of Freire's analysis. In fact, I reminded
her that Freire's language was the only means through which he could
have done justice to the complexity of the various concepts dealing
with oppression. For one thing, I reminded her, "Imagine that instead
of writing Pedagogy of the Oppressed Freire had written "Pedagogy
of the Disenfranchised.77 The first title utilizes a discourse that names
the oppressor, whereas the second fails to do so. If you have an "op-
pressed," you must have an "oppressor/' What would be the coun-
terpart of disenfranchised? "Pedagogy of the Disenfranchised77
dislodges the agent of the action while leaving in doubt who bears
the responsibility for such action. This leaves the ground wide open
for blaming the victim of disenfranchisement for his or her own dis-
enfranchisement. This example is a clear case in which the object of
oppression can also be understood as the subject of oppression. Lan-
guage like this distorts reality.
And yet, mainstream academics like Graff seldom object to these
linguistic distortions that disfigure reality. I seldom hear academics
on a crusade for "language clarity" equate mainstream terms such as
"disenfranchised" or "ethnic cleansing," for example, to jargon status.
On the one hand, they readily accept "ethnic cleansing," a euphemism
for genocide, while, on the other hand, they will, with certain autom-
atism, point to the jargon quality of terms such as "oppression/' "sub-
ordination," and "praxis." If we were to deconstruct the term "ethnic
cleansing" we would see that it prevents us from becoming horrified
by Serbian brutality and horrendous crimes against Bosnian Muslims.
The mass killing of women, children, and the elderly and the rape of
women and girls as young as five years old take on the positive at-
tribute of "cleansing," which leads us to conjure a reality of "purifi-
cation" of the ethnic "filth" ascribed to Bosnian Muslims, in
particular, and to Muslims the world over, in general.
I also seldom heard any real protest from the same academics who
want "language clarity" when, during the Gulf War, the horrific blood
bath of the battlefield became a "theater of operation," and the violent
killing of over one hundred thousand Iraqis, including innocent
women, children, and the elderly by our "smart bombs," was sanitized
22 • INTRODUCTION
into a technical term: "collateral damage." I can go on with examples
to point out how academics who argue for clarity of language not only
seldom object to language that obfuscates reality, but often use the
same language as part of the general acceptance that the "standard"
discourse is given and should remain unproblematic. Although these
academics accept the dominant standard discourse, they aggressively
object to any discourse that both fractures the dominant language
and bares the veiled reality in order to name it. Thus, a discourse
that names it becomes, in their view, imprecise and unclear, and
wholesale euphemisms such as "disadvantaged," "disenfranchised,"
"educational mortality," "theater of operation," "collateral damage,"
and "ethnic cleansing" remain unchallenged since they are part of
the dominant social construction of images that are treated as un-
problematic and clear.
I am often amazed to hear academics complain about the com-
plexity of a particular discourse because of its alleged lack of clarity.
It is as if they have assumed that there is a mono-discourse that is
characterized by its clarity and is also equally available to all. If
one begins to probe the issue of clarity, we soon realize that it is
class specific, thus favoring those of that class in the meaning-
making process.
The following two examples will bring the point home: Henry Gi-
roux and I gave a speech at Massasoit Community College in Mas-
sachusetts to approximately three hundred unwed mothers who were
part of a GED (graduate-equivalency diploma) program. The director
of the program later informed us that most of the students were con-
sidered functionally illiterate. After Giroux's speech, during the ques-
tion-and-answer period, a woman got up and eloquently said,
"Professor Giroux, all my life I felt the things you talked about. I just
didn't have a language to express what I have felt. Today I have come
to realize that I do have a language. Thank you." And Paulo Freire
told me the story of what happened to him at the time he was pre-
paring the English translation of Pedagogy of the Oppressed. He gave
an African American student at Harvard a chapter of the book to read
to see how she would receive it. A few days later when he asked the
INTRODUCTION ' 2 3
woman if she had read it, she enthusiastically responded, "Yes. Not
only did I read it, but I gave it to my sixteen-year-old son to read.
He read the whole chapter that night and in the morning said, 'I want
to meet the man who wrote this. He is talking about me/ " One
question that I have for all those "highly literate" academics who find
Giroux's and Freire's discourse so difficult to understand is, Why is it
that a sixteen-year-old boy and a poor, "semiliterate" woman could so
easily understand and connect with the complexity of both Freire and
Girouxs language and ideas, and the academics, who should be the
most literate, find the language incomprehensible?
I believe that the answer has little to do with language and every-
thing to do with ideology. That is, people often identify with repre-
sentations that they are either comfortable with or that help deepen
their understanding of themselves. The call for language clarity is an
ideological issue, not merely a linguistic one. The sixteen-year-old and
the semiliterate poor woman could readily connect with Freire's ide-
ology, whereas the highly literate academics are "put off by some
dimensions of the "same ideology. It is, perhaps, for this reason that
a university professor I know failed to include Freire's work in a grad-
uate course that she taught on literacy. When I raised the issue with
her, she explained that students often find Freire's writing too difficult
and cumbersome. It could also be the reason that the Divinity School
at Harvard University offers a course entitled "Education for Liber-
ation," in which students study Freire and James Cone extensively,
whereas no such opportunities are available at Harvard's School of
Education.
For me, the mundane call for a language of "simplicity and clarity"
represents yet another mechanism to dismiss the complexity of the-
oretical issues, particularly if these theoretical constructs interrogate
the prevailing dominant ideology. It is for this very reason that Gayatri
Spivak correctly points out that the call for "plain prose cheats." I
would go a step further and say, "The call for plain prose not only
cheats, it also bleaches."
For me, it is not only plain prose that bleaches. Gerald Graffs
pedagogy of "teaching the conflict" also bleaches to the extent that it
24 • INTRODUCTION
robs students of the opportunity to access the critical discourses that
will enable them not only to deconstruct the colonial and hegemonic
paradigms, but will also help them realize that one cannot teach con-
flict as if, all of a sudden, it fell from the sky. The conflict must be
anchored in those competing histories and ideologies that generated
the conflict in the first place. David Goldberg captures this problem
when he argues that Graffs suggestion:
presupposes that educators—even the humanists of Graffs ad-
dress—occupy a neutral position, or at least can suspend their
prejudices, in presenting the conflicts, and that the conflicts are
fixed and immobile. One cannot teach the conflicts (or anything
else, for that matter) by assuming this neutral "view from no-
where," for it is no view at all. In other words, the Assumption
of a View from Nowhere is the projection of local values as neu-
trally universal ones, the globalizing of ethnocentric values, as
Stam and Shohat put it.16
The problem with the teaching of the conflict is that the only re-
ferent for engaging authority is a methodological one. As a result,
Graff demeans the ability of oppressed people to name their oppres-
sion as a pedagogical necessity and, at the same time, he dismisses
the politics of pedagogy that "could empower 'minorities' and build
on privileged students' minimal experience of 'otherization' " to help
them imagine alternative subject positions and divergent social
designs.17
As one can readily see, the mechanization of Freire's revolutionary
pedagogical proposals not only leads to the depolitization of his rad-
ically democratic work but also creates spaces for even those liberals
who embrace Freire's proposals to confuse "the term he employs to
summarize his approach to education, pedagogy' [which] is often in-
terpreted as a 'teaching method rather than a philosophy or a social
theory. Few who invoke his name make the distinction. To be sure,
neither does The Oxford English Dictionary. "lH This seeming lack of
distinction is conveniently adopted by those educators who believe
that education is neutral as they engage in a social construction of not
I N T R O D U C T I O N ' 2 5
seeing. That is, they willfully refuse to understand that the very term
"pedagogy," as my good friend and colleague Panagiota Gounari ex-
plains it, has Greek roots, meaning "to lead a child" (from pais: child
and ago: to lead). Thus, as the term "pedagogy" illustrates, education
is inherently directive and must always be transformative. As Stanley
Aronowitz so succinctly argues, "Freire's pedagogy is grounded in a
fully developed philosophical anthropology, that is, a theory of human
nature, one might say a secular liberation theology, containing its own
categories that are irreducible to virtually any other philosophy."19
The misinterpretation of Freire's philosophical and revolutionary ped-
agogical proposals in Pedagogy of the Oppressed and his subsequent
books lies not only in the depolitization of his revolutionary aim "to
transform what Frantz Fannon terms 'the wretched of the earth' from
'being for others' to 'beings for themselves,' "20 but also in the disar-
ticulation of Freire's thinking from his enormous debt to a philo-
sophical tradition that included Marx, Gramsci, Hegel, and Sartre
among others.
Although I was immobilized when I received the devastating news
that Paulo Freire, my friend, my collaborator, my teacher, and my
mentor, had died, I found comfort in the certainty that Pedagogy of
the Oppressed had indeed "outlived its own time and its author's." I
found comfort in the immeasurable hope that Paulo represented for
those of us who are committed to imagine a world, in his own words,
that is less ugly, more beautiful, less discriminatory, more democratic,
less dehumanizing, and more humane. In his work and in his life,
Paulo teaches us and the world—with his hallmark humility—what it
means to be an intellectual who fights against the temptation of be-
coming a populist intellectual. As always, he teaches us with his pen-
etrating and unquiet mind the meaning of a profound commitment
to fight sopial injustices in our struggle to recapture the loss of our
dignity as human beings. In Paulo's own words:
We need to say no to the neoliberal fatalism that we are wit-
nessing at the end of this century, informed by the ethics of the
market, an ethics in which a minority makes most profits against
26 • INTRODUCTION
the lives of the majority. In other words, those who cannot
compete, die. This is a perverse ethics that, in fact, lacks ethics.
I insist on saying that I continue to be human . . . I would
then remain the last educator in the world to say no: I do not
accept. . . history as determinism. I embrace history as pos-
sibility [where] we can demystify the evil in this perverse fa-
talism that characterizes the neoliberal discourse in the end of
this century.21
Paulo Freire did not realize his dream of entering the twenty-first
century full of hope for "a world that is more round, less ugly, and
more just." Although he did not hold our hands as we crossed the
threshold of the twenty-first century, his words of wisdom, his pen-
etrating and insightful ideas, his courage to denounce in order to
announce, his courage to love and "to speak about love without fear
of being called ascientific, if not antiscientific," his humility, and his
humanity make him immortal—a forever-present force that keeps
alive our understanding of history as possibility.
I always accepted with humility Paulo's challenge through the co-
herence and humility he exemplified. With much sadness, magoa, but
also with much affection and hope, I say, once more, thank you Paulo:
for having been present in the world, for having given us Pedagogy
of the Oppressed, for having taught us how to read the world and for
challenging us to humanize the world.
DONALDO MACEDO
Distinguished Professor of Liberal Arts and Education
University of Massachusetts, Boston
INTRODUCTION -27
Notes
1. Paulo Freire, Letters to Cristina. (New York: Routledge, 1996),
p. 15.
2. Ibid. p. 21.
3. Ibid.
4. Henry A. Giroux, "Radical Pedagogy and Educated Hope: Remem-
bering Taulo Freire." Typewritten manuscript.
5. Ibid.
6. Paulo Freire and Donaldo Macedo, Ideology Matters (Boulder CO.:
Rowman & Littlefield), forthcoming.
7. Henry A. Giroux, "Radical Pedagogy and Educated Hope."
8. Paulo Freire and Donaldo Macedo, Ideology Matters.
9. Herbert Kohl, "Paulo Freire: Liberation Pedagogy" in The Nation,
May 26, 1997, p. 7.
10. Paulo Freire and Donaldo Macedo, "A Dialogue: Culture, Language,
and Race" in Harvard Educational Review, vol. 65, no. 3, fall 1995, p. 379.
11. Ibid. p. 382.
12. Ibid.
13. Gregory Jay and Gerald Graff, "A Critique of Critical Pedagogy,"
Higher Education under Fire, ed. Michael Barube and Gary Nelson (New
York: Routledge, 1995), p. 203.
14. Paulo Freire and Donaldo Macedo, "A Dialogue: Culture, Language,
and Race," p. 379.
15. Gerald Graff, "Academic Writing and the Uses of Bad Publicity,"
Eloquent Obsessions, ed. Mariana Torgormick (Chapel Hill: Duke University
Press, 1994), p. 215.
16., David Theo Goldberg, "Introduction," Multiculturalism: A Critical
Reader, ed. David Theo Goldberg (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1994), p. 19.
17. Robert Stam and Ella Shohat, "Contested Histories? Eurocentrism,
Multiculturalism, and the Media," Multiculturalism: A Critical Reader,
p. 19.
18. Stanley Aronowitz, "Paulo Freire's Radical Democratic Humanism"
in Peter McLaren and Peter Leonard, Paulo Freire: A Critical Encounter
(London: Routledge, 1993), p. 8.
19. Ibid. p. 12.
20. Ibid. p. 13.
21. Paulo Freire and Donaldo Macedo, Ideology Matters.
Forewoid
Over the years, the thought and work of the Brazilian educator
Paulo Freire have spread from the North East of Brazil to an entire
continent, and have made a profound impact not only in the field of
education but also in the overall struggle for national development.
At the precise moment when the disinherited masses in Latin
America are awakening from their traditional lethargy and are anx
ious to participate, as Subjects, in the development of their coun
tries, Paulo Freire has perfected a method for teaching illiterates
that has contributed, in an extraordinary way, to that process. In fact,
those who, in learning to read and write, come to a new awareness of
selfhood and begin to look critically at the social situation in which
they find themselves, often take the initiative in acting to transform
the society that has denied them this opportunity of participation.
Education is once again a subversive force.
In this country, we are gradually becoming aware of the work of
Paulo Freire, but thus far we have thought of it primarily in terms
of its contribution to the education of illiterate adults in the Third
World. If, however, we take a closer look, we may discover that his
methodology as well as his educational philosophy are as important
for us as for the dispossessed in Latin America. Their struggle to
become free Subjects and to participate in the transformation of
their society is similar, in many ways, to the struggle not only of
blacks and MexicanAmericans but also of middleclass young peo
ple in this country. And the sharpness and intensity of that struggle
in the developing world may well provide us with new insight, new
models, and a new hope as we face our own situation. For this
reason, I consider the publication of Pedagogy of the Oppressed in
an English edition to be something of an event.
3 0 P A U L O FREIRE
Paulo Freire's thought represents the, response of a creative mind
and sensitive conscience to the extraordinary misery and suffering
of the oppressed around him. Born in 1921 in Recife, the center of
one of the most extreme situations of poverty and underdevelopment
in the Third World, he was soon forced to experience that reality
directly. As the economic crisis in 1929 in the United States began
to affect Brazil, the precarious stability of Freires middle-class fam-
ily gave way and he found himself sharing the plight of the "wretched
of the earth." This had a profound influence on his life as he came
to know the gnawing pangs of hunger and fell behind in school
because of the listlessness it produced; it also led him to make a
vow, at age eleven, to dedicate his life to the struggle against hunger,
so that other children would not have to know the agony he was
then experiencing.
His early sharing of the life of the poor also led him to the discov-
ery of what he describes as the "culture of silence" of the dispos-
sessed. He came to realize that their ignorance and lethargy were
the direct product of the whole situation of economic, social, and
political domination—and of the paternalism—of which they were
victims. Rather than being encouraged and equipped to know and
respond to the concrete realities of their world, they were kept
"submerged" in a situation in which such critical awareness and
response were practically impossible. And it became clear to him
that the whole educational system was one of the major instruments
for the maintenance of this culture of silence.
Confronted by this problem in a very existential way, Freire
turned his attention to the field of education and began to work on
it. Over the years, he has engaged in a process of study and reflec-
tion that has produced something quite new and creative in educa-
tional philosophy. From a situation of direct engagement in the
struggle to liberate men and women for the creation of a new world,
he has reached out to the thought and experience of those in many
different situations and of diverse philosophical positions: in his
words, to "Sartre and Mounier, Erich Fromm and Louis Althusser,
Ortega y Gasset and Mao, Martin Luther King and Che Guevara,
PEDAGOGY OF THE O P P R E S S E D ' 3 1
Unamuno and Marcuse." He has made use of the insights of these
men to develop a perspective on education which is authentically
his own and which seeks to respond to the concrete realities of Latin
America.
His thought on the philosophy of education was first expressed in
1959 in his doctoral dissertation at the University of Recife, and later
in his wbrk as Professor of the History and Philosophy of Education
in the same university, as well as in his early experiments with the
teaching of illiterates in that same city. The methodology he devel
oped was widely used by Catholics and others in literacy campaigns
throughout the North East of Brazil, and was considered such a
threat to the old order that Freire was jailed immediately after the
military coup in 1964. Released seventy days later and encouraged
to leave the country, Freire went to Chile, where he spent five
years working with UNESCO and the Chilean Institute for Agrarian
Reform in programs of adult education. He then acted as a consult
ant at Harvard University's School of Education, and worked in close
association with a number of groups engaged in new educational
experiments in rural and urban areas. He is presently serving as
Special Consultant to the Office of Education of the World Council
of Churches in Geneva.
Freire has written many articles in Portuguese and Spanish, and
his first book, Educagdo como Prdtica da Liberdade, was published
in Brazil in 1967. His latest and most complete work, Pedagogy of
the Oppressed, is the first of his writings to be published in this
country.
In this brief introduction, there is no point in attempting to sum
up, in a few paragraphs, what the author develops in a number of
pages. That would be an offense to the richness, depth, and com
plexity of his thought. But perhaps a word of witness has its place
here—a personal witness as to why I find a dialogue with the
thought of Paulo Freire an exciting adventure. Fed up as I am with
the abstractness and sterility of so much intellectual work in aca
demic circles today, I am excited by a process of reflection which is
set in a thoroughly historical context, which is carried on in the
3 2 ' P A U L O FREIRE
midst of a struggle to create a new social order and thus represents
a new unity of theory and praxis. And I am encouraged when a
man of the stature of Paulo Freire incarnates a rediscovery of the
humanizing vocation of the intellectual, and demonstrates the power
of thought to negate accepted limits and open the way to a new
future.
Freire is able to do this because he operates on one basic assump
tion: that mans ontological vocation (as he calls it) is to be a Subject
who acts upon and transforms his world, and in so doing moves
toward ever new possibilities of fuller and richer life individually
and collectively. This world to which he relates is not a static and
closed order, a given reality which man must accept and to which
he must adjust; rather, it is a problem to be worked on and solved.
It is the material used by man to create history, a task which he
performs as he overcomes that which is dehumanizing at any par
ticular time and place and dares to create the qualitatively new. For
Freire, the resources for that task at the present time are provided
by the advanced technology of our Western world, but the social
vision which impels us to negate the present order and demonstrate
that history has not ended comes primarily from the suffering and
struggle of the people of the Third World.
Coupled with this is Freires conviction (now supported by a wide
background of experience) that every human being, no matter how
"ignorant" or submerged in the "culture of silence" he or she may
be, is capable of looking critically at the world in a dialogical encoun
ter with others. Provided with the proper tools for such encounter,
the individual can gradually perceive personal and social reality as
well as the contradictions in it, become conscious of his or her own
perception of that reality, and deal critically with it. In this process,
the old, paternalistic teacherstudent relationship is overcome. A
peasant can facilitate this process for a neighbor more effectively
than a "teacher" brought in from outside. "People educate each
other through the mediation of the world."
As this happens, the word takes on new power. It is no longer an
abstraction or magic but a means by which people discover them
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED ' 3 3
selves and their potential as they give names to things around them.
As Freire puts it, each individual wins back the right to say his or
her own wordy to name the world.
When an illiterate peasant participates in this sort of educational
experience, he or she comes to a new awareness of self, has a new
sense of dignity, and is stirred by a new hope. Time and again,
peasants have expressed these discoveries in striking ways after a
few hours of class: "I now realize I am a person, an educated person."
"We were blind, now our eyes have been opened." "Before this,
words meant nothing to me; now they speak to me and I can make
them speak." "Now we will no longer be a dead weight on the
cooperative farm." When this happens in the process of learning to
read, men and women discover that they are creators of culture, and
that all their work can be creative. "I work, and working I transform
the world." And as those who have been completely marginalized
are so radically transformed, they are no longer willing to be mere
objects, responding to changes occurring around them; they are
more likely to decide to take upon themselves the struggle to change
the structures of society, which until now have served to oppress
them. For this reason, a distinguished Brazilian student of national
development recently affirmed that this type of educational work
among the people represents a new factor in social change and devel
opment, "a new instrument of conduct for the Third World, by
which it can overcome traditional structures and enter the modern
world."
At first sight, Paulo Freire's method of teaching illiterates in Latin
America seems to belong to a different world from that in which we
find ourselves in this country. Certainly, it would be absurd to claim
that it should be copied here. But there are certain parallels in
the two situations that should not be overlooked. Our advanced
technological society is rapidly making objects of most of us and
subtly programming us into conformity to the logic of its system. To
the degree that this happens, we are also becoming submerged in
a new "culture of silence."
The paradox is that the same technology that does this to us also
3 4 ' P A U L O FREIRE
creates a new sensitivity to what is happening. Especially among
young people, the new media together with the erosion of old con-
cepts of authority open the way to acute awareness of this new bond-
age. The young perceive that their right to say their own word has
been stolen from them, and that few things are more important than
the struggle to win it back. And they also realize that the educational
system today—from kindergarten to university—is their enemy.
There is no such thing as a neutral educational process. Education
either functions as an instrument that is used to facilitate the integra-
tion of the younger generation into the logic of the present system
and bring about conformity to it, or it becomes "the practice of
freedom," the means by which men and women deal critically and
creatively with reality and discover how to participate in the transfor-
mation of their world. The development of an educational methodol-
ogy that facilitates this process will inevitably lead to tension and
conflict within our society. But it could also contribute to the forma-
tion of a new man and mark the beginning of a new era in Western
history For those who are committed to that task and are searching
for concepts and tools for experimentation, Paulo Freires thought
will make a significant contribution in the years ahead.
RICHARD SHAULL
Preface
These pages, which introduce Pedagogy of the Oppressed, result
from my observations during six years of political exile, observations
which have enriched those previously afforded by my educational
activities in Brazil.
I have encountered, both in training courses which analyze the
role of conscientizagao1 and in actual experimentation with a truly
liberating education, the "fear of freedom" discussed in the first
chapter of this book. Not infrequently, training course participants
call attention to "the danger of conscientizagao" in a way that reveals
their own fear of freedom. Critical consciousness, they say, is anar
chic. Others add that critical consciousness may lead to disorder.
Some, however, confess: Why deny it? I was afraid of freedom. I am
no longer afraid!
In one of these discussions, the group was debating whether the
conscientizagao of men and women to a specific situation of injustice
might not lead them to "destructive fanaticism" or to a "sensation
of total collapse of their world." In the midst of the argument, a
person who previously had been a factory worker for many years
spoke out: "Perhaps I am the only one here of workingclass origin.
I cani say that I've understood everything you've said just now, but
I can say one thing—when I began this course I was naive, and
when I found out how naive I was, I started to get critical. But this
discovery hasn't made me a fanatic, and I don't feel any collapse
either."
1. The term consctentizagdo refers to learning to perceive social, political and
economic contradictions, and to take action against the oppressive elements of
reality. See chapter 3.—Translator s note.
3 6 P A U L O F R E I R E
Doubt regarding the possible effects of conscientizagdo implies a
premise which the doubter does not always make explicit: It is better
for the victims of injustice not to recognize themselves as such. In
fact, however, conscientizagdo does not lead people to "destructive
fanaticism." On the contrary, by making it possible for people to
enter the historical process as responsible Subjects,2 conscientizagdo
enrolls them in the search for self-affirmation and thus avoids fa-
naticism,
The awakening of critical consciousness leads the way to the
expression of social discontents precisely because these discon-
tents are real components of an oppressive situation.3
Fear of freedom, of which its possessor is not necessarily aware,
makes him see ghosts. Such an individual is actually taking refuge
in an attempt to achieve security, which he or she prefers to the
risks of liberty. As Hegel testifies:
It is solely by risking life that freedom is obtained; . . . the
individual who has not staked his or her life may, no doubt, be
recognized as a Person; but he or she has not attained the truth
of this recognition as an independent self-consciousness.4
Men and women rarely admit their fear of freedom openly, however,
tending rather to camouflage it—sometimes unconsciously—by pre-
senting themselves as defenders of freedom. They give their doubts
and misgivings an air of profound sobriety, as befitting custodians of
freedom. But they confuse freedom with the maintenance of the
status quo; so that if conscientizagdo threatens to place that status
quo in question, it thereby seems to constitute a threat to freedom
itself.
2. The term Subjects denotes those who know and act, in contrast to objects,
which are known and acted upon.—Translator's note.
3. Francisco Weffort, in the preface to Paulo Freire, Educagdo como Prdtica da
Liberdade (Rio de Janeiro, 1967).
4. Georg Hegel, The Phenomenology of Mind (New York, 1967), p. 233.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED ' 3 7
Thought and study alone did not produce Pedagogy of the Op-
pressed; it is rooted in concrete situations and describes the reac
tions of laborers (peasant or urban) and of middleclass persons
whom I have observed directly or indirectly during the course of
my educative work. Continued observation will afford me an oppor
tunity to modify or to corroborate in later studies the points pro
posed in this introductory work.
This volume will probably arouse negative reactions in a number
of readers. Some will regard my position visavis the problem of
human liberation as purely idealistic, or may even consider discus
sion of ontological vocation, love, dialogue, hope, humility, and sym
pathy as so much reactionary "blah." Others will not (or will not
wish to) accept my denunciation of a state of oppression that gratifies
the oppressors. Accordingly, this admittedly tentative work is for
radicals. I am certain that Christians and Marxists, though they may
disagree with me in part or in whole, will continue reading to the
end. But the reader who dogmatically assumes closed, "irrational"
positions will reject the dialogue I hope this book will open.
Sectarianism, fed by fanaticism, is always castrating. Radicaliza
tion, nourished by a critical spirit, is always creative. Sectarianism
mythicizes and thereby alienates; radicalization criticizes and
thereby liberates. Radicalization involves increased commitment to
the position one has chosen, and thus ever greater engagement in
the effort to transform concrete, objective reality. Conversely, sectar
ianism, because it is mythicizing and irrational, turns reality into a
false (and therefore unchangeable) "reality."
Sectarianism in any quarter is an obstacle to the emancipation of
mankind. The rightist version thereof does not always, unfortu
nately, call forth its natural counterpart: radicalization of the revolu
tionary. Not infrequently, revolutionaries themselves become
reactionary by falling into sectarianism in the process of responding
to the sectarianism of the Right. This possibility, however, should
not lead the radical to become a docile pawn of the elites. Engaged
in the process of liberation, he or she cannot remain passive in the
face of the oppressors violence.
38'PAULO FREIRE
On the other hand, the radical is never a subjectivist. For this
individual the subjective aspect exists only in relation to the objec-
tive aspect (the concrete reality, which is the object of analysis).
Subjectivity and objectivity thus join in a dialectical unity producing
knowledge in solidarity with action, and vice versa.
For his or her part, the sectarian of whatever persuasion, blinded
by irrationality, does not (or cannot) perceive the dynamic of reali-
ty—or else misinterprets it. Should this person think dialectically,
it is with a "domesticated dialectic." The rightist sectarian (whom I
have previously termed a born sectarian5) wants to slow down the
historical process, to "domesticate" time and thus to domesticate
men and women. The leftist-turned-sectarian goes totally astray
when he or she attempts to interpret reality and history dialectically,
and falls into essentially fatalistic positions.
The rightist sectarian differs from his or her leftist counterpart
in that the former attempts to domesticate the present so that (he
or she hopes) the future will reproduce this domesticated present,
while the latter considers the future pre-established—a kind of in-
evitable fate, fortune, or destiny. For the rightist sectarian, "today,"
linked to the past, is something given and immutable; for the leftist
sectarian, "tomorrow" is decreed beforehand, is inexorably preor-
dained. This rightist and this leftist are both reactionary because,
starting from their respectively false views of history, both develop
forms of action that negate freedom. The fact that one person imag-
ines a "well-behaved" present and the other a predetermined future
does not mean that they therefore fold their arms and become spec-
tators (the former expecting that the present will continue, the latter
waiting for the already "known" future to come to pass). On the
contrary, closing themselves into "circles of certainty" from which
they cannot escape, these individuals "make" their own truth. It is
not the truth of men and women who struggle to build the future,
running the risks involved in this very construction. Nor is it the
truth of men and women who fight side by side and learn together
5. In Educagdo como Prdtica da Liberdade.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED 3 9
how to build this future—which is not something given to be re
ceived by people, but is rather something to be created by them.
Both types of sectarian, treating history in an equally proprietary
fashion, end up without the people—which is another way of being
against them.
Whereas the rightist sectarian, closing himself in "his" truth, does
no more than fulfill a natural role, the leftist who becomes sectarian
and rigid negates his or her very nature. Each, however, as he re
volves about "his" truth, feels threatened if that truth is questioned.
Thus, each considers anything that is not "his" truth a lie. As the
journalist Marcio Moreira Alves once told me, "They both suffer
from an absence of doubt." *
The radical, committed to human liberation, does not become
the prisoner of a "circle of certainty' within which reality is also
imprisoned. On the contrary, the more radical the person is, the
more fully he or she enters into reality so that, knowing it better,
he or she can better transform it. This individual is not afraid to
confront, to listen, to see the world unveiled. This person is not
afraid to meet the people or to enter into dialogue with them.6 This
person does not consider himself or herself the proprietor of history
or of all people, or the liberator of the oppressed; but he or she does
commit himself or herself, within history, to fight at their side.
The pedagogy of the oppressed, the introductory outlines of
which are presented in the following pages, is a task for radicals; it
cannot be carried out by sectarians.
I will be satisfied if among the readers of this work there are those
sufficiently critical to correct mistakes and misunderstandings, to
deepen affirmations and to point out aspects I have not perceived. It
is possible that some may question my right to discuss revolutionary
cultural action, a subject of which I have no concrete experience.
The fact that I have not personally participated in revolutionary
action, however, does not negate the possibility of my reflecting on
6. "As long as theoretic knowledge remains the privilege of a handful of 'academi
cians* in the Party, the latter will face the danger of going astray." Rosa Luxembourg,
Reform or Revolution, cited in C. Wright Mills, The Marxists (New York, 1963).
40-PAULO FREIRE
this theme. Furthermore, in my experience as an educator with
the people, using a dialogical and problem-posing education, I have
accumulated a comparative wealth of material that challenged me
to run the risk of making the affirmations contained in this work.
From these pages I hope at least the following will endure: my
trust in the people, and my faith in men and women, and in the
creation of a world in which it will be easier to love.
Here I would like to express my gratitude to Elza, my wife and
"first reader," for the understanding and encouragement she has
shown my work, which belongs to her as well I would also like to
extend my thanks to a group of friends for their comments on my
manuscript. At the risk of omitting some names, I must mention
Joao da Veiga Coutinho, Richard Shaull, Jim Lamb, Myra and Jove-
lino Ramos, Paulo de Tarso, Almino Affonso, Plinio Sampaio, Ernani
Maria Fiori, Marcela Gajardo, Jose Luis Fiori, and Joao Zacarioti.
The responsibility for the affirmations made herein is, of course,
mine alone.
PAULO FREIRE
PEDAGOGY
of the
OPPRESSED
CHAPTER
1
W l
hile the problem of humanization has always, from an
axiological point of view, been humankind's central
problem, it now takes on the character of an inescapable
concern. Concern for humanization leads at once to the recognition
of dehumanization, not only as an ontological possibility but as an
historical reality And as an individual perceives the extent of dehu-
manization, he or shertiayask if humanization is a viable possibility.
Within history^ in concrete, objective contexts, both humanization
and dehumanization are possibilities for a person as an uncompleted
being conscious of their incompletion.
But while both humanization and dehumanization are real alter-
natives, only the first is the people's vocation. This vocation is con-
stantly negated, yet it is affirmed by that very negation. It is
1. The current movements of rebellion, especially those of youth, while they
necessarily reflect the peculiarities of their respective settings, manifest in their
essence this preoccupation with people as beings in the world and with the world—
preoccupation with what and how they are "being." As they place consumer civiliza
tion in judgment, denounce bureaucracies of all types, demand the transformation
of the universities (changing the rigid nature of the teacherstudent relationship and
placing that relationship within the context of reality), propose the transformation of
reality itself so that universities can be renewed, attack old orders and established
institutions in the attempt to affirm human beings as the Subjects of decision, all
these movements reflect the style of our age, which is more anthropological than
anthropocentric.
44-PAULO FREIRE
thwarted by injustice, exploitation, oppression, and the violence of
the oppressors; it is affirmed by the yearning of the oppressed for
freedom and justice, and by their struggle to recover their lost hu
manity.
Dehumanization, which marks not only those whose humanity
has been stolen, but also (though in a different way) those who have
stolen it, is a distortion of the vocation of becoming more fully
human. This distortion occurs within history; but it is not an histori
cal vocation. Indeed, to admit of dehumanization as an historical
vocation would lead either to cynicism or total despair. The struggle
for humanization, for the emancipation of labor, for the overcoming
of alienation, for the affirmation of men and women as persons would
be meaningless. This struggle is possible only because dehumaniza
tion, although a concrete historical fact, is not a given destiny but
the result of an unjust order that engenders violence in the oppres
sors, which in turn dehumanizes the oppressed.
Because it is a distortion of being more fully human, sooner or
later being less human leads the oppressed to struggle against those
who made them so. In order for this struggle to have meaning, the
oppressed must not, in seeking to regain their humanity (which is
a way to create it), become in turn oppressors of the oppressors, but
rather restorers of the humanity of both.
