Ready for Experiment: Dwight Perkins in Chicago, 1893-1917

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Ready!for!Experiment:! Dwight!Perkins!and!Progressive!Architectures!in!Chicago,!1893C1918! ! ! ! Jennifer!Louise!Gray! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Submitted!in!partial!fulfillment!of!the! requirements!for!the!degree!of! Doctor!of!Philosophy! under!the!Executive!Committee! of!the!Graduate!School!of!Arts!and!Sciences! ! !! COLUMBIA!UNIVERSITY! 2011!  ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ©!2011! Jennifer!Louise!Gray! All!rights!reserved!  ABSTRACT! Ready!for!Experiment:!Dwight!Perkins!and!Progressive!Architectures!in! Chicago,!1893C1918! Jennifer!Louise!Gray! ! Chicago’s!turnPofPthePcentury!social!settlements,!most!notably!Hull!House,! have!long!been!considered!the!mainstay!of!American!progressive!reforms.!Yet! settlement!houses!were!but!one!aspect!of!a!widePranging!set!of!architectural!and! spatial!inventions!that!used!certain!kinds!of!familiar!imagery!to!build!public!support! for!innovative!social!ambitions.!!This!dissertation!connects!the!major!settlement! house!designs!of!Chicago!architect!Dwight!Perkins!with!the!parks,!recreation! centers,!playgrounds,!and!public!schools!he!designed!during!these!same!years.!!It! also!situates!Perkins!among!the!extraordinary!group!of!Chicago!reformers!who! were!transforming!philanthropy,!education,!public!health,!municipal!government,! and!the!urban!environment.!!The!portrait!that!emerges!is!one!where!architecture! and!civic!space!were!indelibly!bound!up!with!and!helped!to!advance!transformative! social!changes.!!! Chicago!was!the!epicenter!of!American!progressive!reforms.!!Both!theoretical! and!practical,!these!extended!across!a!broad!range!of!issues!from!education!to! women’s!rights,!political!participation!to!public!health,!the!natural!environment!to! municipal!reforms,!social!psychology!to!the!social!sciences.!!Embracing!most!of! these!aspirations,!Perkins!took!up!familiar!civic!typologies!and!gave!them!a!new! purpose!that!can!be!described,!most!concisely,!as!democratic!social!centers.!To! some!extent,!they!could!be!compared!with!the!“social!condensers”!of!contemporary! Soviet!Union,!architecture!intended!to!help!generate,!or!at!least!facilitate,!major! social!and!political!transformation.!Yet!Perkins!was!not!an!ideologue.!!He!adjusted! his!own!beliefs!to!the!particular,!and!often!rather!cautious,!attitudes!of!various! clients!and!constituencies.!!By!and!large,!the!tensions!focused!on!several!related! issues!that!were!inherent!difficulties!in!the!American!progressive!movement:!a! desire!for!bureaucratic!efficiency!that!leaned!towards!restricted!budgets!and! standardized!types;!a!desire!to!transform!society!that!contravened!an!abiding!faith! in!contingent,!piecemeal!change;!and!a!desire!for!expansive!democratic! participation!that!ran!up!against!a!deep!suspicion!of!the!immigrant!populations!that! were!flooding!into!American!cities,!especially!in!Chicago!where!foreignPborn! individuals!or!children!of!immigrants!made!of!77%!of!the!population!in!1900.! While!interested!in!intellectual!debate!about!education,!social!psychology,! and!political!reforms,!Perkins!was!a!pragmatist.!!He!wanted!the!chance!to!create! architecture!that!could!be!tested,!discovering!the!most!feasible!and!effective!ways!to! bring!about!widespread!social!progress.!!He!applied!his!ideals!about!social! democracy,!education,!and!the!environment!in!various!contexts!and!in!different! ways,!always!remaining!open!to!experimentation,!collaboration,!and!compromise.!! These!“flexible!principles,”!simultaneously!consistent!and!elastic,!gave!him!the! fluidity!to!engage!diffuse!audiences,!helping!him!advance!his!goals.!!This! dissertation!situates!Perkins!within!the!American!progressive!movement!that! centered!on!Chicago,!more!than!any!other!city!of!the!era.!!It!then!analyzes!his! designs!for!five!civic!typologies!–!settlement!houses,!parks,!playgrounds,!recreation! centers,!and!public!schools!–!as!well!as!his!vision!for!how!these!spaces!were! constituent!parts!of!an!innovative!urbanPplanning!model!based!on!overlapping,!yet! distinct!neighborhood!centers.!!It!explains!the!intellectual!debates!that!informed! these!projects!and!his!concerted!efforts!to!implement!improvements,!even!if!they! did!not!fulfill!his!highest!ideals.!!Perkins!spoke!of!his!designs!as!“social!centers”!that! he!believed!were!able!to!facilitate!democratic!exchange!across!class!and!economic! lines,!as!well!as!bring!much!needed!public!services!to!the!people!of!Chicago.!! Dwight!Perkins!was!a!designer!and!community!activist!of!mainly!regional! significance!who!believed,!above!all,!in!social!democracy.!!Exploring!his!social! politics!allows!me!to!situate!his!work!within!the!dominant!narratives!of!American! progressivism!and!its!corollaries!in!modern!architecture.!!This!is!not!to!suggest!that! his!progressive!goals!and!aesthetic!predilections!were!avantPgarde.!!Perkins!by!and! large!eschewed!radical!forms!in!order!to!achieve!other!goals,!though!some!involved! architectural!innovations!and!experiments.!Democratic!engagement!was!his! primary!concern,!related!to!other!principles!about!educational!freedoms,!public! health,!and!environmentalism.!!These!aspirations!remain!central!to!the!history!and! future!of!selfPconsciously!progressive!architecture,!whether!in!Europe!or!the!United! States.!  Table!of!Contents! List!of!Illustrations! Acknowledgements! Introduction:!Flexible!Principles! ! 1.!Dwight!Perkins,!the!Citizen!Architect! ! “The!Social!Question”! ! Perkins!and!Chicago!Progressivism! Progressive!Architectural!Strategies! The!“Neighborhood!Center”! ! 2.!Social!Settlements:!Between!Private!Philanthropy!and!Public!Institution! ! Origins!of!the!Settlement!House:!Private!Charity!or!Public!Service?! ! Settlement!House!as!Sociological!Laboratory! ! Settlement!House!as!School:!From!Academics!to!Active!Learning! ! The!Challenges!of!Civic!Legibility! ! Settlements!at!the!Scale!of!the!City! !! 3.!Planning!the!Progressive!City:!From!Neighborhood!Center!to!Regional!Plan! ! Planning!for!the!Plan:!Early!Urban!Reform!Efforts!! ! Statistics,!Science,!and!Sociology:!Methods!of!the!Metropolitan+Park+System! ! Chicago’s!Plans:!Perkins,!Burnham,!and!Jensen! ! Shifting!Scales:!From!the!Neighborhood!to!the!Region! ! 4.!Lincoln!Park:!Between!Untouched!Nature!and!Commercial!Culture! ! The!Constructed!Nature!of!Lincoln!Park! ! Cultured!Amusement!as!Urban!Antidote! ! The!“Vigorous”!Life:!Sports!as!Urban!Antidote! ! Education!in!the!Park:!the!Lincoln!Park!Zoo! From!Personal!Hygiene!to!Public!Health:!The!Daily!News!Fresh!Air!Sanitarium! ! Politics!of!Pleasure! ! 5.!Progressive!Playgrounds:!Bodies!at!Play,!the!Body!Politic! ! Town!Hall!Transformed:!Democracy!and!the!Playground!Movement! ! Progressive!Terrains:!Playgrounds,!Pleasure!Grounds,!and!Political!Landscapes! ! Rationalization!of!Leisure! ! Team!Spirit,!or!Cultural!Assimilation! ! Playgrounds!and!Identity!Politics! ! 