Ute Franke (ed.), National Museum Herat – Areia Antiqua Through Time National Museum Herat

National Museum Herat - National Museum Herat – Areia Antiqua Through Time edited by Ute Franke National Museum Herat – Areia Antiqua Through Time edited by Ute Franke  Contents Preface 1 U. Franke Introduction 1. National Museum Herat: Its History 7 Y. Khushbeen and B. Baha Timuri 2. Areia Antiqua – A Region and Its History 11 U. Franke 3. Herat: An Islamic Metropolis 19 C.-P. Haase History in a Showcase: National Museum Herat 4. Prehistory: Beyond Alexander the Great 29 U. Franke 5. Islamic Metalwork 39 A. von Gladiß 6. Islamic Pottery and Ceramics 49 M. Müller-Wiener 7. Islamic Glass 61 J. Kröger 8. The Art of the Book at the Court of Herat 63 C.-P. Haase Areia Antiqua: Recent Archaeological Discoveries 9. In Search for the Historical Roots of a Region 71 U. Franke Cover: Qal’a-e Ikhtyaruddin with Herat National Museum (2007) Interior Cover: Qal’a-e Ikhtyaruddin (2007) Credits for Illustrations 87 Literature 88 Layout: Astrid Lange and Anke Thomas Map 90 Berlin 2008 © Deutsches Archäologisches Institut Berlin, Eurasien-Abteilung Dari Versions of the Articles  Preface Ute Franke While the Afghan-German Archaeological Mission to Herat carried out its field mission in 2005, we were informed by our colleagues from the Department of Monuments and Sites that at the end of 2004 the National Museum and Archive of Herat had reopened (Plate 1). Deeply impressed by the extent and importance of the collection that pre- sently is unique in Afghanistan, we asked the permission Culture in Herat to prepare a brief documentation of the collection and take photographs. During two days, we compiled a list of the objects on 1 View of the exhibition hall (2005) display in 52 showcases and arranged on tables and boards 2 Documentation of objects (2005) in the open. 150 of the c. 1000 objects were selected and recorded by the author and photographed by A. Lange (Plate 2). While it was possible to remove the archaeological objects from their display cases, the cabinets holding the manuscripts could not be opened. Therefore, they had to be photographed through the glass, resulting in many re- kept in the archive are not represented in this booklet ac- cording to their importance. Without doubt, the collection requires and deserves to be fully catalogued to serve as a basis for further, more 1 Ministry of Information and Culture sent a team from the National Museum in Kabul and the Institute of Archaeology to prepare the compilation of an inventory in Dari. The aim of the brief documentation carried out in 2005 while we conducted the archaeological survey in Herat Province and two excavations in Herat City was not to anticipate such a study, but rather to foster it in future public collection of Islamic art in Afghanistan (Plate 9). In 2 this way, the National Museum of Herat supplements the 1  National Museum in Kabul which presents an important tions and surface surveys in the region and of further mate- collection of pre-Islamic and ethnographic objects, but rial in the Museum, will facilitate more detailed approaches owns few pieces of Islamic art. Unlike the museum in in future research directed at assessing the contribution Kabul, Herat Museum has not received any international of this region to Islamic art, on the one hand, and outline funding. One of the perspectives for printing this brochure the particular »footprints« of its artistic production on the was thus to support raising funds that are required for the other. It is hoped that ultimately these efforts will aid in compilation of an object inventory and for the badly need- highlighting the role of Herat as a regional centre. ed restoration of objects and manuscripts. 3a Such an endeavour, however, has to go hand in hand For reasons beyond control it took much longer than ori- with improving the conditions under which the objects are ginally anticipated to prepare this brochure and I wish to 6 kept and displayed, with regard to climatic and lighting con- express my sincerest gratitude to all persons and institu- ditions, dust and pest control, with the installation of a small tions involved in one way or the other for their patience conservation laboratory, and the training of staff (Plate 7). and support, namely: These needs have become more urgent with the In Herat, the past and present governors, Ismail Khan shift of the Museum and Archive into Qal´a-e Ikhtyarud- din in late 2005. Although the citadel as one of the most of the Ministry of Information and Culture, who re-estab- outstanding ancient buildings in Herat is an appropriate lished the Museum: W.S. Bahra and Mr. Zarwari as then and ambiente, the two buildings within its premises that were present directors, Y. Khushbeen as Director of the National 3b designed as museums in the 70s by the UNESCO-Mission Museum, B. Baha Timuri as Director of the Archive (Plate 8), suffer from humidity and the lack of ventilation. We hope their staff, Shaikh Abdul Ghafur, Ghulam Mohammad, and to be able to secure these funds before further damage is Shweib-e Radjai, and particularly A. Ayomuddin, Director 5 Clay vessels with intricate geome- - of the Department of Monuments and Sites in Herat. gal excavations, 11 th –12 th century The objects kept in the National Museum Herat are In Germany, the authors who contributed papers 6 Ceramic bottle with turquoise testimony to the long history of the region. Following an that made this brochure a piece of scholarly research: Prof. glaze, 12 th –13 th century introduction to the history of the Museum itself (chapter 1), a general introduction (chapter 2) and a summary of the historic role of Herat (chapter 3), the remaining chapters are devoted to the collection, beginning with prehistory 4 in chapter 4. Chapters 5 to 7 deal with various aspects of Islamic minor arts and crafts, namely metal, pottery, 3a, b Pedestalled »Bamiyan-bowl«, and glass. Together with a portrayal of the art of the book quartz body, blue and manganese underglaze decoration, 13th century (chapter 8), these contributions highlight the importance of the Herati workshops. They likewise illustrate the impact 4 Jug, pottery, black painted de- coration, partly red slipped, 11 th– of political patronage upon the city, a benefaction that put 12 th century - tecture, gardens and irrigation systems, and which created an educational, intellectual and artistic centre as a vivid manifestation of this power. Finally, in chapter 9, the most recent archaeological research conducted in the province 5 of this work, especially of objects from controlled excava- 2 3  Dr. C.-P. Haase, Director of the Museum of Islamic Art in Berlin (SMB-SPK), as well as his associates Dr. J. Kröger and Dr. A. von Gladiß, and Dr. M. Müller-Wiener from the Institute of Oriental and Asian Studies, Department for the History of Islamic Art at the University of Bonn. E. Schalk, who translated and checked the English texts and presented her time and efforts as a donation to this brochure; R. Rajaee, assisted by E. Bograt, who mastered the dif ficult task to translate the texts into Farsi and her careful rendering of the termini technici; N. Saber for editing the Dari version; E. Niewöhner for reading the Farsi 8 Y. Khushbeen, Director of the National Museum Herat (left), and texts; K. Schmidtner for revising the manuscripts and check- B. Timuri, Director of the National 8 ing the transcriptions; Th. Urban for preparing the maps, Archives Herat (right) and A. Lange and A. Thomas for designing the layout and taking care of printing this booklet. - Special thanks are due to J. Leslie and A. Boostani um in future. 7 Architectural decoration pieces and inscribed headstones in the from Aga Khan Trust for Culture and their team for their Our work in Afghanistan is generously funded by Museum support and friendship, a collaboration that we can hope- the Foreign Office of the Federal Republic of Germany, particularly the German Embassy in Kabul and the Office for the Preservation of Cultural Heritage; the publication of this booklet became possibly through additional funds made available by the Office for the Dialogue with the Is- lamic World. We are most grateful to H.E. Dr. H.-U. Seidt, C. Schlottmann, D. Sander, H. Speck, A. Rollwage, G. Hädicke and C. Pohlmann as well as other embassy staff in Kabul, and to K. Kalinowski, S. Kobrosly, S. Nissen- Hülse, U. Knotz and U. Münch from the Foreign Office in Berlin. Technical Remarks The transcription of place and personal names is kept at a low level to ease reading for the general public. Usually, it follows generally accepted standards for the transliteration of these termini in English. In order to optimize the page layout, a strictly ascending order of plate numbers was abandoned in favor of the size of the illustrations. 7 4 5  1. National Museum Herat: Its History Y. Khushbeen and B. Baha Timuri The Museum in Herat was established in 1306-7 H/1925 under the rule of Ghazi Shah Ammanullah Khan by direct order of the king. An old Timurid building in Chahar Bagh, west of the Masdjid-e Djami, was chosen as its location. Entrance tickets were sold at the cost of 1/100 Afghani. When the old city was enlarged in 1315-6 H/1934, this building was destroyed and the Museum relocated to the Herat Hotel on the Sarag Pul-e Pashtoon, the present airport road. Until 1326/1945 the Museum was under the auspices of Herat Municipality, but subsequently it was transferred to the Independent Directorate of the Ministry of Information and Culture in Herat. In 1340/1965, the 9 Qal´a-e Ikhtyaruddin, lower cour t- yard with National Museum (centre back) and National Archives (centre, were not on display due to the lack of space. 2007) 9 7  In winter 1382–1383 H/2003–2004, Ismail Khan, who was re-appointed Governor of Herat in 2001, had the objects transferred from a storeroom in the citadel, which was at that time still occupied by the military, to a depot in a mod- ern building in the New City. Subsequently, it was decided to reinstall the exhibition, and the directors of the Muse- um and Archive prepared the exhibition which was opened at the end of the same year (Plate 1, 2). At that time the archaeological collection comprised c. 1000 objects, while the archive housed c. 250 manuscripts and books. Follow- ing public unrest in the city, the objects were packed again 10 and transferred into the citadel in winter 1384/2005, after Qal´a-e Ikhtyaruddin was demined, cleared of the remains of war and handed over by the military staff to W. S. Bahra, 10 National Museum Herat (2006) - mation and Culture. However, the two rooms designed as exhibition halls suffer from substantial humidity and venti- lation problems (Plate 9 –11). Therefore, again, the Museum is closed to the general public. It is hoped that in future the objects will be properly treated, restored and displayed in 11 order to present the cultural testimonies of a long and glo- rious past to national and international visitors. 11 National Archives Herat (2006) The Museum was moved once more in 1374-5 H/1994 by Ismail Khan, this time to the citadel, Qal´a-e Ikhtyaruddin. There it was established in the buildings in the lower courtyard, which had been restored in the 1970s for this purpose, within the framework of a major restoration and conservation program carried out in the citadel by UNESCO. The exhibition, which at that time hosted 3017 objects, was not open to the general public. During the period of the Taliban, 110 sculptures and statues were severely damaged. A total of 28 gold coins, 826 silver and 811 copper coins dating from the Sassanian to the Qadjar Period, 52 historic paintings and miniatures, including a painting from Amir Abdurrahman (r. 1880–1901), and 12 old guns made in Herat in the 9 th century H/15 th –16 th century (tofang) were destroyed or days of the Taliban, who withdrew from Herat in autumn 2001 (November 13, 2001/1380-1 H), 45 handwritten manuscripts were stolen. 8 9  2. Areia Antiqua – A Region and Its History Ute Franke Herat is Afghanistan’s western-most province. It shares borders with Iran and Turkmenistan and covers 55,000 km2 (Map 1, Plate 12) . In 2004, it had an estimated population of c. 1.5 Mio inhabitants, a number that steadily increases through the settlement of refugees and migration towards growth of the province’s administrative capital, Herat. Situated at an altitude of 1,000m amsl at the foot of the Paropamisos in the fertile river valley of the Hari Rud, its location at the junction of major crossroads linking Asia with Arabia and Europe has made the town ever since an important political and economic centre, which at times was equally important as or even superior to Nishapur, Samarqand, Ghur, Balkh, Lashkari Bazar and Ghazna. The Silk Road, in actuality an extensive network of routes, has become a synonym for trade with exotic goods such as silk, spices, gem stones, and other items that were in high demand in Europe, but also for the movement of people, and with them religions, ideas, technologies and styles. Times of political peace and prosperity were often quickly 12 View of Herat City (Google Earth) 13 (left) Herat: View towards the 12 Musalla Complex (2005) 11 15 16 14 Aerial view of Herat City succeeded by invasion, destruction, and then a new be- hand, it also reveals regional preferences and traditions. 