This, then, is the great humanistic and historical task of the op
pressed: to liberate themselves and their oppressors as well. The
oppressors, who oppress, exploit, and rape by virtue of their power,
cannot find in this power the strength to liberate either the op
pressed or themselves. Only power that springs from the weakness
of the oppressed will be sufficiently strong to free both. Any attempt
to "soften" the power of the oppressor in deference to the weakness
of the oppressed almost always manifests itself in the form of false
generosity; indeed, the attempt never goes beyond this. In order to
have the continued opportunity to express their "generosity," the
oppressors must perpetuate injustice as well. An unjust social order
is the permanent fount of this "generosity," which is nourished by
death, despair, and poverty. That is why the dispensers of false gen
erosity become desperate at the slightest threat to its source.
PEDAGOGY OF THE O P P R E S S E D • 45
True generosity consists precisely in fighting to destroy the causes
which nourish false charity. False charity constrains the fearful and
subdued, the "rejects of life," to extend their trembling hands. True
generosity lies in striving so that these hands—whether of individ
uals or entire peoples—need be extended less and less in supplica
tion, so that more and more they become human hands which work
and, working, transform the world.
This lesson and this apprenticeship must come, however, from the
oppressed themselves and from those who are truly solidary with
them. As individuals or as peoples, by fighting for the restoration
of their humanity they will be attempting the restoration of true
generosity. Who are better prepared than the oppressed to under
stand the terrible significance of an oppressive society? Who suffer
the eflFects of oppression more than the oppressed? Who can better
understand the necessity of liberation? They will not gain this libera
tion by chance but through the praxis of their quest for it, through
their recognition of the necessity to fight for it. And this fight, be
cause of the purpose given it by the oppressed, will actually consti
tute an act of love opposing the lovelessness which lies at the heart
of the oppressors violence, lovelessness even when clothed in false
generosity.
But almost always, during the initial stage of the struggle, the
oppressed, instead of striving for liberation, tend themselves to be
come oppressors, or "suboppressors." The very structure of their
thought has been conditioned by the contradictions of the concrete,
existential situation by which they were shaped. Their ideal is to be
men; but for them, to be men is to be oppressors. This is their
model of humanity. This phenomenon derives from the fact that the
oppressed, at a certain moment of their existential experience, adopt
an attitude of "adhesion" to the oppressor. Under these circum
stances they cannot "consider" him sufficiently clearly to objectivize
him—to discover him "outside" themselves. This does not necessar
ily mean that the oppressed are unaware that they are downtrodden.
But their perception of themselves as oppressed is impaired by
their submersion in the reality of oppression. At this level, their
perception of themselves as opposites of the oppressor does not yet
4 6 P A U L O F R E I R E
signify engagement in a struggle to overcome the contradiction;2 the
one pole aspires not to liberation, but to identification with its oppo-
site pole.
In this situation the oppressed do not see the "new man" as the
person to be born from the resolution of this contradiction, as op-
pression gives way to liberation. For them, the new man or woman
themselves become oppressors. Their vision of the new man or
woman is individualistic; because of their identification with the
oppressor, they have no consciousness of themselves as persons or
as members of an oppressed class. It is not to become free that they
want agrarian reform, but in order to acquire land and thus become
landowners—or, more precisely, bosses over other workers. It is a
rare peasant who, once "promoted" to overseer, does not become
more of a tyrant towards his former comrades than the owner him-
self. This is because the context of the peasant's situation, that is,
oppression, remains unchanged. In this example, the overseer, in
order to make sure of his job, must be as tough as the owner—and
more so. Thus is illustrated our previous assertion that during the
initial stage of their struggle the oppressed find in the oppressor
their model of "manhood."
Even revolution, which transforms a concrete situation of oppres-
sion by establishing the process of liberation, must confront this
phenomenon. Many of the oppressed who directly or indirectly par-
ticipate in revolution intend—conditioned by the myths of the old
order—to make it their private revolution. The shadow of their for-
mer oppressor is still cast over them.
The "fear of freedom" which afflicts the oppressed,3 a fear which
may equally well lead them to desire the role of oppressor or bind
them to the role of oppressed, should be examined. One of the basic
elements of the relationship between oppressor and oppressed is
2. As used throughout this book, the term "contradiction" denotes the dialectical
conflict between opposing social forces.—Translator s note.
3. This fear of freedom is also to be found in the oppressors, though, obviously,
in a different form. The oppressed are afraid to embrace freedom; the oppressors
are afraid of losing the "freedom" to oppress.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED -47
prescription. Every prescription represents the imposition of one
individual's choice upon another, transforming the consciousness of
the person prescribed to into one that conforms with the pre
servers consciousness. Thus, the behavior of the oppressed is a
prescribed behavior, following as it does the guidelines of the op
pressor.
The oppressed, having internalized the image of the oppressor
and adopted his guidelines, are fearful of freedom. Freedom would
require them to eject this image and replace it with autonomy and
responsibility. Freedom is acquired by conquest, not by gift. It must
be pursued constantly and responsibly. Freedom is not an ideal
located outside of man; nor is it an idea which becomes myth. It is
rather the indispensable condition for the quest for human com
pletion.
To surmount the situation of oppression, people must first criti
cally recognize its causes, so that through transforming action they
can create a new situation, one which makes possible the pursuit of
a fuller humanity. But the struggle to be more fully human has
already begun in the authentic struggle to transform the situation.
Although the situation of oppression is a dehumanized and dehu
manizing totality affecting both the oppressors and those whom they
oppress, it is the latter who must, from their stifled humanity, wage
for both the struggle for a fuller humanity; the oppressor, who is
himself dehumanized because he dehumanizes others, is unable to
lead this struggle.
However, the oppressed, who have adapted to the structure of
domination in which they are immersed, and have become resigned
to it, are inhibited from waging the struggle for freedom so long as
they feel incapable of running the risks it requires. Moreover, their
struggle for freedom threatens not only the oppressor, but also their
own oppressed comrades who are fearful of still greater repression.
When they discover within themselves the yearning to be free, they
perceive that this yearning can be transformed into reality only
when the same yearning is aroused in their comrades. But while
dominated by the fear of freedom they refuse to appeal to others,
48-PAULO FREIRE
or to listen to the appeals of others, or even to the appeals of their
own conscience. They prefer gregariousness to authentic comrade
ship; they prefer the security of conformity with their state of unfree
dom to the creative communion produced by freedom and even the
very pursuit of freedom.
The oppressed suffer from the duality which has established itself
in their innermost being. They discover that without freedom they
cannot exist authentically. Yet, although they desire authentic exis
tence, they fear it. They are at one and the same time themselves
and the oppressor whose consciousness they have internalized The
conflict lies in the choice between being wholly themselves or being
divided; between ejecting the oppressor within or not ejecting
them; between human solidarity or alienation; between following
prescriptions or having choices; between being spectators or actors;
between acting or having the illusion of acting through the action of
the oppressors; between speaking out or being silent, castrated in
their power to create and recreate, in their power to transform
the world. This is the tragic dilemma of the oppressed which their
education must take into account.
This book will present some aspects of what the writer has termed
the pedagogy of the oppressed, a pedagogy which must be forged
with, not for, the oppressed (whether individuals or peoples) in the
incessant struggle to regain their humanity. This pedagogy makes
oppression and its causes objects of reflection by the oppressed, and
from that reflection will come their necessary engagement in the
struggle for their liberation. And in the struggle this pedagogy will
be made and remade.
The central problem is this: How can the oppressed, as divided,
unauthentic beings, participate in developing the pedagogy of their
liberation? Only as they discover themselves to be "hosts" of the
oppressor can they contribute to the midwifery of their liberating
pedagogy. As long as they live in the duality in which to be is to be
like, and to be like is to be like the oppressor, this contribution is
impossible. The pedagogy of the oppressed is an instrument for
their critical discovery that both they and their oppressors are mani
festations of dehumanization.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED 4 9
Liberation is thus a childbirth, and a painful one. The man or
woman who emerges is a new person, viable only as the oppressor
oppressed contradiction is superseded by the humanization of all
people. Or to put it another way, the solution of this contradiction
is born in the labor which brings into the world this new being: no
longer oppressor nor longer oppressed, but human in the process
of achieving freedom.
This solution cannot be achieved in idealistic terms. In order for
the oppressed to be able to wage the struggle for their liberation,
they must perceive the reality of oppression not as a closed world
from which there is no exit, but as a limiting situation which they
can transform. This perception is a necessary but not a sufficient
condition foi* liberation; it must become the motivating force for
liberating action. Nor does the discovery by the oppressed that they
exist in dialectical relationship to the oppressor, as his antithesis—
that without them the oppressor could not exist4—in itself constitute
liberation. The oppressed can overcome the contradiction in which
they are caught only when this perception enlists them in the strug
gle to free themselves.
The same is true with respect to the individual oppressor as a
person. Discovering himself to be an oppressor may cause consider
able anguish, but it does not necessarily lead to solidarity with the
oppressed. Rationalizing his guilt through paternalistic treatment
of the oppressed, all the while holding them fast in a position of
dependence, will not do. Solidarity requires that one enter into the
situation of those with whom one is solidary; it is a radical posture.
If what characterizes the oppressed is their subordination to the
consciousness of the master, as Hegel affirms,5 true solidarity with
the oppressed means fighting at their side to transform the objective
reality which has made them these "beings for another." The oppres
4. See Hegel, op. cit.y pp. 236237.
5. Analyzing the dialectical relationship between the consciousness of the master
and the consciousness of the oppressed, Hegel states: "The one is independent,
and its essential nature is to be for itself; the other is dependent, and its essence
is life or existence for another. The former is the Master, or Lord, the latter the
Bondsman." Ibid., p. 234.
50-PAULO FREIRE
sor is solidary with the oppressed only when he stops regarding the
oppressed as an abstract category and sees them as persons who
have been unjustly dealt with, deprived of their voice, cheated in
the sale of their labor—when he stops making pious, sentimental,
and individualistic gestures and risks an act of love. True solidarity
is found only in the plenitude of this act of love, in its existentiality,
in its praxis. To affirm that men and women are persons and as
persons should be free, and yet to do nothing tangible to make this
affirmation a reality, is a farce.
Since it is a concrete situation that the oppressor-oppressed con-
tradiction is established, the resolution of this contradiction must
be objectively verifiable. Hence, the radical requirement—both for
the individual who discovers himself or herself to be an oppressor
and for the oppressed—that the concrete situation which begets
oppression must be transformed.
To present this radical demand for the objective transformation of
reality, to combat subjectivist immobility which would divert the
recognition of oppression into patient waiting for oppression to dis-
appear by itself, is not to dismiss the role of subjectivity in the
struggle to change structures. On the contrary, one cannot conceive
of objectivity without subjectivity. Neither can exist without the
other, nor can they be dichotomized. The separation of objectivity
from subjectivity, the denial of the latter when analyzing reality or
acting upon it, is objectivism. On the other hand, the denial of
objectivity in analysis or action, resulting in a subjectivism which
leads to solipsistic positions, denies action itself by denying objec-
tive reality. Neither objectivism nor subjectivism, nor yet psycholo-
gism is propounded here, but rather subjectivity and objectivity in
constant dialectical relationship.
To deny the importance of subjectivity in the process of trans-
forming the world and history is naive and simplistic. It is to admit
the impossible: a world without people. This objectivistic position
is as ingenuous as that of subjectivism, which postulates people
without a world. World and human beings do not exist apart from
each other, they exist in constant interaction. Marx does not espouse
PEDAGOGY OF THE O P P R E S S E D 5 1
such a dichotomy, nor does any other critical, realistic thinker. What
Marx criticized and scientifically destroyed was not subjectivity, but
subjectivism and psychologism. Just as objective social reality exists
not by chance, but as the product of human action, so it is not
transformed by chance. If humankind produce social reality (which
in the "inversion of the praxis" turns back upon them and conditions
them), then transforming that reality is an historical task, a task for
humanity.
Reality which becomes oppressive results in the contradistinction
of men as oppressors and oppressed. The latter, whose task it is
to struggle for their liberation together with those who show true
solidarity, must acquire a critical awareness of oppression through
the praxis of this struggle. One of the gravest obstacles to the
achievement of liberation is that oppressive reality absorbs those
within it and thereby acts to submerge human beings consiousness.6
Functionally, oppression is domesticating. To no longer be prey to
its force, one must emerge from it and turn upon it. This can be
done only by means of the praxis: reflection and action upon the
world in order to transform it.
i Hay que hacer al opresion real todavia mas opresiva anadiendo
a aquella la conciencia de la opresion haciendo la infamia todavia
mas infamante, al pregonarla.7
Making "real oppression more oppressive still by adding to it
the realization of oppression" corresponds to the dialectical relation
between the subjective and the objective. Only in this interdepen
dence is an authentic praxis possible, without which it is impossible
6. "Liberating action necessarily involves a moment of perception and volition.
This action both precedes and follows that moment, to which it first acts as a
prologue and which it subsequently serves to effect and continue within history.
The action of domination, however, does not necessarily imply this dimension; for
the structure of domination is maintained by its own mechanical and unconscious
functionality." From an unpublished work by Jose Luiz Fiori, who has kindly
granted permission to quote him.
7. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, La Sagrada Familia y otros Escritos (Mexico,
1962), p. 6. Emphasis added.
52-PAULO FREIRE
to resolve the oppressor-oppressed contradiction. To achieve this
goal, the oppressed must confront reality critically, simultaneously
objectifying and acting upon that reality. A mere perception of real-
ity not followed by this critical intervention will not lead to a trans-
formation of objective reality—precisely because it is not a true
perception. This is the case of a purely subjectivist perception by
someone who forsakes objective reality and creates a false substitute.
A different type of false perception occurs when a change in objec-
tive reality would threaten the individual or class interests of the
perceiver. In the first instance, there is no critical intervention in
reality because that reality is fictitious; there is none in the second
instance because intervention would contradict the class interests of
the perceiver. In the latter case the tendency of the perceiver is to
behave "neurotically." The fact exists; but both the fact and what
may result from it may be prejudicial to the person. Thus it becomes
necessary, not precisely to deny the fact, but to "see it differently."
This rationalization as a defense mechanism coincides in the end
with subjectivism. A fact which is not denied but whose truths are
rationalized loses its objective base. It ceases to be concrete and
becomes a myth created in defense of the class of the perceiver.
Herein lies one of the reasons for the prohibitions and the diffi-
culties (to be discussed at length in Chapter 4) designed to dissuade
the people from critical intervention in reality. The oppressor knows
full well that this intervention would not be to his interest. What is
to his interest is for the people to continue in a state of submersion,
impotent in the face of oppressive reality. Of relevance here is Lu-
kacs warning to the revolutionary party:
. . . il doit, pour employer les mots de Marx, expliquer aux
masses leur propre action non seulement afin d'assurer la conti-
nuity des experiences revolutionnaires du proletariat, mais aussi
d'activer consciemment le developpement ulterieur de ces expe-
riences.8
In affirming this necessity, Lukacs is unquestionably posing the
8. Georg Lukacs, Lenine (Paris, 1965), p. 62.
PEDAGOGY OF THE O P P R E S S E D 5 3
problem of critical intervention. "To explain to the masses their own
action" is to clarify and illuminate that action, both regarding its
relationship to the objective facts by which it was prompted, and
regarding its purposes. The more the people unveil this challenging
reality which is to be the object of their transforming action, the
more critically they enter that reality. In this way they are "con
sciously activating the subsequent development of their experi
ences." There would be no human action if there were no objective
reality, no world to be the "not I" of the person and to challenge
them; just as there would be no human action if humankind were
not a "project," if he or she were not able to transcend himself or
herself, if one, were not able to perceive reality and understand it
in order to transform it.
In dialectical thought, world and action are intimately interdepen
dent. But action is human only when it is not merely an occupation
but also a preoccupation, that is, when it is not dichotomized from
reflection. Reflection, which is essential to action, is implicit in Lu
k£cs' requirement of "explaining to the masses their own action,"
just as it is implicit in the purpose he attributes to this explanation:
that of "consciously activating the subsequent development of expe
rience."
For us, however, the requirement is seen not in terms of ex
plaining to, but rather dialoguing with the people about their ac
tions. In any event, no reality transforms itself,9 and the duty which
Lukacs ascribes to the revolutionary party of "explaining to the
masses their own action" coincides with our affirmation of the need
for the critical intervention of the people in reality through the
praxis. The pedagogy of the oppressed, which is the pedagogy of
people engaged in the fight for their own liberation, has its roots
here. And those who recognize, or begin to recognize, themselves
9. "The materialist doctrine that men are products of circumstances and up
bringing, and that, therefore, changed men are products of other circumstances
and changed upbringing, forgets that it is men that change circumstances and that
the educator himself needs educating." Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Selected
Works (New York, 1968), p. 28.
5 4 P A U L O F R E I R E
as oppressed must be among the developers of this pedagogy. No
pedagogy which is truly liberating can remain distant from the op-
pressed by treating them as unfortunates and by presenting for their
emulation models from among the oppressors. The oppressed must
be their own example in the struggle for their redemption.
The pedagogy of the oppressed, animated by authentic, humanist
(not humanitarian) generosity, presents itself as a pedagogy of
humankind. Pedagogy which begins with the egoistic interests of
the oppressors (an egoism cloaked in the false generosity of paternal-
ism) and makes of the oppressed the objects of its humanitarianism,
itself maintains and embodies oppression. It is an instrument of
dehumanization. This is why, as we affirmed earlier, the pedagogy
of the oppressed cannot be developed or practiced by the oppres-
sors. It would be a contradiction in terms if the oppressors not only
defended but actually implemented a liberating education.
But if the implementation of a liberating education requires politi-
cal power and the oppressed have none, how then is it possible to
carry out the pedagogy of the oppressed prior to the revolution?
This is a question of the greatest importance, the reply to which is
at least tentatively outlined in Chapter 4. One aspect of the reply
is to be found in the distinction between systematic education,
which can only be changed by political power, and educational proj-
ects, which should be carried out with the oppressed in the process
of organizing them.
The pedagogy of the oppressed, as a humanist and libertarian
pedagogy, has two distinct stages. In the first, the oppressed unveil
the world of oppression and through the praxis commit themselves
to its transformation. In the second stage, in which the reality of
oppression has already been transformed, this pedagogy ceases to
belong to the oppressed and becomes a pedagogy of all people in
the process of permanent liberation. In both stages, it is always
through action in depth that the culture of domination is culturally
confronted.10 In the first stage this confrontation occurs through the
10. This appears to be the fundamental aspect of Mao's Cultural Revolution.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED -55
change in the way the oppressed perceive the world of oppression;
in the second stage, through the expulsion of the myths created
and developed in the old order, which like specters haunt the new
structure emerging from the revolutionary transformation.
The pedagogy of the first stage must deal with the problem of
the oppressed consciousness and the oppressor consciousness, the
problem of men and women who oppress and men and women who
suffer oppression. It must take into account their behavior, their
view of the world, and their ethics. A particular problem is the
duality of the oppressed: they are contradictory, divided beings,
shaped by and existing in a concrete situation of oppression and
violence. ^
Any situation in which "A" objectively exploits "B" or hinders his
and her pursuit of selfaffirmation as a responsible person is one of
oppression. Such a situation in itself constitutes violence, even when
sweetened by false generosity, because it interferes with the individ
ual's ontological and historical vocation to be more fully human.
With the establishment of a relationship of oppression, violence has
already begun. Never in history has violence been initiated by the
oppressed. How could they be the initiators, if they themselves are
the result of violence? How could they be the sponsors of something
whose objective inauguration called forth their existence as op
pressed? There would be no oppressed had there been no prior
situation of violence to establish their subjugation.
Violence is initiated by those who oppress, who exploit, who fail
to recognize others as persons—not by those who are oppressed,
exploited, and unrecognized. It is not the unloved who initiate disaf
fection, but those who cannot love because they love only them
selves. It is not the helpless, subject to terror, who initiate terror,
but the violent, who with their power create the concrete situation
which begets the "rejects of life." It is not the tyrannized who initiate
despotism, but the tyrants. It is not the despised who initiate hatred,
but those who despise. It is not those whose humanity is denied
them who negate humankind, but those who denied that humanity
(thus negating their own as well). Force is used not by those who
5 6 ' P A U L O FREIRE
have become weak under the preponderance of the strong, but by
the strong who have emasculated them.
For the oppressors, however, it is always the oppressed (whom
they obviously never call "the oppressed" but—depending on
whether they are fellow countrymen or not—"those people" or "the
blind and envious masses" or "savages" or "natives" or "subversives")
who are disaffected, who are "violent," "barbaric," "wicked," or "fe-
rocious" when they react to the violence of the oppressors.
Yet it is—paradoxical though it may seem—precisely in the re-
sponse of the oppressed to the violence of their oppressors that a
gesture of love may be found. Consciously or unconsciously, the act
of rebellion by the oppressed (an act which is always, or neafly
always, as violent as the initial violence of the oppressors) can initiate
love. Whereas the violence of the oppressors prevents the oppressed
from being fully human, the response of the latter to this violence
is grounded in the desire to pursue the right to be human. As the
oppressors dehumanize others and violate their rights, they them-
selves also become dehumanized. As the oppressed, fighting to be
human, take away the oppressors power to dominate and suppress,
they restore to the oppressors the humanity they had lost in the
exercise of oppression.
It is only the oppressed who, by freeing themselves, can free their
oppressors. The latter, as an oppressive class, can free neither others
nor themselves. It is therefore essential that the oppressed wage the
struggle to resolve the contradiction in which they are caught; and
the contradiction will be resolved by the appearance of the new
man: neither oppressor nor oppressed, but man in the process of
liberation. If the goal of the oppressed is to becomS fully human,
they will not achieve their goal by merely reversing the terms of the
contradiction, by simply changing poles.
This may seem simplistic; it is not. Resolution of the oppressor-
oppressed contradiction indeed implies the disappearance of the
oppressors as a dominant class. However, the restraints imposed by
the former oppressed on their oppressors, so that the latter cannot
reassume their former position, do not constitute oppression. An act
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED 5 7
is oppressive only when it prevents people from being more fully
human. Accordingly, these necessary restraints do not in themselves
signify that yesterdays oppressed have become today's oppressors.
Acts which prevent the restoration of the oppressive regime cannot
be compared with those which create and maintain it, cannot be
compared with those by which a few men and women deny the
majority their right to be human*,
However, the moment the new regime hardens into a dominating
"bureaucracy"11 the humanist dimension of the struggle is lost and
it is no longer possible to speak of liberation. Hence our insistence
that the authentic solution of the oppressor-oppressed contradiction
does not lie in a mere reversal of position, in moving from one
pole to the other. Nor does it lie in the replacement of the former
oppressors with new ones who continue to subjugate the op-
pressed—all in the name of their liberation.
But even when the contradiction is resolved authentically by a
new situation established by the liberated laborers, the former op-
pressors do not feel liberated. On the contrary, they genuinely con-
sider themselves to be oppressed. Conditioned by the experience
of oppressing others, any situation other than their former seems to
them like oppression. Formerly, they could eat, dress, wear shoes,
be educated, travel, and hear Beethoven; while millions did not eat,
had no clothes or shoes, neither studied nor traveled, much less
listened to Beethoven. Any restriction on this way of life, in the
name of the rights of the community, appears to the former oppres-
sors as a profound violation of their individual rights—although they
had no respect for the millions who suffered and died of hunger,
pain, sorrow, and despair. For the oppressors, "human beings" refers
only to themselves; other people are "things." For the oppressors,
there exists only one right: their right to live in peace, over against
11. This rigidity should not be identified with the restraints that must be im
posed on the former oppressors so they cannot restore the oppressive order. Rather,
it refers to the revolution which becomes stagnant and turns against the people,
using the old repressive, bureaucratic State apparatus (which should have been
drastically suppressed, as Marx so often emphasized).
58-PAULO FREIRE
the right, not always even recognized, but simply conceded, of the
oppressed to survival. And they make this concession only because
the existence of the oppressed is necessary to their own existence.
This behavior, this way of understanding the world and people
(which necessarily makes the oppressors resist the installation of a
new regime) is explained by their experience as a dominant class.
Once a situation of violence and oppression has been established, it
engenders an entire way of life and behavior for those caught up in
it—oppressors and oppressed alike. Both are submerged in this
situation, and both bear the marks of oppression. Analysis of existen-
tial situations of oppression reveals that their inception lay in^an act
of violence—initiated by those with power. This violence, as a proc-
ess, is perpetuated from generation to generation of oppressors,
who become its heirs and are shaped in its climate. This climate
creates in the oppressor a strongly possessive consciousness—
possessive of the world and of men and women. Apart from direct,
concrete, material possession of the world and of people, the oppres-
sor consciousness could not understand itself—could not even exist.
Fromm said of this consciousness that, without such possession, "it
would lose contact with the world." The oppressor consciousness
tends to transform everything surrounding it into an object of its
domination. The earth, property, production, the creations of peo-
ple, people themselves, time—everything is reduced to the status
of objects at its disposal.
In their unrestrained eagerness to possess, the oppressors de-
velop the conviction that it is possible for them to transform every-
thing into objects of their purchasing power; hence their strictly
materialistic concept of existence. Money is the measure of all
things, and profit the primary goal. For the oppressors, what is
worthwhile is to have more—always more—even at the cost of the
oppressed having less or having nothing. For them, to be is to have
and to be the class of the "haves."
As beneficiaries of a situation of oppression, the oppressors cannot
perceive that if having is a condition of being, it is a necessary
condition for all women and men. This is why their generosity is
PEDAGOGY OF THE O P P R E S S E D 5 9
false. Humanity is a "thing," and they possess it as an exclusive
right, as inherited property. To the oppressor consciousness, the
humanization of the "others," of the people, appears not as the pur
suit of full humanity, but as subversion.
The oppressors do not perceive their monopoly on having more
as a privilege which dehumanizes others and themselves. They can
not see that, in the egoistic pursuit of having as a possessing class,
they suffocate in their own possessions and no longer are; they
merely have. For them, having more is an inalienable right, a right
they acquired through their own "effort," with their "courage to take
risks." If others do not have more, it is because they are incompetent
and lazy, and worst of all is their unjustifiable ingratitude towards
the "generous gestures" of the dominant class. Precisely because
they are "ungrateful" and "envious," the oppressed are regarded as
potential enemies who must be watched.
It could not be otherwise. If the humanization of the oppressed
signifies subversion, so also does their freedom; hence the necessity
for constant control. And the more the oppressors control the op
pressed, the more they change them into apparently inanimate
"things." This tendency of the oppressor consciousness to "inani
mate" everything and everyone it encounters, in its eagerness to
possess, unquestionably corresponds with a tendency to sadism.
The pleasure in complete domination over another person (or
other animate creature) is the very essence of the sadistic drive.
Another way of formulating the same thought is to say that the
aim of sadism is to transform a man into a thing, something
animate into something inanimate, since by complete and abso
lute control the living loses one essential quality of life—
freedom.12
Sadistic love is a perverted love—a love of death, not of life. One of
the characteristics of the oppressor consciousness and its necrophilic
view of the world is thus sadism. As the oppressor consciousness,
12. Erich Fromm, The Heart of Man (New York, 1966), p. 32.
6 0 P A U L O FREIRE
in order to dominate, tries to deter the drive to search, the restless
ness, and the creative power which characterize life, it kills life.
More and more, the oppressors are using science and technology as
unquestionably powerful instruments for their purpose: the mainte
nance of the oppressive order through manipulation and repres
sion.13 The oppressed, as objects, as "things," have no purposes
except those their oppressors prescribe for them.
Given the preceding context, another issue of indubitable impor
tance arises: the fact that certain members of the oppressor class
join the oppressed in their struggle for liberation, thus moving from
one pole of the contradiction to the other. Theirs is a fundamental
role, and has been so throughout the history of this struggle. It
happens, however, that as they cease to be exploiters or indifferent
spectators or simply the heirs of exploitation and move to the side
of the exploited, they almost always bring with them the marks of
their origin: their prejudices and their deformations, which include
a lack of confidence in the peoples ability to think, to want, and to
know. Accordingly, these adherents to the people's cause constantly
run the risk of falling into a type of generosity as malefic as that of
the oppressors. The generosity of the oppressors is nourished by an
unjust order, which must be maintained in order to justify that
generosity. Our converts, on the other hand, truly desire to trans
form the unjust order; but because of their background they believe
that they must be the executors of the transformation. They talk
about the people, but they do not trust them; and trusting the
people is the indispensable precondition for revolutionary change.
A real humanist can be identified more by his trust in the people,
which engages him in their struggle, than by a thousand actions in
their favor without that trust.
Those who authentically commit themselves to the people must
reexamine themselves constantly. This conversion is so radical as
not to allow of ambiguous behavior. To affirm this commitment but
to consider oneself the proprietor of revolutionary wisdom—which
13. Regarding the "dominant forms of social control," see Herbert Marcuse,
One-Dimensional Man (Boston, 1964) and Eros and Civilization (Boston, 1955).
PEDAGOGY OF THE O P P R E S S E D 6 1
must then be given to (or imposed on) the people—is to retain the
old ways. The man or woman who proclaims devotion to the cause
of liberation yet is unable to enter into communion with the people,
whom he or she continues to regard as totally ignorant, is grievously
selfdeceived. The convert who approaches the people but feels
alarm at each sfelp they take, each doubt they express, and each
suggestion they offer, and attempts to impose his "status," remains
nostalgic towards his origins.
Conversion to the people requires a profound rebirth. Those who
undergo it must take on a new form of existence; they can no longer
remain as they were. Only through comradeship with the oppressed
can the converts understand their characteristic ways of living and
behaving, which in diverse moments reflect the structure of domina
tion. One of these characteristics is the previously mentioned exis
tential duality of the oppressed, who are at the same time
themselves and the oppressor whose image they have internalized.
Accordingly, until they concretely "discover" their oppressor and in
turn their own consciousness, they nearly always express fatalistic
attitudes towards their situation.
The peasant begins to get courage to overcome his dependence
when he realizes that he is dependent. Until then, he goes along
with the boss and says "What can I do? I'm only a peasant."14
When superficially analyzed, this fatalism is sometimes interpreted
as a docility that is a trait of national character. Fatalism in the guise
of docility is the fruit of an historical and sociological situation, not
an essential characteristic of a people's behavior. It almost always is
related to the power of destiny or fate or fortune—inevitable forc
es—or to a distorted view of God. Under the sway of magic and
myth, the oppressed (especially the peasants, who are almost sub
merged in nature)15 see their suffering, the fruit of exploitation,
14. Words of a peasant during an interview with the author.
15. See Candido Mendes, Memento dos vivos—A Esquerda catdlica no Brasil
(Rio, 1966).
6 2 P A U L O FREIRE
as the will of God—as if God were the creator of this "organized
disorder."
Submerged in reality, the oppressed cannot perceive clearly the
"order" which serves the interests of the oppressors whose image
they have internalized. Chafing under the restrictions of this order,
they often manifest a type of horizontal violence, striking out at their
own comrades for the pettiest reasons.
The colonized man will first manifest this aggressiveness which
has been deposited in his bones against his own people. This is
the period when the niggers beat each other up, and the police
and magistrates do not know which way to turn when faced with
the astonishing waves of crime in North Africa. . . . While the
settler or the policeman has the right the livelong day to strike
the native, to insult him and to make him crawl to them, you
will see the native reaching for his knife at the slightest hostile
or aggressive glance cast on him by another native; for the last
resort of the native is to defend his personality vis-a-vis his
brother.16
It is possible that in this behavior they are once more manifesting
their duality. Because the oppressor exists within their oppressed
comrades, when they attack those comrades they are indirectly at-
tacking the oppressor as well.
On the other hand, at a certain point in their existential experi-
ence the oppressed feel an irresistible attraction towards the oppres-
sors and their way of life. Sharing this way of life becomes an
overpowering aspiration. In their alienation, the oppressed want at
any cost to resemble the oppressors, to imitate them, to follow them.
This phenomenon is especially prevalent in the middle-class op-
pressed, who yearn to be equal to the "eminent" men and women
of the upper class. Albert Memmi, in an exceptional analysis of the
"colonized mentality," refers to the contempt he felt towards the
colonizer, mixed with "passionate" attraction towards him.
16. Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York, 1968), p. 52.
PEDAGOGY OF THE O P P R E S S E D • 63
How could the colonizer look after his workers while periodically
gunning down a crowd of colonized? How could the colonized
deny himself so cruelly yet make such excessive demands? How
could he hate the colonizers and yet admire them so passion-
ately? (I too felt this admiration in spite of myself.)17
Self-depreciation is another characteristic of the oppressed, which
derives from their internalization of the opinion the oppressors hold
of them. So often do they hear that they are good for nothing, know
nothing and are incapable of learning anything—that they are sick,
lazy, and unproductive—that in the end they become convinced of
their own unfitness.
The peasant feels inferior to the boss because the boss seems to
be the only one who knows things and is able to run things.18
They call themselves ignorant and say the "professor" is the one
who has knowledge and to whom they should listen. The criteria of
knowledge imposed upon them are the conventional ones. "Why
don't you," said a peasant participating in a culture circle,19 "explain
the pictures first? That way it'll take less time and wont give us a
headache."
Almost never do they realize that they, too, "know things" they
have learned in their relations with the world and with other women
and men. Given the circumstances which have produced their dual-
ity, it is only natural that they distrust themselves.
Not infrequently, peasants in educational projects begin to discuss
a generative theme in a lively manner, then stop suddenly and say
to the educator: "Excuse us, we ought to keep quiet and let you
talk. You are the one who knows, we don't know anything." They
often insist that there is no difference between them and the ani-
mals; when they do admit a difference, it favors the animals. "They
are freer than we are."