6.!School!Building,!Nation!Building! ! Education!and!the!Democratic!Ideal! ! Bureaucratization!of!the!Public!School!System! ! School!Types:!Standardization!and!Differentiation! ! The!“New!Education:”!From!TeacherPCentered!to!ChildPCentered!Pedagogy! ! Planning!for!Change:!Expandable!Schools!and!the!“Connected!Group!Plan”! The!Comprehensive!High!School! ! Conclusion:!Modern!Democracy! Bibliography! Illustrations  List!of!Illustrations! ! Figure!1.1:!John!Root!and!Daniel!Burnham,!Monadnock!Building,!Chicago,!IL,!1889! (Carl!Condit,!Chicago+School+of+Architecture)! ! Figure!1.2:!Illustration!accompanying!“High!Building!Question”!published!by!Louis! Sullivan!in!The+Graphic,!1891! (Mario!Manieri!Elia,!Louis+Sullivan)! ! Figure!1.3:!1893!World’s!Fair,!Court!of!Honor,!Chicago,!IL! (Carl!Smith,!The+Plan+of+Chicago:+Daniel+Burnham+and+the+Remaking+of+the+American+ City)! ! Figure!1.4:!Dwight!Perkins,!Steinway!Hall,!Chicago,!IL,!1894P5! (Eric!Emmett!Davis,!Dwight+Heald+Perkins:+Social+Consciousness+and+Prairie+School+ Architecture)! ! Figures!1.5!–!1.6:!Perkins,!main!auditorium!inside!Steinway!Hall! (“A!Perfect!Recital!Hall”)! ! Figure!1.7:!Perkins,!secondary!lecture!hall!inside!Steinway!Hall! (“A!Perfect!Recital!Hall”)! ! Figure!1.8:!Dwight!Perkins,!Machinery!&!Electric!Building,!TransPMississippi! Exposition,!Omaha,!Nebraska,!1901! (Eric!Emmett!Davis,!Dwight+Heald+Perkins:+Social+Consciousness+and+Prairie+School+ Architecture)! ! Figure!1.9:!Dwight!Perkins,!Hitchcock!Hall,!University!of!Chicago,!IL,!1900P1902! (Albert!Tannler,!“The!Creation!of!Hitchcock!Hall!1900P1902”)! ! Figure!1.10:!Ornamental!corncob!detail!from!exterior!of!Hitchcock!Hall! (“Refurbishing!Hitchcock,”!On+the+Midway,!University!of!Chicago!Magazine)! ! Figure!1.11:!Richard!Bock,!frieze!depicting!indigenous!flora!from!Illinois,!Memorial! Library,!Hitchcock!Hall! (Albert!Tannler,!“The!Creation!of!Hitchcock!Hall!1900P1902”)! ! Figure!1.12:!Memorial!Library,!Hitchcock!Hall,!reading!room!as!it!was!furnished!in! 1902! (“Refurbishing!Hitchcock”!On+the+Midway,!University!of!Chicago!Magazine)! ! Figure!1.13:!Perkins,!Hitchcock!Hall,!first!floor!plan! (1902+Annual+of+the+Chicago+Architectural+Club)! ! ! Figure!1.14:!Perkins,!Hitchcock!Hall,!basement!plan! (Perkins+Papers,!Chicago!Historical!Society)! ! Figure!1.15:!Perkins,!Hitchcock!Hall,!view!from!Ellis!Avenue! (1902+Annual+of+the+Chicago+Architectural+Club)! ! Figure!1.16:!Perkins,!Hitchcock!Hall,!view!from!quadrangle! (1902+Annual+of+the+Chicago+Architectural+Club)! ! Figure!2.1:!Toynbee!Hall,!London,!1885! (Deborah!E.B.!Weiner,!“The!Architecture!of!Victorian!Philanthropy:!The!Settlement! House!as!Manorial!Residence”)! ! Figure!2.2:!Interior!of!Toynbee!Hall! (Deborah!E.B.!Weiner,!“The!Architecture!of!Victorian!Philanthropy:!The!Settlement! House!as!Manorial!Residence”)!! ! Figure!2.3:!Irving!and!Allen!Pond,!Hull!House,!Chicago,!IL,!1899P1908! (Guy!Szuberla,!“Three!Chicago!Settlements:!Their!Architectural!Form!and!Social! Meaning”)! ! Figure!2.4:!Ponds,!Hull!House,!entrance! (Guy!Szuberla,!“Three!Chicago!Settlements:!Their!Architectural!Form!and!Social! Meaning”)! ! Figure!2.5:!Ponds,!Hull!House,!plan! (Guy!Szuberla,!“Three!Chicago!Settlements:!Their!Architectural!Form!and!Social! Meaning”)! ! Figure!2.6:!Irving!and!Allen!Pond,!project!for!David!Swing!Memorial,!1900! (1900+Annual+of+the+Chicago+Architectural+Club)! ! Figure!2.7:!Ponds,!project!for!David!Swing!Memorial,!plans! (1900+Annual+of+the+Chicago+Architectural+Club)! ! Figure!2.8:!Irving!and!Allen!Pond,!Chicago!Commons,!Chicago,!IL,!1900! (1900+Annual+of+the+Chicago+Architectural+Club)! ! Figure!2.9:!Ponds,!Chicago!Commons,!plans! (1900+Annual+of+the+Chicago+Architectural+Club)! ! Figure!2.10:!Dwight!Perkins,!design!for!University!of!Chicago!Settlement,!Chicago,! IL,!1900P2! (1900+Annual+of+the+Chicago+Architectural+Club)! ! ! Figure!2.11:!Perkins,!University!of!Chicago!Settlement,!floor!plan! (1900+Annual+of+the+Chicago+Architectural+Club)! ! Figure!2.12:!!Dwight!Perkins,!project!for!Northwestern!University!Settlement,! Chicago,!IL,!1900! (1900+Annual+of+the+Chicago+Architectural+Club)! ! Figure!2.13:!Perkins,!project!for!Northwestern!University!Settlement,!plans! (1900+Annual+of+the+Chicago+Architectural+Club)! ! Figure!2.14:!Lucy!Fitch!Perkins,!MayJPole+Dance,+Children+of+all+Nations,!University!of! Chicago!Settlement,!1900P1902! (Guy!Szuberla,!“Three!Chicago!Settlements:!Their!Architectural!Form!and!Social! Meaning”)! ! Figure!2.15:!Florence!Kelley!and!Jane!Addams,!Wage!Map! (HullJHouse+Maps+and+Papers,!1895)! ! Figure!2.16:!Dwight!Perkins,!Abraham!Lincoln!Center,!1903! (Joseph!Siry,!“The!Abraham!Lincoln!Center!in!Chicago”)! ! Figure!2.17:!Dwight!Perkins!and!Frank!Lloyd!Wright,!project!for!All!Soul’s!Building,! 1900! (Siry,!Joseph.!“The!Abraham!Lincoln!Center!in!Chicago”)! ! Figure!2.18:!Perkins!and!Wright,!project!for!All!Soul’s,!plans! (Joseph!Siry,!“The!Abraham!Lincoln!Center!in!Chicago”)! ! Figure!2.19:!Perkins!and!Wright,!project!for!Abraham!Lincoln!Center,!1902! (Joseph!Siry,!“The!Abraham!Lincoln!Center!in!Chicago”)! ! Figure!2.20:!Dwight!Perkins,!Abraham!Lincoln!Center,!1903! (Joseph!Siry,!“The!Abraham!Lincoln!Center!in!Chicago”)! ! Figure!2.21:!Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!project!for!Olivet!Institute,!1916! (Fiske!Kimball,!“The!Social!Center,!Part!II:!Philanthropic!Enterprises”)! ! Figure!2.22!–!2.24:!Perkins,!et.!al.,!project!for!Olivet!Institute,!first,!second,!and!third! floor!plans! (Fiske!Kimball,!“The!Social!Center,!Part!II:!Philanthropic!Enterprises”)! ! Figure!3.1:!Dwight!Perkins,!map!of!proposed!park!system,!from!1904+Metropolitan+ Park+System! (Robert!E.!Grese,!Jens+Jensen:+Maker+of+Natural+Parks+and+Gardens.)! ! ! Figure!3.2:!1872!Map!of!Chicago!Park!System! (Robert!E.!Grese,!Jens+Jensen:+Maker+of+Natural+Parks+and+Gardens)! ! Figure!3.3:!Chicago!“Back!of!the!Yards”!neighborhood! (Carl!Smith,!The+Plan+of+Chicago:+Daniel+Burnham+and+the+Remaking+of+the+American+ City)! ! Figure!3.4:!Charles!Zueblin,!1898!Map!of!Chicago! (Charles!Zueblin,!“Municipal!Playgrounds!in!Chicago”)! ! Figure!3.5:!Corner!of!Dearborn!and!Randolph!Streets,!Chicago,!IL,!c.!1900! (Carl!Smith,!The+Plan+of+Chicago:+Daniel+Burnham+and+the+Remaking+of+the+American+ City)! ! Figure!3.6P!3.7:!Daniel!Burnham,!Plan!of!Chicago,!aerial!perspectives,!1909!! (Carl!Smith,!The+Plan+of+Chicago:+Daniel+Burnham+and+the+Remaking+of+the+American+ City)! ! Figure!3.8:!Burnham,!Map!of!Chicago!with!existing!and!proposed!parks,!1909! (Carl!Smith,!The+Plan+of+Chicago:+Daniel+Burnham+and+the+Remaking+of+the+American+ City)! ! Figure!3.9:!Jens!Jensen,!photograph!of!wildlife!environs!outside!Chicago,!1904! (Dwight!Perkins,!Metropolitan+Park+System)! ! Figure!3.10:!Jens!Jensen,!Proposed!Greater!West!Park!System,!1917P20! (Jens!Jensen,!A+Greater+West+Park+System)!! ! Figure!3.11:!Jensen,!Plan!of!Quarter!Section!of!Chicago!with!Two!Neighborhood! Centers,!1920! (Jens!Jensen,!A+Greater+West+Park+System)! ! Figure!3.12:!Jensen,!Proposed!Community!Market!Garden!Adjoining!a!Park!Site,! 