16 Herat: same view of the city wall taken in 1915 (Niedermayer 15 Herat: view of the city wall, to ginning. These processes brought with them large-scale mi- The importance of Herat as a political, economic and 1924 Taf. 146) northeast from Qal´a-e Ikhtyarud- grations, caused by deportation, labour migration, or colo- - din (2004) nisation. In their wake, craftsmen and artists in particular ments, which today still mark the outline of the city (Plate moved through a large territory, fostering the transmission 13). Many of these buildings date back to the 15 th cen- and merger of ideas. The tangible cultural heritage they tury, when the town embarked to the zenith of its fame left behind is witness for this diffusion, but, on the other under Timur’s son Shah Rukh and his wife Gauhar Shad – after just another destruction in 1385 through Timur bin Taraghay Barlas, better known as Tamerlan. It became the political and cultural centre of the Timurid empire, alleg- edly more important than Samarqand, the previous capital. For its embellishment, Timur had gathered about 150,000 people to implement his building programs (Leisten 1995). - pagandistic reasons, it provides an idea of the scale of these efforts and it can certainly be assumed that also at Herat a large number of labourers and craftsmen were engaged Shah Rukh and Husayn Bayqara. Some of the prominent personalities who lived and worked in Herat and were hold in high esteem throughout the Islamic world were the his- torians Mir Khond and his son Khondamir, the poet and mystic Djami, Mir Ali Shir Nawa´i, and the famous miniature painter Bihzad. It is no surprise, therefore, that scholarly research focussed on this period. Historical sources reveal, however, that already during 14 the preceding centuries Herat was of considerable impor- 12 13  but also architectural decoration pieces, which can be con- sidered as local products not only provide an insight into comparisons between high-quality objects and more ordi- nary and less costly items of daily use, which seldom make their way into international exhibitions. The scarcity of pre-Timurid monuments in Herat City stands in striking contrast to the fact that 70% of the sites and monuments found during an archaeological survey car- ried out in Herat Province (see chapter 9, Plate 20) belong to this time, and the majority of the pottery and metal vessels 18 in the Museum (chapters 5–7). Yet, this incongruence can be explained by the fact that in the city centre these earlier 17 remains are buried by the Timurid and post-Timurid town (Plate 21) . For the same reason, the most ancient roots of the th 17 Herat: view towards the Blue century mirror city are still clouded by mystery. Allegedly the city was de- Mosque from Qal´a-e Ikhtyaruddin (2005) stroyed and newly founded as Alexandria in Areia by Alex- 19 Half-column with a carved de- del, extensive suburbs and gardens (Szuppe 2004), a plan ander the Great. However, archaeological evidence from 20 sign calligraphic and floral design adjacent regions and the favourable living conditions in the which is still recognizable today (Grenet 1996. Plate 13–16, Hari Rud Valley make it likely that its history is even older, 25). Just prior to the invasions of Djinghis Khan in 1221-2, dating back to at least the Bronze Age or the late 3rd millen- 18 Herat: Blue Mosque, detail of the original tile decoration (2004) Yaqut and Qazvini describe Herat as the largest and richest nium BC. This hypothesis is supported by the discovery of 20 Pottery vessels from Palgird town they have ever seen, with a population of c. 2 Mio one 3rd millennium site near the Turkmen border and by the (slip-painted, left, 10 th –11 th cen- inhabitants living in c. 400 villages of the province. But, fact that a good number of Bronze Age objects are on dis- tury) and Tappe Azade (mono- chrome turquoise glazed, right, even from the prosperous Ghurid period (1147–1206) only play in the National Museum of Herat (see chapter 4). The 12 th –13 th century) a few monuments are preserved in Herat proper. The most oldest object was discovered only in 2006, it is an at least famous of these is the portal of the Blue Mosque, the only 250,000 yrs old palaeolithic stone tool from Gazurgah. one part of that spectacular building which survived the The Museum also houses a large collection of ob- many later restorations and re-embellishments (Plate 18, 28). jects from its more recent past, including armour, weapons, The Kart dynasty that ruled Herat for almost 150 years from drums, a few coins, and objects of daily use (Plate 22). Parti- 1245 onwards is credited by the historians with rebuilding cularly noteworthy is a Torah fragment, which is – along with Herat after the Mongol devastations, but they are likewise a few synagogues that are preserved in the Old City – a rare hardly traceable in the archaeological record. testimony of the former Jewish population of the city (Plate While important buildings may have been dismantled 23). These holdings date to those centuries that witnessed and refurbished or were completely remodelled according the rule of the Safavid empire (16th –17th centuries), the to the taste and style of new rulers, a large collection of struggle for power over Afghanistan by Persia, Zarist Russia pre-Timurid artefacts from the art market has since long and Great Britain (the »Great Game«, 18 th –19 th centuries), attested the high level of the Herati workshops, especially and the formation of the Afghan Nation (19th century). Due as far as metal working is concerned. These collections are to its location between the empires in the west, north and now supplemented by the holdings of the National Muse- northwest, and India in the east, the city was frequently em- 19 um Herat. The objects, mostly pottery and metal vessels, battled: Between 1719 and 1760 it was under siege for 24 14 15  22 23 was further shaken by unprecedented clashes between 22 Leather, wood, and clay uten- 21 sils, 19 th century parts of its Shi´a and Sunni population in spring 2005, but 23 Sheet of a Torah-roll, Herat despite recurrent problems with and among local com- (19 th century?) 21 Herat: view of Qal´a-e Ikhtya- manders and a rise in criminal offences, Herat City still is 24 Silver coins from Amir Abdur- ruddin (from west, 2004) to the Encyclopaedia Britannica (ed. of 1900), Herat still had comparatively calm and economically prosperous. rahman (r. 1880–1901) a population of c. 100,000 and was Iran´s second largest city Herat has pledged to become a World Heritage Site, in the very early 19 th century, many parts already lay in ruins. but the rapid urban growth and economic interests as well - - nistan (Treaty of Paris, August 4, 1857), pressurized by the ments and the Old City, where traditional buildings are tur- invasion of a British army into Fars. Under the rule of Amir ned down at an alarming speed in favour of modern glass Abdurrahman (r. 1880–1901. Plate 24 palaces. The allocation of substantial funds by President of Herat were re-enforced once more, at the cost of splendid Karzai in September 2007 for the construction of a new historic monuments, in particular the Musalla complex. road which bypasses the Musalla complex and a master In the later 20 th century, Herat re-established its role plan which is being worked out by the Government with - the help of the Aga Khan Trust for Culture are important cent history is Ismail Khan, the leader of the Mudjaheddin steps for the preservation of the cultural heritage, if im- plemented appropriately. Likewise, the Old City program Alliance fraction who fought against the Taliban after they run by the Aga Khan Trust for Culture, the restoration had taken Herat in 1995. The city was recaptured on No- of monuments such as the Namakdan and the Shrine of vember 12th, 2001, and Ismail Khan became governor for Abdullah Ansari in Gazurgah, and the training of local experts in the conservation of buildings are outstanding conservative views and strict rule, he implemented urban contributions. The re-opening of the National Museum of development in the public and private sectors, and stimu- Herat is one more signal in this direction. Based upon the lated a new economic growth that quickly made Herat the initiative of the regional authorities and interested citizens, most important commercial city of modern Afghanistan it is not only a testimony of the great past of the city, but after Kabul, mainly through revenues from trade with Iran also a symbol for the importance of this cultural heritage to and UAE. His replacement with S. H. Anwari in September the populace; it is thus a tool for fostering this awareness 24 2004 by President Karzai caused public upheaval. The city further, thereby enhancing identity building and pride. 16 17  3. Herat: An Islamic Metropolis Claus-Peter Haase One of the oldest metropolis in the cultural sphere of Iran, the city of Herat has preserved its typical medieval urban city centre. Although the formerly huge, compact pisé walls are by and large eroded, the city plan still betrays the the north and the old quarters that are dissected by larger thoroughfares and small lanes (Plate 25). The city grew in all directions, but in the east mainly at the cost of the old gar- dens (Plate 26). The system of water channels was greatly expanded while Herat was capital of the Timurid empire. Nothing remains of the pre-Islamic city but its name, which is also preserved in the name of the Harî Rud ri- ver: Haraiva in Old Persian and Harê in Middle Persian, transformed to Harât in Arabic. The town might be iden- tical with Alexandreia in Areia in the historic texts of the Hellenistic Period. Located at a junction of the Silk Road, the main trade route between Southeast Asia, India, Me- sopotamia and the Mediterranean, on one hand, and a northern route linking Bukhara with Kirman, on the other, 25 Plan of Herat City, 1915 (Nie- dermayer 1924 Plan 3) it played an important role ever since the establishment 26 Herat: view towards the Mu- of long-distance trade in goods such as silk, cloths, and salla and shrine of Gauhar Shad spices. During the Sasanian Period it was one of the main (2005) 26 25 19  provincial governors was followed by turbulent times dur- ing which various Turkish invaders controlled the region: beginning in 998 the Ghaznavids, who were soon attacked and driven off in part by the Qarakhanids in 1006. Almost at the same time, also Seldjuq armies arrived, under whom Herat became a governor’s seat after 1040. The most important regional dynasty after 1147 were the Ghurids, allies of the Seldjuqs, but descendants of an old Iranian family residing in the Ghur valley east of Herat. Their capital was Firuzkuh in the Ghur Valley, but they also ruled from Herat under the title of the Ghurid malik (prince) between 1164 and 1206. Ghiyathuddin Ghuri had the Great Mosque (also known as Blue Mosque) with a 28 27 dynastic mausoleum built in 598 H/1201, which despite several renovations is still preserved today (Plate 27–28). 27 Herat: Blue Mosque, courtyard centres in eastern Iran, along with Merv and Balkh, that Following the storm of the Mongols with their brief as seen in 1915 by Niedermayer (1924 Taf. 149) disposed over its own mint, although the Hephthalite tri- destructions in 1222–1226, again a regional dynasty, the 28 Herat: Blue Mosque, Ghurid bal rulers placed great limitations upon the central power. Iranian maliks of the Kart (1245–1383), came to power, tile decoration (2004) Nevertheless, Herat was always an important marketplace initially as vassals of the Mongol Ilkhans of Iran. Among 29 Herat: Blue Mosque, courtyard in the province of Khorasan. The population is a mixture the maliks, Ghiyathuddin and Fakhruddin are especially 30 Terracotta slab with an Arabic with cauldron, 1915 (Niedermayer 1924 Taf. 150) of Turkmenian, Mongol and Iranian peoples, and at least memorable as building patrons, and the famed bronze inscription, late 13 th –first half of 14 th century AD. The main field is from the 19 th century onwards Jews, Armenians, and cauldron in the Great Mosque can likely be accredited to broken off. The inscription »al-mulk Hindus are mentioned in historical records as well. The them (Plate 29, 30 –34). Timur (Tamerlane) took over rule in li `llah (the kingdom is God´s)« is in the negative, the piece might there- Arab conquest and subsequent spread of Islam occurred - fore be a mould (reading and date around 41 H/661, or, according to other sources, already in after a revolt broke out and the town was destroyed in by C.-P. Haase) 31 H/651, but not without subsequent revolts and Islamic 31 Glazed terracotta frieze (blue, turquoise, manganese) with carved sectarian movements in opposition. his successors. With the Mongol-Turkish arrangement of inscription and scrolls, mid-14 th According to 10 th century Arabian chroniclers and ge- princely residences, a period of surprising prosperity be- century. The inscription reads »The heaven of generosity and grace, ographers, the city was well-planned and oriented towards gan in Herat under the various branches of the dynasty Khodja Ghazi« (reading and date by the cardinal directions, with four gates, expansive suburbs C.-P. Haase) and gardens that extended far along the river oasis. The - tion against many of the constant threats posed by hordes of nomadic tribes and armies of the Iranian Empire. Mili- tary upheavals were quickly succeeded by a lasting series of political power shifts in Iran and Central Asia that had repercussions on Herat. Herat was subordinate to Nisha- rule of the Tahirid governors (820–873) of the Abbasid caliphate, then the Saffarids (873–900) and later the Sa- 29 30 31 manids from Bukhara (900 –998). This period of Iranian 20 21  did tile façade of the Great Mosque in Herat (cp. Plate 35) and founded the madrasa Musalla, in the north of Herat (820 H/1417–1418), with the separate dynastic mausole- um for Shah Rukh’s family (Plate 36 – 41). The inscription on the friezes ascribes the buildings to Queen Gauhar Shad: »Through the grace of God and the help and support of the faithful, this Imarat was built high on the day of Qadr in the year 820 [1417/1418], in the days 32 33 of the reign of His Majesty, protector of the Caliphate, of the Sultan, son of the Sultan, Mu`in as-Saltana wa‘d- 32–34 Three of six fragments of 1389–1397) and then under Miranshah’s youngest brother glazed terracotta friezes from two 35 cenotaphs, with carved Arabic in- Shah Rukh (after 1397). Upon his acclaim as supreme ruler Shah Rukh Bahadur; may the supreme God deign that his scriptions in elegant Thuluth duc- of the Timurid empire in 1409–1447, Herat became the im- tus, with an Arabic kufic inscription in the border; mid-14 th century. perial residential city instead of Samarqand and remained The inscription in Pl. 32 concerns as such most of the time until 1507, although Shah Rukh’s the meaning of life, in Pl. 33 the date, the month Sha´ban [7]80 son Ulugh Beg (1447–1449) remained in his residential city 35 Herat: Blue Mosque, outer en- H/late November-December 1378, of Samarqand. Herat fell to his successor, his son Abdulla- trance, with the restored faience or [7x]8H is mentioned, while in decoration (2004) Pl. 34 the title »nasir ad-dunya wa[d-din]… al-maqbul« can be to a descendant of Umar Shaikh in the most immediate 36 Herat, Musalla Complex: mina- found. Elsewhere the title »al-´adil ret and grave of Gauhar Shad, first al-muzaffar al-mansur (the just, the line of Timurid rulers in the Iranian-Central Asian area. half of 15 th century (Niedermayer ever victorious winner)« is given This person, Husayn Mirza Bayqara (1469–1506), is a most 1924 Taf. 158) (reading and date by C.