17. The Colonizer and the Colonized (Boston, 1967), p. x.
18. Words of a peasant during an interview with the author.
19. See chapter 3, p. 113 ff.—Translators note.
6 4 P A U L O F R E I R E
It is striking, however, to observe how this self-depreciation
changes with the first changes in the situation of oppression. I heard
a peasant leader say in an asentamiento20 meeting, "They used to
say we were unproductive because we were lazy and drunkards. All
lies. Now that we are respected as men, were going to show every-
one that we were never drunkards or lazy. We were exploited!"
As long as their ambiguity persists, the oppressed are reluctant
to resist, and totally lack confidence in themselves. They have a
diffuse, magical belief in the invulnerability and power of the oppres-
sor.21 The magical force of the landowners power holds particular
sway in the rural areas. A sociologist friend of mine tells of a group
of armed peasants in a Latin American country who recently took
over a latifundium. For tactical reasons, they planned to hold the
landowner as a hostage. But not one peasant had the courage to
guard him; his very presence was terrifying. It is also possible that
the act of opposing the boss provoked guilt feelings. In truth, the
boss was "inside" them.
The oppressed must see examples of the vulnerability of the op-
pressor so that a contrary conviction can begin to grow within them.
Until this occurs, they will continue disheartened, fearful, and
beaten. 22 As long as the oppressed remain unaware of the causes of
their condition, they fatalistically "accept" their exploitation. Fur-
ther, they are apt to react in a passive and alienated manner when
confronted with the necessity to struggle for their freedom and self-
affirmation. Little by little, however, they tend to try out forms of
rebellious action. In working towards liberation, one must neither
lose sight of this passivity nor overlook the moment of awakening.
Within their unauthentic view of the world and of themselves, the
oppressed feel like "things" owned by the oppressor. For the latter,
to be is to have, almost always at the expense of those who have
20. Asentamiento refers to a production unit of the Chilean agrarian reform
experiment.—Translators note.
21. "The peasant has an almost instinctive fear of the boss." Interview with a
peasant.
22. See Regis Debray, Revolution in the Revolution? (New York, 1967).
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED ' 6 5
nothing. For the oppressed, at a certain point in their existential
experience, to be is not to resemble the oppressor, but to be under
him, to depend on him. Accordingly, the oppressed are emotionally
dependent.
The peasant is a dependent. He cant say what he wants. Before
he discovers his dependence, he suffers. He lets off steam at
home, where he shouts at his children, beats them, and despairs.
He complains about his wife and thinks everything is dreadful.
He doesn't let off steam with the boss because he thinks the boss
is a superior being. Lots of times, the peasant gives vent to his
sorrows by drinking.23
This total emotional dependence can lead the oppressed to what
Fromm calls necrophilic behavior: the destruction of life—their own
or that of their oppressed fellows.
It is only when the oppressed find the oppressor out and become
involved in the organized struggle for their liberation that they begin
to believe in themselves. This discovery cannot be purely intellec
tual but must involve action; nor can it be limited to mere activism,
but must include serious reflection: only then will it be a praxis.
Critical and liberating dialogue, which presupposes action, must
be carried on with the oppressed at whatever the stage of their
struggle for liberation.24 The content of that dialogue can and should
vary in accordance with historical conditions and the level at which
the oppressed perceive reality. But to substitute monologue, slo
gans, and communiques for dialogue is to attempt to liberate the
oppressed with the instruments of domestication. Attempting to
liberate the oppressed without their reflective participation in the
act of liberation is to treat them as objects which must be saved
from a burning building; it is to lead them into the populist pitfall
and transform them into masses which can be manipulated.
At all stages of their liberation, the oppressed must see them
23. Interview with a peasant.
24. Not in the open, of course; that would only provoke the fury of the oppressor
and lead to still greater repression.
66-PAULO FREIRE
selves as women and men engaged in the ontological and historical
vocation of becoming more fully human. Reflection and action be-
come imperative when one does not erroneously attempt to dichoto-
mize the content of humanity from its historical forms.
The insistence that the oppressed engage in reflection on their
concrete situation is not a call to armchair revolution. On the con-
trary, reflection—true reflection—leads to action. On the other
hand, when the situation calls for action, that action will constitute
an authentic praxis only if its consequences become the object of
critical reflection. In this sense, the praxis is the new raison d'etre of
the oppressed; and the revolution, which inaugurates the historical
moment of this raison d'etre, is not viable apart from their concomi-
tant conscious involvement. Otherwise, action is pure activism.
To achieve this praxis, however, it is necessary to trust in the
oppressed and in their ability to reason. Whoever lacks this trust
will fail to initiate (or will abandon) dialogue, reflection, and commu-
nication, and will fall into using slogans, communiques, monologues,
and instructions. Superficial conversions to the cause of liberation
carry this danger.
Political action on the side of the oppressed must be pedagogical
action in the authentic sense of the word, and, therefore, action
with the oppressed. Those who work for liberation must not take
advantage of the emotional dependence of the oppressed—
dependence that is the fruit of the concrete situation of domination
which surrounds them and which engendered their unauthentic
view of the world. Using their dependence to create still greater
dependence is an oppressor tactic.
Libertarian action must recognize this dependence as a weak
point and must attempt through reflection and action to transform
it into independence. However, not even the best-intentioned lead-
ership can bestow independence as a gift. The liberation of the
oppressed is a liberation of women and men, not things. Accordingly,
while no one liberates himself by his own efforts alone, neither is
he liberated by others. Liberation, a human phenomenon, cannot
be achieved by semihumans. Any attempt to treat people as semihu-
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED ' 6 7
mans only dehumanizes them. When people are already dehuman
ized, due to the oppression they suffer, the process of their liberation
must not employ the methods of dehumanization.
The correct method for a revolutionary leadership to employ in
the task of liberation is, therefore, not "libertarian propaganda." Nor
can the leadership merely "implant" in the oppressed a belief in
freedom, thus thinking to win their trust. The correct method lies
in dialogue. The conviction of the oppressed that they must fight
for their liberation is not a gift bestowed by the revolutionary leader
ship, but the result of their own conscientizagdo.
The revolutionary leaders must realize that their own conviction
of the necessity for struggle (an indispensable dimension of revolu
tionary wisdom) was not given to them by anyone else—if it is
authentic. This conviction cannot be packaged and sold; it is
reached, rather, by means of a totality of reflection and action. Only
the leaders own involvement in reality, within an historical situation,
led them to criticize this situation and to wish to change it.
Likewise, the oppressed (who do not commit themselves to the
struggle unless they are convinced, and who, if they do not make
such a commitment, withhold the indispensable conditions for this
struggle) must reach this conviction as Subjects, not as objects. They
also must intervene critically in the situation which surrounds them
and whose mark they bear; propaganda cannot achieve this. While
the conviction of the necessity for struggle (without which the strug
gle is unfeasible) is indispensable to the revolutionary leadership
(indeed, it was this conviction which constituted that leadership), it
is also necessary for the oppressed. It is necessary, that is, unless
one intends to carry out the transformation for the oppressed rather
than with them. It is my belief that only the latter form of transfor
mation is valid.25
The object in presenting these considerations is to defend the
eminently pedagogical character of the revolution. The revolutionary
leaders of every epoch who have affirmed that the oppressed must
25. These points will be discussed at length in chapter 4.
68PAULO FREIRE
accept the struggle for their liberation—an obvious point—have also
thereby implicitly recognized the pedagogical aspect of this strug
gle. Many of these leaders, however (perhaps due to natural and
understandable biases against pedagogy), have ended up using the
"educational" methods employed by the oppressor. They deny peda
gogical action in the liberation process, but they use propaganda to
convince.
It is essential for the oppressed to realize that when they accept
the struggle for humanization they also accept, from that moment,
their total responsibility for the struggle. They must realize that
they are fighting not merely for freedom from hunger, but for
. . . freedom to create and to construct, to wonder and to ven
ture. Such freedom requires that the individual be active and
responsible, not a slave or a wellfed cog in the machine. . . . It
is not enough that men are not slaves; if social conditions further
the existence of automatons, the result will not be love of life,
but love of death.26
The oppressed, who have been shaped by the deathaffirming cli
mate of oppression, must find through their struggle the way to life
affirming humanization, which does not lie simply in having more
to eat (although it does involve having more to eat and cannot fail
to include this aspect). The oppressed have been destroyed precisely
because their situation has reduced them to things. In order to
regain their humanity they must cease to be things and fight as men
and women. This is a radical requirement. They cannot enter the
struggle as objects in order later to become human beings.
The struggle begins with men's recognition that they have been
destroyed. Propaganda, management, manipulation—all arms of
domination—cannot be the instruments of their rehumanization.
The only effective instrument is a humanizing pedagogy in which
the revolutionary leadership establishes a permanent relationship of
dialogue with the oppressed. In a humanizing pedagogy the method
26. Fromm, op. cit., pp. 5253.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED 6 9
ceases to be an instrument by which the teachers (in this instance,
the revolutionary leadership) can manipulate the students (in this
instance, the oppressed), because it expresses the consciousness of
the students themselves.
The method is, in fact, the external form of consciousness mani
fest in acts, which takes on the fundamental property of con
sciousness—its intentionality. The essence of consciousness is
being with the world, and this behavior is permanent and un
avoidable. Accordingly, consciousness is in essence a 4way to
wards something apart from itself, outside itself, which
surrounds it and which it apprehends by means of its ideational
capacity. Consciousness is thus by definition a method, in the
most general sense of the word.27
A revolutionary leadership must accordingly practice co-inten-
tional education. Teachers and students (leadership and people), co
intent on reality, are both Subjects, not only in the task of unveiling
that reality, and thereby coming to know it critically, but in the task
of recreating that knowledge. As they attain this knowledge of real
ity through common reflection and action, they discover themselves
as it£ permanent recreators. In this way, the presence of the op
pressed in the struggle for their liberation will be what it should
be: not pseudoparticipation, but committed involvement.
27. Alvaro Vieira Pinto, from a work in preparation on the philosophy of science.
I consider the quoted portion of great importance for the understanding of a prob
lemposing pedagogy (to be presented in chapter 2), and wish to thank Professor
Vieira Pinto for permission to cite his work prior to publication.
CHAPTER
2
A careful analysis of the teacherstudent relationship at any
level, inside or outside the school, reveals its fundamen
tally narrative character. This relationship involves a nar
rating Subject (the teacher) and patient, listening objects (the
students). The contents, whether values or empirical dimensions of
reality, tend in the process of being narrated to become lifeless and
petrified. Education is suffering from narration sickness.
The teacher talks about reality as if it were motionless, static,
compartmentalized, and predictable. Or else he expounds on a topic
completely alien to the existential experience of the students. His
task is to "fill" the students with the contents of his narration—
contents which are detached from reality, disconnected from the
totality that engendered them and could give them significance.
Words are emptied of their concreteness and become a hollow, alien
ated, and alienating verbosity.
The outstanding characteristic of this narrative education, then,
is the sonority of words, not their transforming power. "Four times
four is sixteen; the capital of Para is Belem." The student records,
memorizes, and repeats these phrases without perceiving what four
times four really means, or realizing the true significance of "capital"
in the affirmation "the capital of Para is Belem," that is, what Belem
means for Pard and what Para means for Brazil.
Narration (with the teacher as narrator) leads the students to
72'PAULO FREIRE
memorize mechanically the narrated content. Worse yet, it turns
them into "containers," into "receptacles" to be "filled" by the
teacher. The more completely she fills the receptacles, the better a
teacher she is. The more meekly the receptacles permit themselves
to be filled, the better students they are.
Education thus becomes an act of depositing, in which the stu-
dents are the depositories and the teacher is the depositor. Instead
of communicating, the teacher issues communiques and makes de-
posits which the students patiently receive, memorize, and repeat.
This is the "banking" concept of education, in which the scope of
action allowed to the students extends only as far as receiving, filing,
and storing the deposits. They do, it is true, have the opportunity
to become collectors or cataloguers of the things they store. But in
the last analysis, it is the people themselves who are filed away
through the lack of creativity, transformation, and knowledge in this
(at best) misguided system. For apart from inquiry, apart from the
praxis, individuals cannot be truly human. Knowledge emerges only
through invention and re-invention, through the restless, impatient,
continuing, hopeful inquiry human beings pursue in the world, with
the world, and with each other.
In the banking concept of education, knowledge is a gift bestowed
by those who consider themselves knowledgeable upon those whom
they consider to know nothing. Projecting an absolute ignorance
onto others, a characteristic of the ideology)of oppression, negates
education and knowledge as processes of inquiry. The teacher pre-
sents himself to his students as their necessary opposite; by consid-
ering their ignorance absolute, he- justifies his own existence. The
students, alienated like the slave in the Hegelian dialectic, accept
their ignorance as justifying the teachers existence—but, unlike the
slave, they never discover that they educate the teacher.
The raison d'etre of libertarian education, on the other hand, lies
in its drive towards reconciliation. Education must begin with the
solution of the teacher-student contradiction, by reconciling the
poles of the contradiction so that both are simultaneously teachers
and students.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED ' 7 3
This solution is not (nor can it be) found in the banking concept.
On the contrary, banking education maintains and even stimulates
the contradiction through the following attitudes and practices,
which mirrOr oppressive society as a whole:
(a) the teacher teaches and the students are taught;
(b) the teacher knows everything and the students know nothing;
(c) the teacher thinks and the students are thought about;
(d) the teacher talks and the students listen—meekly;
(e) the teacher disciplines and the students are disciplined;
(f) the teacher chooses and enforces his choice, and the students
comply;
(g) the teacher acts and the students have the illusion of acting
through the action of the teacher;
(h) the teacher chooses the program content, and the students
(who were not consulted) adapt to it;
(i) the teacher confuses the authority of knowledge with his or
her own professional authority, which she and he sets in oppo
sition to the freedom of the students;
(j) the teacher is the Subject of the learning process, while the
pupils are mere objects.
It is not surprising that the banking concept of education regards
men as adaptable, manageable beings. The more students work at
storing the deposits entrusted to them, the less they develop the
critical consciousness which would result from their intervention in
the world as transformers of that world. The more completely they
accept the passive role imposed on them, the more they tend simply
to adapt to the world as it is and to the fragmented view of reality
deposited in them.
The capability of banking education to minimize or annul the
students creative power and to stimulate their credulity serves the
interests of the oppressors, who care neither to have the world re
vealed nor to see it transformed. The oppressors use their "humani
tarianism" to preserve a profitable situation. Thus they react almost
instinctively against any experiment in education which stimulates
74-PAULO FREIRE
the critical faculties and is not content with a partial view of reality
but always seeks out the ties which link one point to another and
one problem to another.
Indeed, the interests of the oppressors lie in "changing the con-
sciousness of the oppressed, not the situation which oppresses
them";1 for the more the oppressed can be led to adapt to that
situation, the more easily they can be dominated. To achieve this
end, the oppressors use the banking concept of education in con-
junction with a paternalistic social action apparatus, within which
the oppressed receive the euphemistic title of "welfare recipients."
They are treated as individual cases, as marginal persons who devi-
ate from the general configuration of a "good, organized, and just"
society. The oppressed are regarded as the pathology of the healthy
society, which must therefore adjust these "incompetent and lazy"
folk to its own patterns by changing their mentality. These marginals
need to be "integrated," "incorporated" into the healthy society that
they have "forsaken."
The truth is, however, that the oppressed are not "marginals," are
not people living "outside" society. They have always been
"inside"—inside the structure which made them "beings for others."
The solution is not to "integrate" them into the structure of oppres-
sion, but to transform that structure so that they can become "beings
for themselves." Such transformation, of course, would undermine
the oppressors purposes; hence their utilization of the banking con-
cept of education to avoid the threat of student cpnscientizagdo.
The banking approach to adult education, for example, will never
propose to students that they critically consider reality. It will deal
instead with such vital questions as whether Roger gave green grass
to the goat, and insist upon the importance of learning that, on the
contrary, floger gave green grass to the rabbit. The "humanism" of
the banking approach masks the effort to turn women and men into
automatons—the very negation of their ontological vocation to be
more fully human.
1. Simone de Beauvoir, La Pensee de Droite, Aujord'hui (Paris); ST, El Pensami-
ento politico de la Derecha (Buenos Aires, 1963), p. 34.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED ' 7 5
Those who use the banking approach, knowingly or unknowingly
(for there are innumerable wellintentioned bankclerk teachers who
do not realize that they are serving only to dehumanize), fail to
perceive that the deposits themselves contain contradictions about
reality. But, sooner or later, these contradictions may lead formerly
passive students to turn against their domestication and the attempt
to domesticate reality. They may discover through existential experi
ence that their present way of life is irreconcilable with their voca
tion to become fully human. They may perceive through their
relations with reality that reality is really a process, undergoing
constant transformation. If men and women are searchers and their
ontological vocation is humanization, sooner or later they may per
ceive the contradiction in which banking education seeks to main
tain them, and then engage themselves in the struggle for their
liberation.
But the humanist, revolutionary educator cannot wait for this pos
sibility to materialize. From the outset, her efforts must coincide
with those of the students to engage in critical thinking and the
quest for mutual humanization. His efforts must be imbued with a
profqund trust in people and their creative power. To achieve this,
they must be partners of the students in their relations with them.
The banking concept does not admit to such partnership—and
necessarily so. To resolve the teacherstudent contradiction, to ex
change the role of depositor, prescriber, domesticator, for the role
of student among students would be to undermine the power of
oppression and serve the cause of liberation.
Implicit in the banking concept is Uie assumption of a dichotomy
between human beings and the world: a person is merely in the
world, not with the world or with others; the individual is spectator,
not recreator. In this view, the person is not a conscious being
(corpo consciente); he or she is rather the possessor of a conscious
ness: an empty "mind" passively open to the reception of deposits
of reality from the world outside. For example, my desk, my books,
my coffee cup, all the objects before me—as bits of the world which
surround me—would be "inside" me, exactly as I am inside my
7 6 P A U L O FREIRE
study right now. This view makes no distinction between being ac-
cessible to consciousness and entering consciousness. The distinc-
tion, however, is essential: the objects which surround me are simply
accessible to my consciousness, not located within it. I am aware of
them, but they are not inside me.
It follows logically from the banking notion of consciousness that
the educator s role is to regulate the way the world "enters into" the
students. The teachers task is to organise a process which already
occurs spontaneously, to "fill" the students by making deposits of
information which he or she considers to constitute true knowledge.2
And since people "receive" the world as passive entities, education
should make them more passive still, and adapt them to the world.
The educated individual is the adapted person, because she or he
is better "fit" for the world. Translated into practice, this concept is
well suited to the purposes of the oppressors, whose tranquility rests
on how well people fit the world the oppressors have created, and
how little they question it.
The more completely the majority adapt to the purposes which
the dominant minority prescribe for them (thereby depriving them
of the right to their own purposes), the more easily the minority can
continue to prescribe. The theory and practice of banking education
serve this end quite efficiently. Verbalistic lessons, reading require-
ments, 3 the methods for evaluating "knowledge," the distance be-
tween the teacher and the taught, the criteria, for promotion:
everything in this ready-to-wear approach serves to obviate
thinking.
The bank-clerk educator does not realize that there is no true
security in his hypertrophied role, that one must seek to live with
others in solidarity. One cannot impose oneself, nor even merely
2. This concept corresponds to what Sartre calls the "digestive" or "nutritive"
concept of education, in which knowledge is "fed" by the teacher to the students
to "fill them out." See JeanPaul Sartre, "Une idee fundamentale de la phenomeno
logie de Husserl: L'intentionalite," Situations I (Paris, 1947).
3. For example, some professors specify in their reading lists that a book should
be read from pages 10 to 15—and do this to "help" their students!
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 77
coexist with one's students. Solidarity requires true communica
tion, and the concept by which such an educator is guided fears and
proscribes< communication.
Yet only through communication can human life hold meaning.
The teachers thinking is authenticated only by the authenticity of
the students thinking. The teacher cannot think for her students,
nor can she impose her thought on them. Authentic thinking, think
ing that is concerned about reality, does not take place in ivory
tower isolation, but only in communication. If it is true that thought
has meaning only when generated by action upon the world, the
subordination of students to teachers becomes impossible.
Because banking education begins with a false understanding of
men and women as objects, it cannot promote the development
of what Fromm calls "biophily," but instead produces its opposite:
"necrophily."
While life is characterized by growth in a structured, functional
manner, the necrophilous person loves all that does not grow, all
that is mechanical. The necrophilous person is driven by the
desire to transform the organic into the inorganic, to approach
life mechanically, as if all living persons were things. . . . Mem
ory, rather than experience; having, rather than being, is what
counts. The necrophilous person can relate to an object—a
flower or a person—only if he possesses it; hence a threat to his
possession is a threat to himself; if he loses possession he loses
contact with the world. . . . He loves control, and in the act of
controlling he kills life.4
Oppression—overwhelming control—is necrophilic; it is nour
ished by love of death, not life. The banking concept of education,
which serves the interests of oppression, is also necrophilic. Based
on a mechanistic, static, naturalistic, spatialized view of conscious
ness, it transforms students into receiving objects. It attempts to
control thinking and action, leads women and men to adjust to the
world, and inhibits their creative power.
4. Fromm, op. cit.y p. 41.
7 8 P A U L O FREIRE
When their efforts to act responsibly are frustrated, when they
find themselves unable to use their faculties, people suffer. "This
suffering due to impotence is rooted in the very fact that the human
equilibrium has been disturbed/'5 But the inability to act which
causes people's anguish also causes them to reject their impotence,
by attempting
. . . to restore [their] capacity to act. But can [they], and how?
One way is to submit to and identify with a person or group
having power. By this symbolic participation in another persons
life, [men have] the illusion of acting, when in reality [they] only
submit to and become a part of those who act.6
Populist manifestations perhaps best exemplify this type of behav
ior by the oppressed, who, by identifying with charismatic leaders,
come to feel that they themselves are active and effective. The rebel
lion they express as they emerge in the historical process is moti
vated by that desire to act effectively. The dominant elites consider
the remedy to be more domination and repression, carried out in
the name of freedom, order, and social peace (that is, the peace of
the elites). Thus they can condemn—logically, from their point of
view—"the violence of a strike by workers and [can] call upon the
state in the same breath to use violence in putting down the strike."7
Education as the exercise of domination stimulates the credulity
of students, with the ideological intent (often not perceived by edu
cators) of indoctrinating them to adapt to the world of oppression.
This accusation is not made in the naive hope that the dominant
elites will thereby simply abandon the practice. Its objective is to
call the attention of true humanists to the fact that they cannot use
banking educational methods in the pursuit of liberation, for they
would only negate that very pursuit. Nor may a revolutionary society
inherit these methods from an oppressor society. The revolutionary
society which practices banking education is either misguided or
5. Ibid., p. 31.
6. Ibid.
1. Reinhold Niebuhr, Moral Man and Immoral Society (New York, 1960), p. 130.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED 7 9
mistrusting of people. In either event, it is threatened by the specter
of reaction.
Unfortunately, those who espouse the cause of liberation are
themselves surrounded and influenced by the climate which gener
ates the banking concept, and often do not perceive its true signifi
cance or its dehumanizing power. Paradoxically, then, they utilize
this same instrument of alienation in what they consider an effort
to liberate. Indeed, some "revolutionaries" brand as "innocents,"
"dreamers," or even "reactionaries" those who would challenge this
educational practice. But one does not liberate people by alienating
them. Authentic liberation—the process of humanization—is not
another deposit to be made in men. Liberation is a praxis: the action
and reflection of men and women upon their world in order to
transform it. Those truly committed to the cause of liberation can
accept neither the mechanistic concept of consciousness as an empty
vessel to be filled, nor the use of banking methods of domination
(propaganda, slogans—deposits) in the name of liberation.
Those truly committed to liberation must reject the banking con
cept in its entirety, adopting instead a concept of women and men
as conscious beings, and consciousness as consciousness intent upon
the world. They must abandon the educational goal of depositmak
ing and replace it with the posing of the problems of human beings
in their relations with the world. "Problemposing" education, re
sponding to the essence of consciousness—intentionality—rejects
communiques and embodies communication. It epitomizes the spe
cial characteristic of consciousness: being conscious of, not only as
intent on objects but as turned in upon itself in a Jasperian
"split"—consciousness as consciousness of consciousness.
Liberating education consists in acts of cognition, not transferrals
of information. It is a learning situation in which the cognizable
object (far from being the end of the cognitive act) intermediates
the cognitive actors—teacher on the one hand and students on the
other. Accordingly, the practice of problemposing education entails
at the outset that the teacherstudent contradiction to be resolved.
Dialogical relations—indispensable to the capacity of cognitive
80-PAULO FREIRE
actors to cooperate in perceiving the same cognizable object—are
otherwise impossible.
Indeed, problem-posing education, which breaks with the vertical
patterns characteristic of banking education, can fulfill its function
as the practice of freedom only if it can overcome the above contra-
diction. Through dialogue, the teacher-of-the-students and the stu-
dents-of-the-teacher cease to exist and a new term emerges: teacher-
student with students-teachers. The te&her is no longer merely
the-one-who-teaches, but one who is himself taught in dialogue with
the students, who in turn while being taught also teach. They be-
come jointly responsible for a process in which all grow. In this
process, arguments based on "authority" are no longer valid; in order
to function, authority must be on the side of freedom, not against
it. Here, no one teaches another, nor is anyone self-taught. People
teach each other, mediated by the world, by the cognizable objects
which in banking education are "owned" by the teacher.
The banking concept (with its tendency to dichotomize every-
thing) distinguishes two stages in the action of the educator. During
the first, he cognizes a cognizable object while he prepares his les-
sons in his study or his laboratory; during the second, he expounds
to his students about that object. The students are not called upon
to know, but to memorize the contents narrated by the teacher. Nor
do the students practice any act of cognition, since the object to-
wards which that act should be directed is the property of the
teacher rather than a medium evoking the critical reflection of both
teacher and students. Hence in the name of the "preservation of
culture and knowledge" we have a system which achieves neither
true knowledge nor true culture.
The problem-posing method does not dichotomize the activity of
the teacher-student: she is not "cognitive" at one point and "narra-
tive" at another. She is always "cognitive," whether preparing a proj-
ect or engaging in dialogue with the students. He does not regard
cognizable objects as his private property, but as the object of re-
flection by himself and the students. In this way, the problem-posing
educator constantly re-forms his reflections in the reflection of the
PEDAGOGY OF THE O P P R E S S E D 8 1
students. The students—no longer docile listeners—are now critical
co-investigators in dialogue with the teacher. The teacher presents
the material to the students for their consideration, and re-considers
her earlier considerations as the students express their own. The
role of the problem-posing educator is to create; together with the
students, the conditions under which knowledge at the level of the
doxa is superseded by true knowledge, at the level of the logos,
Whereas banking education anesthetizes and inhibits creative
power, problem-posing education involves a constant unveiling of
reality. The former attempts to maintain the submersion of con-
sciousness; the latter strives for the emergence of consciousness and
critical intervention in reality.
Students, as they are increasingly posed with problems relating
to themselves in the world and with the world, will feel increasingly
challenged and obliged to respond to that challenge. Because they
apprehend the challenge as interrelated to other problems within a
total context, not as a theoretical question, the resulting comprehen-
sion tends to be increasingly critical and thus constantly less alien-
ated. Their response to the challenge evokes new challenges,
followed by new understandings; and gradually the students come
to regard themselves as committed.
Education as the practice of freedom—as opposed to education
as the practice of domination—denies that man is abstract, isolated,
independent, and unattached to the world; it also denies that the
world exists as a reality apart from people. Authentic reflection con-
siders neither abstract man nor the world without people, but peo-
ple in their relations with the world. In these relations consciousness
and world are simultaneous: consciousness neither precedes the
world nor follows it.
La conscience et le monde sont donnes d'un meme coup: exte-
rieur par essence a la conscience, le monde est, par essence re-
latif a elle.8
8. Sartre; op. cit., p. 32.
82 • P A U L O FREIRE
In one of our culture circles in Chile, the group was discussing
(based on a codification9) the anthropological concept of culture. In
the midst of the discussion, a peasant who by banking standards was
completely ignorant said: "Now I see that without man there is no
world." When the educator responded: "Let's say, for the sake of
argument, that all the men on earth were to die, but that the earth
itself remained, together with trees, birds, animals, rivers, seas, the
stars . . , wouldn't all this be a world?" "Oh no," the peasant replied
emphatically. "There would be no one to say: This is a world'."
The peasant wished to express the idea that there would be lack-
ing the consciousness of the world which necessarily implies the
world of consciousness. 7 cannot exist without a non-I. In turn, the
not-I depends on that existence. The world which brings conscious-
ness into existence becomes the world of that consciousness. Hence,
the previously cited affirmation of Sartre: "La conscience et le monde
sont donnes dun meme coup."
As women and men, simultaneously reflecting on themselves and
on the world, increase the scope of their perception, they begin to
direct their observations towards previously inconspicuous phe-
nomena:
In perception properly so-called, as an explicit awareness
[Gewahren], I am turned towards the object, to &e paper, for
instance. I apprehend it as being this here and now; The appre-
hension is a singling out, every object having a background in
experience. Around and about the paper lie books, pencils, ink-
well, and so forth, and these in a certain sense are also "per-
ceived", perceptually there, in the "field of intuition"; but whilst
I was turned towards the paper there was no turning in their
direction, nor any apprehending of them, not even in a second-
ary sense. They appeared and yet were not singled out, were
not posited on their own account. Every perception of a thing
has such a zone of background intuitions or background aware-
ness, if "intuiting" already includes the state of being turned
towards, and this also is a "conscious experience", or more briefly
9. See chapter 3.—Translator's note.
PEDAGOGY OF THE O P P R E S S E D • 83
a "consciousness of* all indeed that in point of fact lies in the
coperceived objective background.10
That which had existed objectively but had not been perceived in
its deeper implications (if indeed it was perceived at all) begins to
"stand out," assuming the character of a problem and therefore of
challenge. Thus, men and women begin to single out elements from
their "background awareness" and to reflect upon them. These ele
ments are now objects of their consideration, and, as such, objects
of their action and cognition.
In problemposing education, people develop their power to per
ceive critically the way they exist in the world with which and in
which they find themselves; they come to see the world not as a
static reality, but as a reality in process, in transformation. Although
the dialectical relations of women and men with the world exist
independently of how these relations are perceived (or whether or
not they are perceived at all), it is also true that the form of action
they adopt is to a large extent a function of how they perceive them
selves in the world. Hence, the teacherstudent and the students
teachers reflect simultaneously on themselves and the world without
dichotomizing this reflection from action, and thus establish an au
thentic form of thought and action.
Once again, the two educational concepts and practices under
analysis come into conflict. Banking education (for obvious reasons)
attempts, by mythicizing reality, to conceal certain facts which ex
plain the way human beings exist in the world; problemposing edu
cation sets itself the task of demythologizing. Banking education
resists dialogue; problemposing education regards dialogue as in
dispensable to the act of cognition which unveils reality. Banking
education treats students as objects of assistance; problemposing
education makes them critical thinkers. Banking education inhibits
creativity and domesticates (although it cannot completely destroy)
the intentionality of consciousness by isolating consciousness from
10. Edmund Husserl, Ideas—General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology
(London, 1969), pp. 105106.
84-PAULO FREIRE
the world, thereby denying people their ontological and historical
vocation of becoming more fully human. Problem-posing education
bases itself on creativity and stimulates true reflection and action
upon reality, thereby responding to the vocation of persons as beings
who are authentic only when engaged in inquiry and creative trans-
formation. In sum: banking theory and practice, as immobilizing
and fixating forces, fail to acknowledge men and women as historical
beings; problem-posing theory and practice take the peoples histo-
ricity as their starting point.
Problem-posing education affirms men and women as beings in
the process of becoming—as unfinished, uncompleted beings in and
with a likewise unfinished reality. Indeed, in contrast to other ani-
mals who are unfinished, but not historical, people know themselves
to be unfinished; they are aware of their incompletion. In this incom-
pletion and this awareness lie the very roots of education as an
exclusively human manifestation. The unfinished character of hu-
man beings and the transformational character of reality necessitate
that education be an ongoing activity.
Education is thus constantly remade in the praxis. In order to be,
it must become. Its "duration" (in the Bergsonian meaning of the
word) is found in the interplay of the opposites permanence and
change. The banking method emphasizes permanence and becomes
reactionary; problem-posing education—which accepts neither a
"well-behaved" present nor a predetermined future—roots itself in
the dynamic present and becomes revolutionary.
Problem-posing education is revolutionary futurity. Hence it is
prophetic (and, as such, hopeful). Hence, it corresponds to the his-
torical nature of humankind. Hence, it affirms women and men as
beings who transcend themselves, who move forward and look
ahead, for whom immobility represents a fatal threat, for whom
looking at the past must only be a means of understanding more
clearly what and who they are so that they can more wisely build
the future. Hence, it identifies with the movement which engages
people as beings aware of their incompletion—an historical move-
ment which has its point of departure, its Subjects and its objective.
PEDAGOGY OF THE O P P R E S S E D 8 5
The point of departure of the movement lies in the people them
selves. But since people do not exist apart from the world, apart
from reality, the movement must begin with the humanworld rela
tionship. Accordingly, the point of departure must always be with
men and women in the "here and now," which constitutes the situ
ation within which they are submerged, from which they emerge,
and in which they intervene. Only by starting from this situation—
which determines their perception of it—can they begin to move.
To do this authentically they must perceive their state not as fated
and unalterable, but merely as limiting—and therefore challenging.
Whereas the banking method directly or indirectly reinforces
men's fatalistic perception of their situation, the problemposing
method presents this very situation to them as a problem. As the
situation becomes the object of their cognition, the naive or magical
perception which produced their fatalism gives way to perception
which is able to perceive itself even as it perceives reality, and can
thus be critically objective about that reality.