1920! (Jens!Jensen,!A+Greater+West+Park+System)!! ! Figure!3.13:!Jensen,!Perspective!of!Lloyd!Center,!1920! (Jens!Jensen,!A+Greater+West+Park+System)! ! Figure!3.14:!Jensen,!Proposed!Sectional!Plan!of!Prairie!Drive,!1920! (Jens!Jensen,!A+Greater+West+Park+System)! ! Figure!3.15:!Jensen,!Bird’s!Eye!View!of!Prairie!Drive,!1920! (Jens!Jensen,!A+Greater+West+Park+System)! ! ! Figure!3.16:!Jens!Jensen,!Council!Ring!inside!Columbus!Park! (Julia!Sniderman,!“Bringing!the!Prairie!Vision!into!Focus,”!in!Prairie+in+the+City:+ Naturalism+in+Chicago’s+Parks,+1870J1940)! ! Figure!3.17:!Prairie!Walk!with!Jens!Jensen! (Carol!Doty,!“Ecology,!Community,!and!the!Prairie!Spirit,”!in!Prairie+in+the+City:+ Naturalism+in+Chicago’s+Parks,+1870J1940)! ! Figure!4.1:!1873!Map!of!Lincoln!Park! (I.J.!Bryan,!Report+of+the+Commissioners+and+History+of+Lincoln+Park)! ! Figure!4.2:!F.L.!Olmsted,!Washington!Park,!Chicago,!IL,!1890! (Galen!Cranz,!The+Politics+of+Park+Design:+A+History+of+Urban+Parks+in+America)! ! Figure!4.3:!Entrance!to!Lincoln!Park,!1899! !(Bryan,!I.J.!Report+of+the+Commissioners+and+History+of+Lincoln+Park)! ! Figure!4.4:!Lincoln!Park,!Chicago,!IL,!formal!garden! (I.J.!Bryan,!Report+of+the+Commissioners+and+History+of+Lincoln+Park)! ! Figure!4.5:!Lincoln!Park,!lily!pond!with!Victoria+regia! (I.J.!Bryan,!Report+of+the+Commissioners+and+History+of+Lincoln+Park)! ! Figure!4.6:!Lincoln!Park,!Chicago!Academy!of!Sciences,!1893! (I.J.!Bryan,!Report+of+the+Commissioners+and+History+of+Lincoln+Park.)! ! Figure!4.7:!Dwight!Perkins,!South!Pond!Refectory,!Lincoln!Park,!Chicago,!IL,!1908! (Jane!Clarke,!“Perkins!in!the!Park,”!Inland+Architect)!! ! Figure!4.8:!Perkins,!South!Pond!Refectory,!western!side! Horace!W.!Peaslee,!“Park!Architecture,!IV:!Refectories,”!The+Park+International)! ! Figure!4.9:!Perkins,!South!Pond!Refectory,!ground!floor!plan! (Jane!Clarke,!“Perkins!in!the!Park”)! ! Figures!4.10:!Perkins,!South!Pond!Refectory,!second!floor!plan! (Jane!Clarke,!“Perkins!in!the!Park”)! ! Figure!4.11:!Perkins,!!South!Pond!Refectory,!interior!of!Grand!Hall! (Jane!Clarke,!“Perkins!in!the!Park”)! ! Figure!4.12:!Perkins,!South!Pond!Refectory,!interior!of!Grand!Hall!after!restoration! (Jane!Clarke,!“Perkins!in!the!Park”)! ! Figure!4.13:!Perkins,!South!Pond!Refectory,!terrace! (Horace!W.!Peaslee,!“Refectories,”!The+Park+International)! Figure!4.14:!Belle!Isle!Refectory,!Detroit,!Michigan! (Horace!W.!Peaslee,!“Refectories,”!The+Park+International)! ! Figure!4.15:!Franklin!Park!Refectory,!Boston,!Massachusetts! (Horace!W.!Peaslee,!“Refectories,”!The+Park+International)! ! Figure!4.16:!W.C.!Zimmermann,!Boathouse!and!Refectory,!Douglas!Park,!Chicago,!IL! (“Chicago!Parks!and!Their!Landscape!Architecture,”!The+Architectural+Record)! ! Figure!4.17:!Zimmermann,!Boathouse,!Douglas!Park! (“Chicago!Parks!and!Their!Landscape!Architecture,”!The+Architectural+Record.)! ! Figure!4.18:!Richard!E.!Schmidt,!Humboldt!Park!Boathouse!and!Pavilion,!Chicago,!IL! (“Chicago!Parks!and!Their!Landscape!Architecture,”!The+Architectural+Record)! ! Figure!4.19:!Dwight!Perkins,!Boathouse,!Lincoln!Park,!Chicago,!IL,!1908! (1908+Annual+Report+of+the+Lincoln+Park+Commissioners)! ! Figure!4.20:!Perkins,!Boathouse!with!Concrete!Lagoon!Bridge! (1908+Annual+Report+of+the+Lincoln+Park+Commissioners)! ! Figure!4.21:!Dwight!Perkins,!North!Pond!Winter!Skating!Shelter,!Lincoln!Park,! Chicago,!IL,!1913P14! (Author)! ! Figure!4.22:!Dwight!Perkins,!Lion!House,!Lincoln!Park,!Chicago,!IL,!1912! (Author)! ! Figure!4.23:!Dwight!Perkins,!Daily!News!Fresh!Air!Sanitarium,!Lincoln!Park,!1913P 20! (Perkins,+Fellows,+and+Hamilton,+Educational+Buildings)! ! Figure!4.24:!Mothers!and!children!at!Daily!News!Fresh!Air!Sanitarium! (1920+Annual+Report+of+the+Lincoln+Park+Commission)! ! Figure!4.25:!Free!lunch!service!at!Daily!News!Fresh!Air!Sanitarium! (1920+Annual+Report+of+the+Lincoln+Park+Commission)! ! Figure!4.26:!Fresh!Air!Floating!Hospital,!c.!1889! (I.J.!Bryan,!Report+of+the+Commissioners+and+History+of+Lincoln+Park.)! ! Figure!4.27:!Fresh!Air!Floating!Hospital,!aerial!view! (I.J.!Bryan,!Report+of+the+Commissioners+and+History+of+Lincoln+Park.)! ! Figure!5.1:!Dwight!Perkins,!Hamlin!Park,!1910P12! (Horace!W.!Peaslee,!“Park!Architecture,!II:!Field!Houses,”!The+Park+International)! Figure!5.2:!Perkins,!Hamlin!Park,!site!plan! (The+Brickbuilder,!1911)! ! Figure!5.3:!Perkins,!Hamlin!Park!field!house,!with!apparatus! (The+Brickbuilder,!1911)! ! Figure!5.4:!Perkins,!Hamlin!Park!field!house,!with!walkways!and!fences! (The+Brickbuilder,!1911)! ! Figure!5.5:!Perkins,!Hamlin!Park,!changing!rooms!adjacent!to!swimming!pool! (The+Brickbuilder,!1911)! ! Figure!5.6:!Perkins,!Hamlin!Park,!swimming!pool! (The+Brickbuilder,!1911)! ! Figure!5.7:!Perkins,!Hamlin!Park!field!house! (“Dwight!Perkins!–!Father!of!Today’s!‘New’!School!Ideas,”!Architectural+Forum,! October!1952)! ! Figure!5.8:!Perkins,!Hamlin!Park!field!house,!plan! (Dwight!Perkins!and!Howell!Taylor,!“The!Functions!and!PlanPTypes!of!Community! Buildings,”!Architectural+Record,!October!1924)! ! Figure!5.9:!Perkins,!Hamlin!Park!field!house,!interior!gymnasium! (The+Brickbuilder,!1911)! ! Figure!5.10:!Perkins,!Hamlin!Park!field!house,!exterior! (The+Brickbuilder,!1911)! ! Figure!5.11:!Dwight!Perkins,!Seward!Park,!1908! (1909+Annual+Reports+of+the+Special+Park+Commission)! ! Figure!5.12:!Perkins!Seward!Park!field!house,!plan! (Dwight!Perkins!and!Howell!Taylor,!“The!Functions!and!PlanPTypes!of!Community! Buildings,”!Architectural+Record,!October!1924)! ! Figure!5.13:!Perkins,!Seward!Park!field!house! (1909+Annual+Reports+of+the+Special+Park+Commission)! ! Figure!5.14:!Perkins,!Seward!Park!field!house,!detail!entrance! (Author)! ! Figure!5.15:!Perkins,!Seward!Park!field!house,!detail!brickwork! (Author)! ! ! Figure!5.16:!Perkins,!Stanton!Park!field!house,!rendering,!c.1908! (1908+Annual+Reports+of+the+Lincoln+Park+Commissioners)! ! Figure!5.17:!Stanton!Park!site!before!slum!clearance,!1908! (1908+Annual+Reports+of+the+Lincoln+Park+Commissioners)! ! Figure!5.18:!Typical!pleasure!ground!site!plan! (Galen!Cranz,!The+Politics+of+Park+Design:+A+History+of+Urban+Parks+in+America)! ! Figure!5.19:!Daniel!Burnham!&!Company,!South!Park!Commission,!Chicago!IL,!Plan! No.!3,!c.!1904! (Fiske!Kimball,!“The!Social!Center,!Part!III:!Civic!Enterprises,”!The+Architectural+ Record,!May!1919)! ! Figure!5.20:!Fuller!Park,!South!Park!Commission,!Chicago,!1912! (Fiske!Kimball,!“The!Social!Center,!Part!III:!Civic!Enterprises,”!The+Architectural+ Record,!May!1919)! ! Figure!5.21:!Northwestern!Elevated!Playground,!1910! (1910+Annual+Report+of+the+Special+Park+Commission)! ! Figure!5.22:!Washburne!Playground,!Chicago,!IL,!c.!1898! (Charles!Zueblin,!