-P. Haase) - 37 Herat, Musalla Complex: mar- ble frieze from a minaret in the nasty, for during his long reign Herat became the incon- Musalla Complex (1915), with testable cultural capital of the eastern Islamic world. quarter column and Kufic inscripti- on (Niedermayer 1924 Taf. 161) The reign of the Timurids was a period of grandeur 38 Herat, Musalla Complex: detail for the ruling patrons of art and architecture. Many of of marble fragment. Museum of 38 the innovations at the court at Herat found their way into Islamic Art in Berlin neighbouring kingdoms, for example, the Turkmenian dy- nasties of the Qaraqoyunlu and Aqqoyunlu in Tabriz and the Ottomans in Istanbul. Shah Rukh and in particular his wife Gauhar Shad, mother of their son Ulugh Beg, were surroundings. However, as quite a devout and competent commander, Shah Rukh himself was not very inclined to- wards the arts, and, thus, their furtherance was left to his energetic wife and Prince Baysonghur in Herat. Gauhar Shad is also accredited with the founding of the mosque in Mashhad in the grave sanctuary of the eighth Imam, Ali Riza (1418), and the madrasa in Khargird (completed in 34 37 36 1444). Together with Shah Rukh she donated the splen- 22 23  The complicated intertwine of power in the Timurid family endeavours and from the bounty of the fortunes of Her led to frequent civil wars in Iran, under which the relations Majesty, the prince’s mother, Isma ad-Dunya wa‘d-Din with Kabul and the long independent eastern parts of the Gauhar Shad Agha, daughter of the Great Amir Ghiya- Mongol Empire suffered. However, the division into sever- thuddin Khan; may her reign be eternal, in the year 841 [1437/1438], this was written by Dja´ far Djalal.« (Diez in cultural life. Trade routes with China and India as well as Niedermayer 1924). A fragment of the marble frieze from to the west were opened, and the city of Herat attained the Musalla minaret is now kept in the Museum of Islamic great wealth. Art in Berlin (SMB-SPK, Plate 38). This worldliness of the court found expression in the Shah Rukh himself, however, was still interred next arts: motifs in Central Asia were enriched by new stylistic to his father Timur in Samarqand. It was only with the forms from China. Technology in faience colours grew 39 40 erection of a second building under Husayn Bayqara that the complex was completed. It stands as a ruin since in 39 Herat, Musalla minaret with 1885 the walls between the twofold four minarets were Among the arts, the art of the books excelled as a source 40 Herat, Musalla minaret, detail tile and faience decoration, first of the decoration, first half of 15 th half of 15 th century (2004) torn down for defence purposes under Amir Abdurrah- century (2004) 41 Herat, tomb of Gauhar Shad, man. Shah Rukh let himself be immortalised as donor 42 Herat, Gazurgah: Ansari Shri- restored interior decoration (2004) ne, south iwan, early15 th century; as seen in 1915 by Niedermayer Abdullah Ansari (d. 481H/1088) in Gazurgah, north of can be said that Herat ultimately reached the position, (1924 Taf. 170) Herat (829H/1434). A large cemetery of mystics gradually that the founder of the dynasty had originally aspired for 43 Herat, Gazurgah: Ansari Shri- formed around this pilgrim’s centre (Plate 42–43). Samarqand, but which it could not even achieve under the ne, west iwan, early 15 th century, and cemetery with re-used old headstones (2004) The court under Husayn Bayqara (1469–1506) strengthened this image, assumedly especially through the installation of an individual »designer bureau« (kitabkhana) for promulgating the style of the royal court. His renowned vizier, the east Turkish and Persian poet Mir Ali Shir Nawa’i (d. 1501), not only upheld a large circle of poets and art- ists about him, but was also engaged as a great patron in 41 43 42 24 25  buildings and works of art. According to a list made by the Not only merchants, but constant conquests by warring historian Khondamir at the beginning of the 16 th century, hordes brought in proceeds but also detriments for the Herat disposed over seven mosques, 16 madrasas, four trans-shipment centre Herat. Dervish schools (khanqah), three mausoleums, one hospi- Through the upheavals of modern times the country tal and one library; furthermore, in the city’s vicinity there and the city were almost brought to political and cultural were 12 mosques, 13 madrasas, nine khanqah and three ruin, yet strivings to escape total hopelessness have persis- caravanserais (ribat) as well as other buildings. In addition, ted. Afghanistan’s independence has been interrupted re- Mir Ali Shir bestowed the city outskirts with gardens in the peatedly, and modernisation arrived in the 1930s, bringing with it city planning and new streets for motorised vehicles ions, like Timur did himself in Samarqand (Plate 44). The according to Western patterns. Yet, educated citizens of richly illustrated miniature paintings provide an impression Herat were steadfastly committed to the preservation of of garden architecture from this period. Herat was occupied by the Uzbeks in 1507, who had recently re-opened, a faience workshop in the Great Mos- already overrun Samarqand and Central Asia as well, but que provided for the restoration of tiles that were defect only for a short time, as already in 1510 the youthful, or had fallen from monuments (Plate 45 – 46). The attentive charismatic Shah Ismail Safavi, leader of the Shi´ites in citizenry collected objects of art and manuscripts from the Iran, conquered the city. Founder of the Safavid dynasty, most varied owners and have preserved them throughout their reign over Herat was long, interrupted only at the beginning and again in 1588–1598 by Abdullah Khan II. Berlin in 2003, the governor of Herat, Ismail Khan, called Shaybani with further invasions by Uzbek tribes. The rule upon the Museum of Islamic Art and stimulated an ex- - change of advice and ideas concerning the renewed estab- dali Afghans in 1716. lishment of a museum. We are most pleased to see that the 46 Herat, Blue Mosque: tile work- After an interim of rule by Nadir Shah of Iran in 1729– endeavours to accomplish this wish are on a good way. shop (2004) 1747, Herat was conquered by the Pashtun Ahmad Shah Durrani and has remained an Afghan city until today, but only in 1857 Iran relinquished its claim to eastern Khorasan, 44 Herat, Gazurgah: Namakdan, including Herat. In spite of many a political expansion into Timurid pavillon (under conserva- Iraq and Central Asia, the Safavid period was concentrat- tion by AKTC, Sept. 2007) ed culturally rather on the Iranian heartland, including the 45 Herat, tomb of Gauhar Shad: fallen and removed tiles and faience province of Khorasan. Only under Nadir Shah was the po- mosaics (2004) litical and cultural view directed once more towards India. 44 45 46 26 27  4. Prehistory: Beyond Alexander the Great Ute Franke The Hari Rud river, which is fed by several springs, tributar- ies from the mountains to the north and east and the melt- ed snow in spring, is the source of life in Herat Province. It provides water for man, his animals and the plants, which grow in abundance on fertile alluvial deposits which accu- mulated over thousands of years. The river valleys stand in striking contrast to the gravel plains and sand deserts that cover vast areas in the north, west, and south of Herat. The assumption that this region has a long history of occupation, therefore, seems quite obvious, especially in view of the fact that neighbouring regions, especially the foothills of the Kopet Dagh, the Margiana and Bactria, lo- cated in Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tadjikistan and northern Afghanistan, were homeland to vast civilizations from the late 3rd millennium BC onwards (Map 1). Nevertheless, archaeological evidence supporting this idea is rare, and most clues to history derive rather from a handful of written sources. The oldest source is the Avesta, the holy book of the Zoroastrians, which dates back to 47, 48 Axes with shaft hole, copper 16 lands by Ahura Mazda is described. The name of the or bronze, late 3 rd mill BC sixth land is »Haroyu«. It is certainly no coincidence that a similar name is mentioned in the 6 th century BC cuneiform inscriptions of Achaemenian kings, in particular Dareios and Artaxerxes III. In the long list of vassals, who in the reliefs of Persepolis proceed to the throne to pay tribute to the kings, the line »iyam Haraiva« = »this is the Areian« 47 denotes a man with a short tunica, loose pants, high boots and a dagger. According to the Greek historian Herodo- tus, Areians served in the army of King Xerxes and fought against the Greek military around 480 BC. Areia was ad- ministered by a satrap called Satibarzanes and, along with Bactra (Balkh) and Kandahar, the capital of Arachosia, was one of the three main Achaemenid centres in the east (Vo- 48 gelsang 2004). 29  150 years later, biographers of Alexander the Great, main- from Badghis or Tashqurgan as gifts or seized objects, the ly Strabo, Pliny and Arrian, describe the conquest of Ar- discovery of a large, but pillaged site from this period in tacoana, capital of Areia, after a revolt took place in 330 Gulran (Plate 128), the north-westernmost district of Herat BC. Alexander established a governor and renamed the Province, makes a origin from Herat Province likely. city »Alexandria in Areia«. Later, Areia was a border re- This Bronze Age Culture is now generally referred 49 gion between the Parthian empire and invading Scythian to as the Bactrian-Margiana Archaeological Complex or, tribes from the northern steppes. In the Sasanian period more poetic, but not necessarily more appropriate, as the (226–652 C.E.), Herat was one of 12 capital towns and ›Oxus‹ or ›Oasis Civilization‹. It was first discovered in Af- disposed over a mint. During this time, trade was once ghanistan by the Soviet mission, directed by V. Sarianidi in more an important source of revenue, but in the wake of the 1960s during his excavations, for example, at Dashly Tappe and Dowlatabad. It became known to a wider au- Huns, the city also regained strategic importance. In the dience through thousands of antiquities from the looted 5 th century it had a small Christian community which lived tombs in Bactria that appeared in the art market from the 1970s onwards. Today, many sites have been excavated in Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tadjikistan. They display still stood side by side in the hills north of Herat in the 10 th an intriguing material culture with complex architecture century. The Hephthalites fought the Arab invaders in the and extraordinary artefacts, mirroring a wealthy, highly mid-7th century, but soon after had to surrender. Herat was developed society that is at eye-level with other urban apparently of minor importance under the Omayyad and civilizations. Even without script, in the view of many Abbasid caliphate as compared to Merv and Nishapur, and scholars, this culture has passed over the threshold to this remained the status quo under the Tahirids and Sama- civilization. It had economic and cultural relations with nids, who ruled until the very late 10 th century AD. Mesopotamia, southern Iran, the Arabian Peninsula and Clearly, the modern names of the city of Herat and northern Balochistan. Yet, these sites are very different 51 Arrow heads, copper or bronze of the Hari Rud river betray these old origins. However, - tigations carried out by Soviet and French archaeologists some 50 years ago, it has not been possible to locate these ancient cities. A few pre-Islamic sites were found during the survey carried out by the German Archaeological Institute, traces of a pre-Islamic occupation were found on the cita- del of Herat, where work is now ongoing (see chapter 9). The dearth of archaeological information about an 49, 50 Spear heads, copper or bronze Achaemenian or Hellenistic occupation is matched by the lack of objects from this time in the collection of the Natio- nal Museum Herat. Therefore, the large number of anti- quities in the holdings that date to the Bronze Age, or late 3 rd/early 2nd millennium BC, came as a surprise. Although this period is well known from Bactria, northern Afgha- nistan, it was not attested that far southwest until very 50 51 recently. Although these objects may have reached Herat 30 31  traces of wear, an indication that they were hardly used in daily life. Therefore, they are rather considered to be cere- monial objects. Two axes (Plate 47– 48) with a shaft hole for the handle belong to a type (haches-herminette), which is not the most typical, but appears in Bactria (in Sapalli, for example), in Iran (Tappe Hissar, Shadad), the Indus Valley (Mohenjo Daro) and in the west. Long daggers with straight or leaf-shaped blades are 52 53 more characteristic types (Plate 49 –50). They occur through- out the region at the end of the third and during the early from cities of the Indus valley and the Hilmand or Jiroft second millennium BC. Small arrow- or spearheads (Plate regions in Iran. The chronological range of this culture is 51) are quite long and neatly cast, but their rather short still discussed, but the time from 2100 BC to c. 1700 BC is 56 certainly well within the margins. Leaf-shaped blades with a twisted shaft are quite typi- Another important archaeological region within Af- cal for the Indus valley, they were widely distributed in the region during the second half of the 3rd millennium (Plate provinces Kandahar and Sistan, and the copper rich desert 52). Other types are »choppers« with rectangular blades Gardan Reg. This area was settled from the early 4th mil- (Plate 53) and spatulas (Plate 54) . Quite peculiar are small lennium BC onwards and is thus older than the sites in hollow, slightly curved objects with a frayed end (Plate 55). northern Afghanistan. Mundigak near Kandahar is the largest prehistoric mound. It had close links with south- their position near the deceased’s chest in – predominantly eastern Iran and Balochistan, and was part of the so-called male – tombs and the small spikes attached to their interior Indo-Iranian borderlands, but no objects from this area support the view that they are mace-heads that adorned 52 Blade made their way to the Herat Museum. small ceremonial maces. 