A deepened consciousness of their situation leads people to ap
prehend that situation as an historical reality susceptible of transfor
mation. Resignation gives way to the drive for transformation and
inquiry, over which men feel themselves to be in control. If people,
as historical beings necessarily engaged with other people in a move
ment of inquiry, did not control that movement, it would be (and
is) a violation of their humanity. Any situation in which some indi
viduals prevent others from engaging in the process of inquiry is
one of violence. The means used are not important; to alienate
human beings from their own decisionmaking is to change them
into objects.
This movement of inquiry must be directed towards humaniza
tion—the people's historical vocation. The pursuit of full humanity,
however, cannot be carried out in isolation or individualism, but
only in fellowship and solidarity; therefore it cannot unfold in the
antagonistic relations between oppressors and oppressed. No one
can be authentically human while he prevents others from being so.
Attempting to be more human, individualistically, leads to having
8 6 ' P A U L O FREIRE
more, egotistically, a form of dehumanization. Not that it is not
fundamental to have in order to be Human. Precisely because it is
necessary, some men's having must not be allowed to constitute an
obstacle to others having, must not consolidate the power of the
former to crush the latter.
Problem-posing education, as a humanist and liberating praxis,
posits as fundamental that the people subjected to domination must
fight for their emancipation. To that end, it enables teachers and
students to become Subjects of the educational process by overcom-
ing authoritarianism and an alienating intellectualism; it also enables
people to overcome their false perception of reality. The world—no
longer something to be described with deceptive words—becomes
the object of that transforming action by men and women which
results in their humanization.
Problem-posing education does not and cannot serve the interests
of the oppressor. No oppressive order could permit the oppressed
to begin to question: Why? While only a revolutionary society can
carry out this education in systematic terms, the revolutionary lead-
ers need not take full power before they can employ the method. In
the revolutionary process, the leaders cannot utilize the banking
method as an interim measure, justified on grounds of expediency,
with the intention of later behaving in a genuinely revolutionary
fashion. They must be revolutionary—that is to say, dialogical—from
the outset.
CHAPTER
3
A s we attempt to analyze dialogue as a human phenomenon,
we discover something which is the essence of dialogue
itself: the word. But the word is more than just an instru
ment which makes dialogue possible; accordingly, we must seek its
constitutive elements. Within the word we find two dimensions,
reflection and action, in such radical interaction that if one is sac
rificed—even in part—the other immediately suffers. There is no
true word that is not at the same time a praxis.1 Thus, to speak a
true word is to transform the world.2
An unauthentic word, one which is unable to transform reality,
results when dichotomy is imposed upon its constitutive elements.
When a word is deprived of its dimension of action, reflection auto
matically suffers as well; and the word is changed into idle chatter,
into verbalism, into an alienated and alienating "blah." It becomes
an empty word, one which cannot denounce the world, for denuncia
tion is impossible without a commitment to transform, and there is
no transformation without action.
1. Action 1 J I
Reflection ) ^ d = ^ k = praxis
Sacrifice of action = verbalism
Sacrifice of reflection = activism
2. Some of these reflections emerged as a result of conversations with Professor
Ernani Maria Fiori.
8 8 P A U L O F R E I R E
On the other hand, if action is emphasized exclusively, to the
detriment of reflection, the word is converted into activism. The
latter—action for action s sake—negates the true praxis and makes
dialogue impossible. Either dichotomy, by creating unauthentic
forms of existence, creates also unauthentic forms of thought, which
reinforce the original dichotomy.
Human existence cannot be Silent, nor can it be nourished by
false words, but only by true words, with which men and women
transform the world. To exist, humanly, is to name the world, to
change it. Once named, the world in its turn reappears to the nam-
ers as a problem and requires of them a new naming. Human beings
are not built in silence,3 but in word, in work, in action-reflection.
But while to say the true word—which is work, which is praxis—is
to transform the world, saying that word is not the privilege of some
few persons, but the right of everyone. Consequently, no one can
say a true word alone—nor can she say it for another, in a prescrip-
tive act which robs others of their words.
Dialogue is the encounter between men, mediated by the world,
in order to name the world. Hence, dialogue cannot occur between
those who want to name the world and those who do not wish this
naming—between those who deny others the right to speak their
word and those whose right to speak has been denied them. Those
who have been denied their primordial right to speak their word
must first reclaim this right and prevent the continuation of this
dehumanizing aggression.
If it is in speaking their word that people, by naming the world,
transform it, dialogue imposes itself as the way by which they achieve
significance as human beings. Dialogue is thus an existential neces-
sity. And since dialogue is the encounter in which the united reflec-
tion and action of the dialoguers are addressed to the world which
3. I obviously do not refer to the silence of profound meditation, in which men
only apparently leave the world, withdrawing from it in order to consider it in its
totality, and thus remaining with it. But this type of retreat is only authentic when
the meditator is "bathed" in reality; not when the retreat signifies contempt for the
world and flight from it, in a type of "historical schizophrenia."
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED 89
is to be transformed and humanized, this dialogue cannot be re
duced to the act of one persons "depositing" ideas in another, nor
can it become a simple exchange of ideas to be "consumed" by the
discussants. Nor yet is it a hostile, polemical argument between
those who are committed neither to the naming of the world, nor
to the search for truth, but rather to the imposition of their own
truth. Because dialogue is an encounter among women and men
who name the world, it must not be a situation where some name
on behalf of others. It is an act of creation; it must not serve as a
crafty instrument for the domination of one person by another. The
domination implicit in dialogue is that of the world by the dia
logues; it is conquest of the world for the liberation of humankind.
Dialogue cannot exist, however, in the absence of a profound love
for the world and for people. The naming of the world, which is an
act of creation and recreation, is not possible if it is not infused
with love.4 Love is at the same time the foundation of dialogue and
dialogue itself. It is thus necessarily the task of responsible Subjects
and cannot exist in a relation of domination. Domination reveals the
pathology of love: sadism in the dominator and masochism in the
dominated. Because love is an act of courage, not of fear, love is
commitment to others. No matter where the oppressed are found,
the act of love is commitment to their cause—the cause of liberation.
And this commitment, because it is loving, is dialogical. As an act
4. I am more and more convinced that true revolutionaries must perceive the
revolution, because of its creative and liberating nature, as an act of love. For me,
the revolution, which is not possible without a theory of revolution—and therefore
science—is not irreconcilable with love. On the contrary: the revolution is made
by people to achieve their humanization. What, indeed, is the deeper motive which
moves individuals to become revolutionaries, but the dehumanization of people?
The distortion imposed on the word "love" by the capitalist world cannot prevent
the revolution from being essentially loving in character, nor can it prevent the
revolutionaries from affirming their love of life. Guevara (while admitting the "risk
of seeming ridiculous") was not afraid to affirm it: "Let me say, with the risk of
appearing ridiculous, that the true revolutionary is guided by strong feelings of
love. It is impossible to think of an authentic revolutionary without this quality.**
Venceremos—The Speeches and Writings of Che Guevaray edited by John Gerassi
(New York, 1969), p. 398.
9 0 ' P A U L O FREIRE
of bravery, love cannot be sentimental; as an act of freedom, it must
not serve as a pretext for manipulation. It must generate other acts
of freedom; otherwise, it is not love. Only by abolishing the situation
of oppression is it possible to restore the love which that situation
made impossible. If I do not love the world—if I do not love life—if
I do not love people—I cannot enter into dialogue.
On the other hand, dialogue cannot°exist without humility. The
naming of the world, through which people constantly re-create that
world, cannot be an act of arrogance. Dialogue, as the encounter of
those addressed to the common task of learning and acting, is bro-
ken if the parties (or one of them) lack humility. How can I dialogue
if I always project ignorance onto others and never perceive my
own? How can I dialogue if I regard myself as a case apart from
others—mere "its" in whom I cannot recognize other "I"s? How can
I dialogue if I consider myself a member of the in-group of "pure"
men, the owners of truth and knowledge, for whom all non-members
are "these people" or "the great unwashed"? How can I dialogue if
I start from the premise that naming the world is the task of an elite
and that the presence of the people in history is a sign of deteriora-
tion, thus to be avoided? How can I dialogue if I am closed to—and
even offended by—the contribution of others? How can I dialogue
if I am afraid of being displaced, the mere possibility causing me
torment and weakness? Self-sufficiency is incompatible with dia-
logue. Men and women who lack humility (or have lost it) cannot
come to the people, cannot be their partners in naming the world.
Someone who cannot acknowledge himself to be as mortal as every-
one else still has a long way to go before he can reach the point of
encounter. At the point of encounter there are neither utter ignora-
muses nor perfect sages; there are only people who are attempting,
together, to learn more than they now know
Dialogue further requires an intense faith in humankind, faith in
their power to make and remake, to create and re-create, faith in
their vocation to be more fully human (which is not the privilege of
an elite, but the birthright of all). Faith in people is an a priori
requirement for dialogue; the "dialogical man" believes in others
P E D A G O G Y OF T H E O P P R E S S E D - 9 1
even before he meets them face to face. His faith, however, is not
naive. The "dialogical man" is critical and knows that although it is
within the power of humans to create and transform, in a concrete
situation of alienation individuals may be impaired in the use of that
power. Far from destroying his faith in the people, however, this
possibilitystrikes him as a challenge to which he must respond He
is convinced that the power to create and transform, even when
thwarted in concrete situations, tends to be reborn. And that rebirth
can occur—not gratuitously, but in and through the struggle for
liberation—in the supersedence of slave labor by emancipated labor
which gives zest to life. Without this faith in people, dialogue is a
farce which inevitably degenerates into paternalistic manipulation.
Founding itself upon love, humility, and faith, dialogue becomes
a horizontal relationship of which mutual trust between the dia
logues is the logical consequence. It would be a contradiction in
terms if dialogue—loving, humble, and full of faith—did not pro
duce this climate of mutual trust, which leads the dialoguers into
ever closer partnership in the naming of the world. Conversely, such
trust is obviously absent in the antidialogics of the banking method
of education. Whereas faith in humankind is an a priori requirement
for dialogue, trust is established by dialogue. Should it founder, it
will be seen that the preconditions were lacking. False love, false
humility, and feeble faith in others cannot create trust. Trust is
contingent on the evidence which one party provides the others of
his true, concrete intentions; it cannot exist if that party's words do
not coincide with their actions. To say one thing and do another—to
take one's own word lightly—cannot inspire trust. To glorify democ
racy and to silence the people is a farce; to discourse on humanism
and to negate people is a lie.
Nor yet can dialogue exist without hope. Hope is rooted in men's
incompletion, from which they move out in constant search—a
search which can be carried out only in communion with others.
Hopelessness is a form of silence, of denying the world and fleeing
from it. The dehumanization resulting from an unjust order is not
a cause for despair but for hope, leading to the incessant pursuit of
9 2 P A U L O FREIRE
the humanity denied by injustice. Hope, however, does not consist
in crossing ones arms and waiting. As long as I fight, I am moved
by hope; and if I fight with hope, then I can wait. As the encounter
of women and men seeking to be more fully human, dialogue cannot
be carried on in a climate of hopelessness. If the dialoguers expect
nothing to come of their efforts, their encounter will be empty and
sterile, bureaucratic and tedious.
Finally, true dialogue cannot exist unless the dialoguers engage in
critical thinking—thinking which discerns an indivisible solidarity
between the world and the people and admits of no dichotomy
between them—thinking which perceives reality as process, as
transformation, rather than as a static entity—thinking which does
not separate itself from action, but constantly immerses itself in
temporality without fear of the risks involved. Critical thinking con
trasts with naive thinking, which sees "historical time as a weight,
a stratification of the acquisitions and experiences of the past,"5 from
which the present should emerge normalized and "wellbehaved."
For the naive thinker, the important thing is accommodation to
this normalized "today." For the critic, the important thing is the
continuing transformation of reality, in behalf of the continuing hu
manization of men. In the words of Pierre Furter:
The goal will no longer be to eliminate the risks of temporality
by clutching to guaranteed space, but rather to temporalize
space . . . The universe is revealed to me not as space, imposing
a massive presence to which I can but adapt, but as a scope, a
domain which takes shape as I act upon it.6
For naive thinking, the goal is precisely to hold fast to this guaran
teed space and adjust to it. By thus denying temporality, it denies
itself as well.
Only dialogue, which requires critical thinking, is also capable of
generating critical thinking. Without dialogue there is no communi
5. From the letter of a friend.
6. Pierre Furter, Educagdo e Vida (Rio, 1966), pp. 2627.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED -93
cation, and without communication there can be no true education.
Education which is able to resolve the contradiction between
teacher and student takes place in a situation in which both address
their act of cognition to the object by which they are mediated.
Thus, the dialogical character of education as the practice of freedom
does not begin when the teacherstudent meets with the students
teachers in a pedagogical situation, but rather when the former first
asks herself or himself what she or he will dialogue with the latter
about. And preoccupation with the content of dialogue is really
preoccupation with the program content of education.
For the antidialogical banking educator, the question of content
simply concerns the program about which he will discourse to his
students; and he answers his own question, by organizing his own
program. For the dialogical, problemposing teacherstudent, the
program content of education is neither a gift nor an imposition—
bits of information to be deposited in the students—but rather the
organized, systematized, and developed "representation" to indi
viduals of the things about which they want to know more.7
Authentic education is not carried on by "A" for "B" or by "A"
about "B," but rather by "A" with "B," mediated by the world—a
world which impresses and challenges both parties, giving rise to
views or opinions about it. These views, impregnated with anxieties,
doubts, hopes, or hopelessness, imply significant themes on the
basis of which the program content of education can be built. In its
desire to create an ideal model of the "good man," a naively con
ceived humanism often overlooks the concrete, existential, present
situation of real people. Authentic humanism, in Pierre Furter s
words, "consists in permitting the emergence of the awareness of
our full humanity, as a condition and as an obligation, as a situation
7. In a long conversation with Malraux, Mao-Tse-Tung declared, "You know Tve
proclaimed for a long time: we must teach the masses clearly what we have received
from them confusedly." AndrS Malraux, Anti-Memoirs (New York, 1968), pp. 361-
362. This affirmation contains an entire dialogical theory of how to construct the
program content of education, which cannot be elaborated according to what the
educator thinks best for the students.
9 4 P A U L O FREIRE
and as a project. "8 We simply cannot go to the laborers—urban or
peasant9—in the banking style, to give them "knowledge" or to im-
pose upon them the model of the "good man" contained in a pro-
gram whose content we have ourselves organized. Many political
and educational plans have failed because their authors designed
them according to their own personal views of reality, never once
taking into account (except as mere objects of their actions) the men-
in-a-situation to whom their program was ostensibly directed.
For the truly humanist educator and the authentic revolutionary,
the object of action is the reality to be transformed by them together
with other people—not other men and women themselves. The
oppressors are the ones who act upon the people to indoctrinate
them and adjust them to a reality which must remain untouched.
Unfortunately, however, in their desire to obtain the support of the
people for revolutionary action, revolutionary leaders often fall for
the banking line of planning program content from the top down.
They approach the peasant or urban masses with projects which
may correspond to their own view of the world, but not to that of
the people. 10 They forget that their fundamental objective is to fight
8. Furter, op. cit., p. 165.
9. The latter, usually submerged in a colonial context, are almost umbilically
linked to the world of nature, in relation to which they feel themselves to be
component parts rather than shapers.
10. "Our cultural workers must serve the people with great enthusiasm and
devotion, and they must link themselves with the masses, not divorce themselves
from the masses. In order to do so, they must act in accordance with the needs
and wishes of the masses. All work done for the masses must start from their
needs and not from the desire of any individual, however wellintentioned. It often
happens that objectively the masses need a certain change, but subjectively they
are not yet conscious of the need, not yet willing or determined to make the change.
In such cases, we should wait patiently. We should not make the change until,
through our work, most of the masses have become conscious of the need and are
willing and determined to carry it out. Otherwise we shall isolate ourselves from
the masses. . . . There are two principles here: one is the actual needs of the
masses rather than what we fancy they need, and the other is the wishes of the
masses, who must make up their own minds instead of our making up their minds
for them." From the Selected Works of Mao-Tse-Tung, Vol. III. "The United Front
in Cultural Work" (October 30, 1944) (Peking, 1967), pp. 186187.
PEDAGOGY OF THE O P P R E S S E D 9 5
alongside the people for the recovery of the people's stolen human
ity, not to ' Avin the people over" to their side. Such a phrase does
not belong in the vocabulary of revolutionary leaders, but in that of
the oppressor. The revolutionary's role is to liberate, and be liber
ated, with the people—not to win them over.
In their political activity, the dominant elites utilize the banking
concept to encourage passivity in the oppressed, corresponding with
the latter s "submerged" state of consciousness, and take advantage
of that passivity to "fill" that consciousness with slogans which create
even more fear of freedom. This practice is incompatible with a
truly liberating course of action, which, by presenting the oppres
sors slogans as a problem, helps the oppressed to "eject" those
slogans from within themselves. After all, the task of the humanists
is surely not that of pitting their slogans against the slogans of the
oppressors, with the oppressed as the testing ground, "housing"
the slogans of first one group and then the other. On the contrary,
the task of the humanists is to see that the oppressed become aware
of the fact that as dual beings, "housing" the oppressors within them
selves, they cannot be truly human.
This task implies that revolutionary leaders do not go to the peo
ple in order to bring them a message of "salvation," but in order to
come to know through dialogue with them both their objective situ-
ation and their awareness of that situation—the various levels of
perception of themselves and of the world in which and with which
they exist. One cannot expect positive results from an educational
or political action program which fails to respect the particular view
of the world held by the people. Such a program constitutes cultural
invasion,11 good intentions notwithstanding.
The starting point for organizing the program content of education
or political action must be the present, existential, concrete situ
ation, reflecting the aspirations of the people. Utilizing certain basic
contradictions, we must pose this existential, concrete, present situ
ation to the people as a problem which challenges them and requires
11. This point will be analyzed in detail in chapter 4.
9 6 P A U L O F R E I R E
a response—not just at the intellectual level, but at the level of
action.12
We must never merely discourse on the present situation, must
never provide the people with programs which have little or nothing
to do with their own preoccupations, doubts, hopes, and fears—
programs which at times in fact increase the fears of the oppressed
consciousness. It is not our role to speak to the people about our
own view of the world, nor to attempt to impose that view on them,
but rather to dialogue with the people about their view and ours.
We must realize that their view of the world, manifested variously
in their action, reflects their situation in the world. Educational and
political action which is not critically aware of this situation runs the
risk either of "banking" or of preaching in the desert.
Often, educators and politicians speak and are not understood
because their language is not attuned to the concrete situation of
the people they address. Accordingly, their talk is just alienated and
alienating rhetoric. The language of the educator or the politician
(and it seems more and more clear that the latter must also become
an educator, in the broadest sense of the word), like the language
of the people, cannot exist without thought; and neither language
nor thought can exist without a structure to which they refer. In
order to communicate effectively, educator and politician must
understand the structural conditions in which the thought and lan
guage of the people are dialectically framed.
It is to the reality which mediates men, and to the perception of
that reality held by educators and people, that we must go to find
the program content of education. The investigation of what I have
termed the people s "thematic universe"13—the complex of their
"generative themes"—inaugurates the dialogue of education as the
practice of freedom. The methodology of that investigation must
likewise be dialogical, affording the opportunity both to discover
12. It is as selfcontradictory for true humanists to use the banking method as
it would be for rightists to engage in problemposing education. (The latter are
always consistent—they never use a problemposing pedagogy.)
13. The expression "meaningful thematics" is used with the same connotation.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED -97
generative themes and to stimulate people's awareness in regard to
these themes. Consistent with the liberating purpose of dialogical
education, the object of the investigation is not persons (as if they
were anatomical fragments), but rather the thoughtlanguage with
which men and women refer to reality, the levels at which they
perceive that reality, and their view of the world, in which their
generative themes are found.
Before describing a "generative theme" more precisely, which will
also clarify what is meant by a "minimum thematic universe," it
seems to me indispensable to present a few preliminary reflections.
The concept of a generative theme is neither an arbitrary invention
nor a working hypothesis to be proved. If it were a hypothesis to be
proved, the initial investigation would seek not to ascertain the na
ture of the theme, but rather the very existence or nonexistence of
themes themselves. In that event, before attempting to understand
the theme in its richness, its significance, its plurality, its transforma
tions, and its0 historical composition, we would first have to verify
whether or not it is an objective fact; only then could we proceed
to apprehend it. Although an attitude of critical doubt is legitimate,
it does appear possible to verify the reality of the generative
theme—not only through one's own existential experience, but also
through critical reflection on the humanworld relationship and on
the relationships between people implicit in the former.
This point deserves more attention. One may well remember—
trite as it seems—that, of the uncompleted beings, man is the only
one to treat not only his actions but his very self as the object of his
reflection; this capacity distinguishes him from the animals, which
are unable to separate themselves from their activity and thus are
unable to reflect upon it. In this apparently superficial distinction
lie the boundaries which delimit the action of each in his life space.
Because the animals' activity is an extension of themselves, the re
sults of that activity are also inseparable from themselves: animals
can neither set objectives nor infuse their transformation of nature
with any significance beyond itself. Moreover, the "decision" to per
form this activity belongs not to them but to their species. Animals
are, accordingly, fundamentally "beings in themselves."
9 8 ' P A U L O F R E I R E
Unable to decide for themselves, unable to objectify either them-
selves or their activity, lacking objectives which they themselves
have set, living "submerged" in a world to which they can give no
meaning, lacking a "tomorrow" and a "today" because they exist in
an overwhelming present, animals are ahistorical. Their ahistorical
life does not occur in the "world," taken in its strict meaning; for
the animal, the world does not constitute a "not-I" which could set
him apart as an "I." The human world, which is historical, serves as
a mere prop for the "being in itself." Animals are not challenged by
the configuration which confronts them; they are merely stimulated.
Their life is not one of risk-taking, for they are not aware of taking
risks. Risks are not challenges perceived upon reflection, but merely
"noted" by the signs which indicate them; they accordingly do not
require decision-making responses.
Consequently, animals cannot commit themselves. Their ahis-
torical condition does not permit them to "take on" life. Because
they do not "take it on," they cannot construct it; and if they do not
construct it, they cannot transform its configuration. Nor can they
know themselves to be destroyed by life, for they cannot expand
their "prop" world into a meaningful, symbolic world which includes
culture and history. As a result, animals do not "animalize" their
configuration in order to animalize themselves—nor do they "de-
animalize" themselves. Even in the forest, they remain "beings-in-
themselves," as animal-like there as in the zoo.
In contrast, the people—aware of their activity and the world in
which they are situated, acting in function of the objectives which
they propose, having the seat of their decisions located in themselves
and in their relations with the world and with others, infusing the
world with their creative presence by means of the transformation
they effect upon it—unlike animals, not only live but exist;14 and
their existence is historical. Animals live out their lives on an atemp-
oral, flat, uniform "prop"; humans exist in a world which they are
14. In the English language, the terms "live" and "exist" have assumed implica
tions opposite to their etymological origins. As used here, "live" is the more basic
term, implying only survival; "exist" implies a deeper involvement in the process
of "becoming."
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED 9 9
constantly recreating and transforming. For animals, "here" is only
a habitat with which they enter into contact; for people, "here"
signifies not merely a physical space, but also an historical space.
Strictly speaking, "here," "now," "there," "tomorrow," and "yester
day" do not exist for the animal, whose life, lacking selfconscious
ness, is totally determined. Animals cannot surmount the limits
imposed by the "here," the "now," or the "there."
Humans, however, because they are aware of themselves and thus
of the world—because they are conscious beings—exist in a dialecti
cal relationship between the determination of limits and their own
freedom. As they separate themselves from the world, which they
objectify, as they separate themselves from their own activity, as they
locate the seat of their decisions in themselves and in their relations
with the world and others, people overcome the situations which
limit them: the "limitsituations."15 Once perceived by individuals
as fetters, as obstacles to their liberation, these situations stand out
in relief from the background, revealing their true nature as concrete
historical dimensions of a given reality. Men and women respond to
the challenge with actions which Vieira Pinto calls "limitacts": those
directed at negating and overcoming, rather than passively ac
cepting, the "given,"
Thus, it is not the limitsituations in and of themselves which
create a climate of hopelessness, but rather how they are perceived
by women and men at a given historical moment: whether they
appear as fetters or as insurmountable barriers. As critical percep
tion is embodied in action, a climate of hope and confidence devel
ops which leads men to attempt to overcome the limitsituations.
This objective can be achieved only through action upon the con
15. Professor Alvaro Vieira Pinto analyzes with clarity the problem of "limit
situations, w using the concept without the pessimistic aspect originally found in
Jaspers. For Vieira Pinto, the "limitsituations" are not "the impassable boundaries
where possibilities end, but the real boundaries where all possibilities begin**; they
are not "the frontier which separates being from nothingness, but the frontier
which separates being from nothingness but the frontier which separates being
from being more." Alvaro Vieira Pinto, Consciencia e Realidade Nacional (Rio de
Janeiro, 1960), Vol. II, p. 284.
100PAULO FREIRE
crete, historical reality in which limit-situations historically are
found. As reality is transformed and these situations are superseded,
new ones will appear, which in turn will evoke new limit-acts.
The prop world of animals contains no limit-situations, due to its
ahistorical character. Similarly, animals lack the ability to exercise
limit-acts, which require a decisive attitude towards the world: sepa-
ration from and objectification of the world in order to transform it,
Organically bound to their prop, animals do not distinguish between
themselves and the world. Accordingly, animals are not limited by
limit-situations—which are historical—but rather by the entire
prop. And the appropriate role for animals is not to relate to their
prop (in that event, the prop would be a world), but to adapt to it.
Thus, when animals "produce" a nest, a hive, or a burrow, they
are not creating products which result from "limit-acts," that is,
transforming responses. Their productive activity is subordinated to
the satisfaction of a physical necessity which is simply stimulating,
rather than challenging. "An animal's product belongs immediately
to its physical body, whilst man freely confronts his product."16
Only products which result from the activity of a being but do
not belong to its physical body (though these products may bear its
seal), can give a dimension of meaning to the context, which thus
becomes a world. A being capable of such production (who thereby
is necessarily aware of himself, is a "being for himself") could no
longer be if she or he were not in the process of being in the world
with which he or she relates; just as the world would no longer exist
if this being did not exist.
The difference between animals—who (because their activity does
not constitute limit-acts) cannot create products detached from
themselves—and humankind—who through their action upon the
world create the realm of culture and history—is that only the latter
are beings of the praxis. Only human beings are praxis—the praxis
which, as the reflection and action which truly transform reality, is
16. Karl Marx, Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844, Dirk Struik,
e d (New York, 1964), p. 113.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 101
the source of knowledge and creation. Animal activity, which occurs
without a praxis, is not creative; peoples transforming activity is.
It is as transforming and creative beings that humans, in their
permanent relations with reality, produce not only material goods—
tangible objects—but also social institutions, ideas, and concepts.17
Through their continuing praxis, men and women simultaneously
create history and become historicalsocial beings. Because—in con
trast to animals—people can tridimensionalize time into the past,
the present, and the future, their history, in function of their own
creations, develops as a constant process of transformation within
which epochal units materialize. These epochal units are not closed
periods of time, static compartments within which people are con
fined. Were this the case, a fundamental condition of history—its
continuity—would disappear. On the contrary, epochal units inter
relate in the dynamics of historical continuity.18
An epoch is characterized by a complex of ideas, concepts, hopes,
doubts, values, and challenges in dialectical interaction with their
opposites, striving towards plenitude. The concrete representation
of many of these ideas, values, concepts, and hopes, as well as the
obstacles which impede the people's full humanization, constitute
the themes of that epoch. These themes imply others which are
opposing or even antithetical; they also indicate tasks to be carried
out and fulfilled. Thus, historical themes are never isolated, inde
pendent, disconnected, or static; they are always interacting dialecti
cally with their opposites. Nor can these themes be found anywhere
except in the humanworld relationship. The complex of interacting
themes of an epoch constitutes its "thematic universe."
Confronted by this "universe of themes" in dialectical contradic
tion, persons take equally contradictory positions: some work to
maintain the structures, others to change them. As antagonism
deepens between themes which are the expression of reality, there
17. Regarding this point, see Karel Kosik, DiaUtica de lo Concreto (Mexico,
1967).
18. On the question of historical epochs, see Hans Freyer, Teoria de la tpoca
atual (Mexico).
1 0 2 P A U L O FREIRE
is a tendency for the themes and for reality itself to be mythicized,
establishing a climate of irrationality and sectarianism. This climate
threatens to drain the themes of their deeper significance and to
deprive them of their characteristically dynamic aspect. In such a
situation, mythcreating irrationality itself becomes a fundamental
theme. Its opposing theme, the critical and dynamic view of the
world, strives to unveil reality, unmask its mythicization, and achieve
a full realization of the human task: the permanent transformation
of reality in favor of the liberation of people.
In the last analysis, the themes19 both contain and are contained
in limit-situations; the tasks they imply require limit-acts. When the
themes are concealed by the limitsituations and thus are not clearly
perceived, the corresponding tasks—people s responses in the form
of historical action—can be neither authentically nor critically ful
filled. In this situation, humans are unable to transcend the limit
situations to discover that beyond these situations—and in contradic
tion to them—lies an untested feasibility.
In sum, limitsituations imply the existence of persons who are
directly or indirectly served by these situations,, and of those who
are negated and curbed by them. Once the latter come to perceive
these situations as the frontier between being and being more hu
man, rather than the frontier between being and nothingness, they
begin to direct their increasingly critical actions towards achieving
the untested feasibility implicit in that perception. On the other
hand, those who are served by the present limitsituation regard
the untested feasibility as a threatening limitsituation which must
not be allowed to materialize, and act to maintain the status quo.
Consequently, liberating actions upon an historical milieu must cor
respond not only to the generative themes but to the Way in which
these themes are perceived. This requirement in turn implies an
other: the investigation of meaningful thematics.
19. I have termed these themes "generative" because (however they are compre
hended and whatever action they may evoke) they contain the possibility of un
folding into again as many themes, which in their turn call for new tasks to be
fulfilled.
PEDAGOGY OF THE O P P R E S S E D • 103
Generative themes can be located in concentric circles, moving
from the general to the particular. The broadest epochal unit, which
includes a diversified range of units and subunits—continental, re
gional, national, and so forth—contains themes of a universal charac
ter. I consider the fundamental theme of our epoch to be that of
domination—which implies its opposite, the theme of liberation, as
the objective to be achieved. It is this tormenting theme which gives
our epoch the anthropological character mentioned earlier. In order
to achieve humanization, which presupposes the elimination of de
humanizing oppression, it is absolutely necessary to surmount the
limitsituations in which people are reduced to things.
Within the smaller circles, we find themes and limitsituations
characteristic of societies (on the same continent or on different
continents) Avhich through these themes and limitsituations share
historical similarities. For example, underdevelopment, which can
not be understood apart from the relationship of dependency, repre
sents a limitsituation characteristic of societies of the Third World.
The task implied by this limitsituation is to overcome the contradic
tory relation of these "objectssocieties to the metropolitan societies;
this task constitutes the untested feasibility for the Third World
Any given society within the broader epochal unit contains, in
addition to the universal, continental, or historically similar themes,
its own particular themes, its own limitsituations. Within yet
smaller circles, thematic diversifications can be found within the
same society, divided into areas and subareas, all of which are re
lated to the societal whole. These constitute epochal subunits. For
example, within the same national unit one can find the contradic
tion of the "coexistence of the noncontemporaneous."
Within these subunits, national themes may or may not be per
ceived in their true significance. They may simply be felt—
sometimes not even that. But the nonexistence of themes within the
subunits is absolutely impossible. The fact that individuals in a
certain area do not perceive a generative theme, or perceive it in a
distorted way, may only reveal a limitsituation of oppression in
which people are still submerged.
1 0 4 P A U L O F R E I R E
In general, a dominated consciousness which has not yet per-
ceived a limit-situation in its totality apprehends only its epiphe-
nomena and transfers to the latter the inhibiting force which is the
property of the limit-situation.20 This fact is of great importance for
the investigation of generative themes. When people lack a critical
understanding of their reality, apprehending it in fragments which
they do not perceive as interacting constituent elements of the
whole, they cannot truly know that reality. To truly know it, they
would have to reverse their starting point: they would need to have
a total vision of the context in order subsequently to separate and
isolate its constituent elements and by means of this analysis achieve
a clearer perception of the whole.
Equally appropriate for the methodology of thematic investigation
and for problem-posing education is this effort to present significant
dimensions of an individual's contextual reality, the analysis of which
will make it possible for him to recognize the interaction of the
various components. Meanwhile, the significant dimensions, which
in their turn are constituted of parts in interaction, should be per-
ceived as dimensions of total reality. In this way, k critical analysis
of a significant existential dimension makes possible a new, critical
attitude towards the limit-situations. The perception and compre-
hension of reality are rectified and acquire new depth. When carried
out with a methodology of conscientizagdo the investigation of the
generative theme contained in the minimum thematic universe (the
generative themes in interaction) thus introduces or begins to intro-
duce women and men to a critical form of thinking about their
world.