“Municipal!Playgrounds!in!Chicago”)! ! Figure!5.23:!Playground!director,!supervising!basketball! (Dominick!Cavallo,!Muscles+and+Morals:+Organized+Playgrounds+and+Urban+Reform,+ 1880J1920)! ! Figure!5.24:!Girls!perform!gymnastics!en+masse!at!Seward!Park! (1909+Annual+Report+of+the+Special+Park+Commission)! ! Figure!5.25:!Apparatus!work!inside!Hamlin!Park!gymnasium! (“Dwight!Perkins!–!Father!of!Today’s!‘New’!School!Ideas,”!Architectural+Forum,! October!1952)! ! Figure!5.26:!100Pyard!dash!at!Max!Beutner!Playground,!Chicago,!IL,!c.!1906! (1906+Annual+Report+of+the+Special+Park+Commission)! ! Figure!5.27:!Girls!calisthenics!at!Water!Christopher!Playground,!Chicago,!IL,!1910! (1910+Annual+Report+of+the+Special+Park+Commission)! ! Figure!5.28:!Opening!ceremonies!for!South!Park!District,!c.!1910! (1910+Annual+Report+of+the+Special+Park+Commission)! ! Figure!5.29:!Play!performances!at!Garfield!Park,!Chicago,!IL,!1909! (1909+Annual+Report+of+the+Special+Park+Commission)!  ! Figure!5.30:!Crowds!swarm!Addams!playground,!Chicago,!IL,!c.!1908! (1908+Annual+Report+of+the+Special+Park+Commission)! ! Figure!5.31:!Dwight!Perkins!and!John!Hamilton,!lighting!fixture!at!Seward!Park,! Chicago,!IL,!1910! (Author)! ! Figure!5.32:!Ring!games!at!TwentyPSecond!Street!Playground,!Chicago,!IL,!c.!1906! (1906+Annual+Report+of+the+Special+Park+Commission)! ! Figure!5.33:!Integrated!running!race,!Chicago,!IL,!1909! (1909+Annual+Report+of+the+Special+Park+Commission)! ! Figure!6.1:!NineteenthPcentury!“stuffed!box”!school!plan! (Warren!Richard!Briggs,!Modern+American+School+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.2:!Bridgeport,!Connecticut!High!School,!plan! (Briggs,!Warren!Richard.!Modern+American+School+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.3:!Double!classroom! (Warren!Richard!Briggs,!Modern+American+School+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.4:!SinglePcorridor!school!plan! (Warren!Richard!Briggs,!Modern+American+School+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.5:!NineteenthPcentury!school!furniture! (Warren!Richard!Briggs,!Modern+American+School+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.6:!Dwight!Perkins,!Stephen!K.!Hayt!Elementary!School,!Chicago,!IL,!1906! (Peter!B.!Wight,!“Public!School!Architecture!at!Chicago”)! ! Figure!6.7:!Perkins,!Stephen!K.!Hayt!Elementary,!basement!plan! (Peter!B.!Wight,!“Public!School!Architecture!at!Chicago”)! ! Figure!6.8:!Perkins,!Hayt!Elementary,!first!floor! (Peter!B.!Wight,!“Public!School!Architecture!at!Chicago”)! ! Figure!6.9:!Dwight!Perkins,!Bernhard!Moos!Elementary,!Chicago,!IL!1907! (Peter!B.!Wight,!“Public!School!Architecture!at!Chicago”)! ! Figure!6.10:!Perkins,!Moos!Elementary,!basement!plan! (Peter!B.!Wight,!“Public!School!Architecture!at!Chicago”)! ! Figure!6.11:!Perkins,!Moos!Elementary,!first!floor!plan! (Peter!B.!Wight,!“Public!School!Architecture!at!Chicago”)! ! Figure!6.12:!Perkins,!Moos!Elementary,!interior!stairwell! (Peter!B.!Wight,!“Public!School!Architecture!at!Chicago”)! ! Figure!6.13:!Dwight!Perkins,!Grover!Cleveland!Elementary,!1910! (H.!Allen!Brooks,!The+Prairie+School:+Frank+Lloyd+Wright+and+His+Midwest+ Contemporaries)! ! Figure!6.14:!Perkins,!Cleveland!Elementary,!second!floor!plan! (Dwight!H.!Perkins,!“School!Building!as!a!Social!Center,”!The+Brickbuilder,!1915)! ! Figure!6.15:!Perkins,!Cleveland!Elementary,!first!floor!plan! (Dwight!H.!Perkins,!“School!Building!as!a!Social!Center.”!The+Brickbuilder,!1915)! ! Figure!6.16:!Dwight!Perkins,!Albert!Lane!Technical!High!School,!Chicago,!IL,!c.1908! (Peter!B.!Wight,!“Public!School!Architecture!at!Chicago”)! ! Figure!6.17:!Perkins,!woodworking!shop!at!Albert!Lane!Technical!High!School! (Peter!B.!Wight,!“Public!School!Architecture!at!Chicago”)! ! Figure!6.18:!Perkins,!Albert!Lane!Technical!High!School,!ground!floor!plan! (Peter!B.!Wight,!“Public!School!Architecture!at!Chicago”)! ! Figure!6.19:!Perkins,!Albert!Lane!Technical!High!School,!first!floor!plan! (Peter!B.!Wight,!“Public!School!Architecture!at!Chicago”)! ! Figure!6.20:!Perkins,!Albert!Lane!Technical!High!School,!second!floor!plan! (Peter!B.!Wight,!“Public!School!Architecture!at!Chicago”)! ! Figure!6.21:!Perkins,!Albert!Lane!Technical!High!School,!third,!fourth,!and!fifth!floor! plans! (Peter!B.!Wight,!“Public!School!Architecture!at!Chicago”)! ! Figure!6.22:!Dwight!Perkins,!College!Schurz!High!School,!exterior! (Carl!Condit,!The+Chicago+School+of+Architecture)! ! Figure!6.23:!Perkins,!College!Schurz!High!School,!exterior! (Carl!Condit,!The+Chicago+School+of+Architecture)! ! Figure!6.24!–!6.28:!Perkins,!College!Schurz!High!School,!1st!P!5th!floor!plans! (Dwight!H.!Perkins,!“School!Building!as!a!Social!Center,”!The+Brickbuilder,!1915)! ! Figure!6.29:!Dwight!Perkins,!William!Penn!Elementary!School,!1907! (Peter!B.!Wight,!“Public!School!Architecture!at!Chicago”)! Figure!6.30:!Dwight!Perkins,!Friedrich!Ludwig!Jahn!Elementary!School,!1908! (Peter!B.!Wight,!“Public!School!Architecture!at!Chicago”)! ! Figure!6.31:!Dwight!Perkins,!project!for!a!skyscraper!school,!1905! (“A!Novel!Use!for!the!Skyscraper.”!The+Architectural+Record)! ! Figure!6.32:!Dwight!Perkins,!Jesse!Spalding!School!for!Crippled!Children,!1906! (Peter!B.!Wight,!“Public!School!Architecture!at!Chicago”)! ! Figure!6.33:!Perkins,!Jesse!Spalding!School,!plan! (Peter!B.!Wight,!“Public!School!Architecture!at!Chicago”)! ! Figure!6.34P!6.36:!John!Dewey,!diagram!illustrating!ideal!relationship!between! school!and!society,!Charts!IPIII,!1899! (John!Dewey,!The+School+and+Society)! ! Figure!6.37:!Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Hubbard!Woods!Elementary!School,! Winnetka,!Illinois,!1919P1925! (Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Educational+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.38:!Perkins,!et.!al.,!Hubbard!Woods!Elementary!School,!plan! (Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Educational+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.39:!Perkins,!et.!al.,!Hubbard!Woods!Elementary!School,!interior!classroom! (Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Educational+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.40:!Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Arthur!H.!Howard!Elementary!School,! Wilmette,!IL,!after!1910! (Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Educational+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.41:!Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Mishawaka,!Indiana,!High!School,! c.1915P20,!preliminary!plans! (Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Educational+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.42!–!6.43:!Perkins,!et.!al.,!Mishawaka,!Indiana,!High!School,!c.1915P20,!first! and!second!floor!plans! (Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Educational+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.44:!Perkins,!et.!al.,!Mishawaka,!Indiana,!High!School,!c.1915P20,!exterior! (Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Educational+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.45:!Perkins,!et.!al.,!Mishawaka,!Indiana,!High!School,!c.1915P20,!detail! entrance!tower! (Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Educational+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.46:!Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Manitowoc,!Wisconsin,!High!School,!c.! 1915P25! (Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Educational+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.47:!Perkins,!et.!al.,!Manitowoc,!Wisconsin,!High!School,!site!plan! (Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Educational+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.48P6.49:!Perkins,!et.!al.,!Manitowoc,!Wisconsin,!High!School,!first!and! second!floor!plans! (Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Educational+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.50:!Perkins,!et.!al.,!Manitowoc,!Wisconsin,!High!School,!detail!exterior! entrance!tower! (Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Educational+Buildings)! ! Figure!6:51:!Perkins,!et.!al.,!Manitowoc,!Wisconsin,!High!School,!gymnasium! entrance! (Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Educational+Buildings)! ! Figure!6:52:!Perkins,!et.!al.,!Manitowoc,!Wisconsin,!High!School,!auditorium! entrance! (Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Educational+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.53:!Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!New!Trier!Township!High!School,! Kenilworth,!IL,!c.!1919,!rendering! (Fiske!Kimball,!“The!Social!Center,!Part!III:!Civic!Enterprises”)! ! Figure!6.54:!Perkins,!et.!al.,!New!Trier!Township!High!School,!site!plan,!first! construction!phase! (Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Educational+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.55:!Perkins,!et.!al.,!New!Trier!Township!High!School,!ground!floor!plan! (Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Educational+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.56:!Perkins,!et.!al.,!New!Trier!Township!High!School,!exterior! (Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Educational+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.57:!Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Evanston,!Illinois,!High!School,!c.!1920,! exterior! (Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Educational+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.58:!Perkins,!et.!al.,!Evanston!High!School,!site!plan! (Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Educational+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.59:!Perkins,!et.!al.,!Evanston!High!School,!first!floor!plan! (Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Educational+Buildings)! ! !Figure!6.60:!Perkins,!et.!al.,!Evanston!High!School,!entry!vestibule! (Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Educational+Buildings)! ! Figure!6.61:!Perkins,!et.!al.,!Evanston!High!School,!interior!of!library! (Perkins,!Fellows,!and!Hamilton,!Educational+Buildings)!  Acknowledgements! ! This!project!would!have!been!impossible!without!the!help!of!countless!people,!but! several!stand!out!in!particular.!!I!would!like!to!thank!my!sponsor!Gwendolyn!Wright! for!her!incredibly!helpful!and!patient!feedback!and!for!always!pushing!me!to!the! next!level;!my!readers!Kenneth!Frampton,!Barry!Bergdoll,!Jorge!OteroPPailos,!and! Jonathan!Massey!for!their!insightful!critiques;!Martha!Pollak!for!mentoring!me!and! accommodating!me!during!summer!research!trips!to!Chicago;!my!husband!Robert! Johnson,!whose!love!and!emotional!support!has!sustained!me!through!this! challenge;!Richard,!Katharine,!and!David!Gray!for!standing!by!me!all!these!years;! and!lastly,!Martha!Both!Gray!for!always!believing!in!me.!!! ! This!project!was!supported!by!a!Carter!Manny!Award!from!the!Graham!Foundation! for!Advanced!Studies!in!the!Fine!Arts,!a!William!Kinne!Travel!Grant,!and!a! fellowship!from!Columbia!University.!!In!addition!to!these!organizations,!I!would! also!like!to!thank!the!following!institutions:!Avery!Library!at!Columbia!University;! the!Chicago!Historical!Society;!the!Special!Collections!Department!of!the!Chicago! Park!District;!and!the!University!of!Illinois!at!Chicago.  Introduction! Flexible!Principles! ! Dwight!Perkins!was!a!Chicago!architect!and!community!activist!of!mainly! regional!significance.!!This!dissertation!does!not!try!to!claim!he!was!an!unsung! genius.!!He!was!a!social!and!political!moderate!who!was!involved!with!many!of!the! progressive!reforms!sweeping!the!Midwest!at!the!turn!of!the!twentieth!century.!!His! buildings!were!dignified!and!upPtoPdate!with!their!modular!compositions!and! simple!geometric!ornament,!but!they!were!not!radically!modern!in!appearance.!!He! regularly!employed!traditional!materials!like!masonry!and!terracotta,!symmetrical! floor!plans,!and!recognizable!architectural!symbols!such!as!classical!orders,!arches,! colonnade,!gables,!and!cornices.!!Partly!for!these!reasons,!the!many!books!on! Chicago!architecture!of!this!era!discuss!only!a!handful!of!his!more!daring!designs,!if! they!address!any!at!all.!!And!yet!to!study!Dwight!Perkins!is!to!engage!many!concepts! central!to!the!history!of!modern!architecture:!design!as!a!means!of!advancing!social! and!political!reforms;!the!complex!intentions!driving!such!reforms!and!their! concrete,!if!sometimes!unintended!effects;!the!relationship!between!individual! architects!and!broad!cultural!contexts;!the!relationship!between!architecture,!the! natural!environment,!and!human!health!and!wellPbeing;!and!the!overlapping!shifts! in!scale!from!a!building!and!its!site,!to!a!neighborhood,!and!to!the!region.! Because!Perkins!has!been!relegated!to!the!periphery!of!the!history!of!modern! design,!to!study!his!work!is!also!to!probe!the!formal!and!social!parameters!of! architectural!modernism.!!Few!historians!today!would!insist!upon!a!singular! modern!movement:!a!cohesive!aesthetic!doctrine!that!united!a!European!avantP garde!and!helped!advance!radical!politics.!!Diverse!and!fluid!architectural!and! political!expressions!coexisted!among!the!various!examples!that!invoked!modern! aesthetics.!!Recent!discussions!about!modern!urban!life!emphasize!multiplicities,! adaptations,!incongruities,!and!unexpected!influences!over!a!uniform!paradigm.!!In! this!context,!Perkins’s!somewhat!marginal!historical!status,!moderate!political! disposition,!and!amalgamated!architectural!idioms!are!precisely!what!make!him! interesting.!!Such!“weaknesses”!help!us!to!understand!the!pluralities!of!modern! architecture!and!the!multiplicities!of!progressive!practices,!giving!us!a!way!to!resist! totalizing!narratives!of!both.!!I!argue!that!Perkins’s!work!–!notably!his!settlement! houses,!parks,!recreation!centers,!and!public!schools!