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Abstract
Literature Review of Relevant Constructs
Study 1
Study 2
Method
Measures of Related Constructs
Results
Discussion
Implications for Practice and Research
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Psychology
Cognitive Psychology

A New Measure of the Expanded Present Time Perspective

Profile image of Zara ZimbardoZara Zimbardo

2017, Time Perspective: Theory and Practice

https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-60191-9_3
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Abstract

Increased attention has been focused on the experience of an expanded present time perspective, but there has been no assessment tool to measure this particular time orientation. An established measure of time perspective, the ZTPI, assesses only two present-oriented perspectives: Present-Hedonistic and Present-Fatalistic. Two studies were conducted to develop and validate a third ZTPI subscale of Present-Expanded. This subscale is distinct from the two other present-oriented subscales, and also has clear relationships with measures of related constructs such as mindfulness, openness to experience, life satisfaction, and emotional intelligence. This new scale can be used in both research and personal practice.

Related papers

Time Perspective and Correlates of Wellbeing
Elaine Duncan

Time & Society, 2008

This study investigated correlates of five time perspectives (TP) and the Balanced Time Perspective (BTP) construct proposed by Zimbardo and colleagues. Two hundred and sixty Scottish participants completed the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI: Zimbardo and Boyd, 1999), Subjective Happiness Scale (Lyubomirsky and Lepper, 1999) and Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (Brown and Ryan, 2003). The most prevalent TP profile was moderate to high score on all five of TPs of the ZTPI. BTP participants were significantly happier and more mindful. Happiness and mindfulness were positively correlated but future TP did not correlate with subjective happiness. KEY WORDS • Balanced Time Perspective • happiness • mindfulness • temporal frames • time perspective Time

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What are the optimal levels of time perspectives? Deviation from the balanced time perspective-revisited (DBTP-r
Konrad S Jankowski

Psychologica Belgica, 2020

Balanced time perspective (BTP) describes a tendency to focus on past, present and future time horizons that fosters well-being and positive life outcomes. Deviation from the balanced time perspective is a widespread method to measure the balance, but it makes assumptions regarding levels of time perspectives constituting BTP. In the present research we aimed to test the assumptions regarding levels of time perspectives constituting BTP by testing associations between time perspectives and domains of well-being in four independent samples (N = 1150). The results showed that higher well-being was fostered by greater past positive (PP) and future (F) and lower past negative (PN) and present fatalistic (PF) time perspectives in a linear manner. As for the present hedonistic (PH) perspective, the results were inconsistent indicating that this time orientation can be unrelated to well-being or related in an inverse U-shape manner. In the light of our results the optimal values for the deviation from the balanced time perspective, as measured with the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory, should be revisited and changed into PN 1, PP 5, PF 1, PH 3.4, F 5, with careful consideration whether or not to incorporate PH into the formula for the deviation from the balanced time perspective at all. We also showed that the deviation from the balanced time perspective using the above values better predicts well-being than the one using previously assumed levels.

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Time perspective in adolescents and young adults: Enjoying the present and trusting in a better future
Stefano Passini

Time perspective is crucial in adolescence and youth, when individuals make important decisions related to their present and future. The focus of this research was to use the six-factor short version Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (S-ZTPI) scale in a sample of adolescents and young adults, and to analyse its associations with decision-making, relational styles and engagement. A structural equation model of the effects of S-ZTPI on these variables was computed, and its psychometric properties were found adequate. The results underline that young people's present orientation is associated with a relational style based on confidence in oneself and others, and with active engagement in terms of responsibility and trust in a better future. Our findings suggest a positive description of ado-lescents' views, as they are able to enjoy the time they are living in without giving up their responsibilities for making a better world for the future.

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Questions of time and affect: a person's affectivity profile, time perspective, and well-being
Danilo Garcia

PeerJ, 2016

Background. A "balanced" time perspective has been suggested to have a positive influence on well-being: a sentimental and positive view of the past (high Past Positive), a less pessimistic attitude toward the past (low Past Negative), the desire of experiencing pleasure with slight concern for future consequences (high Present Hedonistic), a less fatalistic and hopeless view of the future (low Present Fatalistic), and the ability to find reward in achieving specific long-term goals (high Future). We used the affective profiles model (i.e., combinations of individuals' experience of high/low positive/negative affectivity) to investigate differences between individuals in time perspective dimensions and to investigate if the influence of time perspective dimensions on well-being was moderated by the individual's type of profile. Method. Participants (N = 720) answered to the Positive Affect Negative Affect Schedule, the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory and two me...