53, 54 Choppers 57 The collections in the Museum contain quite a number 55 Mace-head of metal (copper or bronze) artefacts, mostly weapons. The still inside, are a very common type (Plate 56). Like their 56 Cosmetic flacon with pin majority of objects are copper or bronze axes and blades cheaper chlorite counterparts (Plate 57), they are considered 57 Flacon with incised decoration, chlorite from knives, daggers and spears. In Bactria, these artefacts 58 Ceremonial rod (szepter), grey are often found in tombs, where they are predominantly limestone associated with male burials, but come also from residen- 59 Miniature column, quartz diorite 54 55 59 58 32 33  to be cosmetic utensils, not only in view of their shape, but also because some objects still contained traces of a white or slightly out-curving edges at both ends (Plate 60). Traces powder, red ochre or antimony. The small chlorite bottles, of wear on the top and on the body (near the edge) indi- decorated with a large variety of patterns, are distributed cate that they once held a band, probably of metal. throughout Central Asia and eastern Iran; they are also A group of calcite or, most frequently, alabaster ves- found in Balochistan and at sites on the Arabian Peninsula. sels represents another popular commodity used during Among the stone objects kept in the Museum are the 3 rd millennium and after (Plate 61– 64). The vessels are a few fragments of long sceptre-like stone rods, which neatly carved, drilled and smoothed. The light that shines 60 62 are between 1 m and 2 m long. They are made from grey through their thin walls enhances the translucent texture of the stone with its whitish veins. Especially elegant are high or slightly squat conical beakers (Plate 61) and tronconical indentation (Plate 58). On one rod, traces of narrow, but types with an out-curved rim (Plate 62), which sometimes deep horizontal incisions can be seen at both ends. Similar have a high pedestal. Some of these shapes are copied in objects are known from tombs in southern Iran and Altyn- clay, but these vessels lack the highly attractive transpar- tepe in Turkmenistan and even from Ur in Mesopotamia. ency of their alabaster counterparts. Their predominantly funeral contexts imply that they also had rather a symbolic function, but not enough is known (Plate 63 –64). One peculiar type are so-called lamps (Plate to understand their semantic message. 65). They are elongated tubes of c. 5 cm to 12 cm length 61 63 The same applies to enigmatic stone columns, which which have thick walls and bases. Their interior shows dis- are another frequent grave good in the region and time tinct traces of drilling. Residues of black powder that were 60 Miniature column, conglome- under discussion (Plate 59) . Made of different varieties of found in Shahr-e Sokhta and analyzed as lead, and traces 62 Alabaster vessel rate with clasts stones with exceptionally beautiful textures and patterns of grease support an interpretation as lamps. It can be 63 Alabaster vessel 61 Alabaster vessel created by multi-coloured veins and clasts, and with po- argued, however, that without support they topple easily 64 (see next page) 65 Alabaster »lamps« lished, shiny surfaces they also have to be considered as and that no traces of use and wear are visible on the rim 66 Fish-shaped alabaster container highly valuable prestige items. They have a cylindrical or or body. Also, the function of perforated small alabaster 65 66 34 35  slices, apparently cut from the yet undrilled conical core or sides are perforated lengthwise (Plate 68). They still retain body and removable head, is probably related to this group zigzag traces of a shaping tool, probably a metal saw. Sim- of objects, it might imply a function as containers (Plate ilar beads were found at many sites, including Susa, in 66) . Similar vessels were found at Mundigak and Shahr-e south-western Iran, where they were part of a necklace. Sokhta, where they were locally produced. Only very few prehistoric pottery vessels are preser- Beads were made by man almost from the earliest ved in the collection of the Museum, probably due to the 64 times onwards. Marine shell and semi-precious stones, fact that they are not very precious or liable to breakage. such as carnelian, chalcedony, and lapis lazuli, which had to be acquired from far distant sources, were produced pedestalled dish with a carinated rim (Plate 69). Its stand is in large numbers from the 7th millennium onwards. Clay broken, but the shape is diagnostic for the late 3 rd/early 2nd beads were simpler, and thus cheaper, adornments. These 71 personal ornaments often accompanied the deceased into are known from the 4th millennium BC, but they remained their graves – or in residential areas they were discarded in use for a long time thereafter (Plate 70). along with kitchen garbage, or simply lost by the owner. While all of the objects above can and probably do 70 Flint arrowheads 69 Over the course of time, techniques were developed to originate from Herat Province, the small statue of a Boddhi- 71 Seated Boddhisattva, grey schist, Gandhara, 3 rd–4 th cent. AD enhance available materials by means of special treatment. sattva, which is seated on a small stool in teaching attitude, 64 Alabaster vessel One was etching carnelian beads with a vegetal paste that must have come to Herat as a gift, or as a seized object 67 Etched carnelian beads (Plate 67) . This technology be- (Plate 71). Both its material (schist) and the artistic expression 68 Steatite beads came the hallmark of Indus beads during the second half of leave no doubt that the statue derives from a workshop for 69 Pedestalled pottery dish (stand the third millennium and remained in use for hundreds of broken) years thereafter, although the quality deteriorated. Steatite tween the 1st and 5 th centuries AD and – at times – extended is a soft stone and thus easy to work, yet its hardness was from central Afghanistan to the Swat Valley in Pakistan. 67 68 70 36 37  5. Islamic Metalwork Almuth von Gladiß From the 9 th century onwards regional dynasties began to establish themselves in the eastern territories and to promote handicrafts and art: the Samanids in Khorasan and Transoxania, and the Ghaznavids in the land south of the Oxus river. Herat was situated half way between the Samanid metropolis of Nishapur and the Ghaznavid capital of Ghaz- na and was described as a great city by Ibn Hauqal and Muqaddasi in the 10 th century. Its prosperity derived from the many and considerable metal sources in the area. Lo- cally made metal wares and all kinds of metalwork from other important cities such as Nishapur, Merv, and Ghazna were sold on the bazaar. The development of early Islamic metalwork in this area can be traced in various metal ob- jects in the Herat collection. These objects were probably found in the area of present-day western Afghanistan, ac- quired on the local market or discovered by chance. The metalwork recovered in the 1960s in a hoard at Maymana, northeast of Herat on the way to Balkh, is most important with regard to the types and stylistic trends in metalwork during the 11th to 12th centuries. This introduction is meant to provide facts that are relevant for understanding the pieces on display in the He- rat Museum. Muslim artisans used the same metals as their predecessors: gold, silver and alloys of copper, tin, lead and zinc. The tradition in the use of metals was accom- panied by a technical conservatism in making metal ob- jects. Casting was the method most commonly practiced during these centuries. Silver had been widely used by the Sasanian upper class and still was favoured by the Islamic courts, while the focus of production shifted to bronze and brass. Most of the bronze and brass implements were in the cities. From inscribed vessels from the 12th century it is evident that rich merchants played an important role, for 39  Two globular objects used as incense burners or lamp shades are remarkable because of their large size and way in which Islamic metalworkers integrated form and decoration. One piece displays a continuous pattern of geometrically arranged leaves (Plate 73). The other has a pattern of the old fashioned grape vines reduced to ge- ometrical abstraction and enclosed in large interlocking roundels (Plate 74). An inscription band encircles the upper shoulder, stating the traditional blessings to an unknown 72 owner: »… baraka and happiness and good fortune…«. The dominant role of script in Islamic culture is the basis they could afford expensive metalwork for domestic use. for its integration into metalwork. In this early period only Household wares commence with cooking utensils, which include several vessel forms such as cauldrons and letters known from Samanid coins, these objects can be mortars. The hemispherical cauldron with everted rim and dated to the 10 th century. Openwork decoration appears to have been executed was long in use, throughout the 10 th century and onwards. after casting. The piercing of metalware with the use of 72 Cauldron, 11 th –12 thcentury. The fragmentary example standing on short conical legs is Cauldrons with legs for being presumably one of the earlier pieces in the collection (Plate Samanid period and was made for practical purposes as well placed over a fire represent a long- lived type of kitchen ware 72) . Its diameter measures c. 40 cm. Examples of similar as for decoration. The dome-shaped base of a tripod stand 73, 74 Incense burners or lamp- shape but smaller size and made of stone and terracotta shades, 10 th to 11 th century. These 75a/b Tripod stands, 12 th century. were found in Nishapur and Afrasiab. The handles of the (Plate 75a–b). This kind of tripod stands served as lamp stands kinds of objects display a functional The lamp stands were cast in sec- openwork, which is decorative in its - and represents a substantial part of medieval metal ob- tions and are often preserved in continuous arabesque design. The fragments. The tripod stands were jects in the collection of the Herat Museum. The tall shaft, pierced walls enable the smoke or complete with a long shaft and a the light to escape which is composed of several globular and baluster-shaped tray carrying the oil lamp 73 74 75a 75b 40 41  ration extending from script at the concave rim to the scroll- work within the tear-shaped roundels in the depressions. Dishes and trays are usually of a very simple form to accommodate the richness of the decoration. They are most common among the bronze and brass wares and by riveting to the shaft, and trays with a plain underside used for serving food. There are objects with low incurving with no rim, instead a short slanting edge. The diameter of the trays can measure up to 40–50 cm, but smaller dishes were more popular. Most of the latter are cast, whereas 76 77 large trays were made from brass sheet with a minimum of equipment. Considerable importance was placed upon elements, which were cast separately and then soldered on epigraphy, which often includes different graphic styles in (Plate 76, 77) might have been a metal or an earthenware lamp with an borders enclose inscription bands divided by roundels into bird heads projecting from the rim represents an early stage in metalwork, but in view of the cursive epigraphy of its Naskhi inscription band containing the standard blessings divided into six sections at the fragmentary rim (Plate 80). the piece is datable to the 12th century. By the 12th century, script accentuated by a scrolled back- Another type of lamp stand that is well known during ground constitutes a constant component in the decora- 76–79 Bronze stands, 12 th century this period is characterised by a polylobed base shaped into tion of metal objects. The standard epigraphy expresses 80 Dish, 12th century. The object six cups that slope upwards to the angular base, into which good wishes for an unknown owner. (Plate 78a–b, 79). The plain surface is di- and Naskhi. The spacing of the let- vided into angular compartments, each engraved with deco- ters creates room for curled scrolls 78a 78b 79 80 42 43  appear on objects of the 12th century and reveal a cer- tain sense for inspiration from a hidden world. The sphinx this single and powerful motif the piece looks very impres- sive. In the centre there is a small groove for engraving surrounding circles as dividers. A large tray of about 25 cm in diameter has a central 84 roundel enclosing an animal motif of reduced size, which plays a minor part in the overall vegetal decoration (Plate 84). The concentric borders are of different width and 84 Dish, 12 th century. The object shows an animal motif within fine floral scrolls that dominate the de- 81 82 generally occur side by side, they display similar stylistic sign, and an inscription 85 Tray, 12 th to early 13 th century. The rectangular tray was probably 81 Dish, 12 th century. Geometric design in the centre and a broad inscription frieze that can- hammered into a mould to form the design and illegible inscription band in the centre not be read due to its poor condition (Plate 81). A geometric facetted shape and the repoussé decoration 82 Fragmentary dish, 11 th to 12 th pattern carried out with great virtuosity can be seen on a 86 Water ewer, 12 th century. Ewers century. Knots and circles are the fragment of hammered sheet brass. The complex design is in the Herat area. They were raised from brass sheet and made of sheet brass and embellished main components of this intriguing geometric pattern, which appears purely Islamic, based on rows of circles interlocking with the decoration is engraved. The chased decoration of the with repoussé decoration were fa- shionable during the Ghurid reign at the centre of a large tray of sheet delightful knotted ban ds (Plate 82). It was not invented by example on display, however, was hammered from the brass 83a, b Dish, 12 th century. The ob- ject presents one of the popular art. The continuous geometric interlace is intended as a fabled creatures, a human-headed symbol of eternity representing the universe. and the rim is occupied by an inscription frieze in coarse sphinx, which is engraved in the centre The most elaborate dish, measuring about 18 cm in execution (Plate 85). The workmanship suggests that the diameter, depicts a winged sphinx – a mythical creature piece was produced in the area north of the Oxus river. with the body of a lion – with a human head in the central Water ewers represent a widespread household fur- roundel (Plate 83a–b). Aside from the sphinx there are mys- nishing made from three or four brass sheets. One example 83a 83b 85 86 44 45  is characterised by a cylindrical body with a rounded its leaves and rosettes relates to manuscript