–!helped!define!a!formal!and! environmental!rubric!for!progressive!social!politics!in!the!United!States.!!This!is!not! to!suggest!a!set!of!fixed!rules,!but!rather!a!process!and!a!set!of!strong!but!flexible! principles.!!It!is!precisely!the!ambiguities!of!his!architecture,!together!with!the! complexities!and!compromises!in!its!production,!that!make!it!modern!and!capable! of!social!engagement.! Perkins!was!always!sympathetic!to!the!broad!cultural!and!political! movement!loosely!known!as!progressivism,!which!sought!to!improve!many!aspects! of!life!at!the!turn!of!the!twentieth!century!from!housing!to!parks!to!urban!planning.!! Chicago!was!the!epicenter!of!progressive!intellectual,!social,!and!artistic! experiments!in!the!United!States!and!was!home!to!some!of!its!most!articulate! leaders.!!Perkins!held!several!municipal!appointments!in!Chicago.!!He!built!public! parks!and!schools,!lobbied!successfully!for!conservation!legislation,!fought!against! municipal!corruption,!and!worked!closely!with!prominent!local!reformers!and!social! scientists!such!as!Jane!Addams,!John!Dewey,!Charles!Zueblin,!and!Jens!Jensen.!!! Though!this!dissertation!focuses!on!the!American!progressive!context,! Perkins!and!his!milieu!were!not!alone!in!their!struggle!to!ameliorate!the!social!and! economic!inequalities!of!modern!industrial!life.!!They!were!part!of!a!global! contingent!of!reformers!likewise!confronting!the!challenges!and!contradictions!of! modernity.!!Between!1896!and!1914!progressive!political!leaders!in!France,! Germany,!Great!Britain,!New!Zealand,!and!Australia,!among!other!countries,!enacted! various!social!agendas!that!encompassed!issues!ranging!from!progressive!income! taxation,!public!medical!assistance,!oldPage!pensions,!factory!regulation,!maximum! workdays!and!minimum!wages,!and!public!mediation!of!labor!disputes.1!!Their! emerging!social!politics,!while!overlapping,!were!so!diffuse!that!progressives!never! forged!a!common!referential!language!for!themselves!across!national!or!political! boundaries.!!Terms!like!radical,!liberal,!singlePtaxer,!solidaristes,!economic! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 Daniel Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1998), 55-56. interventionistes,!Christian!socialists,!Fabians,!and!any!number!of!German! permutations!of!sozial!all!evoked!the!spectrum!of!progressive!interest!groups.2!! Progressive!reformers!around!the!world!clearly!shared!many!ambitions,! mainly!centered!around!the!social!ramifications!of!unchecked!industrialization!or! the!“social!question”!as!it!was!often!called.!!However,!as!indicated!by!the!sheer! number!of!competing!terms!that!attempted!to!define!the!new!social!politics,! progressivism!was!never!a!singular!movement.!!It!encompassed!multiple,! sometimes!incompatible,!social!and!economic!agendas!including!restrictions!on! child!labor,!the!establishment!of!labor!unions,!public!education,!health!regulations,! and!gender!equality!together!with!a!fascination!with!efficiency,!confidence!in!the! trained!expert,!the!rise!of!professionalism,!and!faith!in!bureaucratically!organized! society,!to!name!a!few!of!its!currents.!!Indeed,!scholarship!emphasizes!the!plurality! of!progressivisms!that!characterized!the!period.3!!For!this!reason,!it!is!important!to! articulate!specific!issues!and!qualities!that!characterized!the!American!progressive! movement!in!general!and!that!motivated!Perkins!in!particular.! Most!American!progressives!advocated!moderate,!evolutionary!social! change.!!They!rejected!both!Marxian!class!warfare!and!the!“invisible!hand”!of!liberal! political!economy!as!too!doctrinaire.!!Instead,!many!progressives!argued!that! organized!capital!actually!encouraged!social!democracy!and!cooperation:!the! proletariat,!allied!with!middlePclass!sympathizers,!could!exercise!their!collective! political!power;!trusts!stabilized!the!capitalist!economy!by!increasing!efficiency!and! concentrating!power,!making!cataclysmic!Marxian!collapse!unlikely;!at!the!same! time,!new!joint!stock!companies,!which!separated!ownership!from!management,! effectively!democratized!financial!prosperity!by!diffusing!it!among!large!numbers!of! shareholders!and!gave!rise!to!a!managerial!class!whose!technical!expertise!and! comparatively!disinterested!attitude!further!neutralized!revolutionary!tendencies.4!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2 Ibid., 52. 3 Two excellent examples are James Kloppenberg, Uncertain Victory: Social Democracy and Progressivism in European and American Thought, 1870-1920 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986); and Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings. 4 Kloppenberg, Uncertain Victory, 155-62, and 244.  Some!of!these!assertions!were!obviously!idealizations.!!Nevertheless,!most! American!progressives!believed!that!social!democracy!could!be!achieved!from! within!the!existing!capitalist!system!through!organization!and!regulation.!! According!to!Jane!Addams:!“WorkingPpeople!among!themselves!are!being!forced! into!a!social!democracy!from!the!pressure!of!the!economic!situation.”5!!Organized! capital!was!a!welcome!breakthrough!that!stabilized!social!and!economic!relations:! “The!discovery!of!the!power!to!combine!was!the!distinguishing!discovery!of!our! time….[T]he!manufacturer!who!does!not!combine!with!others!of!his!branch!is!in! constant!danger!of!failure;!a!railroad!cannot!be!successfully!projected!unless!the! interests!of!parallel!roads!are!consulted;!and!workingPpeople!likewise!cannot!be! successful!until!they!too….avail!themselves!of!this!power.”6!!! Visions!of!an!enlightened!capitalist!conscience,!evident!in!immaculate!factory! workrooms!at!the!Heinz!Company!or!model!employee!housing!built!by! Westinghouse,!persuaded!many!reformers!in!the!United!States!that!the!most! promising!solution!to!the!injustices!of!industrialization!was!capitalism!itself.!! Reformers!elsewhere!held!different!ideas.!!Since!Otto!von!Bismarck’s!inauguration! of!an!imperial!social!insurance!system!in!the!1880s,!Germany!often!endorsed!a!“topP down”!socialism!administered!by!the!state.!!In!France!on!the!other!hand,! progressives!preferred!a!system!of!numerous,!overlapping!mutual!benefit!societies,! in!which!members!voluntarily!exchanged!dues!for!protection!against!illness!or!old! age.7!!To!some!extent,!these!various!approaches!were!different!only!in!degree,!since! they!all!maneuvered!within!existing!state!and!economic!apparatuses.!!Nevertheless,! the!attitude!among!American!reformers!was!comparatively!conservative,!due!in! part!to!the!relative!prosperity!of!laborers!in!the!United!States!compared!to!Europe,! the!national!belief!in!class!mobility,!and!the!ethnic!diversity!of!the!American! working!class,!which!undermined!its!solidarity.8!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 5 Jane Addams, “A Factor in the Labor Movement,” in Hull-House Maps and Papers: A Presentation of Nationalities and Wages in a Congested District of Chicago together with Comments and Essays on Problems Growing out of the Social Conditions, eds. Residents of Hull House (Boston: Thomas Y. Crowell & Company, 1895), 190. 6 Ibid., 184. 7 Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings, 13-17. 8 Kloppenberg, Uncertain Victory, 206.  