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Testing Zimbardo's Stanford Time Perspective Inventory (STPI) -Short Form: An Italian Study
Vilfredo De Pascalis

Time & Society, 2003

In the present study the psychometric properties of the Stanford Time Perspective Inventory (STPI - short version) are assessed in an Italian sample. Factorial analysis of STPI items was performed on 1507 respondents (965 women and 542 men). Results showed a clear correspondence between factorial components and a priori hypothesized dimensions by evidencing three factors (Future, Hedonistic Present, Fatalistic Present). Italian translation of the STPI indicates a fair degree of internal consistency and good metrological characteristics. The present results parallel those previously reported for an American sample. The present study, however, failed in evidencing the ‘Past’ as a factor in the factor structure. The results are discussed in terms of individual differences with respect to the relationships between demographic variables and temporal dimensions.

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Time Perspectives Predict Mood States and Satisfaction with Life over and above Personality
Maciej Stolarski

Current Psychology, 2016

The present study aimed to test the incremental validity of Time Perspective (TP) scales in predicting satisfaction with life and mood, over and above the Big Five personality traits. It also investigated whether the new TP construct of Future Negative perspective contributed to prediction of these outcomes. Participants (N = 265) completed four measures: Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS), UWIST Mood Adjective Checklist (UMACL), a modified Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI), and NEO-Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI). Results confirmed the incremental validity of TP, although Big Five dimensions were independently predictive of life satisfaction and certain mood scales. Past Negative TP was the strongest single predictor of life satisfaction. However, Future Negative TP was be the strongest mood predictor from the TP universe, after controlling for the Big Five and remaining TP dimensions. Findings suggest that TP is an important aspect of personality for understanding individual differences in well-being.

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Time Perspective and Age: A Review of Age Associated Differences
Carlos Trujillo

Frontiers in psychology, 2017

We investigate the relationship between age and the five dimensions of time perspective measured by the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) (past negative, past positive, present hedonistic, present fatalistic, and future). Time perspective is related to well-being, decision-making, level of development, and many other psychological issues. Hence, the existence of a systematic relationship between time perspective and age should be considered in all studies for which time is a relevant variable. However, no specific research about this has been conducted. We collected 407 papers that referenced the ZTPI between 2001 and 2015. From those, 72 studies met our inclusion criteria. They included 29,815 participants from 19 countries whose age spans most phases of adulthood (from 13.5 to 75.5 years, mean 28.7). We analyzed these studies adapting meta-analytical techniques. We found that present hedonistic and past negative dimensions are negatively related to aging with partial eta ...

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Temporal, Perspectives, Dispositional Styles, and Subjective Well-Being
Mary Naeger

2001

This study investigated the relationship between time perspective (TP) and the personality dispositions of optimism, pessimism, and realism with regard to their proposed influence on three measures that collectively assessed subjective well-being (SWB). The Depression-Happiness Scale assessed happiness or the presence of positive affect and the absence of negative affect, the cognitiveaffective components of SWB. The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) provided the measurement of subjective life satisfaction, the essential final cognitive-judgmental component of SWB. The Life Orientation Scale-Revised (LOT-R) ) and a Reality Scale, composed by the author, assessed the dispositional styles. The Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZPTI) (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999) assessed TP. Five temporal perspectives were found. Results indicated that the TPs emerged as strong and unique predictors of SWB in regression analysis. An optimal temporal profile was found that consisted of a combination of Present-Hedonistic, Future, and Past-Positive TP characteristics.

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A Global Look at Time: A 24-Country Study of the Equivalence of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory
Anna Sircova, Altinay Kislali-Erginbilgic, Isabella Romanko, N. Carmi, Umbelina Rego Leite, Antanas Kairys, A. Baltin, Regina Ershova, Britt Wiberg, Vitor Gamboa, Juan F Diaz-Morales, Victor Ortuño

Sage Open, 2014

In this article, we assess the structural equivalence of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI) across 26 samples from 24 countries (N = 12,200). The ZTPI is proven to be a valid and reliable index of individual differences in time perspective across five temporal categories: Past Negative, Past Positive, Present Fatalistic, Present Hedonistic, and Future. We obtained evidence for invariance of 36 items (out of 56) and also the five-factor structure of ZTPI across 23 countries. The short ZTPI scales are reliable for country-level analysis, whereas we recommend the use of the full scales for individual-level analysis. The short version of ZTPI will further promote integration of research in the time perspective domain in relation to many different psycho-social processes.