20. Individuals of the middle class often demonstrate this type of behavior, al
though in a different way from the peasant. Their fear of freedom leads them to
erect defense mechanisms and rationalizations which conceal the fundamental,
emphasize the fortuitous, and deny concrete reality. In the face of a problem whose
analysis would lead to the uncomfortable perception of a limitsituation, their ten
dency is to remain on the periphery of the discussion and resist any attempt to
reach the heart of the question. They are even annoyed when someone points out
a fundamental proposition which explains the fortuitous or secondary matters to
which they had been assigning primary importance.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 105
In the events however, that human beings perceive reality as
dense, impenetrable, and enveloping, it is indispensable to proceed
with the investigation by means of abstraction. This method does
not involve reducing the concrete to the abstract (which would sig
nify the negation of its dialectical nature), but rather maintaining
both elements as opposites which interrelate dialectically in the act
of reflection. This dialectical movement of thought is exemplified
perfectly in the analysis of a concrete existential, "coded" situation.21
Its "decoding" requires moving from the abstract to the concrete;
this requires moving from the part to the whole and then returning
to the parts; this in turn requires that the Subject recognize himself
in the object (the coded concrete existential situation) and recognize
the object as a situation in which he finds himself, together with
other Subjects. If the decoding is well done, this movement of flux
and reflux from the abstrct to the concrete which occurs in the
analysis of a coded situation leads to the supersedence of the abstrac
tion by the critical perception of the concrete, which has already
ceased to be a dense, impenetrable reality.
When an individual is presented with a coded existential situation
(a sketch or photograph which leads by abstraction to the concrete
ness of existential reality), his tendency is to "split" that coded situ
ation. In the process of decoding, this separation corresponds to the
stage we call the "description of the situation," and facilitates the
discovery of the interaction among the parts of the disjoined whole.
This whole (the coded situation), which previously had been only
diffusely apprehended, begins to acquire meaning as thought flows
back to it from the various dimensions. Since, however, the coding
is the representation of an existential situation, the decoder tends
to take the step from the representation to the very concrete situ
ation in which and with which she finds herself. It is thus possible
to explain conceptually why individuals begin to behave differently
with regard to objective reality, once that reality has ceased to look
21. The coding of an existential situation is the representation of that situation,
showing some of its constituent elements in interaction. Decoding is the critical
analysis of the coded situation.
106-PAULO FREIRE
like a blind alley and has taken on its true aspect: a challenge which
human beings must meet.
In all the stages of decoding, people exteriorize their view of the
world. And in the way they think about ancb face the world—
fatalistically, dynamically, or statically—their generative themes may
be found. A group which does not concretely express a generative
thematics—a fact which might appear to imply the nonexistence of
themes—is, on the contrary, suggesting a very dramatic theme: the
theme of silence. The theme of silence suggests a structure of mut-
ism in face of the overwhelming force of the limit-situations.
I must re-emphasize that the generative theme cannot be found
in people, divorced from reality; nor yet in reality, divorced from
people; much less in "no man's land." It can only be apprehended
in the human-world relationship. To investigate the generative
theme is to investigate peoples thinking about reality and peoples
action upon reality, which is their praxis. For precisely this reason,
the methodology proposed requires that the investigators and the
people (who would normally be considered objects of that investiga-
tion) should act as co-investigators. The more active an attitude men
and women take in regard to the exploration of their thematics, the
more they deepen their critical awareness of reality and, in spelling
out those thematics, take possession of that reality.
Some may think it inadvisable to include the people as investiga-
tors in the search for their own meaningful thematics: that their
intrusive influence (n.b., the "intrusion" of those who are most inter-
ested—or ought to be—in their own education) will "adulterate" the
findings and thereby sacrifice the objectivity of the investigation.
This view mistakenly presupposes that themes exist, in their original
objective purity, outside people—as if themes were things. Actually,
themes exist in people in their relations with the world, with refer-
ence to concrete facts. The same objective fact could evoke different
complexes of generative themes in different epochal sub-units.
There is, therefore, a relation between the given objective fact, the
perception women and men have of this fact, and the generative
themes.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 107
A meaningful thematics is expressed by people, and a given mo
ment of expression will differ from an earlier moment, if they have
changed their perception of the objective facts to which the themes
refer. From the investigator s point of view, the important thing is
to detect the starting point at which the people visualize the "given"
and to verify whether or not during the process of investigation
any transformation has occurred in their way of perceiving reality.
(Objective reality, of course, remains unchanged If the perception
of that reality changes in the course of the investigation, that fact
does not impair the validity of the investigation.)
We must realize that the aspirations, the motives, and the objec
tives implicit in the meaningful thematics are human aspirations,
motives, and objectives. They do not exist "out there" somewhere,
as static entities; they are occurring. They are as historical as human
beings themselves; consequently, they cannot be apprehended apart
from them. To apprehend these themes and to understand them is
to understand both the people who embody them and the reality
to which they refer. But—precisely because it is not possible to
understand these themes apart from people—it is necessary that
those concerned understand them as well. Thematic investigation
thus becomes a common striving towards awareness of reality and
towards selfawareness, which makes this investigation a starting
point for the educational process or for cultural action of a liberating
character.
The real danger of the investigation is not that the supposed
objects of the investigation, discovering themselves to be coinvesti
gators, might "adulterate" the analytical results. On the contrary,
the danger lies in the risk of shifting the focus of the investigation
from the meaningful themes to the people themselves, thereby
treating the people as objects of the investigation. Since this investi
gation is to serve as a basis for developing an educational program
in which teacherstudent and studentsteachers combine their cog
nitions of the same object, the investigation itself must likewise be
based on reciprocity of action.
Thematic investigation, which occurs in the realm of the human,
108PAULO FREIRE
cannot be reduced to a mechanical act. As a process of search, of
knowledge, and thus of creation, it requires the investigators to
discover the interpenetration of problems, in th^linking of meaning
ful themes. The investigation will be most educational when it is
most critical, and most critical when it avoids the narrow outlines
of partial or "focalized" views of reality, and sticks to the comprehen
sion of total reality. Thus, the process of searching for the meaningful
thematics should include a concern for the links between themes,
a concern to pose these themes as problems, and a concern for their
historicalcultural context.
Just as the educator may not elaborate a program to present to
the people, neither may the investigator elaborate "itineraries" for
researching the thematic universe, starting from points which he
has predetermined. Both education and the investigation designed
to support it must be "sympathetic" activities, in the etymological
sense of the word. That is, they must consist of communication and
of the common experience of a reality perceived in the complexity
of its constant "becoming."
The investigator who, in the name of scientific objectivity, trans
forms the organic into something inorganic, what is becoming into
what is, life into death, is a person who fears change. He or she sees
in change (which is not denied, but neither is it desired) not a sign
of life, but a sign of death and decay. He or she does want to study
change—but in order to stop it, not in order to stimulate or deepen
it. However, in seeing change as a sign of death and in making
people the passive objects of investigation in order to arrive at rigid
models, one betrays their own character as a killer of life.
I repeat: the investigation of thematics involves the investigation
of the people's thinking—thinking which occurs only in and among
people together seeking out reality. I cannot think for others or
without others, nor can others think for me. Even if the people's
thinking is superstitious or naive, it is only as they rethink their
assumptions in action that they can change. Producing and acting
upon their own ideas—not consuming those of others—must consti
tute that process.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 109
People, as beings "in a situation," find themselves rooted in tem
poralspatial conditions which mark them and which they also mark.
They will tend to reflect on their own "situatipnality" to the extent
that they are challenged by it to act upon it. Human beings are
because they are in a situation. And they will be more the more
they not only critically reflect upon their existence but critically act
upon it.
Reflection upon situationality is reflection about the very condi
tion of existence: critical thinking by means of which people discover
each other to be "in a situation." Only as this situation ceases to
present itself as a dense, enveloping reality or a tormenting blind
alley, and they can come to perceive it as an objectiveproblematic
situation—only then can commitment exist. Humankind emerge
from their submersion and acquire the ability to intervene in reality
as it is unveiled. Intervention in reality—historical awareness it
self—thus represents a step forward from emergence, and results
from the cdnscientizagao of the situation. Conscientizagao is the
deepening of the attitude of awareness characteristic of all emer
gence.
Every thematic investigation which deepens historical awareness
is thus really educational, while all authentic education investigates
thinking. The more educators and the people investigate the peo
ple s thinking, and are thus jointly educated, the more they continue
to investigate. Education and thematic investigation, in the prob
lemposing concept of education, are simply different moments of
the same process.
In contrast with the antidialogical and noncommunicative "de
posits" of the banking method of education, the program content of
the problemposing method—dialogical par excellence—is consti
tuted and organized by the students' view of the world, where their
own generative themes are found. The content thus constantly ex
pands and renews itself. The task of the dialogical teacher in an
interdisciplinary team working on the thematic universe revealed
by their investigation is to "represent" that universe to the people
from whom she or he first received it—and "represent" it not as a
lecture, but as a problem.
1 1 0 P A U L O FREIRE
Let us say, for example, that a group has the responsibility of
coordinating a plan for adult education in a peasant area with a high
percentage of illiteracy. The plan includes literacy campaign and
a postliteracy phase. During the former stage, problemposing edu
cation seeks out and investigates the "generative word"; in the post
literacy stage, it seeks out and investigates the "generative theme."
Let us here, however, consider only the investigation of the gen
erative themes or the meaningful thematics.22 Once the investigators
have determined the area in which they will work and have acquired
a preliminary acquaintance with the area through secondary
sources, they initiate the first stage of the investigation. This begin
ning (like any beginning in any human activity) involves difficulties
and risks which are to a certain point normal, although they are not
always evident in the first contact with the individuals of the area.
In this first contact, the investigators need to get a significant num
ber of persons to agree to an informal meeting during which they
can talk about the objectives of their presence in the area. In this
meeting they explain the reason for the investigation, how it is to
be carried out, and to what use it will be put; they further explain
that the investigation will be impossible without a relation of mutual
understanding and trust. If the participants agree both to the inves
tigation and to the subsequent process,23 the investigators should
call for volunteers among the participants to serve as assistants.
These volunteers will gather a series of necessary data about the
life of the area. Of even greater importance, however, is the active
presence of these volunteers in the investigation.
Meanwhile, the investigators begin their own visits to the area,
never forcing themselves, but acting as sympathetic observers with
an attitude of understanding towards what they see. While it is
normal for investigators to come to the area with values which influ
22. Regarding the investigation and use of "generative words," see my Educagdo
como Prdtica da Liberdade.
23. According to the Brazilian sociologist Maria Edy Ferreira (in an unpublished
work), thematic investigation is only justified to the extent that it returns to the
people what truly belongs to them; to the extent that it represents, not an attempt
to learn about the people, but to come to know with them the reality which chal
lenges them.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 111
ence their perceptions, this does not mean that they may transform
the thematic investigation into a means of imposing these values.
The only dimension of these values which it is hoped the people
whose thematics are being investigated will come to share (it is
presumed that the investigators possess this quality) is a critical
perception of the world, which implies a correct method of ap
proaching reality in order to unveil it. And critical perception cannot
be imposed. Thus, from the very beginning, thematic investigation
is expressed as an educational pursuit, as cultural action.
During their visits, the investigators set their critical "aim" on
the area under study, as if it were for them an enormous, unique,
living "code" to be deciphered. They regard the area as a totality,
and visit upon visit attempt to "split" it by analyzing the partial
dimensions which impress them. Through this process they expand
their understanding of how the various parts interact, which will
later help them penetrate the totality itself.
During this decoding stage, the investigators observe certain mo-
ments of the life of the area—sometimes directly, sometimes by
means of informal conversations with the inhabitants. They register
everything in their notebooks, including apparently unimportant
items: the way the people talk, their style of life, their behavior at
church and at work. They record the idiom of the people: their
expressions, their vocabulary, and their syntax (not their incorrect
pronunciation, but rather the way they construct their thought).24
It is essential that the investigators observe the area under varying
circumstances: labor in the fields, meetings of a local association
(noting the behavior of the participants, the language used, and the
24. The Brazilian novelist Guimaraes Rosa is a brilliant example of how a writer
can capture authentically, not the pronunciation or the grammatical corruptions of
the people, but their syntax: the very structure of their thought. Indeed (and this
is not to disparage his exceptional value as a writer), Guimaraes Rosa was the
investigator par excellence of the "meaningful thematics" of the inhabitants of the
Brazilian hinterland. Professor Paulo de Tarso is currently preparing an essay which
analyzes this littleconsidered aspect of the work of the author of Grande Sertdo—
Veredas [in English translation: The Devil to Pay in the Backlands (New York,
1963)].
112-PAULO FREIRE
relations between the officers and the members), the role played
by women and by young people, leisure hour§, games and sports,
conversations with people in their homes (noting examples of hus-
band-wife and parent-child relationships). No activity must escape
the attention of the investigators during the initial survey of the
area.
After each observation visit, the investigator should draw up
a brief report to be discussed by the entire team, in order to eval-
uate the preliminary findings of both the professional investigators
and the local assistants. To facilitate the participation of the assist-
ants, the evaluation meetings should be held in the area itself.
The evaluation meetings represent a second stage in the decoding
of the unique living code. As each person, in his decoding essay,
relates how he perceived or felt a certain occurrence or situation,
his exposition challenges all the other decoders by re-presenting to
them the same reality upon which they have themselves been intent.
At this moment they "re-consider," through the "considerations" of
others, their own previous "consideration." Thus the analysis of real-
ity made by each individual decoder sends them all back, dialogi-
cally, to the disjoined whole which once more becomes a totality
evoking a new analysis by the investigators, following which a new
evaluative and critical meeting will be held. Representatives of the
inhabitants participate in all activities as members of the investigat-
ing team.
The more the group divide and reintegrate the whole, the more
closely they approach the nuclei of the principal and secondary
contradictions which involve the inhabitants of the area. By locating
these nuclei of contradictions, the investigators might even at this
stage be able to organize the program content of their educational
action. Indeed, if the content reflected these contradictions, it would
undoubtedly contain the meaningful thematics of the area. And one
can safely affirm that action based on these observations would be
much more likely to succeed than that based on "decisions from the
top." The investigators should not, however, be tempted by this
possibility. The basic thing, starting from the initial perception of
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 113
these nuclei of contradictions (which include the principal contradic
tion of society as a larger epochal unit) is to study the inhabitants'
level of awareness of these contradictions.
Intrinsically, these contradictions constitute limitsituations, in
volve themes, and indicate tasks. If individuals are caught up in and
are unable to separate themselves from these limitsituations, their
theme in reference to these situations is fatalism, and the task im
plied by the theme is the lack of a task. Thus, although the limit
situations are objective realities which call forth needs in individ
uals, one must investigate with these individuals their level of aware
ness of these situations.
A limitsituation as a concrete reality can call forth from persons
in different areas (and even in subareas of the same area) quite
opposite themes and tasks. Thus, the basic concern of the investiga
tors should be to concentrate on the knowledge of what Goldman
calls "real consciousness" and the "potential consciousness."
Real consciousness [is] the result of the multiple obstacles and
deviations that the different factors of empirical reality put into
opposition and submit for realization by [the] potential con
sciousness.25
Real consciousness implies the impossibility of perceiving the "un
tested feasibility" which lies beyond the limitsituations. But
whereas the untested feasibility cannot be achieved at the level of
"real [or present] consciousness," it can be realized through "testing
action" which reveals its hitherto unperceived viability. The un
tested feasibility and real consciousness are related, as are testing
action and potential consciousness. Goldman's concept of "potential
consciousness" is similar to what Nicolai terms "unperceived pratica
ble solutions"26 (our "untested feasibility"), in contrast to "perceived
practicable solutions" and "presently practiced solutions," which
25. Lucien Goldman, The Human Sciences and Philosophy (London, 1969), p.
118.
26. See Andre Nicolai, Comportment Economique et Structures Sociales (Paris,
1960).
1 1 4 P A U L O FREIRE
correspond to Goldman's "real consciousness." Accordingly, the fact
that the investigators may in the first stage of tjje investigation ap
proximately apprehend the complex of contradictions does not au
thorize them to begin to structure the program content of
educational action. This perception of reality is still their own, not
that of the people.
It is with the apprehension of the complex of contradictions that
the second stage of the investigation begins. Always acting as a
team, the investigators will select some of these contradictions to
develop the codifications to be used in the thematic investigation.
Since the codifications (sketches or photographs)27 are the objects
which mediate the decoders in their critical analysis, the prepara
tion of these codifications must be guided by certain principles other
than the usual ones for making visual aids.
The first requirement is that these codifications must necessarily
represent situations familiar to the individuals whose thematics are
being examined, so that they can easily recognize the situations (and
thus their own relation to them). It is inadmissible (whether during
the process of investigation or in the following stage, when the mean
ingful thematics are presented as program content) to present pic
tures of reality unfamiliar to the participants. The latter procedure
(although dialectical, because individuals analyzing an unfamiliar re
ality could compare it with their own and discover the limitations of
each) cannot precede the more basic one dictated by the partici
pants' state of submersion, that is, the process in which individuals
analyzing their own reality become aware of their prior, distorted
perceptions and thereby come to have a new perception of that
reality.
An equally fundamental requirement for the preparation of the
codifications is that their thematic nucleus be neither overly explicit
nor overly enigmatic. The former may degenerate into mere propa
27. The codifications may also be oral. In this case they consist of a few words
presenting an existential problem, followed by decoding. The team of the Instituto
de Desarrollo Agropecuario (Institute for Agrarian Development) in Chile has used
this method successfully in thematic investigations.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 115
ganda, with no real decoding to be done beyond stating the obvi
ously predetermined content. The latter runs the risk of appearing
to be a puzzle or a guessing game. Since they represent existential
situations, the codifications should be simple in their complexity
and offer various decoding possibilities in order to avoid the brain
washing tendencies of propaganda. Codifications are not slogans;
they are cognizable objects, challenges towards which the critical
reflection of the decoders should be directed.
In order to offer various possibilities of analysis in the decoding
process, the codifications should be organized as a "thematic fan."
As the decoders reflect on the codifications, the codifications should
open up in the direction of other themes. This opening up (which
does not occur if the thematic content is either too explicit or too
enigmatic) is indispensable to the perception of the dialectical rela
tions which exist between the themes and their opposites. Accord
ingly, the codifications reflecting an existential situation must
objectively constitute a totality. Its elements must interact in the
makeup of the whole.
In the process of decoding, the participants externalize their the
matics and thereby make explicit their "real consciousness" of the
world. As they do this, they begin to see how they themselves acted
while actually experiencing the situation they are now analyzing,
and thus reach a "perception of their previous perception." By
achieving this awareness, they come to perceive reality differently;
by broadening the horizon of their perception, they discover more
easily in their "background awareness" the dialectical relations be
tween the two dimensions of reality.
By stimulating "perception of the previous perception" and
"knowledge of the previous knowledge," decoding stimulates the
appearance of a new perception and the development of new know
ledge. The new perception and knowledge are systematically contin
ued with the inauguration of the educational plan, which transforms
the untested feasibility into testing action, as potential consciousness
supersedes real consciousness.
Preparing the codifications further requires that insofar as possi
1 1 6 P A U L O FREIRE
ble they should represent contradictions "incisive" of others which
constitute the system of contradictions of the #rea under study 28 As
each of these "inclusive" codifications is prepared, the other contra-
dictions "contained" therein should also be codified. The decoding
of the former will be dialectically clarified by the decoding of the
latter.
In this connection, a very valuable contribution to our method
has been made by Gabriel Bode, a young Chilean civil servant in
one of the most significant Chilean governmental institutions: the
Instituto de Desarrollo Agropecuario (INDAP).29 During his use of
this method in the post-literacy stage, Bode observed that the peas-
ants became interested in the discussion only when the codification
related directly to their felt needs. Any deviation in the codification,
as well as any attempt by the educator to guide the decoding discus-
sion into other areas, produced silence and indifference. On the
other hand, he observed that even when the codification30 centered
on their felt needs the peasants could not manage to concentrate
systematically on the discussion, which often digressed to the point
of never reaching a synthesis. Also, they almost never perceived the
relationship of their felt needs to the direct and indirect causes of
these needs. One might say that they failed to perceive the untested
feasibility lying beyond the limit-situations which engendered their
needs.
Bode then decided to experiment with the simultaneous projec-
tion of different situations; in this technique lies the value of his
contribution. Initially, he projects a very simple codification of an
existential situation. He terms his first codification "essential"; it
represents the basic nucleus and opens up into a thematic fan ex-
tending to "auxiliary" codifications. After the essential codification
is decoded, the educator maintains its projected image as a reference
28. This recommendation is made by Jos£ Luis Fiori, in an unpublished manu
script.
29. Until recently, IN DAP was directed by the economist and authentic human
ist Jacques Chonchol.
30. These codifications were not "inclusive," in Fiori's definition.
PEDAGOGY OF. THE OPPRESSED • 117
for the participants and successively projects alongside it the auxil
iary codifications. By means of the latter, which are directly related
to the essential codification, he sustains the vivid interest of the
participants, who are thereby enabled to reach a synthesis.
The great achievement of Gabriel Bode is that, by means of the
dialectics between the essential and the auxiliary codifications, he
has managed to communicate to the participants a sense of totality.
Individuals who were submerged in reality, merely feeling their
needs, emerge from reality and perceive the causes of their needs.
In this way, they can go beyond the level of real consciousness to
that of potential consciousness much more rapidly
Once the codifications have been prepared and all their possible
thematic facets have been studied by the interdisciplinary team, the
investigators begin the third stage of the investigation by returning
to the area to initiate decoding dialogues in the "thematic investiga
tion circles."31 These discussions, which decode the material pre
pared in the preceding stage, are taped for subequent analysis by
the interdisciplinary team.32 In addition to the investigator acting
as decoding coordinator, two other specialists—a psychologist and
a sociologist—attend the meetings. Their task is to note and record
the significant (and apparently insignificant) reactions of the de
coders.
During the decoding process, the coordinator must not only lis
31. Each "investigation circle** should have a maximum of twenty persons. There
should be as many circles as necessary to involve, as participants, ten percent of
the area or subarea being studied.
32. These subsequent meetings of analysis should include the volunteers from
the area who assisted in the investigation, and some participants of the "thematic
investigation circles.** Their contribution is both a right to which they are entitled
and an indispensable aid to the analysis of the specialists. As coinvestigators of the
specialists, they will rectify and/or ratify the interpretations the latter make of
the findings. From the methodological point of view, their participation gives the
investigation (which from the beginning is based on a "sympathetic" relationship)
an additional safeguard: the critical presence of representatives of the people from
the beginning until the final phase, that of thematic analysis, continued in the
organization of the program content of educational action as liberating cultural
action.
1 1 8 P A U L O FREIRE
ten to the individuals but must challenge them, posing as problems
both the codified existential situation and tlieir own answers. Due
to the cathartic force of the methodology, the participants of the
thematic investigation circles externalize a series of sentiments and
opinions about themselves, the world, and others, that perhaps they
would not express under different circumstances.
In one of the thematic investigations33 carried out in Santiago, a
group of tenement residents discussed a scene showing a drunken
man walking on the street and three young men conversing on the
corner. The group participants commented that "the only one there
who is productive and useful to his country is the souse who is
returning home after working all day for low wages and who is wor
ried about his family because he cant take care of their needs. He
is the only worker. He is a decent worker and a souse like us."
The investigator34 had intended to study aspects of alcoholism.
He probably would not have elicited the above responses if he had
presented the participants with a questionnaire he had elaborated
himself. If asked directly, they might even have denied ever taking
a drink themselves. But in their comments on the codification of an
existential situation they could recognize, and in which they could
recognize themselves, they said what they really felt.
There are two important aspects to these declarations. On the
one hand, they verbalize the connection between earning low wages,
feeling exploited, and getting drunk—getting drunk as a flight from
reality, as an attempt to overcome the frustration of inaction, as an
ultimately selfdestructive solution. On the other hand, they mani
fest the need to rate the drunkard highly. He is the "only one useful
to his country, because he works, while the others only gab." After
praising the drunkard, the participants then identify themselves
with him, as workers who also drink—"decent workers."
In contrast, imagine the failure of a moralistic educator,35 sermoniz
33. This particular investigation was, unfortunately, not completed.
34. The psychiatrist Patricio Lopes, whose work is described in Educagdo como
Prdtica da Liberdade.
35. See Niebuhr, op cit.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 119
ing against alcoholism and presenting as an example of virtue some
thing which for these men is not a manifestation of virtue. In this and
in other cases, the only sound procedure is the conscientizagdo of the
situation, which should be attempted from the start of the thematic
investigation. (Obviously, conscientizagdo does not stop at the level of
mere subjective perception of a situation, but through action prepares
men for the struggle against the obstacles to their humanization.)
In another experience, this time with peasants, I observed that
the unchanging motif during an entire discussion of a situation de
picting work in the fields was the demand for an increase in wages
and the necessity of joining together to create a union to obtain
this particular demand. Three situations were discussed during the
session, and the motif was always the same.
Now imagine an educator who has organized his educational pro
gram for these men, consisting of reading "wholesome" texts in
which one learns that "the water is in the well." But precisely this
type of thing happens all the time in both education and politics,
because it is not realized that the dialogical nature of education
begins with thematic investigation.
Once the decoding in the circles has been completed, the last
stage of the investigation begins, as the investigators undertake a
systematic interdisciplinary study of their findings. Listening to the
tapes recorded during the decoding sessions and studying the notes
taken by the psychologists and the sociologist, the investigators be
gin to list the themes explicit or implicit in the affirmations made
during the sessions. These themes should be classified according to
the various social sciences. Classification does not mean that when
the program is elaborated the themes will be seen as belonging to
isolated categories, but only that a theme is viewed in a specific
manner by each of the social sciences to which it is related The
theme of development, for example, is especially appropriate to the
field of economics, but not exclusively so. This theme would also be
focalized by sociology, anthropology, and social psychology (fields
concerned with cultural change and with the modification of atti
120-PAULO FREIRE
tudes and values—questions which are equally relevant to a philoso-
phy of development). It would be focalized by political science (a
field concerned with the decisions which involve development), by
education, and so forth. In this way, the themes which characterize
a totality will never be approached rigidly. It would indeed be a
pity if the themes, after being investigated in the richness of their
interpenetration with other aspects of reality, were subsequently to
be handled in such a way as to sacrifice their richness (and hence
their force) to the strictures of specialties.
Once the thematic demarcation is completed, each specialist pre-
sents to the interdisciplinary team a project for the "breakdown" of
his theme. In breaking down the theme, the specialist looks for the
fundamental nuclei which, comprising learning units and establish-
ing a sequence, give a general view of the theme. As each specific
project is discussed, the other specialists make suggestions. These
may be incorporated into the project and/or may be included in the
brief essays to be written on the theme, These essays, to which
bibliographic suggestions are annexed, are valuable aids in training
the teacher-students who will work in the "culture circles."
During this effort to break down the meaningful thematics, the
team will recognize the need to include some fundamental themes
which were not directly suggested by the people during the preced-
ing investigation. The introduction of these themes has proved to
be necessary, and also corresponds to the dialogical character of
education. If educational programming is dialogical, the teacher-
students also have the right to participate by including themes not
previously suggested. I call the latter type of theme "hinged
themes," due to their function. They may either facilitate the con-
nection between two themes in the program unit, filling a possible
gap between the two; or they may illustrate the relations between
the general program content and the view of the world held by the
people. Hence, one of these themes may be located at the beginning
of thematic units.
The anthropological concept of culture is one of these hinged
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 121
themes. It clarifies the role of people in the world and with the
world as transforming rather than adaptive beings.36
Once the breakdown of the thematics is completed,37 there follows
the stage of its "codification": choosing the best channel of communi
cation for each theme and its representation. A codification may be
simple or compound. The former utilizes either the visual (pictorial
or graphic), the tactile, or the auditive channel; the latter utilizes
various channels.38 The selection of the pictorial or graphic channel
depends not only on the material to be codified, but also on whether
or not the individuals with whom one wishes to communicate are
literate. ^
After the thematics has been codified, the didactic material (pho
tographs, slides, film strips, posters, reading texts, and so forth) is
prepared. The team may propose some themes or aspects of some
themes to outside specialists as topics for recorded interviews.
Let us take the theme of development as an example. The team
36. With regard to the importance of the anthropological analysis of culture, see
Educagdo como Prdtica da Liberdade.
37. Note that the entire program is a totality made up of interrelated units which
in themselves are also totalities.
The themes are totalities in themselves but are also elements which in interaction
constitute the thematic units of the entire program.
The thematic breakdown splits the total themes in search of their fundamental
nuclei, which are the partial elements.
The codification process attempts to retotalize the disjoined theme in the repre
sentation of existential situations.
In decoding, individuals split the codification to apprehend its implicit theme
or themes. The dialectical decoding process does not end there, but is completed
in the retotalization of the disjoined whole which is thus more clearly understood
(as are also its relations to other codified situations, all of which represent existential
situations).
38. CODIFICATION
a) Simple:
visual channel
pictorial
graphic
tactile channel
auditive channel
b) Compound: simultaneity of channels
122-PAULO FREIRE
approaches two or more economists of varying schools of thought,
tells them about the program, and invites them to contribute an
interview on the subject in language comprehensible to the audi-
ence. If the specialists accept, an interview of fifteen to twenty min-
utes is taped. A photograph may be taken of each specialist while
he is speaking.
When the taped interview is presented to the culttire circle, an
introductory statement indicates who each speaker is, what she or
he has written, done, and doing now; meanwhile, the speaker s pho-
tograph is projected on a screen. If, for instance, the speaker is
a university professor, the introduction could include a discussion
regarding what the participants think of universities and what they
expect of them. The group has already been told that the recorded
interview will be followed by a discussion of its contents (which
function as an auditive codification). The team subsequently reports
to the specialist the reaction of the participants during the discus-
sion. This technique links intellectuals, often well-intentioned but
not infrequently alienated from the reality of the people, to that
reality. It also gives the people an opportunity to hear and criticize
the thought of intellectuals.
Some themes or nuclei may be presented by means of brief dra-
matizations, containing the theme only—no "solutions"! The drama-
tization acts as a codification, as a problem-posing situation to be
discussed.
Another didactic resource—as long as it is carried out within a
problem-posing rather than a banking approach to education—is the
reading and discussion of magazine articles, newspapers, and book
chapters (beginning with passages). As in the case of the recorded
interviews, the author is introduced before the group begins, and
the contents are discussed afterward.
Along the same lines, it is indispensable to analyze the contents
of newspaper editorials following any given event: "Why do different
newspapers have such different interpretations of the same fact?"
This practice helps develop a sense of criticism, so that people will
react to newspapers or news broadcasts not as passive objects of
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 123
the "communiques" directed at them, but rather as consciousnesses
seeking to be free.
With all the didactic material prepared, to which should be added
small introductory manuals, the team of educators is ready to re
present to the people their own thematics, in systematized and
amplified form. The thematics which have come from the people
return to them—not as contents to be deposited, but as problems
to be solved.
The first task of the basiceducation teachers is to present the
general program of the educational campaign. The people will find
themselves in this program; it will not seem strange to them, since
it originated with them. The educators will also explain (based on
the dialogical character of education) the presence in the program
of the hinged themes, and their significance.
If the educators lack sufficient funds to carry out the preliminary
thematic investigation as described above, they can—with a mini
mum knowledge of the situation—select some basic themes to serve
as "codifications to be investigated." Accordingly, they can begin
with introductory themes and simultaneously initiate further the
matic investigation.
One of these basic themes (and one which I consider central and
indispensable) is the anthropological concept of culture. Whether
men and women are peasants or urban workers, learning to read or
enrolled in a postliteracy program, the starting point of their search
to know more (in the instrumental meaning of the term) is the
debate of the concept. As they discuss the world of culture, they
express their level of awareness of reality, in which various themes
are implicit. Their discussion touches upon other aspects of reality,
which comes to be perceived in an increasingly critical manner.
These aspects in turn involve many other themes.
With the experience now behind me, I can affirm that the concept
of culture, discussed imaginatively in all or most of its dimensions,
can provide various aspects of an educational program. In addition,
after several days of dialogue with the culture circle participants,
the educators can ask the participants directly: "What other themes
124-PAULO FREIRE
or subjects could we discuss besides these?" As each person replies,
the answer is noted down and is immediately proposed to the group
as a problem.
One of the group members may say, for example: "I'd like to talk
abut nationalism." "Very well," says the educator, noting down the
suggestion, and adds: "What does nationalism mean? Why is a dis-
cussion about nationalism of any interest to us?" My experience
shows that when a suggestion is posed as a problem to the group,
new themes appear. If, in an area where (for example) thirty culture
circles meet on the same night, all the "co-ordinators" (educators)
proceed in this fashion, the central team will have a rich variety of
thematic material for study.
The important thing, from the point of view of libertarian edu-
cation, is for the people to come to feel like masters of their thinking
by discussing the thinking and views of the world explicitly or im-
plicitly manifest in their own suggestions and those of their com-
rades. Because this view of education starts with the conviction that
it cannot present its own program but must search for this program
dialogically with the people, it serves to introduce the pedagogy
of the oppressed, in the elaboration of which the oppressed must
participate.
CHAPTER
4
T his chapter, which analyses the theories of cultural action
which develop from antidialogical and dialogical matrices,
will make frequent reference to points presented in the
previous chapters, either to expand these points or to clarify new
affirmations.
I shall start by reaffirming that humankind, as beings of the
praxis, differ from animals, which are beings of pure activity. Ani
mals do not consider the world; they are immersed in it. In contrast,
human beings emerge from the world, objectify it, and in so doing
can understand it and transform it with their labor.
Animals, which do not labor, live in a setting which they cannot
transcend. Hence, each animal species lives in the context appro
priate to it, and these contexts, while open to humans, cannot com
municate among themselves.
But human activity consists of action and reflection: it is praxis;
it is transformation of the world. And as praxis, it requires theory
to illuminate it. Human activity is theory and practice; it is reflection
and action. It cannot, as I stressed in chapter 2, be reduced to either
verbalism or activism.
Lenin's famous statement: "Without a revolutionary theory there
can be no revolutionary movement"1 means that a revolution is
1. Vladimir Lenin, "What is to be Done," in Essential Works of Lenin, Henry
M. Christman, ed (New York, 1966), p. 69.
126'PAULO FREIRE
achieved with neither verbalism nor adtivism, but rather with praxis,
that is, with reflection and action directed at the structures to be
transformed. The revolutionary effort to transform these structures
radically cannot designate its leaders as its thinkers and the op
pressed as mere doers.