American!progressives!believed!in!a!benign!social!cooperation!whereby!the! desires!of!the!individual!and!the!community!were!synchronized!into!a!mutually! responsible!circuit.!!To!cite!Addams!again:!“The!dependence!of!the!classes!on!each! other!is!reciprocal”!and!“the!good!we!secure!for!ourselves!is!precarious!and! uncertain,!is!floating!in!midPair,!until!it!is!secured!for!all!of!us!and!incorporated!into! our!common!life.”9!!In!other!words,!the!individual!would!gradually!realize!that!his! own!personal!gain!was!contingent!on!the!well!being!of!the!entire!society.10!!The! notion!that!private!interest!and!the!public!good!were!compatible!and!reciprocal!was! partly!predicated!on!the!belief,!espoused!by!John!Dewey!among!others,!that!man! was!inherently!social,!inextricably!linked!to!his!community,!and!not!“naturally! individual”!and!purely!selfPinterested!according!to!liberal!ideology.!!Despite!their! resounding!criticism!for!egregious!corporate!abuse,!American!progressives! considered!organized!capital!one!model!for!such!a!process.!!As!the!modern!economy! became!increasingly!interdependent,!it!fostered!a!cooperative!rather!than! competitive!spirit!as!capitalists,!managers,!and!laborers!alike!realized!their!singular! successes!depended!on!the!others.11!!Indicative!of!their!moderate!disposition,!the! concept!of!a!mutually!cooperative!society!essentially!allowed!American!reformers!to! preserve!the!doctrine!of!liberal!selfPinterest!by!recasting!it!so!as!to!include!social! responsibility.! Education!was!fundamental!to!the!progressive!agenda!in!the!United!States,! and!reformers!initiated!a!variety!of!didactic!programs!at!civic!institutions!across!the! city!including!settlement!houses,!public!parks,!neighborhood!playgrounds,!and! public!schools.12!!!They!hoped!education!could!help!facilitate!upward!social!mobility! by!providing!underprivileged!people!with!intellectual!and!practical!requisites!for! career!advancement.!!Perhaps!most!importantly,!the!successful!practice!of!social! democracy!depended!on!an!educated!citizenry,!equipped!with!the!knowledge! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 9 Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull-House (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1910), 91 and 116. 10 Kloppenberg, Uncertain Victory, 343-344. 11 Ibid., 244-5. 12 Ibid., 162. necessary!to!be!active!political!participants!in!their!communities.13!!Perkins! summarized!the!equalitarian!and!democratic!potential!of!public!education!when!he! described!schools!as!“the!bulwark!of!democratic!social!organization…!separating! influences!are!nullified!by!the!school,!which!recognizes!no!differences,!either!racial,! political,!religious,!or!social.”14!!In!practice,!democratic!social!institutions!rarely! functioned!so!ideally!to!educate!and!uplift!members!of!society.!!For!example,!poor! children!living!in!cities!or!rural!areas!usually!attended!substandard!schools! compared!to!their!wealthier!peers,!which!reinforced!socioPeconomic!divisions!to! some!extent.!!Still,!most!progressives!were!optimistic!that!popular!education,! whatever!its!shortcomings,!was!the!best!path!to!rational!social!progress.! Concrete!and!widespread!curricular!reforms!that!reflected!new!research!in! psychology!and!the!social!sciences!were!a!lasting!legacy!of!progressive!education.!! The!introduction!of!domestic!science!classes,!nature!study!programs,!and!manual! training!courses!such!as!carpentry,!wood!turning,!print!making,!and!forge!work! broadened!the!course!of!study!beyond!earlier!traditions!focused!on!Latin,! mathematics,!and!reading.!!Progressives!argued!that!such!liberal!curricula!activated! students!physically!as!well!as!mentally,!prepared!them!for!real!world!occupations,! and!combated!an!industrial!system!committed!to!overPspecialization.15!!Laboratory! science!classes!where!students!learned!by!conducting!experiments!reflected!the! emerging!attitude!that!children!“learn!by!doing”!and!that!knowledge!was!empirical! rather!than!absolute.!!Progressive!education!extended!beyond!the!classroom.!!Parks,! playgrounds,!and!settlement!houses!were!also!significant!sites!of!learning!and! pedagogical!experimentation.!!For!example,!progressives!helped!to!organize!team! sports!competitions!at!local!recreation!centers!because!they!believed!such!games! imparted!valuable!cultural!lessons!about!selfPsacrifice!and!group!cooperation.!!! Progressive!reformers!in!the!United!States!saw!most!shared!civic!spaces!as! potential!agents!of!Americanization.!!Public!schools!eventually!became!the!most! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 13 Lawrence A. Cremin, The Transformation of the School: Progressivism in American Education, 1876- 1957 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1961), viii and 66-68. 14 Dwight Perkins, “The Purpose of School Buildings,” draft of article or speech, possibly June 24, 1910, Perkins Papers, Chicago Historical Society, Box 2, Folder 2. 15 Cremin, Transformation of the School, 26. important!instrument!for!acculturating!recent!immigrants!and!inducting!them!into! the!responsibilities!of!work!and!citizenship!since!attendance!was!mandatory.!!In! fact,!some!scholars!contend!that!the!multiculturalism!of!the!American!student!body! helps!explain!why!public!schools!were!so!receptive!to!educational!reform.16!!Thus! public!education!and!Americanization!often!went!hand!in!hand.!!There!are,!of! course,!limits!to!this!vision.!!Critics!have!long!charged!that!domestic!science! programs!and!industrial!training!relegated!workingPclass!children!to!menial!manual! occupations!and!reinforced!ethnic,!class,!and!gender!divisions!rather!than! assimilating!them.! Driving!many!of!these!progressive!strategies!was!a!radical!theory!of! knowledge!articulated!by!social!psychologists!such!as!William!James!and!John! Dewey,!which!conceptualized!the!individual!as!a!social!being!whose!values!were! shaped!by!their!experiences.!!According!to!these!pragmatist!philosophers,! knowledge!did!not!exist!a+priori!as!argued!by!idealist!thought!but!was!created!and! perpetually!reconstituted!through!continuous!experimentation!in!the!real!world!–! personal!choices!made!under!specific!cultural!conditions!that!were!mutually! influential!and!constantly!changing.!!In!short,!human!choices!simultaneously! determine!and!are!determined!by!society.17!!In!this!scenario,!no!absolute!morality!or! ethics!exist;!instead,!progress!is!achieved!through!an!ongoing,!piecemeal!process!of! questioning,!testing,!adapting,!and!testing!again.!!Inquiry!is!the!only!constant.18! Progressivism!was,!in!many!ways,!the!political!corollary!to!pragmatist! ethics.19!!The!theory!that!individual!and!social!values!were!mutually!determined! confirmed!progressive!faith!in!the!efficacy!of!social!cooperation!over!individual! competition.!!The!belief!that!cultural!values!were!in!flux!rather!than!predetermined! rationalized!the!rejection!of!Marxism!and!laissezPfaire,!both!of!which!were!based! upon!