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Perspectives on Time
Ilona Boniwell

The Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology, 2009

Time perspective is a preferential direction of an individual's thoughts toward the past, present, or future, which exerts a dynamic influence on their experience, motivation, thinking, and several aspects of behavior. This chapter discusses the theoretical and conceptual bases of this construct, as well as existing approaches to measuring time perspective, such as the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory. Major research findings with regard to time perspective are considered, including its influence on educational achievement, risk taking, and negative reminiscence. Further attention is paid to the patterns of relationships between various time perspective types and several aspects of well-being, highlighting the limitations associated with allowing any one time perspective to dominate. The idea of a balanced time perspective is suggested as an alternative to any particular temporal bias. In an optimally balanced time perspective, the past, present, and future components engage ...

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Related papers

A new measure of time perspective: Initial psychometric findings for the Balanced time Perspective Scale (BTPS)
Jeff Webster

The development and initial validation of a new scale of balanced time perspective is reported. A balanced time perspective is defined here as a frequent and equal tendency to think about both one's past and future in positive ways. Sixty-seven men and 79 women ranging in age from 18 -46 years (M ϭ 21.3, SD ϭ 4.42) completed the Balanced Time Perspective Scale (BTPS) and measures of happiness, well-being, self-esteem, and two subscales of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory. Principal components analysis (PCA) of the BTPS resulted in a Past orientation (14 items, ␣ ϭ .88) and a Future orientation (14 items, ␣ ϭ .92). Persons scoring below the median on both the Past and Future formed the time restrictive category; persons below the median on the Past but above the median on the Future formed the futurist category; persons below the median on the Future but above the median on the Past formed the reminiscers category; persons above the median on both the Past and Future formed the time expansive (i.e., balanced) category. As predicted, persons in the time expansive category scored higher on happiness, well-being, and self-esteem.

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Balanced Time Perspectives and Mindfulness
Ernst Bohlmeijer

The individual construction of psychological time is a fundamental key factor of the individual construction of reality. Individual differences among psychological relations to time are a measurable variable, since philosophers and psychologists succeeded in developing the construct of Time Perspective (TP). The question of which TP is the most health-promoting led to the idea of a Balanced Time Perspective (BTP). This study compares the components of the two most important questionnaires measuring BTP, for correlations to Mindfulness and Life Satisfaction. 124 respondents completed the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI: Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999), the Balanced Time Perspective Scale (BTPS: Webster, 2011), the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire -Short Form (FFMQ-SF: Bohlmeijer, ten Klooster, Fledderus, Veehof, & Baer, 2011) and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS: Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985). Another 33 respondents who recently finished a Mindfulness-based Stre...

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TIME PERSPECTIVE AS PREDICTOR OF MEANING IN LIFE
Lazar Stosic

TIME PERSPECTIVE AS PREDICTOR OF MEANING IN LIFE, 2014

The purpose of this study was to determine whether meaning in life among Macedonian students can be predicted based on their dominant orientation toward past, present or future. Participants in the study were 252 students aged 18 to 27 years. Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory was used for measuring five factors of time perspective, while two dimensions of meaning in life were measured with Meaning in Life Questionnaire. The results showed that students with sentimental attitude toward past (Past Positive), with the absence of traumatic past experiences (Past Negative), hedonistic orientation (Present Hedonistic) and direction to future goals and achievements (Future), report presence of meaning in life. On the other hand, students who search for meaning in life are those who have a sentimental relationship with the past and future orientation, as well as unpleasant memories of the past and the present fatalistic view determined by external factors (Present Fatalistic). Hence, significant predictors of Presence of Meaning in Life appeared to be orientation toward past positive, hedonistic present and the future, as well as avoidance of the negative past reminiscences, explaining 11.6% of the variance. The Search for Meaning in Life can be predicted from Past Positive, Past Negative and Future, thus explaining 12.9% of the variance. The findings confirmed the relevance of temporal perspective on the meaning in life in Macedonian students. Investigation revealed that most contributing sources of meaning in life among adolescents are relationships with family, partners and friends.