If true commitment to the people, involving the transformation
of the reality by which they are oppressed, requires a theory of
transforming action, this theory cannot fail to assign the people a
fundamental role in the transformation process. The leaders cannot
treat the oppressed as mere activists to be denied the opportunity
of reflection and allowed merely the illusion of acting, whereas in
fact they would continue to be manipulated—and in this case by the
presumed foes of manipulation.
The leaders do bear the responsibility for coordination and, at
times, direction—but leaders who deny praxis to the oppressed
thereby invalidate their own praxis. By imposing their word on
others, they falsify that word and establish a contradiction between
their methods and their objectives. If they are truly committed to
liberation, their action and reflection cannot proceed without the
action and reflection of others.
Revolutionary praxis must stand opposed to the praxis of the
dominant elites, for they are by nature antithetical. Revolutionary
praxis cannot tolerate an absurd dichotomy in which the praxis of
the people is merely that of following the leaders decisions—a di
chotomy reflecting the prescriptive methods of the dominant elites.
Revolutionary praxis is a unity, and the leaders cannot treat the
oppressed as their possession.
Manipulation, sloganizing, "depositing," regimentation, and pre
scription cannot be components of revolutionary praxis, precisely
because they are components of the praxis of domination. In order
to dominate, the dominator has no choice but to deny true praxis
to the people, deny them the right to say their own word and think
their own thoughts. He and she cannot act dialogically; for to do so
would mean either that they had relinquished their power to domi
nate and joined the cause of the oppressed, or had lost that power
through miscalculation.
PEDAGOGY OF THE O P P R E S S E D • 127
Obversely, revolutionary leaders who do not act dialogically in
their relations with the people either have retained characteristics
of the dominator and are not truly revolutionary; or they are totally
misguided in their conception of their role, and, prisoners of their
own sectarianism, are equally nonrevolutionary. They may even
reach power But the validity of any revolution resulting from antidia
logical action is thoroughly doubtful.
It is absolutely essential that the oppressed participate in the
revolutionary process with an increasingly critical awareness of their
role as Subjects of the transformation. If they are drawn into the
process as ambiguous beings, partly themselves and partly the op
pressors housed within them—and if they come to power still em
bodying that ambiguity imposed on them by the situation of
oppression—it is my contention that they will merely imagine they
have reached power.2 Their existential duality may even facilitate the
rise of a sectarian climate leading to the installation of bureaucracies
which undermine the revolution. If the oppressed do not become
aware of this ambiguity during the course of the revolutionary proc
ess, they may participate in that process with a spirit more revanch
ist than revolutionary.3 They may aspire to revolution as a means of
domination, rather than as a road to liberation.
If revolutionary leaders who incarnate a genuine humanism have
difficulties and problems, the difficulties and problems will be far
greater for a group of leaders who try (even with the best of inten
tions) to carry out the revolution for the people. To attempt this is
equivalent to carrying out a revolution without the people, because
2. This danger further requires the revolutionary leaders to resist imitating the
procedures of the oppressors, who "enter" the oppressed and are "housed" by the
latter. The revolutionaries, in their praxis with the oppressed, cannot try to "reside"
in the latter. On the contrary, when they try (with the oppressed) to "throw out"
the oppressors, they do this in order to live with the oppressed—not to live within
them.
3. Although the oppressed, who have always been subject to a regime of exploita
tion, may understandably impart a revanchist dimension to the revolutionary strug
gle, the revolution must not exhaust its forces in this dimension.
1 2 8 P A U L O FREIRE
the people are drawn into the process by the same methods and
procedures used to oppress them.
Dialogue with the people is radically necessary to every authentic
revolution. This is what makes it a revolution, as distinguished from
a military coup. One does not expect dialogue from a coup—only
deceit (in order to achieve "legitimacy") or force (in order to repress).
Sooner or later, a true revolution must initiate a courageous dialogue
with the people. Its very legitimacy lies in that dialogue.4 It cannot
fear the people, their expression, their effective participation in
power. It must be accountable to them, must speak frankly to them
of its achievements, its mistakes, its miscalculations, and its diffi
culties.
The earlier dialogue begins, the more truly revolutionary will the
movement be. The dialogue which is radically necessary to revolu
tion corresponds to another radical need: that of women and men
as beings who cannot be truly human apart from communication,
for they are essentially communicative creatures. To impede com
munication is to reduce men to the status of "things"—and this is a
job for oppressors, not for revolutionaries.
Let me emphasize that my defense of the praxis implies no dichot
omy by which this praxis could be divided into a prior stage of
reflection and a subsequent stage of action. Action and reflection
occur simultaneously. A critical analysis of reality may, however, re
veal that a particular form of action is impossible or inappropriate
at the present time. Those who through reflection perceive the infea
sibility or inappropriateness of one or another form of action (which
should accordingly be postponed or substituted) cannot thereby be
accused of inaction. Critical reflection is also action.
I previously stated that in education the attempt of the teacher
student to understand a cognizable object is not exhausted in that
object, because this act extends to other studentsteachers in such
4. "While we might obtain some benefit from doubt," said Fidel Castro to the
Cuban people as he confirmed the death of Guevara, "lies, fear of the truth, com
plicity with false illusions, and complicity with lies have never been weapons of the
revolution." Quoted in Gramma. October 17, 1967. Emphasis added.
PEDAGOGY OF THE O P P R E S S E D • 129
a way that the cognizable object mediates their capacity for under
standing. The same is true of revolutionary action. That is, the
oppressed and the leaders are equally the Subjects of revolutionary
action, and reality serves as the medium for the transforming action
of both groups. In this theory of action one cannot speak of an actor,
nor simply of actors, but rather of actors in intercommunication.
■» This affirmation might appear to imply division, dichotomy, rup
ture of the revolutionary forces; in fact, it signifies exactly the oppo
site: their communion. Apart from this communion, we do see
dichotomy: leaders on one side and people on the other, in a replica
of the relations of oppression. Denial of communion in the revolu
tionary process, avoidance of dialogue with the people under the
pretext of organizing them, of strengthening revolutionary power, or
of ensuring a united front, is really a fear of freedom. It is fear of or
lack of faith in the people. But if the people cannot be trusted, there
is no reason for liberation; in this case the revolution is not even
carried out for the people, but "by" the people for the leaders: a
complete selfnegation.
The revolution is made neither by the leaders for the people,
nor by the people for the leaders, but by both acting together in
unshakable solidarity. This solidarity is born only when the leaders
witness to it by their humble, loving, and courageous encounter
with the people. Not all men and women have sufficient courage
for this encounter—but when they avoid encounter they become
inflexible and treat others as mere objects; instead of nurturing life,
they kill life; instead of searching for life, they flee from it. And
these are oppressor characteristics.
Some may think that to affirm dialogue—the encounter of women
and men in the world in order to transform the world—is naively
and subjectively idealistic.5 There is nothing, however, more real or
concrete than people in the world and with the world, than humans
with other humans—and some people against others, as oppressing
and oppressed classes.
5. Once more, let me repeat that this dialogical encounter cannot take place
between antagonists.
1 3 0 P A U L O FREIRE
Authentic revolution attempts to transform the reality which be
gets this dehumanizing state of affairs. Those whose interests are
served by that reality cannot carry out this transformation; it must
be achieved by the tyrannized, with their leaders. This truth, how
ever, must become radically consequential; that is, the leaders must
incarnate it, through communion with the people. In this commun
ion both groups grow together, and the leaders, instead of being
simply selfappointed, are installed or authenticated in their praxis
with the praxis of the people.
Many persons, bound to a mechanistic view of reality, do not
perceive that the concrete situation of individuals conditions their
consciousness of the world, and that in turn this consciousness con
ditions their attitudes and their ways of dealing with reality. They
think that reality can be transformed mechanistically,6 without pos
ing the persons false consciousness of reality as a problem or,
through revolutionary action, developing a consciousness which is
less and less false. There is no historical reality which is not human.
There is no history without humankind, and no history for human
beings; there is only history of humanity, made by people and (as
Marx pointed out) in turn making them. It is when the majorities
are denied their right to participate in history as Subjects that they
become dominated and alienated. Thus, to supersede their condi
tion as objects by the status of Subjects—the objective of any true
revolution—requires that the people act, as well as reflect, upon the
reality to be transformed.
It would indeed be idealistic to affirm that, by merely reflecting
on oppressive reality and discovering their status as objects, persons
have thereby already become Subjects. But while this perception in
and of itself does not mean that thinkers have become Subjects, it
6. 'The epochs during which the dominant classes are stable, epochs in which
the workers* movement must defend itself against a powerful adversary which is
occasionally threatening and is in every case solidly seated in power, produces
naturally a socialist literature which emphasizes the 'material' element of reality, the
obstacles to be overcome, and the scant efficacy of human awareness and action."
Goldman, op. cit., pp. 8081.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 131
does mean, as one of my coinvestigators7 affirmed, that they are
"Subjects in expectancy*—an expectancy which leads them to seek
to solidify their new status.
On the other hand, it would be a false premise to believe that
activism (which is not true action) is the road to revolution. People
will be truly critical if they live the plenitude of the praxis, that is,
if their action encompasses a critical reflection which increasingly
organizes their thinking and thus leads them to move from a purely
naive knowledge of reality to a higher level, one which enables them
to perceive the causes of reality. If revolutionary leaders deny this
right to the people, they impair their own capacity to think—or at
least to think correctly. Revolutionary leaders cannot think without
the people, nor for the people, but only with the people.
The dominant elites, on the other hand, can—and do—think
without the people—although they do not permit themselves the
luxury of failing to think about the people in order to know them
better and thus dominate them more efficiently. Consequently, any
apparent dialogue or communication between the elites and the
masses is really the depositing of "communiques," whose contents
are intended to exercise a domesticating influence.
Why do the dominant elites not become debilitated when they
do not think with the people? Because the latter constitute their
antithesis, their very reason for existence. If the elites were to think
with the people, the contradiction would be superseded and they
could no longer dominate. From the point of view of the dominators
in any epoch, correct thinking presupposes the nonthinking of the
people.
A Mr. Giddy, later President of the Royal Society raised objec
tions which could be matched in every country: "However spe
cious in theory the project might be of giving education to the
laboring classes of the poor, it would be prejudicial to their mor
als and happiness; it would teach them to despise their lot in
7. Fernando Garcia, a Honduran, in a course for Latin Americans (Santiago,
1967).
132PAULO FREIRE
life instead of making them good servants in agricultural and
other laborious employments; instead of teaching them subordi
nation it would render them fractious and refractory as was evi
dent in the manufacturing counties; J t would enable them to
read seditious pamphlets, vicious books and publications against
Christianity; it would render them insolent to their superiors
and in a few years the legislature would find it necessary to
direct the strong arm of power against them.8
What Mr. Giddy really wanted (and what the elites of today want,
although they do not denounce popular education so cynically and
openly) was for the people not to think. Since the Mr. Giddys of all
epochs, as an oppressor class, cannot think with the people, neither
can they let the people think for themselves.
The same is not true, however, of revolutionary leaders; if they do
not think with the people, they become devitalized. The people are
their constituent matrix, not mere objects thought of. Although
revolutionary leaders may also have to think about the people in
order to understand them better, this thinking differs from that of
the elite; for in thinking about the people in order to liberate (rather
than dominate) them, the leaders give of themselves to the thinking
of the people. One is the thinking of the master; the other is the
thinking of the comrade.
Domination, by its very nature, requires only a dominant pole
and a dominated pole in antithetical contradiction; revolutionary
liberation, which attempts to resolve this contradiction, implies the
existence not only of these poles but also of a leadership group which
emerges during this attempt. This leadership group either identifies
itself with the oppressed state of the people, or it is not revolution
ary. To simply think about the people, as the dominators do, without
any selfgiving in that thought, to fail to think with the people, is a
sure way to cease being revolutionary leaders.
In the process of oppression the elites subsist on the "living death"
of the oppressed and find their authentication in the vertical rela
tionship between themselves and the latter; in the revolutionary
8. Niebuhr, op. cit.t pp. 117118.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 133
process there is only one way for the emerging leaders to achieve
authenticity: they must "die," in order to be reborn through and
with the oppressed.
We can legitimately say that in the process of oppression someone
oppresses someone else; we cannot say that in the process of revolu
tion someone liberates someone else, nor yet that someone liberates
himself, but rather that human beings in communion liberate each
other. This affirmation is not meant to undervalue the importance
of revolutionary leaders but, on the contrary, to emphasize their
value. What could be more important than to live and work with
the oppressed, with the "rejects of life," with the "wretched of the
earth"? In this communion, the revolutionary leaders should find
not only their raison d'etre but a motive for rejoicing. By their very
nature, revolutionary leaders can do what the dominant elites—by
their very nature—are unable to do in authentic terms.
Every approach to the oppressed by the elites, as a class, is
couched in terms of the false generosity described in chapter 1. But
the revolutionary leaders cannot be falsely generous, nor can they
manipulate/Whereas the oppressor elites flourish by trampling the
people underfoot, the revolutionary leaders can flourish only in
communion with the people. Thus it is that the activity of the op
pressor cannot be humanist, while that of the revolutionary is neces
sarily so.
The inhumanity of the oppressors and revolutionary humanism
both make use of science. But science and technology at the service
of the former are used to reduce the oppressed to the status of
"things"; at the service of the latter, they are used to promote hu
manization. The oppressed must become Subjects of the latter pro
cess, however, lest they continue to be seen as mere objects of
scientific interest.
Scientific revolutionary humanism cannot, in the name of revolu
tion, treat the oppressed as objects to be analyzed and (based on
that analysis) presented with prescriptions for behavior. To do this
would be to fall into one of the myths of the oppressor ideology:
the absolutizing of ignorance. This myth implies the existence of
134-PAULO FREIRE
someone who decrees the ignorance of someone else. The one who
is doing the decreeing defines himself and the class to which he
belongs as those who know or were born to, know; he thereby defines
others as alien entities. The words of his own class come to be the
"true" words, which he imposes or attempts to impose on the others:
the oppressed, whose words have been stolen from them. Those
who steal the words of others develop a deep doubt in the abilities
of the others and consider them incompetent. Each time they say
their word without hearing the word of those whom they have for
bidden to speak, they grow more accustomed to power and acquire
a taste for guiding, ordering, and commanding. They can no longer
live without having someone to give orders to. Under these circum
stances, dialogue is impossible.
Scientific and humanist revolutionary leaders, on the other hand,
cannot believe in the myth of the ignorance of the people. They do
not have the right to doubt for a single moment that it is only a
myth. They cannot believe that they, and only they, know anything—
for this means to doubt the people. Although they may legitimately
recognize themselves as having, due to fheir revolutionary con
sciousness, a level of revolutionary knowledge different from the
level of empirical knowledge held by the people, they cannot impose
themselves and their knowledge on the people. They cannot slo
ganize the people, but must enter into dialogue with them, so that
the peoples empirical knowledge of reality, nourished by the lead
ers critical knowledge, gradually becomes transformed into know
ledge of the causes of reality.
It would be naive to expect oppressor elites to denounce the
myth which absolutizes the ignorance of the people; it would be a
contradiction in terms if revolutionary leaders were not to do so,
and more contradictory still were they to act in accordance with that
myth. The task of revolutionary leaders is to pose as problems not
only this myth, but all the other myths used by the oppressor elites
to oppress. If, instead, revolutionary leaders persist in imitating the
oppressors methods of domination, the people may respond in
either of two ways. In certain historical circumstances, they may
PEDAGOGY OF THE O P P R E S S E D • 135
become domesticated by the new contents which the leaders deposit
in them. In other circumstances, they may become frightened by a
"word" which threatens the oppressor housed within them.9 In nei
ther event do they become revolutionary. In the first case, the revo
lution is an illusion; in the second case, an impossibility.
Some wellintentioned but misguided persons suppose that since
\he dialogical process is prolonged10 (which, incidentally, is not true),
they ought to carry out the revolution without communication, by
means of "communiques," and that once the revolution is won, they
will then develop a thoroughgoing educational effort. They further
justify this procedure by saying that it is not possible to carry out
education—liberating education—before taking power.
It is worth analyzing some fundamental points of the above asser
9. Sometimes this "word" is not even spoken. The presence of someone (not
necessarily belonging to a revolutionary group) who can threaten the oppressor
"housed" in the people is sufficient for the latter to assume destructive positions.
A student once told me how; in a certain Latin American peasant community, a
fanatical priest had denounced the presence in the community of two "communists"
who were "endangering" what he called the "Catholic faith." That very night the
peasants, to a man, joined together to burn alive the two simple elementary school
teachers who had been educating the local children. Perhaps that priest had seen
in the house of the teachers a book with a bearded man on the cover . . .
10. Once more, I wish to emphasize that there is no dichotomy between dialogue
and revolutionary action. There is not one stage for dialogue and another for revolu
tion. On the contrary, dialogue is the essence of revolutionary action. In the theory
of this action, the actors intersubjectively direct their action upon an object (reality,
which mediates them) with the humanization of men (to be achieved by trans
forming that reality) as their objective.
In the theory of oppressor action, antidialogical in essence, the above scheme is
simplified. The actors have as simultaneous objects of their action both reality and
the oppressed, and the preservation of oppression (through the preservation of
oppressive reality) as their ojective.
THEORY OF THEORY OF
REVOLUTIONARY ACTION OPPRESSIVE ACTION
Intersubjectivity
Subjects-Actors Actors-Subjects Actors-Subjects
(revolutionary (the oppressed) (dominant elites)
leaders)
136-PAULO FREIRE
tions. These men and women (or most of them) believe in the neces-
sity for dialogue with the people, but do not believe this dialogue is
feasible prior to taking power. When they deny the possibility that
the leaders can behave in a critically educational fashion before tak-
ing power, they deny the revolutions educational quality as cultural
action preparing to become cultural revolution. On the other hand,
they confuse cultural action with the new education to be inaugu-
rated once power is taken.
I have already affirmed that it would indeed be naive to expect
the oppressor elites to carry out a liberating education. But because
the revolution undeniably has an educational nature, in the sense
that unless it liberates it is not revolution, the taking of power is
only one moment—no matter how decisive—in the revolutionary
process. As process, the "before" of the revolution is located within
the oppressor society and is apparent only to the revolutionary con-
sciousness.
The revolution is born as a social entity within the oppressor
society; to the extent that it is cultural action, it cannot fail to corre-
spond to the potentialities of the social entity in which it originated.
Every entity develops (or is transformed) within itself, through the
interplay of its contradictions. External conditioners, while neces-
sary, are effective only if they coincide with those potentialities.11
The newness of the revolution is generated within the old, oppres-
sive society; the taking of power constitutes only a decisive moment
Interaction
Object Reality to Object Object—the Object—the
which be trans which reality to be oppressed (as
mediates formed mediates preserved part of reality)
for for
Objective Humaniza Objective Objective—the
tion as a preservation of
permanent oppression
process
11. See Mao Tse Tung, op. cit.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 137
of the continuing revolutionary process. In a dynamic, rather than
static, view of revolution, there is no absolute "before" or "after,"
with the taking of power as the dividing line.
Originating in objective conditions, revolution seeks to supersede
the situation of oppression by inaugurating a society of women and
men in the process of continuing liberation. The educational, dia
logical quality of revolution, which makes it a "cultural revolution"
as well, must be present in all its stages. This educational quality is
one of the most effective instruments for keeping the revolution from
becoming institutionalized and stratified in a counterrevolutionary
bureaucracy; for counterrevolution is carried out by revolutionaries
who become reactionary.
Were it not possible to dialogue with the people before power is
taken, because they have no experience with dialogue, neither would
it be possible for the people to come to power, for they are equally
inexperienced in the use of power. The revolutionary process is
dynamic, and it is in this continuing dynamics, in the praxis of the
people with the revolutionary leaders, that the people and the lead
ers will learn both dialogue and the use of power. (This is as obvious
as affirming that a person learns to swim in the water, not in a
library.)
Dialogue with the people is neither a concession nor a gift, much
less a tactic to be used for domination. Dialogue, as the encounter
among men to "name" the world, is a fundamental precondition for
their true humanization. In the words of Gajo Petrovic:
A free action can only be one by which a man changes his world
and himself... A positive condition of freedom is the know
ledge of the limits of necessity, the awareness of human creative
possibilities . . . The struggle for a free society is not a struggle
for a free society unless through it an ever greater degree of
individual freedom is created.12
12. Gajo Petrovic, "Man and Freedom," in Socialist Humanism, edited by Erich
Fromm (New York, 1965), pp. 274276. By the same author, see Marx in the Mid-
Twentieth Century (New York, 1967).
138-PAULO FREIRE
If this view be true, the revolutionary process is eminently educa
tional in character. Thus the road to revolution involves openness to
the people, not imperviousness to them; it involves communion with
the people, not mistrust. And, as Lenin "pointed out, the more a
revolution requires theory, the more its leaders must be with the
people in order to stand against the power of oppression.
Based on these general propositions, let us undertake a more
lengthy analysis of the theories of antidialogical and dialogical action.
Conquest
The first characteristic of antidialogical action is the necessity for
conquest. The antidialogical individual, in his relations with others,
aims at conquering them—increasingly and by every means, from
the toughest to the most refined, from the most repressive to the
most solicitous (paternalism).
Every act of conquest implies a conqueror and someone or some
thing which is conquered. The conqueror imposes his objectives on
the vanquished, and makes of them his possession. He imposes his
own contours on the vanquished, who internalize this shape and
become ambiguous beings "housing" another. From the first, the
act of conquest, which reduces persons to the status of things, is
necrophilic.
Just as antidialogical action is a concomitant of the real, concrete
situation of oppression, dialogical action is indispensable to the revo
lutionary supersedence of that situation. An individual is not antidia
logical or dialogical in the abstract, but in the world. He or she is
not first antidialogical, then oppressor; but both, simultaneously.
Within an objective situation of oppression, antidialogue is neces
sary to the oppressor as a means of further oppression—not only
economic, but cultural: the vanquished are dispossessed of their
word, their expressiveness, their culture. Further, once a situation
of oppression has been initiated, antidialogue becomes indispensa
ble to its preservation.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 139
Because liberating action is dialogical in nature, dialogue cannot
be a posteriori to that action, but must be concomitant with it. And
since liberation must be a permanent condition, dialogue becomes
a continuing aspect of liberating action.13
The desire for conquest (or rather the necessity of conquest) is at
all times present in antidialogical action. To this end the oppressors
attempt to destroy in the oppressed their quality as "considerers" of
the world. Since the oppressors cannot totally achieve this destruc
tion, they must mythicize the world. In order to present for the
consideration of the oppressed and subjugated a world of deceit
designed to increase their alienation and passivity, the oppressors
develop a series of methods precluding any presentation of the world
as a problem and showing it rather as a fixed entity, as something
given—something to which people, as mere spectators, must adapt.
It is necessary for the oppressors to approach the people in order,
via subjugation, to keep them passive. This approximation, however,
does not involve being with the people, or require true communica
tion. It is accomplished by the oppressors depositing myths indis
pensable to the preservation of the status quo: for example, the myth
that the oppressive order is a "free society"; the myth that all persons
are free to work where they wish, that if they dont like their boss
they can leave him and look for another job; the myth that this order
respects human rights and is therefore worthy of esteem; the myth
that anyone who is industrious can become an entrepreneur—worse
yet, the myth that the street vendor is as much an entrepreneur as
the owner of a large factory; the myth of the universal right of
education, when of all the Brazilian children who enter primary
schools only a tiny fraction ever reach the university; the myth of
the equality of all individuals, when the question: "Do you know
who you're talking to?" is still current among us; the myth of the
13. Once a popular revolution has come to power, the fact that the new power
has the ethical duty to repress any attempt to restore the old oppressive power by
no means signifies that the revolution is contradicting its dialogical character. Dia
logue between the former oppressors and the oppressed as antagonistic classes was
not possible before the revolution; it continues to be impossible afterward.
140PAULO FREIRE
heroism of the oppressor classes as defenders of "Western Christian
civilization" against "materialist barbarism"; the myth of the charity
and generosity of the elites, when what they really do as a class is
to foster selective "good deeds" (subsequently^ elaborated into the
myth of "disinterested aid," which on the international level was
severely criticized by Pope John XXIII);14 the myth that~the domi
nant elites, "recognizing their duties," promote the advancement of
the people, so that the people, in a gesture of gratitude, should
accept the words of the elites and be conformed to them; the myth
that rebellion is a sin against God; the myth of private property as
fundamental to personal human development (so long as oppressors
are the only true human beings); the myth of the industriousness
of the oppressors and the laziness and dishonesty of the oppressed,
as well as the myth of the natural inferiority of the latter and the
superiority of the former.15
All these myths (and others the reader could list), the internaliza
tion of which is essential to the subjugation of the oppressed, are
presented to them by wellorganized propaganda and slogans, via
the mass "communications" media—as if such'alienation constituted
real communication!16
In sum, there is no oppressive reality which is not at the same
time necessarily antidialogical, just as there is no antidialogue in
which the oppressors do not untiringly dedicate themselves to the
14. "Moreover, economically developed countries should take particular care
lest, in giving aid to poorer countries, they endeavor to turn the prevailing political
situation to their own advantage, and seek to dominate them.
Should perchance such attempts be made, this clearly would be but another
form of colonialism which, although disguised in name, merely reflects their earlier
but outdated dominion, now abandoned by many countries. When international
relations are thus obstructed, the orderly progress of all peoples is endangered/*
Pope John XXIII, "Christianity and Social Progress/' from the Encyclical Letter
Mater et Magistra, articles 171 and 172.
15. Memmi refers to the image the colonizer constructs of the colonized: "By
his accusation the colonizer establishes the colonized as being lazy. He decides that
laziness is constitutional in the very nature of the colonized/' Memmi, op. cit.t
p. 81.
16. It is not the media themselves which I criticize, but the way they are used.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 141
constant conquest of the oppressed In ancient Rome, the dominant
elites spoke of the need to give "bread and circus" to the people in
order to "soften them up" and to secure their own tranquility. The
dominant elites of today, like those of any epoch, continue (in a
version of'original sin") to need to conquer others—with or without
bread and circus. The content and methods of conquest vary histori
cally; what does not vary (as long as dominant elites exist) is the
necrophilic passion to oppress.
Divide and Rule
This is another fundamental dimension of the theory of oppressive
action which is as old as oppression itself. As the oppressor minority
subordinates and dominates the majority, it must divide it and keep
it divided in order to remain in power. The minority cannot permit
itself the luxury of tolerating the unification of the people, which
would undoubtedly signify a serious threat to their own hegemony.
Accordingly, the oppressors halt by any method (including violence)
any action which in even incipient fashion could awaken the op
pressed to the need for unity. Concepts such as unity, organization,
and struggle are immediately labeled as dangerous. In fact, of
course, these concepts are dangerous—to the oppressors—for their
realization is necessary to actions of liberation.
It is in the interest of the oppressor to weaken the oppressed still
farther, to isolate them, to create and deepen rifts among themi
This is done by varied means, from the repressive methods of the
government bureaucracy to the forms of cultural action with which
they manipulate the people by giving them the impression that they
are being helped.
One of the characteristics of oppressive cultural action which is
almost never perceived by the dedicated but naive professionals who
are involved is the emphasis on a focalized view of problems rather
than on seeing them as dimensions of a totality. In "community
development" projects the more a region or area is broken down
142PAULO FREIRE
into "local communities," without the study of these communities
both as totalities in themselves and as parts of another totality (the
area, region, and so forth)—which in its turn is part of a still larger
totality (the nation, as part of the continental totality)—the more
alienation is intensified. And the more alienated people are, the
easier it is to divide them and keep them divided. These focalized
forms of action, by intensifying the focalized way of life of the op
pressed (especially in rural areas), hamper the oppressed from per
ceiving reality critically and keep them isolated from the problems
of oppressed women and men in other areas.17
The same divisive effect occurs in connection with the socalled
"leadership training courses," which are (although carried out with
out any such intention by many of their organizers) in the last analy
sis alienating. These courses are based on the naive assumption that
one can promote the community by training its leaders—as if it
were the parts that promote the whole and not the whole which, in
being promoted, promotes the parts. Those members of the commu
nities who show sufficient leadership capacities to be chosen for
these courses necessarily reflect and express the aspirations of the
individuals of their community. They are in harmony with the way of
living and thinking about reality which characterizes their comrades,
even though they reveal special abilities which give them the status
of "leaders." As soon as they complete the course and return to the
community with resources they did not formerly possess, they either
use these resources to control the submerged and dominated con
sciousness of their comrades, or they become strangers in their own
communities and their former leadership position is thus threat
ened. In order not to lose their leadership status, they will probably
17. This criticism of course does not apply to actions within a dialectical perspec
tive, based on the understanding of the local community both as a totality in itself
and as part of a larger totality. It is directed at those who do not realize that the
development of the local community cannot occur except in the total context of
which it is a part, in interaction with other parts. This requirement implies the
consciousness of unity in diversification, of organization which channels forces in
dispersion, and a clear awareness of the necessity to transform reality. This (under
standably) is what frightens the oppressors.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 143
tend to continue manipulating the community, but in a more effi
cient manner.
When cultural action, as a totalized and totalizing process, ap
proaches an entire community and not merely its leaders, the oppo
site process occurs. Either the former leaders grow along with
everyone else, or they are replaced by new leaders who emerge as
a result of the new social consciousness of the community.
The oppressors do not favor promoting the community as a whole,
but rather selected leaders. The latter course, by preserving a state
of alienation, hinders the emergence of consciousness and critical
intervention in a total reality. And without this critical intervention,
it is always difficult to achieve the unity of the oppressed as a class.
Class conflict is another concept which upsets the oppressors,
since they do not wish to consider themselves an oppressive class.
Unable to deny, try as they may, the existence of social classes, they
preach the need for understanding and harmony between those who
buy and those who are obliged to sell their labor.18 However, the
unconcealable antagonism which exists between the two classes
makes this "harmony" impossible.19 The elites call for harmony be
18. Bishop Franic Split refers eloquently to this point: "If the workers do not
become in some way the owners of their labor, all structural reforms will be ineffec
tive. [This is true] even if the workers receive a higher salary in an economic system
but are not content with these raises. They want to be owners, not sellers, of their
labor. . . . At present the workers are increasingly aware that labor represents a
part of the human person. A person, however cannot be bought; neither can he
sell himself. Any purchase or sale of labor is a type of slavery. The evolution of
human society in this respect is clearly progressing within a system said to be less
responsive than our own to the question of human dignity, i.e., Marxism." "15
Obispos hablan en prol del Tercer Mundo." CIDOC Informa (Mexico, 1967), Doc.
67/35, pp. 111.
19. With respect to social classes and the struggle between them (which Karl
Marx is often accused of inventing), see Marx's letter to J. Weydemeyer dated March
1, 1852: ". . . no credit is due to me for discovering the existence of classes in
modern society or the struggle between them. Long before me bourgeois historians
had described the historical development of this class struggle and bourgeois econo
mists the economic anatomy of the classes. What I did that was new was to prove:
(1) that the existence of classes is only bound up with particular historical phases
in the development of production; (2) that the class struggle necessarily leads to
the dictatorship of the proletariat; (3) that this dictatorship itself only constitutes
1 4 4 ' P A U L O FREIRE
tween classes as if classes were fortuitous agglomerations of individ-
uals curiously looking at a shop window on a Sunday afternoon. The
only harmony which is viable and demonstrable is that found among
the oppressors themselves. Although they may diverge and upon
occasion even clash over group interests, they unite immediately at
a threat to the class. Similarly, the harmony of the oppressed is only
possible when its members are engaged in the struggle for libera-
tion. Only in exceptional cases is it not only possible but necessary
for both classes to unite and act in harmony; but when the emer-
gency which united them has passed they willreturn to the contra-
diction which defines their existence and^ which never really
disappeared.
All the actions of the dominant class manifest its need to divide
in order to facilitate the preservation of the oppressor state. Its
interference in the unions, favoring certain "representatives" of the
dominated classes (who actually represent the oppressor, not their
own comrades); its promotion of individuals who reveal leadership
capacity and could signify a threat if they were not "softened up" in
this way; its distribution of benefits to some and penalties to others:
all these are ways of dividing in order to preserve the system which
favors the elite. They are forms of action which exploit, directly
or indirectly, one of the weak points of the oppressed: their basic
insecurity. The oppressed are insecure in their duality as beings
which "house" the oppressor. On the one hand, they resist her or
him; on the other hand, at a certain stage in their relationship,
they are attracted by him or her. Under these circumstances, the
oppressors easily obtain positive results from divisive action.
In addition, the oppressed know from experience the price of not
accepting an "invitation" offered with the purpose of preventing
their unity as a class: losing their jobs and finding their names on a
"black list" signifying closed doors to other jobs is the least that
can happen. Their basic insecurity is thus directly linked to the
the transition to the abolition of all classes and to classless society . . . " Karl Marx
and Frederick Engels, Selected Works (New York, 1968), p. 679.
PEDAGOGY OF THE O P P R E S S E D • 145
enslavement of their labor (which really implies the enslavement of
their person, as Bishop Split emphasized).
People are fulfilled only to the extent that they create their world
(which is a human world), and create it with their transforming labor
The fulfillment of humankind as human beings lies, then, in the
fulfillment of the world. If for a person to be in the world of work
is to be totally dependent, insecure, and permanently threatened—
if their work does not belong to them—the person cannot be ful
filled. Work that is not free ceases to be a fulfilling pursuit and
becomes an effective means of dehumanization.