illustrations transitional area leading to a flat shoulder adorned with a (Plate 89). chased garland surrounding the tubular neck (Plate 86). It Fine metalwork had long been restricted to a small bears a lion motif in low relief and ends in a high spout. number of rich patrons. By the 12th century, however, it The neck of another fragmentary ewer is lost (Plate 87a–c). was enjoyed by a broader spectrum of the society. Early A benedictory inscription placed on the plain shoulder bronze and brass objects of this area are, compared with serves as the main decorative feature. The mastery in this work lies in the balance of cursive letters and blos- artists’ signatures. Some inscribed pieces of the 12th centu- soming scrolls that curl behind the epigraphy without ry provide Herati nisbas, which were used by metalworkers 87a 87b being directly linked to it. On the upper part of the body, to indicate a direct connection with the city. For example, a signature, written in square Kufic script characterized al-Haravi can mean that the artist is from Herat or that he by sharp angles, supplies the name of the metalworker: lives in Herat. A dated piece is the ewer, made in 577 H. »´amal Hasan bin Sahl« (Plate 87b). The trilobed cartouche (1181–82) by Mahmud bin Muhammad al-Haravi in He- below filled by scrolling in a symmetrical arrangement is accompanied by symbols of the tree of life, which are manufacture by the inscription on a bucket dated 559 H. presented singly in order to underline their importance. (1163, now in St. Petersburg). Both objects and a candle- The flourishing artistic productivity of the pre-Mongol stick dated 561 H. (1166, now in Stuttgart) represent the period brought new types of metal vessels. Largest of all is expensive metalwork of the Ghurid period, when the me- 87c a round water basin with a wall that first bends inward and dieval city reached its greatest splendour. In the 12th cen- then outwards and ends with incurving sides (Plate 88). An tury Herat was one of the most important metalworking inscription written in tall Thuluth, repeating the standard places in the Islamic world of Asia. Thereafter tastes shift- blessings, runs along the rim, which is accentuated by 16 ed to silver and copper inlay on bronze and brass, which points. The decoration is based upon a succession of con- had been introduced earlier in small quantities. The famous centric borders. The centre is marked with a rosette, while scholar Qazvini, when writing his Athar al-Bilad in the later the outer border is composed of interlocking arches with 13th century, referred to the city as the centre of the inlaid rays, each bearing a lotus-bud in geometrical abstraction. metal industry. Another basin with straight sides and a flat, everted rim is a standard model of the 16 th century. The decoration with 87a, c Fragmentary ewer, 12th to early 13 th century 87b The body of the object bears the signature of the craftsman Ha- san bin Sahl 88 Water basin, 12 th to early 13 th century. This kind of basin is 89 Water basin, 17 th century. The remarkable in its striking shape, engraved decoration follows well- 88 89 large size and rich decoration known patterns of book illustrations 46 47  6. Islamic Pottery and Ceramics Martina Mueller-Wiener The history of the art of the potter in the eastern provinces of the Islamic world still remains largely unexplored. Those interested in the Islamic pottery of present-day Afghanistan are still almost exclusively dependent on the publications of 20 th century. More recently, several excavations were con- ducted by foreign missions in Kabul, Herat and Balkh, but of the excavation carried out by the British Institute of Ar- chaeology at Kandahar are available. This relative dearth of political importance of the Eastern provinces, which began with the advent of the Abbasid dynasty in Iraq in the 8 th century and reached its peak under the dynasties of the Ghaznavids (366 H/977–582 H/1186) and Ghurids (390 between the Islamic heartland and its periphery. High quali- ty wares show the adoption and creative adaptation of new styles and experimentation with new techniques, whereas the production of more popular pieces is witness to a conti- nuation of traditional decorative styles and techniques. In the history of Islamic pottery, the 9 th century and innovation. Whereas earlier ceramic wares were either unglazed with simple molded or stamped relief-decoration or monochrome glazed in green or yellow, 9 th century Iraqi ceramists employed a variety of new techniques to deco- rate the ceramic body with a luxuriant palette of colours and hues. In the eastern provinces, centering around the capital of the Samanids in Samarqand, arose a vigorous school of potters, whose methods were essentially differ- ent from those practised by their Iraqi colleagues. The 49  Another large group of glazed ceramics, which came into fashion in 10th century Iraq and Iran, was decorated with incised patterns. One major type shows the combination of scratched patterns, usually based on the half palmette, with splashes of green, a yellowish brown and occasionally a manganese purple on a white slip. The vessels, almost exclu- sively bowls of a conical shape, were covered with a brilliant transparent lead glaze (Plate 94). This piece has likewise been 92 reworked: actually the bottom belongs to another bowl de- corated in slip-painting technique, but the walls show the characteristics of splashed and incised wares. 92 Slip-painted pottery with trans- parent glaze, c. 11 th century Whereas the combination of splashed and incised de- 90 91 94 Slip-painted bowl with transpa- coration was practised in the 10 th and 11th century, other rent glaze, incised, c. 11 th –13 th cen- types of wares using the technique of incising are dated tury, joined from two bowls 90 Slip-painted pottery, c. 11 th cen- slightly later to the 11th and 12th century. They combine 95 »Bamiyan« bowl, 12th –13 th cen- tury, restored tury design was painted in a palette of white, tomato-red, a incised decoration with the more controlled use of colour. 91 Slip-painted pottery, c. 11 th cen- tury purplish-black, various shades of brown and a soft yel- 93a–b Slip-painted bowl with trans- lowish green. Finally the pieces were glazed with a trans- with incised decoration: dishes, deep bowls and large dish- parent glaze, c. 11th century, joined es. They are made mainly from a red to buff earthenware. from two bowls were produced in various places in the eastern provinces of Different local types seem to have been produced in large the Islamic world. The style and quality of their decoration quantities at innumerable centres. The example in Plate 95 ranges from rough provincial pieces to spectacular master- belongs to a group known as »Bamiyan« bowls, which are pieces. In Lashkari Bazar, the residence of the Ghaznavid usually dated to the 12th to 13th century. The vessel shows th century, an intricate decoration of six radiating wedge-shaped pa- slip-painted wares make up the largest group of glazed nels incised through the white slip to the underlaying clay. ceramics. Two centres of production of high quality slip- The main pattern of palmette leafs and stylised pseudo- painted wares that can be located securely are the cities of Nishapur and Samarqand; pottery from their workshops was widely exported. Apart from Arabic inscriptions in a 93a vegetal ornaments, groups of dots and dotted interlaced bands (Plate 90 –91). A particular group ascribed to Nishapur combines the slip-painting technique with the application - tions with highly stylised human and animal forms (Plate 92). A reworked bowl presents us with a combination of the two decorative styles, which is due to modern restoration (Plate 93a–b). Whereas the bottom belongs to a bowl with parts come from a bowl of the last mentioned Nishapur 93b 94 95 type with colourful decoration in green and yellow. 50 51 96 98 96 Monochrome glazed clay ves- The hatched and scalloped ground of pieces such as this 98 »Bamiyan-fritware« bowls, 13th sels, in use from 12 th–13 th century century have been explained as derivative of background hatching in lustre-technique came from Western Iran (Plate 97) and onwards 99 Blue glazed pottery bowl with - were exported over long distances. A distinct group as- molded decoration, 12 th –13 th cen- 97 Sherd of a quartz-based bowl with lustre painting, from Kashan (?), ter upon the production of ceramics. A further group of cribed to present-day Afghanistan is the so-called Bamiyan tury 12 th–13 th century Afghan wares with incised decoration displays carved de- fritware (Plate 3a–b, 98). The pieces show a distinct fabric; signs. The bowls were coated with a coloured slip; when their method of making and decoration with moulds and dry, parts of the slip were carved away leaving the design in their linear designs cannot be paralleled closely with any relief. The vessel was then covered with a transparent clear other wares. Apart from the Bamiyan group, however, the fritware technology was obviously not very popular in ing was also used on monochrome glazed wares. The most present-day Afghanistan and the quality of the few frit- common colours were green or yellow, and the decoration ware pieces is inferior to their Iranian counterparts. The was generally simple, ranging from wavy lines to quickly potters continued to use the traditional earthenware body, drawn vegetal motifs (cp. Plate 96, bowl in the back left). even if they copied Iranian style pieces (Plate 99). A frieze Whereas the innovations of the 9 th and 10 th century of running animals as well as the turquoise colour of the were restricted to the development of various new glaz- alkaline glaze imitate the decoration of Iranian mono- ing techniques, a second period of revolutionary change chrome glazed fritware; the body of the heavily potted began in the 11th century with the development of a new bowl, however, is made of a red burnt clay. The opaque ceramic body, the so-called fritware. A mixture of potash, turquoise glaze, which on the outside stops short of the quartz and clay, fritware was a pure white fabric, capable base, became very popular in the 12th and 13th centuries. of being thrown and turned on the potter’s wheel, which If it was applied directly onto the surface of the vessels, lent itself to a variety of decorative techniques. By the end without the intermediate of a slip, the glaze looks uneven. 97 99 of the 12th century, fritware was made in many places, If the vessel was coated with a slip, the glaze covers the 52 53  incense-burner (Plate 101) and the zoomorphic vessels (Plate 102) present but two examples. Some groups of unglazed wares, however, were additionally embellished by incising, carving, stamping, applied decoration or moulding. The use of moulds was adopted on a large scale in the 12th century. It gave an added advantage, since shaping the vessel and decorating it were one process, which could be reproduced many times. Especially jugs and ewers for drinking or storing water – left unglazed for the sake of cooling – were manufactured from moulds. Usually their body was made from two hemispherical pieces, which 100 103 were joined horizontally, while the foot, handle and neck were made separately and joined. The decoration of the pieces shows a wealth of motifs: inscriptions, vegetal and (Plate 103–104) . 101 Another much discussed group of unglazed objects com- prises vessels with a sphero-conical body and a low neck surface smoothly. Apart from bowls of varying shapes, with a pronounced groove beneath the lip (Plate 105). They 103 Moulded ewer, clay, with a jars, bottles, jugs, dishes and ewers were decorated with a Thuluth inscription and two friezes 100 Turquoise glazed ewer, clay, turquoise glaze (Plate 6, 100). with vegetal and geometric orna- 12 th –13 th century onwards ments, 12 th –13 th century In Islamic times glazed ceramics represented only the ing. From the 10 th to the 13 th century sphero-conical ves- 101 Incense burner with carved 104 Moulded ewer, clay, with a design, clay, c.12 th –13 th century minor part of pottery production, whereas the major out- sels are found throughout the Islamic world from east to pattern of scrolls, 12 th –13 th century 102 Rython (animal–shaped vessel), put of workshops were humble unglazed wares that served 105 »Aeolipipe« or »bomb«, clay, clay, c.12th –13 th century a wide range of functions, from factory to household. The (aeolipipes) or containers for precious liquids. The most 12 th –13 th century 102 105 104 54 55  ascribed to Khorasanian workshops. Only recently exam- ples of vessels with slip-painting have reached Western collections, where they are usually attributed to Central Asia and dated to the 10 th –12th century. G. Fehervary, who attempts a preliminary interpretation of their elaborate painted decoration consisting of scrollwork, geometrical patterns, such as crosshatchings, rotating discs and occa- - tions and a possible connection to shamanism. A similar group of unglazed wares with slip-painted decoration is attributed to Syria and dated to the 14 th century. Due to its resemblance to prehistoric pottery it has been labelled »pseudo-prehistoric ware«. The Mongol invasion during the second decade of the 13th century caused a serious break in the cultural and social life of the eastern provinces. Cities were devastated Bamiyan, which had been one of the major centres of cera- mic production, was destroyed and never again inhabited. The Mongol legacy, however, was not only one of horror and devastation. Under the Ilkhanids and the Timurids the 106 urban traditions of scholarship and culture were continued and advanced. In Iran ceramic production started again 106 White slipped pottery jars convincing proposal suggests that they were used as ves- with an intricate pattern painted 107 White slipped pottery ewer in plum-red. Typical for this group The forms of Chinese celadon stoneware were copied, with a vegetal pattern painted in is the filling of the available space Apart from relief decoration another technique used and the decoration of Iranian pottery shows motifs such black, c. 11 th –12 th century resulting in vividly contrasting color effects, c. 11 th –12 th century to embellish unglazed wares was slip-painting. The collec- as lotus and phoenix. The eastern provinces regained a tion of the Herat Museum houses a large group of heavi- ly potted vessels with slip-painting. They are made of a (771 H/1370–912 H/1506), who had their power base in red or buff