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A happier and less sinister past, a more hedonistic and less fatalistic present and a more structured future: time perspective and well-being
Amelie Gamble

PeerJ, 2014

Background. Previous studies have established a link between how people relate to their past, present, and future (i.e., time perspective) and subjective well-being (i.e., life satisfaction, positive and negative affect). Time perspective comprises five dimensions: Past Positive, Past Negative, Present Hedonistic, Present Fatalistic, and Future. Life satisfaction can also be evaluated in relation to different time frames. Moreover, approach related positive affect is associated to a different concept of well-being labeled psychological well-being. In the present study we extend previous findings by investigating the effect of time perspective on the time frame of evaluations of life satisfaction (past, present, future) and by investigating the relationship between time perspective and psychological well-being. Method. Questionnaires on time perspective (Zimbardo's Time Perspective Inventory), temporal life satisfaction (Temporal Satisfaction with Life Scale), affect (Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule), and psychological well-being (Scales of Psychological Well-Being-short version) were answered by 453 individuals. Two different structural equation models were tested, one of the relationship between time perspective and temporal life satisfaction, and the other of the relationship between time perspective, affect and psychological well-being. Results. Time perspective affected life satisfaction depending on the time scale on which it was evaluated-memory of a negative past influenced life satisfaction in all time frames, and a positive view of the past influenced both past and future life satisfaction. Moreover, less rumination about past negative events (i.e., low score on Past Negative), the tendency to take risks in the present to achieve happy feelings and/or avoid boredom (i.e., high scores on Present Hedonistic), and a less hopeless and pessimistic view about the present (low scores on Present Fatalistic) were associated with higher levels of psychological well-being and positive affect. These same time perspective dimensions were associated with lower levels of negative affect. The Future time perspective dimension (i.e., approaching life with self-control, punctuality, and planning for the future) was associated with both psychological well-being and positive affect. How to cite this article Sailer et al. (2014), A happier and less sinister past, a more hedonistic and less fatalistic present and a more structured future: time perspective and well-being. PeerJ 2:e303; DOI 10.7717/peerj.303

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How We Feel is a Matter of Time: Relationships Between Time Perspectives and Mood
Gerald Matthews

Journal of Happiness Studies, 2013

Both personality and emotional experiences may be influenced by people's time perspectives. The Zimbardo time perspective inventory measures five trait dimensions related to past, present and future perspectives. Two studies were conducted to investigate how these time perspective dimensions related to mood. The first study (n = 260) confirmed that ZTPI scales predicted moods including energetic arousal, tense arousal and Hedonic Tone, revealing that past negative and Present Hedonistic time perspectives are the most robust predictors of current emotional states. Moreover, future time perspective proved to predict energetic arousal, but the effect was suppressed by present hedonism. The second study (n = 65) measured mood twice in a 4-week period, and focused on relationships between the ZTPI and recalled and anticipated mood. Analyses conducted using DBTP, an index of temporal harmony based on the ZTPI scores, proved that balanced time perspective was related to more positive mood states in both studies. Findings confirmed that time perspective appears to influence both recall and anticipation of mood. For example, past negative time perspective is associated with anticipation of negative moods, and Past Positive perspective relates to both recall and anticipation of energy. Time perspective may structure the individual's affective experience.

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Related topics

  • Time Perspective
  • Balanced Time Perspective

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    Mindfulness Promotes a More Balanced Time Perspective: Correlational and Intervention-Based Evidence
    Michael Rönnlund

    Mindfulness

    Objectives To investigate the relationship between mindfulness and aspects of time perspective (TP, i.e., habitual views of past, present, future). Methods We examined cross-sectional associations between an established measure of mindfulness (FFMQ) and an extended version of the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (Swedish ZTPI; S-ZTPI) in a sample with little experience of mindfulness training (n = 212). In addition, we evaluated the effects of two mindfulness-based interventions (a mindfulness instructor course involving 29 participants and a mindful self-compassion program, n = 40 for the intervention group, n = 41 for controls) on mindfulness and measures of TP including an aggregate measure of deviations from a proposed optimal, or balanced, time perspective (DBTP). Results Cross-sectional data were consistent with a model by which part of the relationship between mindfulness and perceived stress is mediated by reduced DBTP. Global mindfulness scores showed the strongest (negative) associations with the S-ZTPI scales Future Negative and Past Negative. Comparisons of pre/post-intervention data revealed significant mindfulness-based intervention-related reductions of DBTP (Cohen's d = − 0.46), with lowered scores on Past Negative and Future Negative and a small increase on Past Positive. Conclusions The results support the notion that a higher level of mindfulness promotes a more balanced time perspective, with a reduced focus on negative aspects of the past and negative anticipations of the future. Relations to repetitive negative thought processes (rumination, worry) and a potential bidirectional influence of mindfulness and aspects of time perspective are discussed.

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