Every move by the oppressed towards unity points towards other
actions; it means that sooner or later the oppressed will perceive
their state of depersonalization and discover that as long as they are
divided they will always be easy prey for manipulation and domina
tion. Unity and organization can enable them to change their weak
ness into a transforming force with which they can recreate the
world and make it more human.20 The more human world to which
they justly aspire, however, is the antithesis of the "human world"
of the oppressors—a world which is the exclusive possession of the
oppressors, who preach an impossible harmony between themselves
(who dehumanize) and the oppressed (who are dehumanized). Since
oppressors and oppressed are antithetical, what serves the interests
of one group disserves the interests of the others.
Dividing in order to preserve the status quo, then, is necessarily
a fundamental objective of the theory of antidialogical action. In
addition, the dominators try to present themselves as saviors of the
women and men they dehumanize and divide. This messianism,
however, cannot conceal their true intention: to save themselves.
20. For this reason it is indispensable for the oppressors to keep the peasants
isolated from the urban workers, just as it is indispensable to keep both groups
isolated from the students. The testimony of rebellion of the latter (although they
do not sociologically constitute a class) makes them dangerous in the event they
join the people. It is thus necessary to convince the lower classes that students are
irresponsible and disorderly, that their testimony is false because as students they
should be studying, just as the factory workers and the peasants should be working
towards the "nation's progress."
1 4 6 P A U L O FREIRE
They want to save their riches, their power, their way of life: the
things that enable them to subjugate others. Their mistake is that
men cannot save themselves (no matter how one understands "salva-
tion"), either as individuals or as an oppressor class. Salvation can
be achieved only with others. To the extent, however, that the elites
oppress, they cannot be with the oppressed; for being against them
is the essence of oppression.
A psychoanalysis of oppressive action might reveal the "false gen-
erosity" of the oppressor (described in chapter 1) as a dimension of
the latters sense of guilt. With this false generosity, he attempts not
only to preserve an unjust and necrophilic order, but to "buy" peace
for himself. It happens that peace cannot be bought; peace is experi-
enced in solidary and loving acts, which cannot be incarnated in
oppression. Hence, the messianic element of the theory of antidia-
logical action reinforces the first characteristic of this action: the
necessity for conquest.
Since it is necessary to divide the people in order to preserve the
status quo and (thereby) the power of the dominators, it is essential
for the oppressors to keep the oppressed from perceiving their strat-
egy. So the former must convince the latter that they are being
"defended" against the demonic action of "marginals, rowdies, and
enemies of God" (for these are the epithets directed at men who
lived and are living the brave pursuit of mans humanization). In
order to divide and confuse the people, the destroyers call them-
selves builders, and accuse the true builders of being destructive.
History, however, always takes it upon itself to modify these designa-
tions. Today, although the official terminology continues to call Ti-
radentes 21 a conspirator ("Inconfidente") and the libertarian
movement which he led a conspiracy ("Inconjidencia"), the national
hero is not the man22 who called Tiradentes a "bandit," ordered him
21. Tiradentes was leader of an abortive revolt for the independence of Brazil
from Portugal in 1789 in Ouro Preto, State of Minas Gerais. This movement is
historically called the Inconjidencia Mineira.—Translator's note.
22. Visconde de Barbacena, royal administrator of the province.—Translators
note.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 147
hanged and quartered, and had pieces of the bloody corpse strewn
through the streets of the neighboring villages as an example. It is
Tiradentes who is the hero. History tore up the "title" given him by
the elites, and recognized his action for what it was. It is the men
who in their own time sought unity for liberation who are the he
roes—not those who used their power to divide and rule.
Manipulation
Manipulation is another dimension of the theory of antidialogical
action, and, like the strategy of division, is an instrument of con
quest: the objective around which all the dimensions of the theory
revolve. By means of manipulation, the dominant elites try to con
form the masses to their objectives. And the greater the political
immaturity of these people (rural or urban) the more easily the
latter can be manipulated by those who do not wish to lose their
power.
The people are manipulated by the series of myths described
earlier in this chapter, and by yet another myth: the model of itself
which the bourgeoisie presents to the people as the possibility for
their own ascent. In order for these myths to function, however, the
people must accept the word of the bourgeoisie.
Within certain historical conditions, manipulation is accom
plished by means of pacts between the dominant and the dominated
classes—pacts which, if considered superficially, might give the im
pression of a dialogue between the classes. In reality, however, these
pacts are not dialogue, because their true objectives are determined
by the unequivocal interest of the dominant elites. In the last analy
sis, pacts are used by the dominators to achieve their own ends.23
The support given by the people to the socalled "national bourgeoi
sie" in defense of socalled "national capitalism" is an example in
23. Pacts are only valid for the masses (and in this case they are no longer pacts)
when the objectives of the action in process or to be developed are subject to their
decision.
1 4 8 P A U L O FREIRE
point. Sooner or later, these pacts always increase the subjugation
of the people. They are proposed @nly when the people begin (even
naively) to emerge from the historical process and by this emer-
gence to threaten the dominant elites. The presence of the people
in the historical process, no longer as mere spectators, but with the
first signs of aggressivity, is sufficiently disquieting to frighten the
dominant elites into doubling the tactics of manipulation.
In this historical phase, manipulation becomes a fundamental in-
strument for the preservation of domination. Prior to the emergence
of the people there is no manipulation (precisely speaking), but
rather total suppression. When the oppressed are almost completely
submerged in reality, it is unnecessary to manipulate them. In the
antidialogical theory of action, manipulation is the response of the
oppressor to the new concrete conditions of the historical process.
Through manipulation, the dominant elites can lead the people into
an unauthentic type of "organization," and can thus avoid the threat-
ening alternative: the true organization of the emerged and emerg-
ing people.24 The latter have only two possibilities as they enter the
historical process: either they must organize authentically for their
liberation, or they will be manipulated by the elites. Authentic
organization is obviously not going to be stimulated by the domi-
nators; it is the task of the revolutionary leaders.
It happens, however, that large sectors of the oppressed form an
urban proletariat, especially in the more industrialized centers of
the country. Although these sectors are occasionally restive, they
lack revolutionary consciousness and consider themselves privi-
leged. Manipulation, with its series of deceits and promises, usually
finds fertile ground here.
The antidote to manipulation lies in a critically conscious revolu-
24. In the "organization" which results from acts of manipulation, the people—
mere guided objects—are adapted to the objectives of the manipulators. In true
organization, the individuals are active in the organizing process, and the objectives
of the organization are not imposed by others. In the first case, the organization is a
means of "massification," in the second, a means of liberation. [In Brazilian political
terminology, "massification" is the process of reducing the people to a manageable,
unthinking agglomeration.—Translator]
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 149
tionary organization, which will pose to the people as problems their
position in the historical process, the national reality, and manipula
tion itself. In the words of Francisco Weffert:
All the policies of the Left are based on the masses and depend
on. the consciousness of the latter. If that consciousness is con
fused, the Left will lose its roots and certain downfall will be
imminent, although (as in the Brazilian case) the Left may be
deluded into thinking it can achieve the revolution by means of
a quick return to power.25
In a situation of manipulation, the Left is almost always tempted by
a "quick return to power," forgets the necessity of joining with the
oppressed to forge an organization, and strays into an impossible
"dialogue" with the dominant elites. It ends by being manipulated
by these elites, and not infrequently itself falls into an elitist game,
which it calls "realism."
Manipulation, like the conquest whose objectives it serves, at
tempts to anesthetize the people so they will not think. For if the
people join to their presence in the historical process critical think
ing about that process, the threat of their emergence materializes
in revolution. Whether one calls this correct thinking "revolutionary
consciousness" or "class consciousness," it is an indispensable pre
condition of revolution. The dominant elites are so well aware of this
fact that they instinctively use all means, including physical violence,
to keep the people from thinking. They have a shrewd intuition of
the ability of dialogue to develop a capacity for criticism. While
some revolutionary leaders consider dialogue with the people a
"bourgeois and reactionary" activity, the bourgeoisie regard dialogue
between the oppressed and the revolutionary leaders as a very real
danger to be avoided.
One of the methods of manipulation is to inoculate individuals
with the bourgeois appetite for personal success. This manipulation
is sometimes carried out directly by the elites and sometimes indi
25. Francisco Weffert, "Politica de massas," Politico e Revolugao social no Brasil
(Rio de Janeiro, 1967), p. 187.
150PAULO FREIRE
rectly, through populist leaders. As Weffert points out, these leaders
serve as intermediaries between the oligarchical elites and the peo
ple. The emergence of populism as a style of political action thus
coincides causally with the emergence of the oppressed. The popu
list leader who rises from this process is an ambiguous being, an
"amphibian" who lives in two elements. Shuttling back and forth
between the people and the dominant oligarchies, he bears the
marks of both groups.
Since the populist leader simply manipulates, instead of fighting
for authentic popular organization, this type of leader serves the
revolution little if at all. Only by abandoning his ambiguous charac
ter and dual action and by opting decisively for the people (thus
ceasing to be populist) does he renounce manipulation and dedicate
himself to the revolutionary task of organization. At this point he
ceases to be an intermediary between the people and the elites, and
becomes a contradiction of the latter; thereupon the elites immedi
ately join forces to curb him. Observe the dramatic and finally un
equivocal terms in which Getulio Vargas26 spoke to the workers at
a May 1 celebration during his last period as head of state:
I want to tell you that the gigantic work of renewal which my
Administration is beginning to carry out cannot be completed
successfully without the support and the daily, steadfast coopera
tion of the workers.27
Vargas then spoke of his first ninety days in office, which he called
"an estimate of the difficulties and obstacles which, here and there,
are being raised in opposition to the actions of the government." He
spoke directly to the people about how deeply he felt "the help
lessness, poverty, the high cost of living, low salaries . . . the hope
26. Getulio Vargas led the revolution which overthrew Brazilian President Wash
ington Luis in 1930. He remained in power as a dictator until 1945. In 1950 he
returned to power as elected president. In August 1954, when the opposition was
about to overthrow him, he committed suicide.—Translator's note.
27. Speech given in Vasco da Gama Stadium on May 1, 1950, O Governo TrabaU
hista no Brasil (Rio), pp. 322324.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 151
lessness of the unfortunate and the demands of the majority who
live iri hope of better days."
His appeal to the workers then took on more objective tones:
I have come to say that at this moment the Administration does
not yet have the laws or the concrete instruments for immediate
action to defend the peoples economy. It is thus necessary for
the people to organize—not only to defend their own interests,
but also to give the government the base of support it requires
to carry out its objectives . . . I need your unity. I need for you,
in solidarity, to organize yourselves in unions. I need for you to
form a strong and cohesive bloc to stand beside the government
so that it will have all the force it needs to solve your problems.
I need your unity so you can fight against saboteurs, so you
do not fall prey to the interests of speculators and rapacious
scoundrels in detriment of the interests of the people. . . . The
hour has come to appeal to the workers; unite in your unions as
free and organized forces . . . at the present time no Administra-
tion can survive or dispose of sufficient force to achieve its social
ends if it does not have the support of the laboring organiza-
tions.28
In sum, in this speech Vargas appealed vehemently to the people
to organize and to unite in defense of their rights; and he told
them, as Chief of State, of the obstacles, the hindrances, and the
innumerable difficulties involved in governing with them. From that
moment on his Administration encountered increasing difficulties,
until the tragic climax of August 1954. If Vargas had not in his last
term shown such open encouragement to the organization of the
people, subsequently linked to a series of measures in defense of
the national interest, possibly the reactionary elites would not have
taken the extreme measures they did.
Any populist leader who moves (even discreetly) towards the peo-
ple in any way other than as the intermediary of the oligarchies will
be curbed by the latter—if they have sufficient force to stop him.
But as long as the leader restricts himself to paternalism and social
28. Ibid. Emphasis added.
152vPAULO FREIRE
welfare activities, although there may be occasional divergencies
between him and groups of oligarchies whose interests have been
touched, deep differences are rare. This is because welfare programs
as instruments of manipulation ultimately serve the end of conquest.
They act as an anesthetic, distracting the oppressed from the true
causes of their problems and from the concrete solution of these
problems. They splinter the oppressed into groups of individuals
hoping to get a few more benefits for themselves. This situation
contains, however, a positive element: the individuals who receive
some aid always want more; those who do not receive aid, seeing
the example of those who do, grow envious and also want assistance.
Since the dominant elites cannot "aid" everyone, they end by in-
creasing the restiveness of the oppressed.
The revolutionary leaders should take advantage of the contradic-
tions of manipulation by posing it as a problem to the oppressed,
with the objective of organizing them.
Cultural Invasion
The theory of antidialogical action has one last fundamental charac-
teristic: cultural invasion, which like divisive tactics and manipula-
tion also serves the ends of conquest. In this phenomenon, the
invaders penetrate the cultural context of another group, in disre-
spect of the latters potentialities; they impose their own view of the
world upon those they invade and inhibit the creativity of the in-
vaded by curbing their expression.
Whether urbane or harsh, cultural invasion is thus always an act
of violence against the persons of the invaded culture, who lose their
originality or face the threat of losing it. In cultural invasion (as in
all the modalities of antidialogical action) the invaders are the au-
thors of, and actors in, the process; those they invade are the objects.
The invaders mold; those they invade are molded The invaders
choose; those they invade follow that choice—or are expected to
follow it. The invaders act; those they invade have only the illusion
of acting, through the action of the invaders.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 153
All domination involves invasion—at times physical and overt, at
times camouflaged, with the invader assuming the role of a helping
friend. In the last analysis, invasion is a form of economic and cul
tural domination. Invasion may be practiced by a metropolitan soci
ety upon a dependent society, or it may be implicit in the domination
of one class over another within the same society.
Cultural conquest leads to the cultural inauthenticity of those who
are invaded; they begin to respond to the values, the standards, and
the goals of the invaders. In their passion to dominate, to mold
others to their patterns and their way of life, the invaders desire to
know how those they have invaded apprehend reality—but only so
they can dominate the latter more effectively.29 In cultural invasion
it is essential that those who are invaded come to see their reality
with the outlook of the invaders rather than their own; for the more
they mimic the invaders, the more stable the position of the latter
becomes.
For cultural invasion to succeed, it is essential that those invaded
become convinced of their intrinsic inferiority. Since everything has
its opposite, if those who are invaded consider themselves inferior,
they must necessarily recognize the superiority of the invaders. The
values of the latter thereby become the pattern for the former. The
more invasion is accentuated and those invaded are alienated from
the spirit of their own culture and from themselves, the more the
latter want to be like the invaders: to walk like them, dress like
them, talk like them.
The social / of the invaded person, like every social /, is formed
in the sociocultural relations of the social stucture, and therefore
reflects the duality of the invaded culture. This duality (which was
described earlier) explains why invaded and dominated individuals,
29. To this end, the invaders are making increasing use of the social sciences
and technology, and to some extent the physical sciences as well, to improve and
refine their action. It is indispensable for the invaders to know the past and present
of those invaded in order to discern the alternatives of the latter s future and
thereby attempt to guide the evolution of that future along lines that will favor their
own interests.
1 5 4 ' P A U L O F R E I R E
at a certain moment of their existential experience, almost "adhere"
to the oppressor Thou. The oppressed / must break with this near
adhesion to the oppressor Thou, drawing away from the latter in
order to see him more objectively, at which point she critically
recognizes herself to be in contradiction with the oppressor. In so
doing, he "considers" as a dehumanizing reality the structure in
which he is being oppressed. This qualitative change in the percep-
tion of the world can only be achieved in the praxis.
Cultural invasion is on the one hand an instrument of domination,
and on the other, the result of domination. Thus, cultural action of
a dominating character (like other forms of antidialogical action), in
addition to being deliberate and planned, is in another sense simply
a product of oppressive reality.
For example, a rigid and oppressive social structure necessarily
influences the institutions of child rearing and education within that
structure. These institutions pattern their action after the style of
the structure, and transmit the myths of the latter. Homes and
schools (from nurseries to universities) exist not in the abstract, but
in time and space. Within the structures of domination they function
largely as agencies which prepare the invaders of the future.
The parent-child relationship in the home usually reflects the
objective cultural conditions of the surrounding social structure. If
the conditions which penetrate the home are authoritarian, rigid,
and dominating, the home will increase the climate of oppression.30
As these authoritarian relations between parents and children inten-
sify, children in their infancy increasingly internalize the paternal
authority.
30. Young people increasingly view parent and teacher authoritarianism as inimi
cal to their own freedom. For this very reason, they increasingly oppose forms of
action which minimize their expressiveness and hinder their selfaffirmation. This
very positive phenomenon is not accidental. It is actually a symptom of the histori
cal climate which (as mentioned in chapter 1) characterizes our epoch as an anthro
pological one. For this reason one cannot (unless he has a personal interest in doing
so) see the youth rebellion as a mere example of the traditional differences between
generations. Something deeper is involved here. Young people in their rebellion
are denouncing and condemning the unjust model of a society of domination. This
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRE SSED • 155
Presenting (with his customary clarity) the problem of necrophilia
and biophilia, Fromm analyzes the objective conditions which gen
erate each condition, whether in the home (parentchild relations
in a climate of indifference and oppression or of love and freedom),
or in a sociocultural context. If children reared in an atmosphere
of lovelessness and oppression, children whose potency has been
frustrated, do not manage during their youth to take the path of
authentic rebellion, they will either drift into total indifference,
alienated from reality by the authorities and the myths the latter
have used to "shape" them; or they may engage in forms of destruc
tive action.
The atmosphere of the home is prolonged in the school, where
the students soon discover that (as in the home) in order to achieve
some satisfaction they must adapt to the precepts which have been
set from above. One of these precepts is not to think.
Internalizing paternal authority through the rigid relationship
structure emphasized by the school, these young people tend when
they become professionals (because of the very fear of freedom in
stilled by these relationships) to repeat the rigid patterns in which
they were miseducated. This phenomenon, in addition to their class
position, perhaps explains why so many professionals adhere to anti
dialogical action.31 Whatever the specialty that brings them into con
tact with the people, they are almost unshakably convinced that it
is their mission to "give" the latter their knowledge and techniques.
They see themselves as "promotors" of the people. Their programs
of action (which might have been prescribed by any good theorist
of oppressive action) include their own objectives, their own convic
tions, and their own preoccupations. They do not listen to the peo
ple, but instead plan to teach them how to "cast off the laziness
rebellion with its special dimension, however, is very recent; society continues to
be authoritarian in character.
31. It perhaps also explains the antidialogical behavior of persons who, although
convinced of their revolutionary commitment, continue to mistrust the people and
fear communion with them. Unconsciously, such persons retain the oppressor
within themselves; and because they "house" the master, they fear freedom.
156'PAULO FREIRE
which creates underdevelopment." To these professionals, it seems
absurd to consider the necessity of respecting the "view of the world"
held by the people. The professionals are the ones with a "world
view." They regard as equally absurd the affirmation that one must
necessarily consult the people when organizing the program content
of educational action. They feel that the ignorance of the people is
so complete that they are unfit for anything except to receive the
teachings of the professionals.
When, however, at a certain point of their existential experience,
those who have been invaded begin in one way or another to reject
this invasion (to which they might earlier have adapted), the profes
sionals, in order to justify their failure, say that the members of the
invaded group are "inferior" because they are "ingrates," shiftless,"
"diseased," or of "mixed blood."
Wellintentioned professionals (those who use "invasion" not as
deliberate ideology but as the expression of their own upbringing)
eventually discover that certain of their educational failures must be
ascribed, not to the intrinsic inferiority of the "simple men of the
people," but to the violence of their own act of invasion. Those who
make this discovery face a difficult alternative: they feel the need to
renounce invasion, but patterns of domination are so entrenched
within them that this renunciation would become a threat to their
own identities. To renounce invasion would mean ending their dual
status as dominated and dominators. It would mean abandoning all
the myths which nourish invasion, and starting to incarnate dialogi
cal action. For this very reason, it would mean to cease being over
or inside (as foreigners) in order to be with (as comrades). And so
the fear of freedom takes hold of these men. During this traumatic
process, they naturally tend to rationalize their fear with a series of
evasions.
The fear of freedom is greater still in professionals who have not
yet discovered for themselves the invasive nature of their action, and
who are told that their action is dehumanizing. Not infrequently,
especially at the point of decoding concrete situations, training
course participants ask the coordinator in an irritated manner:
PEDAGOGY OF THE O P P R E S S E D • 157
"Whqre do you think you re steering us, anyway?" The coordinator
isn't trying to "steer" them anywhere; it is just that in facing a con
crete Situation as a problem, the participants begin to realize that
if their analysis of the situation goes any deeper they will either have
to divest themselves of their myths, or reaffirm them. Divesting
themselves of and renouncing their myths represents, at that mo
ment, an act of selfviolence. On the other hand, to reaffirm those
myths is to reveal themselves. The only way out (which functions as
a defense mechanism) is to project onto the coordinator their own
usual practices: steering, conquering, and invading?2
This same retreat occurs, though on a smaller scale, among men
of the people who have been ground down by the concrete situation
of oppression and domesticated by charity. One of the teachers of
"Full Circle,"33 which carried out a valuable educational program in
New York City under the coordination of Robert Fox, relates the
following incident. A group in a New York ghetto was presented a
coded situation showing a big pile of garbage on a street corner—the
vei;y same street where the group was meeting. One of the partici
pants said at once, "I see a street in Africa or Latin America." "And
why not in New York?" asked the teacher. "Because we are the
United States and that cant happen here." Beyond a doubt this man
and some of his comrades who agreed with him were retreating
from a reality so oflFensive to them that even to acknowledge that
reality was threatening. For an alienated person, conditioned by a
culture of achievement and personal success, to recognize his situ
ation as objectively unfavorable seems to hinder his own possibilities
of success.
In the case cited, and in that of the professionals, the determining
force of the culture which develops the myths men subsequently
internalize is evident. In both cases, the culture of the dominant
class hinders the affirmation of men as beings of decision. Neither
32. See my "Extensao ou Comunicacao?" in Introduccidn a la Accidn Cultural
(Santiago, 1969).
33. Regarding the activities of this institution, see Mary Cole, Summer in the
City (New York, 1968).
158PAULO FREIRE
the professionals nor the discussion participants in the New York
slums talk and act for themselves as active Subjects of the historical
process. None of them are theoreticians or ideologues of domina
tion. On the contrary, they are effects which in turn become causes
of domination. This is one of the most serious problems the revolu
tion must confront when it reaches power. This stage demands maxi
mum political wisdom, decision, and courage from the leaders, who
for this very reason must have sufficient judgment not to fall into
irrationally sectarian positions.
Professional women and men of any specialty, university graduates
or not, are individuals who have been "determined from above"34 by
a culture of domination which has constituted them as dual beings.
(If they had come from the lower classes this miseducation would
be the same, if not worse.) These professionals, however, are neces
sary to the reorganization of the new society. And since many among
them—even though "afraid of freedom" and reluctant to engage in
humanizing action—are in truth more misguided than anything
else, they not only could be, but ought to be, reclaimed by the
revolution.
This reclamation requires that the revolutionary leaders, pro
gressing from what was previously dialogical cultural action, initiate
the "cultural revolution." At this point, revolutionary power moves
beyond its role as a necessary obstacle confronting those who wish
to negate humanity, and assumes a new and bolder position, with a
clear invitation to all who wish to participate in the reconstruction
of society. In this sense, "cultural revolution" is a necessary continu
ation of the dialogical cultural action which must be carried out
before the revolution reaches power.
"Cultural revolution" takes the total society to be reconstructed,
including all human activities, as the object of its remolding action.
Society cannot be reconstructed in a mechanistic fashion; the culture
which is culturally recreated through revolution is the fundamental
instrument for this reconstruction. "Cultural revolution" is the revo
34. See Louis Althusser, Pour Marx (Paris, 1967), in which he dedicates an entire
chapter to "la dialectique de la surdttermination"
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 159
lutionary regime's maximum effort at conscientizagdo—it should
reach everyone, regardless of their personal path.
Cohsequently, this effort at conscientizagdo cannot rest content
with the technical or scientific training of intended specialists. The
new society becomes qualitatively distinct from the old35 in more
than a partial way. Revolutionary society cannot attribute to technol
o g y the same ends attributed by the previous society; accordingly,
the training of people in the two societies must also differ. Technical
and scientific training need not be inimical to humanistic education
as long as science and technology in the revolutionary society are at
the service of permanent liberation, of humanization.
From this point of view, the training of individuals for any occupa
tion (since all occupations occur in time and space) requires the
understanding of (a) culture as a superstructure which can maintain
"remnants" of the past36 alive in the substructure undergoing revolu
tionary transformation and (b) the occupation itself as an instrument
for the transformation of culture. As the cultural revolution deepens
conscientizagdo in the creative praxis of the new society, people will
begin to perceive why mythical remnants of the old society survive
in the new. And they will then be able to free themselves more
rapidly of these specters, which by hindering the edification of a
new society have always constituted a serious problem for every
revolution. Through these cultural remnants the oppressor society
continues to invade—this time invading the revolutionary society
itself.
This invasion is especially terrible because it is carried out not
by the dominant elite reorganized as such, but by those who have
participated in the revolution. As men who "house" the oppressor,
they resist as might the latter themselves the further basic steps
which the revolution must take. And as dual beings they also accept
(still due to the remnants) power which becomes bureaucratized and
which violently represses them. In turn, this violently repressive
35. This process, however, does not occur suddenly, as mechanistic thinkers
naiVely assume.
36. Althusser, op. cit.
160 ; PAULO FREIRE
bureaucratic power can be explained by what Althusser calls the
"reactivation of old elements"3^in the new society each time special
circumstances permit.
For all the above reasons, I interpret the revolutionary process as
dialogical cultural action which is prolonged in "cultural revolution"
once power is taken. In both stages a serious and profound effort at
conscientizagdo—by means of which the people, through a true
praxis, leave behind the status of objects to assume the status of
historical Subjects—is necessary. ,
Finally, cultural revolution develops the practice of permanent
dialogue between leaders and people, and consolidates the partici-
pation of the people in power. In this way, as both leaders and people
continue their critical activity, the revolution will more easily be
able to defend itself against bureaucratic tendencies (which lead to
new forms of oppression) and against "invasion" (which is always the
same). The invadur—whether in a bpurgeois or in a revolutionary
society—may be an agronomist or a sociologist, an economist or a
public health engineer, a priest or a pastor, an educator or a social
worker—or a revolutionary.
Cultural invasion, which serves the ends of conquest and the
preservation of oppression, always involves a parochial view of real-
ity, a static perception of the world, and the imposition of one world
view upon another. It implies the "superiority" of the invader and
the "inferiority" of those who are invaded, as well as the imposition
of values by the former, who possess the latter and are afraid of
losing them.
Cultural invasion further signifies that the ultimate seat of deci-
sion regarding the action of those who are invaded lies not with
them but with the invaders. And when the power of decision is
located outside rather than within the one who should decide, the
latter has only the illusion of deciding. This is why there can be no
socio-economic development in a dual, "reflex," invaded society. For
37. On this matter, Althusser comments "Cette reactivation serait proprement
inconcevable dans une dialectique depourvue de sur'determination" Althusser, op.
cit., p. 116.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 161
development to occur it is necessary: a) that there be a movement
of search and creativity having its seat of decision in the searcher;
b) that1 this movement occur not only in space, but in the existential
time of the conscious searcher.
Thus, while all development is transformation, not all transforma
tion is development. The transformation occurring in a seed which
under favorable conditions germinates and sprouts, is not develop
ment. In the same way, the transformation of an animal is not devel
opment. The transformations of seeds and animals are determined
by the species to which they belong; and they occur in a time which
does not belong to them, for time belongs to humankind
Women and men, among the uncompleted beings, are the only
ones which develop. As historical, autobiographical, "beings for
themselves," their transformation (development) occurs in their own
existential time, never outside it. Men who are submitted to con
crete conditions of oppression in which they become alienated "be
ings for another" of the false "being for himself" on whom they
depend, are not able to develop authentically. Deprived of their own
power of decision, which is located in the oppressor, they follow the
prescriptions of the latter. The oppressed only begin to develop
when, surmounting the contradiction in which they are caught, they
become "beings for themselves."
If we consider society as a being, it is obvious that only a society
which is a "being for itself" can develop. Societies which are dual,
"reflex," invaded, and dependent on the metropolitan society cannot
develop because they are alienated; their political, economic, and
cultural decisionmaking power is located outside themselves, in the
invader society. In the last analysis, the latter determines the destiny
of the former: mere transformation; for it is their transformation—
not their development—that is to the interest of the metropolitan
society.
It is essential not to confuse modernization with development.
The former, although it may affect certain groups in the "satellite
society," is almost always induced; and it is the metropolitan society
which derives the true benefits therefrom. A society which is merely
modernized without developing will continue—even if it takes over
162-PAULO FREIRE
some minimal delegated powers of decision—to depend on the out
side country. This is the fate of any dependent society, as long as it
remains dependent.
In order to determine whether or not a society is developing, one
must go beyond criteria based on indices of "per capita" income
(which, expressed in statistical form, are misleading) as well as those
which concentrate on the study of gross income. The basic, elemen
tary criterion is whether or not the society is a "being for itself."
If it is not, the other criteria indicate modernization rather than
development.
The principal contradiction of dual societies is the relationship of
dependency between them and the metropolitan society. Once the
contradiction has been superseded, the transformation hitherto ef
fected through "aid," which has primarily benefitted the metropoli
tan society, becomes true development, which benefits the "being
for itself."
For the above reasons, the purely reformist solutions attempted
by these societies (even though some of the reforms may frighten
and even panic the more reactionary members of the elite groups)
do not resolve their external and internal contradictions. Almost
always the metropolitan society induces these reformist solutions in
response to the demands of the historical process, as a new way of
preserving its hegemony. It is as if the metropolitan society were
saying: "Let us carry out reforms before the people carry out a
revolution." And in order to achieve this goal, the metropolitan soci
ety has no options other than conquest, manipulation, economic
and cultural (and sometimes military) invasion of the dependent
society—an invasion in which the elite leaders of the dominated
society to a large extent act as mere brokers for the leaders of the
metropolitan society.
To close this tentative analysis of the theory of antidialogical ac
tion, I wish to reaffirm that revolutionary leaders must not use the
same antidialogical procedures used by the oppressors; on the con
trary, revolutionary leaders must follow the path of dialogue and of
communication.
Before proceeding to analyze the theory of dialogical action, it is
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 163
essential to discuss briefly how the revolutionary leadership group
is formed, and some of the historical and sociological consequences
for the revolutionary process. Usually this leadership group is made
up of men and women who in one way or another have belonged to
the social strata of the dominators. At a certain point in their existen-
tial experience, under certain historical conditions, these leaders
renounce the class to which they belong and join the oppressed, in
an act of true solidarity (or so one would hope). Whether or not this
adherence results from a scientific analysis of reality, it represents
(when authentic) an act of love and true commitment.38 Joining the
oppressed requires going to them and communicating with them.
The people must find themselves in the emerging leaders, and the
latter must find themselves in the people.
The leaders who have emerged necessarily reflect the contradic-
tion of the dominant elites communicated to them by the oppressed,
who may not yet, however, clearly perceive their own state of oppres-
sion or critically recognize their relationship of antagonism to the
oppressors.39 They may still be in the position previously termed
"adhesion" to the oppressor. On the other hand, it is possible that
due to certain objective historical conditions they have already
reached a relatively clear perception of their state of oppression.
In the first case, the adhesion—or partial adhesion—of the people
to the oppressor makes it impossible for them (to repeat Fanon s
point) to locate him outside themselves. In the second case, they
can locate the oppressor and can thus critically recognize their rela-
tionship of antagonism to him.
In the first case, the oppressor is "housed" within the people, and
their resulting ambiguity makes them fearful of freedom. They re-
sort (stimulated by the oppressor) to magical explanations or a false
38. The thoughts of Guevara on this subject are cited in the preceding chapter,
German Guzman says of Camilo Torres: ". . . he gave everything. At all times he
maintained a vital posture of commitment to the people—as a priest, as a Christian,
and as a revolutionary." Translated from German Guzman, Camilo—El Cura Guer-
rillero (Bogata\ 1967), p. 5.
39. "Class necessity" is one thing; "class consciousness" is another.
164-PAULO FREIRE
view of God, to whom they fatalistically transfer the responsibility
for their oppressed state.40 It is extremely unlikely that these self
mistrustful, downtrodden, hopeless people will seek their own lib
eration—an act of rebellion which they may view as a disobedient
violation of the will of God, as an unwarranted confrontation with
destiny. (Hence, the oftemphasized necessity of posing as problems
the myths fed to the people by the oppressors.) In the second case,
when the people have reached a relatively clear picture of oppres
sion which leads them to localize the oppressor outside themselves,
they take up the struggle to surmount the contradiction in which
they are caught. At this moment they overcome the distance be
tween "class necessity" and "class consciousness,"
In the first case, the revolutionary leaders unfortunately and invol
untarily become the contradiction of the people. In the second case,
the emerging leaders receive from the people sympathetic and al
most instantaneous support, which tends to increase during the
process of revolutionary action. The leaders go to the people in
a spontaneously dialogical manner. There is an almost immediate
empathy between the people and the revolutionary leaders: their
mutual commitment is almost instantly sealed. In fellowship, they
consider themselves coequal contradictions of the dominant elites.
From this point on, the established practice of dialogue between
people and leaders is nearly unshakable. That dialogue will continue
when power is reached; and the people will know that they have
come to power.
This sharing in no way diminishes the spirit of struggle, courage,
capacity for love, or daring required of the revolutionary leaders.
Fidel Castro and his comrades (whom many at the time termed
"irresponsible adventurers"), an eminently dialogical leadership
group, identified with the people who endured the brutal violence
40. A Chilean priest of high intellectual and moral caliber visiting Recife in 1966
told me: "When a Pernambucan colleague and I went to see several families living
in shanties [mocambos] in indescribable poverty, I asked them how they could bear
to live like that, and the answer was always the same: 'What can I do? It is the will
of God and I must accept it'."