earthenware and coated with a white slip; the Transoxania. In the 15th century Timurid Herat became a elaborate painting is executed in red or black color. The new art centre in the Islamic world. Not much is known, shape and size of the vessels vary; next to large storage however, of the ceramics originating from the wide-rang- (Plate ing territories of the Timurids. The sumptuous miniature 4, 5, 106) . Some shapes and the painted decoration of the paintings from their royal ateliers portraying the life of the pieces vaguely recall 2nd and 1st millennia BC pottery from Iran or Central Asia. The origins of the shape of the ewer probably of Chinese origin. According to Iranian sources, shown in Plate 107, for example, with its globular body and the great conqueror Timur invited Chinese potters to Iran the tall upward-pointing spout, can be traced back to the to teach their colleagues. For the wider public, Chinese blue and white porcelain was copied in fritware or earthen- During the 12th century this type of ewer was produced in ware with a decoration in underglaze technique that be- 107 ceramic and in cast bronze. The bronze pieces are usually 56 57  of the bowl shown in Plate 108 might serve as an example for this kind of ware. The deep bowl was made from red earthenware and coated with a white slip; the painting was executed in black. A further type of Timurid pottery, which has recently been attributed to Nishapur, is painted in black under a transparent turquoise-blue glaze. With the rise of the Safavid dynasty in the 16 th cen- tury, the main centres of artistic activity shifted to western and central Iran. During the 17th and 18 th century one of the centres involved in the manufacture of ceramics was Kirman. The workshops of Kirman produced different types of celadon imitations in green, greyish-green or yel- lowish-green, some of them painted in white (Plate 109) . In the eastern provinces, Nishapur and Samarqand kept their role as places of ceramic manufacture throughout the 16 th century. They produced ceramics decorated in underglaze technique in black under a transparent coloured glaze or in blue under a transparent clear glaze. From the preceding overview it becomes clear that 108 the dynamics of adaptation and transformation of major developments in the western Islamic lands were one of the 108 Imitation of Blue-and-White porcelain, 15 th century major forces that had a lasting effect on the development of the art of the potter in the eastern provinces. Due to our comparatively sound knowledge of pottery from the western parts of the Islamic world and the relative dearth of reliable information concerning the pottery from pre- sent-day Afghanistan, it is alluring to focus on this point of view. This concentration, however, will perforce result in unbalanced or one-sided propositions and conclusions. To counterbalance this trend it is imperative to foster the exploration of regional or local developments. This means in particular the realization of long-term archaeological which may serve as a data-base for further investigations. 109 White painted bowl, imitation 109 of celadon (?), 17 th –18 th century 58 59  7. Islamic Glass Jens Kröger Two mould-blown glass bottles in the exhibition are ex- amples of the extensive glass production in Afghanistan. Both are typical for the 11th –12th century. It is very prob- able that they were blown in the province of Herat. Glass was used extensively for commercial purposes and in pri- vate households. In addition to plates, bottles in different sizes were common. Most popular were mould-blown ves- sels such as these two examples. In modern times Herat is a centre where glass is still blown in the traditional way passed down through the ages. The small bottle shown in Plate 110 has a globular body and a short cylindrical neck. Its decoration consists of vertical ribs, which were achieved by blowing the glass into a mould. It is a very typical example of Islamic mould- blown glass in the Middle Ages, but little is known about the bottle’s original use. If used as containers for liquids, such bottles would have had a stopper in the opening. The second bottle of yellowish glass has a squat body (Plate 111). The long cylindrical neck is missing. Only a trace of glass remains round the lower part. A pattern of staggered rows of teardrop-shaped loops decorate the body. This was achieved by blowing the glass into a mould. Both the type of object as well as the decoration are known from more com- plete examples in different collections and, thus, they must have been of widespread use in eastern Iranian provinces. 110 Mould–blown glass bottle with vertical ribs, 11 th–12 th century 111 Mould–blown glass bottle with 110 111 loop–pattern, 11 th–12 th century 61  8. The Art of the Book at the Court of Herat Claus-Peter Haase It is generally acknowledged that the Arabic calligraphy represents the height of the aesthetic strivings towards a beauty that upon sight would immediately inspire, and that these strivings were directed foremost to the Holy Koran, whose earliest form according to Islamic dogma is in heaven, increate and self-existent. The early pages of the Korans, of simple elegance, hieratic in the literal sense of the 9 th to 11th /12th century, are impressive to every ob- server just as are the richly decorated Korans of court cal- ligraphers in Iran during Safavid times or of the Ottoman Empire. In addition, from the very beginning there were also simpler styles of script that enabled quicker writing of documents, letters and other texts. The history of the development of the Arabic script ducti is documented in detail. Traceable to the renowned six styles of script of Ibn Muqla (early 10 th century) and of Ibn al-Bawwab (early 11th century) in Baghdad are the paper instead of on the traditional parchment for Korans since the 11th century. Above all, the early Muhaqqaq for large-size Korans of the 13th to 15 th century and the ubiquitous »round« Naskhi for smaller sizes held to the peaceful aesthetic standard of their predecessors (Plate 112). During the time of the Mongols radically new styles literary works in Arabic, Persian and eastern Turkish. Especially in belles-lettres works the Ta´liq script be- came common in the east and with the 14th century the Nasta´liq (Plate 113) lines brought forth almost dramatic images in script. This writers, who now also frequently signed their works and for this purpose developed the more obliging and rapid Riqa´. 63  Ta´ liq was supposedly developed by a secretary in the chan- lation was long encouraged. The extent to which regular cellery of Timur, Nasta´ liq by the ingenious calligrapher Mir schools of masters and master students were established Ali Tabrizi (d. 1446) shortly thereafter. During the Timurid is not quite clear, however, during the Timurid reign in period some of the renowned calligraphers were named the 15 th century it became customary that teachers signed after the prince, in whose particular court they resided, works written in practice. Great calligraphers and their such as Dja´ far-e Baysonghuri (worked c. 1421–1433). But teachers are listed in biographical works since the 15 th often they moved from court to court and also travelled century, but without more precise information about the beyond the borders of the gradually shrinking Timurid em- particular achievements of each. Thus, to make any differ- 112 pire, which is a signal that the periodical division in styles entiation we are dependent upon collections containing 114 according to dynasties should not be taken too strictly. signed works, like those preserved in the Herat Museum Master calligraphers like Abdurrahman from Khorazm and (Plate 112) . Another branch of the art of books also belongs to 114 Five epics by Amir Khosrau Dihlavi, 577 H/1569-70 court of the Qaraqoyunlu and Aqqoyunlu princes in Tabriz. miniature paintings in non-religious texts as well as the Mashhad and Yazd are important court centres as well, but process of preparing the paper and binding. Sometimes the the strongest development in the art of books took place, illuminations (tazhib) were carried out by the writer him- of course, in the capital of the Timurid kingdom, Herat. self, sometimes by other persons. The painting was surely The styles that were developed in one place dissemi- added later by others. In general, illuminations comprise nated rapidly to other courts; later they were exported to a title ornament (´unwan), which most frequently covered 113 India, where Iranian masters were highly esteemed during the Mughal period. The most renowned calligrapher who right side, that is, as part of a double page (Plate 114 –115). 112 Koran, Muhaqqaq ductus, writ- should be mentioned here was Sultan-Ali Mashhadi or Ha- Only in luxurious works were both sides (right and left ten by Mohammad b. Ali b. Mah- ravi (d. 1520), who despite his designated origin of Mash- page) written in reference to one another and the whole mud, 768 H/1395-6 had spent his most productive years in Herat (1470–c. enclosed within a frame (sar lauh, Plate 116). From the 13th 113 Tazkirat, biography of Dau- latshah, 9 th H/15 th century 1507) and issued hundreds of manuscripts. The rhythmic until the end of the 15 th centuries the rectangular frieze- curves and descenders in his letters, the combination of like ornamentation above the beginning of the text was the usual formation, with cartouches as title ornament and in Mashhad, he composed a treatise on calligraphy (1514), in which he laid emphasis upon the close relationship of the course of the 15 th century and ultimately were divid- Arabic calligraphy and religious practice of meditation and - the constant search for purity and truth. From that time on proverbs and poems written in blossoms increasingly spread to reach the top edge of the alternating styles of script were arranged decoratively on text-block on the opposite side. Also the margins, mostly single leaves, which were bound in albums or perhaps continuous throughout the manuscript in different gradu- hung in rooms on exhibition. Small fragments of examp- ations and colours of ink or executed in gold, are signs of a les of script were collected as well, occasionally attributed more elaborate manuscript. The titles were entered in gold to great masters and passed down in learned families for centuries. In this way a special appreciation for the value of artistic inventiveness grew around the art of calligra- end of the 14th century. Starting with the 14th century, a phy; the old masters were esteemed too, and their emu- pointed colophon was introduced at the end of the text, in 64 65  which the date and occasionally the name of the writer – also on the side or below – are often found. mainly manuscripts containing the renowned Iranian epic Since the late 14 th century it became popular to co- of Shahnama (Book of Kings), the works of Nizami (1141– lour the paper, probably following Buddhist models from 1209), Sa´di (d. 1292) and Khwadju Kirmani (14th centu- China, and in especially costly manuscripts the text block ry), and also the fable Kalila and Dimna after the Indian was written upon a background of gold or sprinkled with prototype of Bidpai, as well as chronicles and devotional silver. With the 15 th century in special cases the lines of writings. Most have remained preserved until today only script were written in cloud forms on or between a gold through collection albums, which were assembled in the 115 117 ground and – in accentuation – encircled by blossoms. In- Timurid courts and given as gifts of state to the Ottoman creasingly a special book form for poetic anthologies be- court in Istanbul; some of these even reached Berlin. th 117 Koran, c. 12 th century H/18 th th century. 1 st and beginning of 2 nd that opens upwards on the narrow side. Poems were writ- half of the 15 century above all in Shiraz, in the court in sura, east-Iranian or Indian ductus ten diagonally in the preferred Nasta´liq script, for which this form is excellently suited. Samarqand, although there is no direct evidence known. Among the innovations achieved by workshops for There particularly the double paged illumination was de- calligraphy in Herat are the costly ornamented frontispiec- veloped, with one page positioned in reference to the 116 other, depicting courtly scenes in which the patron is set and more with inscriptions, occasionally with reference equal with heroes of mythical times. 115 Divan of Bidel, Nasta´liq duc- to the royal owner and his library. Sometimes, the box- The painters’ ateliers in Herat of the 15 th centu- tus; late 18 th/19 th century shaped table of contents (djadval) at the beginning and, ry were in constant exchange with this school, but also 116 Koran, written in Naskhi and occasionally, also complete pages of decoration, which are worked in the tradition of the earlier Ilkhanid sources. Thuluth; 11th cent. H/17 th century lores from previous times, received additional decoration. Above all, the Madjmu´a-e tarikhi (Historical Anthology) The Herat style is principally recognisable in the colour by Hafiz-e Abru, today in the library of the Topkapi Sa- of the ornaments. Since the twenties of the 15 th century, ray in Istanbul, particularly demonstrates the broad range in style of different painters, who knew how to employ with a few sprinklings of red and light green became preva- traditional Chinese, Iranian and Central Asian motifs and themes, and synthesize them in excellent compositions. metric spaces in the most different forms or in round and A name mentioned foremost in individual manuscripts is oval medallions. These and the multifarious forms of cloud that of Prince Baysonghur (d. 1433), both patron and cal- bands bestow the Herat style with precedence over all. ligrapher himself, who is alleged to have taken capture of For the occidental observer miniature painting, of painters and calligraphers from Tabriz during a military course, plays the most important role in the art of books. campaign to the city in 1420. The palette of hues and the fine sense of compositional relationships in scenes wall paintings as well – under Islamic patronage occurred and landscapes attain great heights in all paintings. His in the late Mongol period (Ilkhanids) of the 14 th centu- brother, Muhammad Djuki, governor of Balkh, proved to ry in Iran. At the courts in Tabriz, Sultaniyya, Baghdad, be a patron of the arts as well, perhaps with masters from Isfahan, Shiraz, Yazd and Mashhad, but also in smaller Herat, and it can be assumed that the influence of the centres, the works of painters are attested biographically. style in Herat reached Samarqand too. After a politically unsettled interval, this proliferation in the art of books continued under the rule of Husayn and excellent depictions of humans and animals, with a 66 67 in a manuscript: the Zafarnama (Chronicle of Victory) by However, nothing can be learned about their organisati- Sharafuddin Ali Yazdi (dated to 1467-8, today in the Wal- on until a similar institution in Istanbul (naqqashkhana) ters Art Museum, Baltimore). The manuscript is viewed evolved in the 16 th itself known among the Uzbeks in Bukhara and Samar- gifted painter Bihzad (1460–1535), who as master painter enjoyed unusual fame during his lifetime in the Islamic these traditions were further fostered in late Herat. The world, namely as a »second Mani«, the famous book artist Safavid period brings with it a large palette of ornamental and religious founder of the 3 rd century AD. Many of his hues. Only the slightly coarser forms of ornamental vines manuscripts and those of his artist friends reached Mughal and new colours – increasingly lighter tones and a much courts in India, and thence museums in Britain. A further, thinner, often darker gold (gold bronze) – reveal their late renowned manuscript of the Bustan (Scented Garden) by Safavid date. Sa´ di, written by Sultan-Ali Mashhadi and illustrated by Apparently, the Qadjar style developed in Iran dur- Bihzad, is now in Cairo. ing the 19 th century, with abundant reproductions of Even with the invasion of the Uzbeks in Herat in 1507 medallions and vines, was not adopted in Afghanistan. the tradition of this incomparable courtly culture and art There, darker hues with greyish blue and violet shimmer did not come to an end, although some artists like Sultan- were preferred for book ornaments. The script changed as well and grew distant from the increasingly finer Nasta´ liq that the Uzbek khan Ubaidullah (1512–1539) invited art- (Plate 115) resp. from the interrupted ductus (shikasta) that ists from the courtly design-atelier (kitabkhana) in Herat to was common in Iran starting with the 17th century. Afghan Bukhara. The miniature style there is clearly tied with Herat manuscripts often display a thicker, more angular Naskhi traditions; the illuminations and especially the »Kufesque« ductus known from India (Plate 117) . Qadjar elements are decorative inscriptions in miniatures and on buildings copy found only in miniature style, such as delicate colours these models. and the rendering of the body with shadowed contours Among the bound works from Herat workshops, as well as in the diminutive size of the images scattered the gilded lacquered volumes of the late 15 th century are throughout the text. The ornamental letters painted in calligraphic forms, mostly religious proverbs, belong in medallion forms. They were so valuable that decades later the 19 th century too. Even historical reminiscences of the they were bestowed as gift of state to the Topkapi Saray early medieval Kufic ducti and single leaves with varying forms of script re-appear. coloured backgrounds on the inside of the covers were renowned. The most frequent are gilded, impressed me- dallion forms on the front and back covers as well as in The workshops of the bookbinders worked according to the same models in style as did the illuminators and many other branches of artistic craftsmen. Thus, the terms »art academy« or »workshop for design« (kitabkhana) are quite applicable, which Prince Baysonghur had already in- stalled in the court of Shah Rukh (1377–1447) and which supposedly operated until the end of the Timurid period. 68 69  9. In Search for the Historical Roots of a Region Ute Franke The Joint German-Afghan Mission was established in 2002 in the frame of a co-operation between the National Institute of Archaeology in Afghanistan and the German Archaeological Institute in Berlin, Germany. Until 2005, the team carried out an archaeological training and excavation program in the Bagh-e Babur, Kabul, with the objective to facilitate the restoration of the Mughal garden along its historical roots, a program carried out by the Aga Khan Trust for Culture since 2003. During this time we realized that all over Afghanistan the plundering and destruction of sites through the hand of man and erosion progressed at an alarming speed (Plate 118, 122) . Many monuments are not registered in the Archaeological Gazetteer of Afgha- nistan (Ball 1982), thus, with them all record disappears. In collaboration with the Ministry of Culture we thus decided to establish an archaeological mission that would work on 118 Tappe Azadeh, Karukh (Ka10), with illegal excavations creating a standardized record of sites and monuments in a 119 Kafar Qalat, Guzara (Gz05): given region. This information will be integrated into a Na- view from the hilltop fortification tional Site Register to be established by the Government towards the Hari Rud of Afghanistan. Apart from setting up a site catalogue and provide training to our Afghan colleagues in this particular on in future. In 2004, we had to decide where to start the project. 118 aspects of security, accessibility and logistics. Therefore, the idea to work in provinces with a known potential of prehistoric archaeological sites, such as Kandahar, Hel- mand and Badghis, had to be abandoned, while in Bactria the French Archaeological Mission planned to reopen their work (see Map 1). Herat appeared to be an equally good starting point for a pilot project (Plate 119): the area is sci- 119 history, but little work has been done. In general, scholarly 71 121 120 122 120 Two domed buildings, with research was rather concerned with the monuments from that were subsequently entered into a database, with a brick titlework, Chisht-e Sharif (CS01), late 12 th century the Kart and Timurid eras, which are more conveniently description, photographs, sketches, plans, maps, and the 121 Plan of the »madrassa« at located. Last but not least, Herat municipality prepared Chisht-e Sharif (front left in Pl. an application for a nomination in the World Heritage List to plan, function, built, and other criteria. Types include 120) and required information about its cultural heritage. Thus, large and small settlements (Plate 118, 122) - in 2004 the project »Areia Antiqua: Documentation of tions (Plate 119) (Plate 125) , watchtowers Sites and Monuments in Herat Province« was established, (Plate 126), qanats, cisterns (houz) and other water-related in cooperation with the Department of Monuments and structures, caravanserais (Plate 127), and various types of Sites in Herat. It was a choice that we never regretted, as religious buildings, such as mosques, khanqahs, shrines, the subsequent growth of the project shows. and graveyards. In addition to a large set of information on From 2004 to 2006, 315 monuments and sites were the physical and cultural properties, a reference collection - of objects, mostly pottery, was established (Plate 123–124). sents a considerable increase in the known number of sites They are, along with architectural features and epigraphy, and in the quality of information, but it still does not pro- the most useful dating tools. Finally, historic references and vide a complete picture of the ancient landscape: in such oral popular traditions were recorded. The analysis of the with random walking cannot be realized, also due to the 122 Palgird (Gh05), Ghoriyan: view over pillaged site extent of mined areas, the lack of roads, tracks and logistic 123 slip-painted pottery, Palgird facilities. Districts such as Shindand, Farsi, Adraskan, and (Gh05), c. 11 th century Kushk Kohna were not accessible for security reasons. Yet, 124 incised and slip-painted potte- the amount of driven kilometres is close to 8,000 km. ry, Palgird (Gh05), c. 11 th century For orientation 1:50,000 Russian topographical maps available from AIMS and aerial images were used during the ground survey. All tracks were recorded by GPS (global positioning system) and entered into geo-referenced maps. Information obtained from the local populace and guides was an important tool for the location of monuments. For 123 124 each entry, a data set was created on pro-forma sheets 72 73  data is in progress and the information is visualized on maps tions about settlement distribution and urban-rural rela- through a GIS system (geographical information system). tionships: to which extent was the hinterland of the urban These data not only represent a singular set of records, they centres affected by changing patterns of political alliances also facilitate thematic approaches to the cultural, political, and dominion? Reportedly, the Mongol invasions in and economic development of a landscape through time 1221-2 and the devastation of the irrigation systems and from different perspectives. settlements destroyed the foundations for urban and rural 125 The sites range in time from the late 3 rd millennium economic and cultural life for a long time. Is this event the BC (see chapter 4, Plate 128) to the 19 th century. At least sole reason for the long-term abandonment of sites, no 125 Begal (Ob05), Obeh, fortified eight sites date to the pre-Islamic historical era, which is c. matter of location, environment and function, or did, for residential area the 5 th century BC to the 6 th century AD. The majority be- example, desertification and political choices also play a 126 Dara-e Takht (CS33), Chisht-e Sharif, watchtower longs to the Islamic Period, and here mainly to the 10 th to role? To answer these questions we need to look at a par- 127 Qal‘a-e Zarkari (CS40), Chisht-e 13th century AD and the Timurid era, when Herat achieved ticular region at a particular time (synchronous) and fol- Sharif, caravanserai a primary role as political and cultural centre. The Timurid low its changes through time (diachronic). This approach is monuments cluster within the city and its environs while only to a certain extent aided by written records. Looking most sites and monuments discovered in the hinterland back further in history, the most eminent question is if rather belong to previous centuries, a distribution pattern, Herat really was the locality of »Alexandria in Areia«. which was also noted by the archaeological teams working in Samarqand. Just 80 km to the west of Herat lies an ex- itself. However, such a quest is neither easy nor straight- tensive, more than 1 km2 large town that was settled from forward. In the densely populated Old City (Shahr-e Koh- the 10 th to the 13 th century and then abandoned (Plate 122). na) open spaces that allow archaeological investigations It has preserved the complete plan of a vast Islamic city, are very limited and the pre-Timurid and the Timurid city with residential quarters, wells, a citadel, industrial areas, are buried by meters and meters of urban debris that accu- a city wall, and suburbs. Thousands of sherds mirror a rich mulated since the 16 th century (Plate 15). Yet, in 2005, we material culture; most likely, many of the vessels in the extended our work to Herat proper, with the Délégation collection of the Herat Museum (Plate 90 –94) and in the Archéologique Française en Afghanistan (DAFA) as an ad- bazaars of Herat, Kabul, and Peshawar come from this ditional cooperation partner. 128 Chlorite pedestal of a human figurine (Gu04), 3 rd millennium BC, heavily pillaged site. The search for the most ancient roots of Herat start- Gulran Its presence so close to the presumed central place ed in Kohandaz, an oval-shaped, mounded area north of 129 Kohandaz: view towards the Herat and the shifting settlement patterns raises ques- Shahr-e Kohna, which is commonly hold to be the location Shrine of Shahzada Abdullah (2005) 126 127 129 128 74 75  dump, but which lies already below the level of the Timu- rid graveyard. After the removal of c. 1.5 m of modern rubbish and beneath debris layers which contained many architectural decoration pieces from the 16 th to 19 th centu- 132 ry as well as concrete from modern restorations, few, but undisturbed remains of an occupation came to light. Most remarkable are two wells which yielded a number of well 132 Kohandaz: slip-painted bowl with a frieze of pseudo-inscripti- preserved antiquities that can be dated to the 11th /12th ons, 11 th century, Trench II, well 1 century (Plate 131–133). They were dug through a horizon (2005) with burials into layers of a sterile alluvium, which – after 133 Kohandaz: bronze cup, illegi- 131 130 manual removals had to be stopped – were excavated by ble inscription along the outer rim, Trench II, well 2 (2005) machine to the depth of 8 m without reaching their base. 130 Kohandaz: cleaning of section of the oldest city (see Szuppe 2004). The area is crowned by The loose, sandy deposits are most probably the remnants and mud brick walls (2005) the Shrine of Shahzada Abdullah, a building dated to 1487-8 of intensive irrigation, an interpretation that is in concert 131 Kohandaz: Trench II, showing well 2 (2005) (893 H), the time of Husayn Bayqara, but which has roots with the historic records, which from the 10 th century on- in the Kart period (see O’Kane 1987 #37. Plate 129). A large graveyard developed around the shrine and, although the extensive system of canals. - derable antiquity, modern habitation gradually approaches the alluvium are not older than the 10 th or 11th century, ever, with the support of the authorities it was possible to hence, if a pre-Islamic occupation was located in Kohan- open three trenches, to clean a couple of sections, and to daz, it is buried by these deposits and lies beyond the reach document sections in private compounds and in pits where of spade or manual drills. excavations for construction works were ongoing. Trenches I and III are located in the very north of the The old city, Shahr-e Kohna, with a squarish, grid patterned plan and a citadel is another likely locality for ancient Herat. The sections reveal that the perimeter wall is built with It covers an area of c. 2 km2 - soil and gravel, however, in one area mud brick walls were cation with four large gates is described as early as the clearly visible (Plate 130). To investigate their date, which is 10 th century (Plate 12, Szuppe 2004). The citadel, generally assumed by some scholars to be pre-Islamic, the section known as »arq« or Qal´a-e Ikhtyaruddin, the name of a was cut back and a sounding was dug in the centre of Kart general, is situated near the junction of the city wall the perimeter wall. The excavations and all other sections and the oval-shaped perimeter wall of Kohandaz (interior yielded the same results: the enclosure wall comprises of cover, Plate 134). It rises 13 m above street level, the outer diagonally sloping layers of soil and gravel; founded on a wall, including battlements, runs c. 260 m in east-west and horizontal gravel deposit. The objects retrieved from the 60 m–80 m in north-south direction, enclosing an area of trenches belong to the 13th century (from levels near the c. 18,000 m2 . The outer walls are 16 m high and 2 m thick, base), the Timurid period (from the mud-brick architec- and reinforced with 18 towers which reach a height of c. ture, which is probably part of a gateway), and later. 