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 165
of the Batista dictatorship. This adherence was not easy; it required
bravery on the part of the leaders to love the people sufficiently to
be willing to sacrifice themselves for them. It required courageous
witness by the leaders to recommence after each disaster, moved by
undying hope in a future victory which (because forged together
with the people) would belong not to the leaders alone, but to the
leaders and the people—or to the people, including the leaders.
Fidel gradually polarized the adherence of the Cuban people,
who due to their historical experience had already begun to break
their adhesion to the oppressor. This "drawing away" from the op
pressor led the people to objectify him, and to see themselves as
his contradiction. So it was that Fidel never entered into contradic
tion with the people. (The occasional desertions or betrayals regis
tered by Guevara in his Relato de la Guerra Rewlucionaria—in
which he also refers to the many who adhered—were to be ex
pected.)
Thus, due to certain historical conditions, the movement by the
revolutionary leaders to the people is either horizontal—so that
leaders and people form one body in contradiction to the oppres
sor—or it is triangular, with the revolutionary leaders occupying the
vertex of the triangle in contradiction to the oppressors and to the
oppressed as well. As we have seen, the latter situation is forced on
the leaders when the people have not yet achieved a critical percep
tion of oppressive reality.
Almost never, however, does a revolutionary leadership group per
ceive that it constitutes a contradiction to the people. Indeed, this
perception is painful, and the resistance may serve as a defense
mechanism. After all, it is not easy for leaders who have emerged
through adherence to the oppressed to recognize themselves as be
ing in contradiction with those to whom they adhered It is im
portant to recognize this reluctance when analyzing certain forms
of behavior on the part of revolutionary leaders who involuntarily
become a contradiction (although not antagonists) of the people.
In order to carry out the revolution, revolutionary leaders un
doubtedly require the adherence of the people. When leaders who
166-PAULO FREIRE
constitute a contradiction to the people seek this adherence, and
find rather a certain aloofness and mistrust, they often regard this
reaction as indicating an inherent defect on the part of the people.
They interpret a certain historical moment of the peoples conscious
ness as evidence of their intrinsic deficiency. Since the leaders need
the adherence of the people so that the revolution can be achieved
(but at the same time mistrust the mistrustful people), they are
tempted to utilize the same procedures used by the dominant elites
to oppress. Rationalizing theiir lack of confidence in the people, the
leaders say that it is impossible to dialogue with the people before
taking power, thus opting for the antidialogical theory of action.
Thenceforward—just like the dominant elites:—they try to conquer
the people: they become messianic; they use manipulation and carry
out cultural invasion. By advancing along these paths, the paths of
oppression, they will not achieve revolution; or if they do, it will not
be authentic revolution.
The role of revolutionary leadership (under any circumstances,
but especially so in those described) is to consider seriously, even
as they act, the reasons for any attitude of mistrust on the part of
the people, and to seek out true avenues of communion with them,
ways of helping the people to help themselves critically perceive
the reality which oppresses them.
The dominated consciousness is dual, ambiguous, full of fear and
mistrust.41 In his diary about the struggle in Bolivia, Guevara refers
several times to the lack of peasant participation:
The peasant mobilization does not exist, except for informative
duties which annoy us somewhat. They are neither very rapid
nor very efficient; they can be neutralized. . . . Complete lack
of incorporation of the peasants, although they are losing their
fear of us and we are succeeding in winning their admiration. It
is a slow and patient task.42
41. On this point, see Erich Fromm, 'The Application of Humanist Psychoanaly-
sis to Marxist Theory/' in Socialist Humanism (New York, 1966); and Reuben Os-
born, Marxism and Psychoanalysis (London, 1965).
42. Che Guevara, The Secret Papers of a Revolutionary: The Diary of Che
Guevara (The Ramparts Edition, 1968), pp. 105-106, 120.
PEDAGOGY OF THE O P P R E S S E D • 167
The internalization of the oppressor by. the dominated consciousness
of the peasants explains their fear and their inefficiency.
The behavior and reactions of the oppressed, which lead the op
pressor to practice cultural invasion, should evoke from the revolu
tionary a different theory of action. What distinguishes revolutionary
leaders from the dominant elite is not only their objectives, but
their procedures. If they act in the same way, the objectives become
identical. It is as selfcontradictory for the dominant elites to pose
humanworld relations as problems to the people as it is for the
revolutionary leaders not to do so.
Let us now analyze the theory of dialogical cultural action and
attempt to apprehend its constituent elements.
J
Cooperation
In the theory of antidialogical action, conquest (as its primary char
acteristic) involves a Subject who conquers another person and
transforms her or him into a "thing." In the dialogical theory of
action, Subjects meet in cooperation in order to transform the world.
The antidialogical, dominating / transforms the dominated, con
quered thou into a mere if.43 The dialogical /, however, knows that
it is precisely the thou ("not/") which has called forth his or her
own existence. He also knows that the thou which calls forth his own
existence in turn constitutes an / which has in his / its thou. The /
and the thou thus become, in the dialectic of these relationships,
two thous which become two Vs.
The dialogical theory of action does not involve a Subject, who
dominates by virtue of conquest, and a dominated object. Instead,
there are Subjects who meet to name the world in order to transform
it. If at a certain historical moment the oppressed, for the reasons
previously described, are unable to fulfill their vocation as Subjects,
the posing of their very oppression as a problem (which always in
volves some form of action) will help them achieve this vocation.
43. See Martin Buber, / and Thou (New York, 1958).
168'PAULO FREIRE
The above does not mean that in the dialogical task there is no
role for revolutionary leadership. It means merely that the, leaders—
in spite of their important, fundamental, and indispensable role—do
not own the people and have no right to steer the people blindly
towards their salvation. Such a salvation would be a mere gift from
the leaders to the people—a breaking of the dialogical bond be-
tween them, and a reducing of the people from co-authors of liberat-
ing action into the objects of this action.
Cooperation, as a characteristic of dialogical action—which occurs
only among Subjects (who may, however, have diverse levels of func-
tions and thus of responsibility)—can only be achieved through com-
munication. Dialogue, as essential communication, must underlie
any cooperation. In the theory of dialogical action, there is no place
for conquering the people on behalf of the revolutionary cause, but
only for gaining their adherence. Dialogue does not impose, does
not manipulate, does not domesticate, does not "sloganize." This
does not mean, however, that the theory of dialogical action leads
nowhere; nor does it mean that the dialogical human does not have
a clear idea of what she wants, or of the objectives to which she is
committed
The commitment of the revolutionary leaders to the oppressed is
at the same time a commitment to freedom. And because of that
commitment, the leaders cannot attempt to conquer the oppressed,
but must achieve their adherence to liberation. Conquered adher-
ence is not adherence; it is "adhesion" of the vanquished to the
conqueror, who prescribes the options open to the former. Authen-
tic adherence is the free coincidence of choices; it cannot occur
apart from communication among people, mediated by reality.
Thus cooperation leads dialogical Subjects to focus their attention
on the reality which mediates them and which—posed as a problem
—challenges them. The response to that challenge is the action of
dialogical Subjects upon reality in order to transform it. Let me re-
emphasize that posing reality as a problem does not mean sloganiz-
ing: it means critical analysis of a problematic reality.
As opposed to the mythicizing practices of the dominant elites,
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 169
dialogical theory requires that the world be unveiled No one can,
however, unveil the world for another. Although one Subject may
initiate the unveiling on behalf of others, the others must also be
come Subjects of this act. The adherence of the people is made
possible by this unveiling of the world and of themselves, in authen
tic praxis.
This adherence coincides with the trust the people begin to place
in themselves and in the revolutionary leaders, as the former per
ceive the dedication and authenticity of the latter. The trust of the
people in the leaders reflects the confidence of the leaders in the
people.
This confidence should not, however, be naive. The leaders must
believe in the potentialities of the people, whom they cannot treat
as mere objects of their own action; they must believe that the
people are capable of participating in the pursuit of liberation. But
they must always mistrust the ambiguity of oppressed people, mis
trust the oppressor "housed" in the latter. Accordingly, when Guev
ara exhorts the revolutionary to be always mistrustful,44 he is not
disregarding the fundamental condition of the theory of dialogical
action. He is merely being a realist.
Although trust is basic to dialogue, it is not an a priori condition
of the latter; it results from the encounter in which persons are co
Subjects in denouncing the world, as part of the world's transforma
tion. But as long as the oppressor "within" the oppressed is stronger
than they themselves are, their natural fear of freedom may lead
them to denounce the revolutionary leaders instead! The leaders
cannot be credulous, but must be alert for these possibilities. Guev
ara's Episodes confirms these risks: not only desertions, but even
betrayal of the cause. At times in this document, while recognizing
the necessity of punishing the deserter in order to preserve the
44. Guevara to El Patojoy a young Guatemalan leaving Cuba to engage in guer
rilla activity in his own country: "Mistrust: at the beginning, do not trust your own
shadow; never trust friendly peasants, informers, guides, or contact men. Do not
trust anything or anybody until a zone is completely liberated." Che Guevara,
Episodes of the Revolutionary War (New York, 1968), p. 102.
1 7 0 P A U L O FREIRE
cohesion and discipline of the group, Guevara also recognizes cer-
tain factors which explain the desertion. One of them, perhaps the
most important, is the deserters ambiguity.
Another portion of Guevara s document, which refers to his pres-
ence (not only as a guerrilla but as a medical doctor) in a peasant
community in the Sierra Maestra and relates to our discussion of
cooperation, is quite striking:
As a result of daily contact with these people and their problems
we became firmly convinced of the need for a complete change
in the life of our people. The idea of an agrarian reform became
crystal-clear. Communion with the people ceased to be a mere
theory, to become an integral part of ourselves.
Guerrillas and peasants began to merge into a solid mass. No
one can say exactly when, in this long process, the ideas became
reality and we became a part of the peasantry. As far as I am
concerned, the contact with my patients in the Sierra turned a
spontaneous and somewhat lyrical decision into a more serene
force, one of an entirely different value. Those poor, suffering,
loyal inhabitants of the Sierra cannot even imagine what a great
contribution they made to the forging of our revolutionary ide-
ology*5
Note Guevara's emphasis that communion with the people was
decisive for the transformation of a "spontaneous and somewhat lyri-
cal decision into a more serene force, one of an entirely different
value." It was, then, in dialogue with the peasants that Guevaras
revolutionary praxis became definitive. What Guevara did not say,
perhaps due to humility, is that it was his own humility and capacity
to love that made possible his communion with the people. And this
indisputably dialogical communion became cooperation. Note that
Guevara twho did not climb the Sierra Maestra with Fidel and his
comrades as a frustrated youth in search of adventure) recognizes
that his "communion with the people ceased to be a mere theory, to
become an integral part of [himself]." He stresses how from the
45. Ibid., pp. 5657. Emphasis added.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 171
moment of that communion the peasants became "forgers" of his
guerrillas' "revolutionary ideology."
Even Guevara's unmistakable style of narrating his and his com
rades experiences, of describing his contacts with the "poor, loyal"
peasants in almost evangelical language, reveals this remarkable
mans deep capacity for love and communication. Thence emerges
the force of his ardent testimony to the work of another loving man:
Camilo Torres, "the guerrilla priest."
Without the communion which engenders true cooperation, the
Cuban people would have been mere objects of the revolutionary
activity of the men of the Sierra Maestra, and as objects, their adher
ence would have been impossible. At the most, there might have
been "adhesion," but that is a component of domination, not revo
lution.
In dialogical theory, at no stage can revolutionary action forgo
communion with the people. Communion in turn elicits coopera-
tion, which brings leaders and people to the fusion described by
Guevara. This fusion can exist only if revolutionary action is really
human, empathetic, loving, communicative, and humble, in order
to be liberating,
The revolution loves and creates life; and in order to create life it
may be obliged to prevent some men from circumscribing life. In
addition to the lifedeath cycle basic to nature, there is almost an
unnatural living death: life which is denied its fullness.46
It should not be necessary here to cite statistics to show how many
Brazilians (and Latin Americans in general) are "living corpses,"
"shadows" of human beings, hopeless men, women, and children
victimized by an endless "invisible war"47 in which their remnants
46. With regard to man's defenses against his own death, following the "death
of God," in current thought, see Mikel Dufrenne, Pour LHomme (Paris, 1968).
47. "Many [peasants] sell themselves or members of their families into slavery
to escape [starvation]. One Belo Horizonte newspaper discovered as many as 50,000
victims (sold for $1,500,000), and one reporter, to prove it, bought a man and his
wife for $30. 'I have seen many a good man starve,' explained the slave; 4that is
why I did not mind being sold.' When one slave dealer was arrested in Sao Paulo
in 1959, he admitted having contacts with Sao Paulo ranchers, coffee plantations,
1 7 2 P A U L O FREIRE
of life are devoured by tuberculosis, schistosomiasis, infant diarrhea
. . . by the myriad diseases of poverty (most of which, in the termi-
nology of the oppressors, are called "tropical diseases").
Father Chenu makes the following comments regarding possible
reactions to situations as extreme as the above:
Many, both among the, priests attending the Council and the
informed laymen, fear that in facing the needs and suffering of
the world we may simply adopt an emotional protest in favor of
palliating the manifestations and symptoms of poverty and in-
justice without going on to analyze the causes of the latter, to
denounce a regime which encompasses this injustice and engen-
ders 'his poverty.48
Unity for Liberation
Whereas in the antidialogical theory of action the dominators are
compelled by necessity to divide the oppressed, the more easily to
preserve the state of oppression, in the dialogical theory the leaders
must dedicate themselves to an untiring effort for unity among the
oppressed—and unity of the leaders with the oppressed—in order
to achieve liberation.
The difficulty is that this category of dialogical action (like the
others) cannot occur apart from the praxis. The praxis of oppression
is easy (or at least not difficult) for the dominant elite; but it is not
easy for the revolutionary leaders to carry out a liberating praxis.
The former group can rely on using the instruments of power; the
latter group has this power directed against it. The former group
can organize itself freely, and though it may undergo fortuitous and
momentary divisions, it unites rapidly in the face of any threat to
its fundamental interests. The latter group cannot exist without the
and construction projects for his commodity—except teenage girls who were sold
to brothels." John Gerassi, The Great Fear (New York, 1963).
48. M.D. Chenu, Temoignage Chretien, April 1964, as cited by Andre Moine,
in Christianos y Marxistas despue's del Concilio (Bueno Aires, 1965), p. 167.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 173
people, and this very condition constitutes the first obstacle to its
efforts at organization.
It would indeed be inconsistent of the dominant elite to allow the
revolutionary leaders to organize. The internal unity of the dominant
elite, which reinforces and organizes its power, requires that the
people be divided; the unity of the revolutionary leaders only exists
in the unity of the people among themselves and in turn with them.
The unity of the elite derives from its antagonism with the people;
the unity of the revolutionary leadership group grows out of com-
munion with the (united) people. The concrete situation of oppres
sion—which dualizes the I of the oppressed, thereby making the
oppressed person ambiguous, emotionally unstable, and fearful of
freedom—facilitates the divisive action of the dominator by hinder
ing the unifying action indispensable to liberation.
Further, domination is itself objectively divisive. It maintains the
oppressed I in a position of "adhesion" to a reality which seems all
powerful and overwhelming, and then alienates by presenting myste
rious forces to explain this power. Part of the oppressed / is located in
the reality to which it "adheres"; part is located outside the self, in the
mysterious forces which are regarded as responsible for a reality about
which nothing can be done. The individual is divided between an
identical past and present, and a future without hope. He or she is a
person who does not perceive himself or herself as becoming; hence
cannot have a future to be built in unity with others. But as he or she
breaks this "adhesion" and objectifies the reality from which he or she
starts to emerge, the person begins to integrate as a Subject (an /)
confronting an object (reality). At this moment, sundering the false
unity of the divided self, one becomes a true individual.
To divide the oppressed, an ideology of oppression is indispensa
ble. In contrast, achieving their unity requires a form of cultural
action through which they come to know the why and how of their
adhesion to reality—it requires deideologizing. Hence, the effort
to unify the oppressed does not call for mere ideological "sloganiz
ing." The latter, by distorting the authentic relation between the
Subject and objective reality, also separates the cognitive, the af-
fective, and the active aspects of the total, indivisible personality.
1 7 4 P A U L O FREIRE
The object of dialpgicallibertarian action is not to "dislodge"
the oppressed from a mythological reality in order to "bind" them
to another reality. On the contrary, the object of dialogical action
is to make it possible for the oppressed, by perceiving their adhe
sion, to opt to transform an unjust reality.
Since the unity of the oppressed involves solidarity among them,
regardless of their exact status, ths unity unquestionably requires
class consciousness. However, the submersion in reality which char
acterizes the peasants of Latin America means that consciousness of
being an oppressed class must be preceded (or at least accompanied)
by achieving consciousness of being oppressed individuals.49
Proposing as a problem, to a European peasant, the fact that he
or she is a person might strike them as strange. This is not true of
LatinAmerican peasants, whose world usually ends at the bound
aries of the latifundium, whose gestures to some extent simulate
those of the animals and the trees, and who often consider them
selves equal to the latter.
Men who are bound to nature and to the oppressor in this way
must come to discern themselves as persons prevented from being.
And discovering themselves means in the first instance discovering
themselves as Pedro, as Antonio, or asjosefa. This discovery implies
a different perception of the meaning of designations: the words
"world," "men," "culture," "tree," "work," "animal," reassume their
true significance. The peasants now see themselves as transformers
of reality (previously a mysterious entity) through their creative la
bor. They discover that—as people—they can no longer continue to
be "things" possessed by others; and they can move from conscious
ness of themselves as oppressed individuals to the consciousness of
an oppressed class.
Any attempt to unify the peasants based on activist methods
49. For someone to achieve critical consciousness of his status as an oppressed
man requires recognition of his reality as an oppressive reality. For this very reason,
it requires reaching the "comprehension de Xessence de la society," which is for
Lukacs "un facteur de puissance de tout premier ordre, pouquoi cest meme sans
doute Varme purement et simplement divisive . . . " Georg Lukacs, Histoire et Con-
science de Classe (Paris, 1960), p. 93.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 175
which rely on "slogans" and do not deal with these fundamental
aspects produces a mere juxtaposition of individuals, giving a purely
rfiechanistic character to their action. The unity of the oppressed
occurs at the human level, not at the level of things. It occurs in a
reality which is only authentically comprehended in the dialectic
between the sub and superstructure.
In order for the oppressed to unite, they must first cut the umbili
cal cord of magic and myth which binds them to the world of oppres
sion; the unity which links them to each other must be of a different
j nature. To achieve this indispensable unity the revolutionary process
must be, from the beginning, cultural action. The methods used to
achieve the unity of the oppressed will depend on the latters histori
cal and existential experience within the social structure.
Peasants live in a "closed" reality with a single, compact center of
oppressive decision; the urban oppressed live in an expanding con
text in which the oppressive command center is plural and complex.
Peasants are under the control of a dominant figure who incarnates
the oppressive system; in urban areas, the oppressed are subjected
to an "oppressive impersonality." In both cases the oppressive power
is to a certain extent "invisible": in the rural zone, because of its
proximity to the oppressed; in the cities, because of its dispersion.
Forms of cultural action in such different situations as these have
nonetheless the same objective: to clarify to the oppressed the ob
jective situation which binds them to the oppressors, visible or not.
Only forms of action which avoid mere speechmaking and ineffec
tive "blah" on the one hand, and mechanistic activism on the other,
can also oppose the divisive action of the dominant elites and move
towards the unity of the oppressed.
Organization
In the theory of antidialogical action, manipulation is indispensable
to conquest and domination; in the dialogical theory of action the
organization of the people presents the antagonistic opposite of this
176'PAULO FREIRE
manipulation. Organization i$ not only directly linked to unity, but
is a natural development of that unity. Accordingly, the leaders pur
suit of unity is necessarily also an attempt to organize the people,
requiring witness to the fact that the struggle for liberation is a
common task. This constant, humble, and courageous witness
emerging from cooperation in a shared effort—the liberation of
women and men—avoids thejdanger of antidialogical control. The
form of witness may vary, depending on the historical conditions of
any society; witness itself, however, is an indispensable element of
revolutionary action.
In order to determine the what and how of that witness, it is
therefore essential to have an increasingly critical knowledge of the
current historical context, the view of the world held by the people,
the principal contradiction of society, and the principal aspect of
that contradiction. Since these dimensions of witness are historical,
dialogical, and therefore dialectical, witness cannot simply import
them from other contexts without previously analyzing its own. To
do otherwise is to absolutize and mythologize the relative; alienation
then becomes unavoidable. Witness, in the dialogical theory of ac
tion, is one of the principal expressions of the cultural and educa
tional character of the revolution.
The essential elements of witness which do not vary historically
include: consistency between words and actions; boldness which
urges the witnesses to confront existence as a permanent risk; radi-
calization (not sectarianism) leading both the witnesses and the ones
receiving that witness to increasing action; courage to love (which,
far from being accommodation to an unjust world, is rather the
transformation of that world in behalf of the increasing liberation of
humankind); and faith in the people, since it is to them that witness
is made—although witness to the people, because of their dialectical
relations with the dominant elites, also affects the latter (who re
spond to that witness in their customary way).
All authentic (that is, critical) witness involves the daring to run
risks, including the possibility that the leaders will not always win
the immediate adherence of the people. Witness which has not
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 177
borne fruit at a certain moment and under certain conditions is not
thereby rendered incapable of bearing fruit tomorrow. Since witness
is not an abstract gesture, but an action—a confrontation with the
\torld and with people—it is not static. It is a dynamic element
which becomes part of the societal context in which it occurred;
from that moment, it does not cease to affect that context.50
In antidialogical action, manipulation anesthetizes the people and
facilitates their domination; in dialogical action manipulation is su
perseded by authentic organization. In antidialogical action, ma
nipulation serves the ends of conquest; in dialogical action, daring
and loving witness serve the ends of organization.
For the dominant elites, organization means organizing them
selves. For the revolutionary leaders, organization means organizing
themselves with the people. In the first event, the dominant elite
increasingly structures its power so that it can more efficiently domi
nate and depersonalize; in the second, organization only corre
sponds to its nature and objective if in itself it constitutes the
practice of freedom. Accordingly, the discipline necessary to any
organization must not be confused with regimentation. It is quite
true that without leadership, discipline, determination, and objec
tives—without tasks to fulfill and accounts to be rendered—an
organization cannot survive, and revolutionary action is thereby di
luted. This fact, however, can never justify treating the people as
things to be used. The people are already depersonalized by oppres
sion—if the revolutionary leaders manipulate them, instead of work
ing towards their conscientizagdo, the very objective of organization
(that is, liberation) is thereby negated.
Organizing the people is the process in which the revolutionary
leaders, who are also prevented from saying their own word,51 initi
50. Regarded as process, authentic witness which does not bear immediate fruit
cannot Be judged an absolute failure. The men who butchered Tiradentes could
quarter his body, but they could not erase his witness.
51. Dr. Orlando Aguirre Ortiz, Director of a Medical School at a Cuban univer
sity, once told me: "The revolution involves three "P's": palavra, povo, e pdlvora
[word, people, and gunpowder]. The explosion of the gunpowder clears the people s
perception of their concrete situation, in pursuit, through action, of their libera
1 7 8 ' P A U L O FREIRE
ate the experience of learning how to name the world. This is true
learning experience, and therefore dialogical. So it is that the leaders
cannot say their word alone; they must say it with the people. Lead-
ers who do not act dialogically, but insist on imposing their deci-
sions, do not organize the people—they manipulate them. They do
not liberate, nor are they liberated: they oppress.
The fact that the leaders who organize the people do not have the
right to arbitrarily impose their word does not mean that they must
therefore take a liberalist position which would encourage license
among the people, who are accustomed to oppression. The dialogi-
cal theory of action opposes both authoritarianism and license, and
thereby affirms authority and freedom. There is no freedom without
authority, but there is also no authority without freedom. All free-
dom contains the possibility that under special circumstances (and
at different existential levels) it may become authority. Freedom and
authority cannot be isolated, but must be considered in relationship
to each other.52
Authentic authority is not affirmed as such by a mere transfer
of power, but through delegation or in sympathetic adherence. If
authority is merely transferred from one group to another, or is
imposed upon the majority, it degenerates into authoritarianism.
Authority can avoid conflict with freedom only if it is "freedom-
become-authority." Hypertrophy of the one provokes atrophy of the
other. Just as authority cannot exist without freedom, and vice versa,
authoritarianism cannot exist without denying freedom, nor license
without denying authority.
In the theory of dialogical action, organization requires authority,
so it cannot be authoritarian; it requires freedom, so it cannot be
licentious. Organization is, rather, a highly educational process in
which leaders and people together experience true authority and
tion." It was interesting to observe how this revolutionary physician stressed the
word in the sense it has been used in this essay: as action and reflection, as praxis.
52. This relationship will be conflictive if the objective situation is one of oppres
sion or of license.
PEDAGOGY OF THE OPPRESSED • 179
freedom, which they then seek to establish in society by trans
forming the reality which mediates them.
Cultural Synthesis
Cultural action is always a systematic and deliberate form of action
which operates upon the social structure, either with the objective
of preserving that structure or of transforming it. As a form of delib
erate and systematic action, all cultural action has its theory which
determines its ends and thereby defines its methods. Cultural action
either serves domination (consciously or unconsciously) or it serves
the liberation of men and women. As these dialectically opposed
types of cultural action operate in and upon the social structure,
they create dialectical relations of permanence and change,
The social structure, in order to be, must become; in other words,
becoming is the way the social structure expresses "duration," in the
Bergsonian sense of the term.53
Dialogical cultural action does not have as its aim the disappear
ance of the permanencechange dialectic (an impossible aim, since
disappearance of the dialectic would require the disappearance of
the social structure itself and thus of men); it aims, rather, at sur
mounting the antagonistic contradictions of the social structure,
thereby achieving the liberation of human beings.
Antidialogical cultural action, on the other hand, aims at mythiciz
ing such contradictions, thereby hoping to avoid (or hinder insofar
as possible) the radical transformation of reality. Antidialogical action
explicitly or implicitly aims to preserve, within the social structure,
situations which favor its own agents. While the latter would never
accept a transformation of the structure sufficiently radical to over
come its antagonistic contradictions, they may accept reforms which
53. What makes a structure a social structure (and thus historicalcultural) is
neither permanence nor change, taken absolutely, but the dialectical relations be
tween the two. In the last analysis, what endures in the social structure is neither
permanence nor change; it is the permanencechange dialectic itself.
180-PAULO FREIRE
do not affect their power of decision over the oppressed. Hence, this
modality of action involves the conquest of the people, their division,
their manipulation, and cultural invasion. It is necessarily and fun
damentally an induced action. Dialogical action, however, is charac
terized by the supersedence of any induced aspect. The incapacity
of antidialogical cultural action to supersede its induced character
results from its objective: domination; the capacity of dialogical cul
tural action to do this lies in its objective: liberation.
In cultural invasion, the actors draw the thematic content of their
action from their own values and ideology; their starting point is
their own world, from which they enter the world of those they
invade. In cultural synthesis, the actors who come from "another
world" to the world of the people do so not as invaders. They do not
come to teach or to transmit or to give anything, but rather to learn,
with the people, about the peoples world.
In cultural invasion the actors (who need not even go personally
to the invaded culture; increasingly, their action is carried out by
technological instruments) superimpose themselves on the people,
who are assigned the role of spectators, of objects. In cultural syn
thesis, the actors become integrated with the people, who are co
authors of the action that both perform upon the world.
In cultural invasion, both the spectators and the reality to be
preserved are objects of the actors' action. In cultural synthesis,
there are no spectators; the object of the actors action is the reality
to be transformed for the liberation of men.
Cultural synthesis is thus a mode of action for confronting culture
itself, as the preserver of the very structures by which it was formed.
Cultural action, as historical action, is an instrument for superseding
the dominant alienated and alienating culture. In this sense, every
authentic revolution is a cultural revolution.
The investigation of the peoples generative themes or meaningful
thematics described in chapter 3 constitutes the starting point for
the process of action as cultural synthesis. Indeed, it is not really
possible to divide this process into two separate steps; first, thematic
investigation, and then action as cultural synthesis. Such a dichot
P E D A G O G Y OF T H E O P P R E S S E D • 181
omy would imply an initial phase in which the people, as passive
objects, would be studied, analyzed, and investigated by the investi
gators—a procedure congruent with antidialogical action. Such divi
sion would lead to the naive conclusion that action as synthesis
follows from action as invasion,
In dialogical theory, this division cannot occur. The Subjects of
thematic investigation are not only the professional investigators but
also the men and women of the people whose thematic universe is
being sought. Investigation—the first moment of action as cultural
synthesis—establishes a climate of creativity which will tend to de
velop in the subsequent stages of action. Such a climate does not
exist in cultural invasion, which through alienation kills the creative
enthusiasm of those who are invaded, leaving them hopeless and
fearful of risking experimentation, without which there is no true
creativity.
Those who are invaded, whatever their level, rarely go beyond
the models which the invaders prescribe for them. In cultural syn
thesis there are no invaders; hence, there are no imposed models.
In their stead, there are actors who critically analyze reality (never
separating this analysis from action) and intervene as Subjects in the
historical process.
Instead of following predetermined plans, leaders and people,
mutually identified, together create the guidelines of their action.
In this synthesis, leaders and people are somehow reborn in new
knowledge and new action. Knowledge of the alienated culture leads
to transforming action resulting in a culture which is being freed
from alienation. The more sophisticated knowledge of the leaders is
remade in the empirical knowledge of the people, while the latter
is refined by the former.
In cultural synthesis—and only in cultural synthesis—it is possi
ble to resolve the contradiction between the world view of the lead
ers and that of the people, to the enrichment of both. Cultural
synthesis does not deny the differences between the two views;
indeed, it is based on these differences. It does deny the invasion
of one by the other, but affirms the undeniable support each gives
to the other.
1 8 2 P A U L O FREIRE
Revolutionary leaders must avoid organizing themselves apart
from the people; whatever contradiction to the people may occur
fortuitously, due to certain historical conditions, must be solved—
not augmented by the cultural invasion of an imposed relationship.
Cultural synthesis is the only way.
Revolutionary leaders cofrimit many errors and miscalculations by
not taking into account something so real as the peoples view of the
world: a view which explicitly and implicitly contains their concerns,
their doubts, their hopes, their way of seeing the leaders, their
perceptions of themselves and of the oppressors, their religious be
liefs (almost always syncretic), their fatalism, their rebellious reac
tions. None of these elements can be seen separately, for in
interaction all of them compose a totality. The oppressor is inter
ested in knowing this totality only as an aid to his action of invasion
in order to dominate or preserve domination. For the revolutionary
leaders, the knowledge of this totality is indispensable to their action
as cultural synthesis.
Cultural synthesis (precisely because it is a synthesis) does not
mean that the objectives of revolutionary action should be limited
by the aspirations expressed in the world view of the people. If this
were to happen (in the guise of respect for that view), the revolution
ary leaders would be passively bound to that vision. Neither invasion
by the leaders of the people's world view nor mere adaptation by the
leaders to the (often naive) aspirations of the people is acceptable.
To be concrete: if at a given historical moment the basic aspiration
of the people goes no further than a demand for salary increases,
the leaders can commit one of two errors. They can limit their action
to stimulating this one demand54 or they can overrule this popular
aspiration and substitute something more farreaching—but some
thing which has not yet come to the forefront of the peoples atten
tion. In the first case, the revolutionary leaders follow a line of
54. Lenin severely attacked the tendency of the Russian Social Democratic Party
to emphasize economic demands of the proletariat as an instrument of the revolu
tionary struggle, a practice he termed "economic spontaneity." "What is to be
Done?" in On Politics and Revolution, Selected Writings (New York, 1968).
P E D A G O G Y OF T H E O P P R E S S E D • 183
adaptation to the people's demands. In the second case, by disre
specting the aspirations of the people, they fall into cultural invasion.
v The solution lies in synthesis: the leaders must on the one hand
identify with the peoples demand for higher salaries, while on the
other they must pose the meaning of that very demand as a problem.
By doing this, the leaders pose as a problem a real, concrete, histori
cal situation of which the salary demand is one dimension. It will
thereby become clear that salary demands alone cannot comprise a
definitive solution. The essence of this solution can be found in the
previously cited statement by bishops of the Third World that "if
the workers do not somehow come to be owners of their own labor,
all structural reforms will be ineffective . . . they [must] be owners,
not sellers, of their labor . . . [for] any purchase or sale of labor is
f
a type of slavery"
To achieve critical consciousness of the facts that it is necessary
to be the "owner of one's own labor," that labor "constitutes part of
the human person," and that "a human being can neither be sold
nor can he sell himself" is to go a step beyond the deception of
palliative solutions. It is to engage in authentic transformation of
reality in order, by humanizing that reality, to humanize women and
men.
In the antidialogical theory of action, cultural invasion serves the
ends of manipulation, which in turn serves the ends of conquest,
and conquest the ends of domination. Cultural synthesis serves the
ends of organization; organization serves the ends of liberation.
This work deals with a very obvious truth: just as the oppressor,
in order to oppress, needs a theory of oppressive action, so the
oppressed, in order to become free, also need a theory of action.
The oppressor elaborates his theory of action without the people,
for he stands against them. Nor can the people—as long as they are
crushed and oppressed, internalizing the image of the oppressor—
construct by themselves the theory of their liberating action. Only
in the encounter of the people with the revolutionary leaders—in
their communion, in their praxis—can this theory be built.
Miltiathis Charamis