31 m above street level (Plate 134–136). The interior space Another trench (II) was opened in the southernmost is divided into an upper citadel with a well, dungeons, 133 area of Kohandaz, in a depression which was a water reser- and treasury, and a lower part with garrisons and stables; 76 77  which was destroyed by his father Tamerlan, with burnt bricks (after O’Kane 1987), and the king in fact installed a long Thuluth inscription praising his achievements along th century chro- inside the city and its foundation is often even attributed to Alexander the Great. A major restoration and conservation program car- and directed by A. Bruno (Bruno 1981), brought forward - tural history of the citadel. At that time, the building was cleared from the rubble of a large-scale brick plundering in the 1950es, the main entrance which led to a narrow lane separating the lower and upper part of the citadel was shifted from the south to the west, the fortress resto- the major achievements were the discovery and restoration of the banna’i brickwork decoration on tower XIV, the so- 134 called Timurid tower (Plate 136), of a faience inscription that commemorates the reconstruction of the citadel by Shah 134 Arial view and plan of Qal’a-e the Museum and Archive are also located here (Plate 9 –11). Rukh, of a stone glacis, of an arched entrance underneath Ikhtyaruddin, with location of tren- ches (2007) Today, the upper courtyard is dominated by the ruins of a tower XVIII which was blocked in the 17th century when 135 Qal’a-e Ikhtyaruddin, north- palace of Amir Abdurrahman, which up to the 1970s still the tower was reconstructed, and of a watchtower in front ern foot of citadel, with Trench 2 stood three storeys high, and by restored houses from the of this entrance; these structures were dated to the Timu- under tower XVIII. View towards east (2007) 17th to 19 th century (Plate 137). The buildings in the lower rid period. However, a number of pre-Timurid potsherds 136 Qal’a-e Ikhtyaruddin, »Timu- courtyard are similar in date (Plate 9), and so are the outer also came to light in a sounding near the Timurid tower; rid«-tower (XIV) with banna‘i deco- they supported the assumption that the plan and at least ration (2007) from the north-western part (towers XIV-XIX. Plate 135, 136) they belong to the 18 th and 19 th century (Bruno 1981). When the citadel was originally founded is still enig- matic. The long history of refurbishments and changes, in association with the lack of architectural and archae- to propose reliable dates, especially since the chronicles are not unanimous: sources variously credit Fakhruddin Kart, his general Ikhtyaruddin Kart, and the Timurid ruler Shah Rukh, with the construction, giving the dates 810 H 135 136 Shah Rukh rebuilt the mud brick walls of the old citadel, 78 79  the matrix of this extensive structure is extremely hard room. Below its remains, the paksha-structure continued (B). While material and built were similar, this portion con- tained more pottery and a living horizon here and there. with mud brick walls, ash layers, and hearths. Associated with them were objects such as polishers, grinding stones, a small gaming piece and a well-preserved shafted copper 140 or bronze arrowhead (Plate 138, 141, 142). The compact clay matrix (C) still continued underneath this level, but now 139 137 large-sized mud bricks (60 cm x 30 cm x 10 cm) became visible. At the end of the season and at a depth of 7 m 137 Qal’a-e Ikhtyaruddin, upper some of the standing buildings rest on older foundations. below surface (921 m amsl) the base of the material had courtyard, view towards west (2005) However, the project stopped in 1979 and many questions not yet been reached. 139 Qal’a-e Ikhtyaruddin, Trench remained open. 1 (u. 06), unglazed spouted pottery Therefore, in 2005 it was decided to extend the ar- partly due to the limited scale of the excavation, partly due jar, 17 th/18 th century chaeological research, especially having in mind the new information that we had collected during the survey and in Kohandaz. Since then, four large trenches were excavated (Plate 134). Two of them are located in the upper courtyard of Qal’a-e Ikhtyaruddin, where, with some luck, chances were thought to be good to retrieve a long section through the history of the fortress. Fortunately enough, these ex- 138 Qal’a-e Ikhtyaruddin, upper - courtyard, Trench 1a view towards ments and a subterranean drainage system with terracotta east (2007) pipes and covered channels from the time of Amir Abdur- 140 Qal’a-e Ikhtyaruddin, Trench 1a (u. 17), quartzbased lustre tile rahman, i.e. to the late 19 th century, were uncovered (Plate with blue accents, 14 th century 137). They provide a good terminus ante quem for all sub- 141 Qal’a-e Ikhtyaruddin, Trench 1a (u. 90), pre-islamic vessel of burnt brick architecture came to light; they are dated by the potsherds to the 17th and 18 th century (Plate 139) . Canon balls and skeletons bespeak the sieges of Herat. Under- neath these buildings, a large and very compact paksha- structure (A; layers of mud-straw mixture) was exposed (Plate 138) . While this did not contain many sherds, associ- ated pits and debris layers brought forward vast amounts of pottery, dating from the 18 th to the 12th /13 th century 138 141 successively (Plate 139, 140) 80 81  to the lack of clues to its function, such as domestic or other stabilization of the glacis. A compact clay structure exposed features. A second trench revealed that it continues towards underneath resembles the upper paksha-structure (A) in north. The dimensions have not been fully established, but Trench 1. Potsherds found in situ also provide a 12th /13th its length is more than 13 m (N-S) and its width exceeds century date. As in Trench 1, this structure represents a 6 m (E-W). Whether we deal with the remnant of a large - ly layered sediments, which are similar to those found at question at present. Fissures and gaps from phases of rebuilt Kohandaz; they imply that this area was periodically sub- and re-enforcement reveal that it was in use for a long time. merged by standing water, possibly due to irrigation. This 142 While the basal layers of the upper part (A) can be dated interpretation is supported by the discovery of two frag- from the 12th to 14th century, the pottery assemblage from ments of terracotta pipes in these otherwise sterile layers. the lower parts (B, C) reveals a profound change in tech- At a depth of 4,5 m their base had not been reached. nology and style, and glazed, moulded or stamped sherds, Important new evidence for the structural history which were typical for the upper levels, were completely of Qal’a-e Ikhtyaruddin was obtained in another trench absent. The pottery, the arrowhead and the radiocarbon (3), which was opened below tower XVIII and the old dates infer a date to the mid-1st millennium BC, they are the arched entrance. Here A. Bruno had discovered, but not oldest archaeological traces ever excavated in Herat. fully excavated a tower with a guardroom. This evidence the old UNESCO sounding at the northern foot of the cita- del, near the Timurid-tower (Trench 2). It is situated at a low height (915 m amsl) and thus offered a good opportunity to investigate the lower levels. To obtain potsherds from cm. In addition, an almost 5 m deep sounding was dug; at the end, we thus cleared a 13 m high section (Plate 143). It reveals debris and a layer of repair above the stone glacis which was dated by A. Bruno to the Timurid period. The 144 Qal’a-e Ikhtyaruddin, pottery, imitation of blue-and-white porce- lain, 15/16 th century, found above the glacis in Trench 2 (l. 2011) 145 Qal’a-e Ikhtyaruddin, Trench 3, view along northern foot of cita- del (2007) 142 Qal’a-e Ikhtyaruddin, Trench 1, shafted bronze arrowhead 143 Qal’a-e Ikhtyaruddin, Trench 2, 143 145 144 view of section (2007) 82 83  148 146 Qal’a-e Ikhtyaruddin, Trench 3, western tower with bastion, south wall, and section through moat, 146 147 view towards south (2007) suggested to him that the citadel was approached through of these structures cannot be established because this area 147 Qal’a-e Ikhtyaruddin, Trench 3 (u. 3020), quartzbased pottery and a bent (hairpin) access, commonly used in medieval for- is covered by modern houses, but the width of the moat porcelain, 15 th century was at least 6 m, its depth 3 m. Another important feature 148 Qal’a-e Ikhtyaruddin, Trench 3 reconstruction since in 2007, a second 7 m wide tower is the stone glacis which surrounds the citadel (see above). It (u. 3010), chlorite vessel with incised decoration, pre-Islamic (?) with a huge stone bastion came to light (Plate 145, 146). It covers the sandstone frieze and parts of the tile decoration is constructed with square, burnt bricks and 7 m wide. The and is thus certainly younger than the tower. This evidence poses a problem concerning their date: if the glacis is dated face still stands to a height of 2 m. There, a tile decoration to the Timurid period, the tower is older, if the tower is Ti- with plain, blue, turquoise and white glazed bricks was un- murid, the glacis is younger. New radiocarbon dates support covered. The brickwork is set in a 20 cm thick bed of bricks the latter hypothesis. and greyish lime mortar, it starts above a sandstone frieze Despite the initial stage of this work we can now offer and a band of »dog-teeth« brick pattern (Plate 145) . This an impressive reconstruction of the northern face of the decoration is identical to the tilework of the Timurid tower citadel: the arched entrance was protected by two large (Plate 136). Whereas A. Bruno suggested that the glazed tiles were attached to the tower at a later stage, the new the moat. These buildings fell out of use when the entrance evidence clearly shows that the tower and the decoration was blocked and the new tower was built, probably during were built at the same time. The lower part of the tower the 17th or 18th century. Access to the citadel was direct. was later reinforced by huge stones (dia: 14 m, h: 6 m). Finds from this area, particularly the moat, include typical The two towers in front of the entrance were con- 15 th century (Plate 147), but also some earlier pottery types nected by two east-west walls. The face of the southern has preserved a bed of mortar into which once held a tile a small chlorite pot (Pls. 148) and large stone bases from decoration. Some details of their construction and the a press (Plate 146 back ). The excavations have also shown adjoining deposits suggest that they belong to a bridge; we that the Timurid citadel had a predecessor, probably with a thus propose that the citadel had a moat. The presence of similar extension, but built with paksha. Work in 2008 will a moat is also indicated by the sections and the matrix of be devoted to follow these questions and to preserve the the deposits. Two wooden poles are preserved in front of newly found structures, with the perspective to visualize this structure. These walls were already standing when the the monumentality of the building. tower was re-enforced. Unfortunately, the northern limits 84 85 Acknowledgements Credits for Illustrations The archaeological research described in chapter 9 has only been possible through the Aga Khan Trust for Culture: 14, 43 (Arash Boostani). Republic of Germany and I wish to thank all staff involved (see Preface). I also wish to ex- Cécile Buquet: 131 press my gratitude to the staff of the German Archaeological Institute, Eurasia Department Ute Franke: frontispiece, interior cover, 2, 8-11, 13, 15, 17, 18, 21, 23, 26, 28, 35, 36-41, 43, 45, 46, 122, 125, 128, 129, 130, 137, 138 In Kabul, we are grateful to the Ministry of Information and Culture, particularly H.E. K. Khorram as present and Dr. M. Rasheen as former Minister, and Omar Sultan as Deputy Google Earth: 12 Minister. Nadir Rassouli, present director of the Institute of Archaeology in Afghanistan, is a constant and reliable source of support and friendship; we also appreciated the collabora- Astrid Lange: 1, 3-7, 19, 20, 22, 24, 30-34, 47-111, 123, 124, 133, 139-142, 144, 147, 148 tion with Abdul Wasai Firouzi, former director of the Archaeological Institute, Ahad Abbasi, director of the Department of Monuments and Sites, and Omara Massoudy, director of the Stephanie Langer: 112-117. Kabul National Museum. Benjamin Mutin: 132 In Herat, we are grateful for their support to Wali Shah Bahra as former and Mr. Zarkawi as Otto Niedermayer (Afghanistan, Leipzig 1924): 16, 25, 27, 29, 36, 37, 42. Vahidi, Haji Mohandez, and Adjmal Ayomuddin as subsequent directors of the Department of Monuments and Sites in Herat, and to Ghulam Zahir, wali of Ziarat Shahzada Abdullah. Thomas Urban: 118-121, 126, 127, 134-136, 143, 145, 146, regional map (based on SRTM data), I especially wish to thank the teams who made this work possible and who shared the good and the bad times: 2004: Adjmal Ayomuddin, Ute Franke, Stephanie Langer, Anwar, Khair Mohammad, Ab- dullah Muftizadeh, Ramin, Thomas Urban, Niazi, and Faheem. 2005: Adjmal Ayomuddin, Roland Besenval, Cécile Bouquet, Ute Franke, Said Junis, Astrid Lange, Stephanie Langer, Benjamin Mutin, Khair Mohammad, Nadjib Siddiqui, Thomas Urban, and Said Ibrahim. 2006: Adjmal Ayomuddin, Stella Bickelmann, Ute Franke, Astrid Lange, Khair Mohammad, Nadjib Siddiqui, Thomas Urban, Yunis, Said Ibrahim, and Khalil. 2007: Ute Franke, Astrid Lange, Nick Mohammad, Nadjib Siddiqui, Thomas Urban, and Maruchi Yoshida; and Roland Besenval and Philippe Marquis from the DAFA. 86 87 Literature Allan, J.W. 1979. Persian Metal Technology 700–1300 AD. London. Grube, E. 1974. Notes on the decorative art of the Timurid period. 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