“inevitable”!economic!laws.!!Pragmatist!experimentation!also!mirrored!the! democratic!process,!whereby!change!was!achieved!little!by!little!through!the!messy,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 16 Ibid., 72. 17 Kloppenberg, Uncertain Victory, 329. 18 Ibid., 347. 19 Ibid., 352. gradual!process!of!compromise!between!opposing!forces,!rather!than!through!an! abrupt!and!comprehensive!reorganization!of!society.!!! This!last!strategy!in!particular!accounts!for!the!flexibility!of!progressivism!in! the!United!States,!as!well!as!the!difficulty!of!pinpointing!its!meaning.!!Progressive! reform!in!America!was!populist!and!collaborative;!reformers!were!willing!to! compromise,!to!embrace!multiple,!piecemeal,!even!conflicting!solutions,!and!to! change!course!as!the!situation!demanded.!!Jane!Addams!summarized!the!flexible! principles!of!American!progressivism!when!she!described!the!demands!of!the!social! settlement:!“The!one!thing!to!be!dreaded!in!the!Settlement!is!that!it!loses!its! flexibility,!its!power!of!quick!adaptation,!its!readiness!to!change!its!methods!as!its! environment!may!demand.!!It!must!be…ready!for!experiment.”20! Perkins’s!plural!architectural!production!assumes!new!significance!within! the!context!of!American!progressivism!because!it!illuminates!the!multiple!priorities,! the!specific!challenges,!and!the!limitations!of!social!reform!and!modern!architecture! in!the!United!States.!!Perkins!has!usually!been!mentioned!in!connection!with!the! “Prairie!School”!of!architecture,!a!term!that!deserves!some!scrutiny.!!The!term! originated!as!a!loose!and!occasional!journalistic!label!for!a!group!of!architects! affiliated!with!Frank!Lloyd!Wright,!all!of!who!worked!in!the!American!Midwest! before!the!First!World!War.21!!It!gained!acceptance!during!the!1950s!and!1960s! when!authors!such!as!H.!Allen!Brooks,!David!Gebhard,!and!Mark!L.!Peisch!contended! that!the!open!landscape!and!“democratic!spirit”!of!the!Midwest!region!had! generated!a!supposedly!authentic!and!distinctively!American!form!of!modern! architecture.!!This!“Prairie!School”!was!formally!defined!by!rectilinear!geometries! and!an!avoidance!of!historical!symbols.22!!Taking!their!own!rhetoric!at!face!value,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 20 Addams, Twenty Years at Hull-House, 126. 21 Authors disagreed about the appropriate name for the group, alternately calling them the Chicago School, the Second Chicago School, or the New School of the Middle West, to name a few variants. By the 1950s and 1960s, the term Chicago School had come to designate the commercial buildings, particularly skyscrapers, built in Chicago during the 1890s, while the term Prairie School described the successor movement identified by horizontal lines, geometric ornament, and centered predominately on suburban, residential designs. H. Allen Brooks provides a detailed genealogy of the terms in his introduction to The Prairie School: Frank Lloyd Wright and his Midwest Contemporaries (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1972), pp. 3-13. 22 See H. Allen Brooks, “The Prairie School: The American Spirit in Midwestern Residential Architecture, 1893-1916” (PhD diss., 1957), revised and published as The Prairie School: Frank Lloyd Wright and his these!authors!assumed!that!the!modern!aesthetic!of!the!School!reflexively!conferred! vaguely!“progressive”!values!onto!its!practitioners.!!They!offered!little!evidence!to! substantiate!their!romantic!projections,!and!they!mostly!overlooked!Perkins!since! he!rarely!conformed!to!their!aesthetic!doctrine.!!Only!three!texts!dedicated! exclusively!to!Perkins!exist:!one!unpublished!dissertation!and!two!short!articles.!! For!the!most!part,!these!authors!perpetuate!their!predecessors’!shortcomings!by! evaluating!Perkins’s!architecture!according!to!the!dictates!of!a!received!“prairie! style,”!which!never!existed!in!practice.23!I!argue!that!a!better!strategy!for! understanding!Perkins!is!to!embrace,!rather!than!evade,!his!peripheral!historical! status,!his!plural!architectural!style,!and!his!penchant!for!compromise.!!These! characteristics!provide!us!footholds!for!reaching!a!more!nuanced!understanding!of! concepts!previously!taken!for!granted,!such!as!progressivism,!democracy,!national! identity,!and!architectural!modernism.! Perkins!was!first!and!foremost!a!civic!architect.!!Though!he!designed!some! private!houses!and!office!buildings,!the!majority!of!his!output!was!public!or!semiP public!in!nature:!settlement!houses,!public!recreation!facilities,!public!parks,! municipal!playgrounds,!and!public!schools.!!Perkins!conceptualized!these!civic! institutions!and!urban!spaces!as!new!types!of!social!centers!that!would!help!educate! and!acculturate!the!public!and!provide!it!with!spaces!for!local!democratic!exchange.!!! Ultimately,!Perkins!anticipated!that!such!civic!spaces!would!operate!as!component! parts!of!a!formula!for!town!and!regional!planning!based!on!the!ideal!of!the!selfP governing!neighborhood!unit,!a!planning!model!that!he!believed!would!encourage! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Midwest Contemporaries (Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1972); David Gebhard, “William Gray Purcell and George Grant Elmslie and the Early Progressive Movement in American Architecture, 1900-1920” (PhD diss., University of Minnesota, 1957), published posthumously with slight revisions by Patricia Gebhard as Purcell & Elmslie: Prairie Progressive Architects (Salt Lake City: Gibbs Smith, Publisher, 2006); and Mark L. Peisch, “Walter Burley Griffin” (PhD diss., 1959), published as The Chicago School of Architecture: Early Followers of Sullivan and Wright (New York: Random House, 1964). 23 See Donna Nelson, “School Architecture in Chicago during the Progressive Era: The Career of Dwight H. Perkins (PhD diss., Loyola University of Chicago, 1988); Eric Emmett Davis, Dwight Heald Perkins: Social Consciousness and Prairie School Architecture (Chicago: Gallery 400 at the University of Illinois at Chicago, 1989): 4-16; and Davis, “Dwight Heald Perkins 1894-1904: From the Chicago School to the Prairie School to Chicago’s Schools,” in Thresholds (Fall 1991): 24-33. Davis pinpointed a few intersections between specific buildings designed by Perkins and progressive issues such as immigration and conservation. These were mainly suggestions rather than substantial explorations, but they do provide some limited groundwork for future study. universal!democratic!participation!and!mutual!social!responsibility!rather!than! laissezPfaire!individualism.!!! It!is!fair!to!say!that!such!civic!and!public!buildings!were!often!an!architecture! of!bureaucracy.!!Indeed!as!an!administrative!designer,!Perkins!himself!had!to! grapple!with!such!constraints!at!times.!!He!frequently!held!government! appointments.!!He!was!a!member!of!the!Chicago!Special!Park!Commission,!chairman! of!the!Playground!Committee,!and!architect!to!the!Chicago!School!Board,!and!it!was! in!his!capacity!as!a!public!servant!that!he!designed!a!large!percentage!of!his! buildings.!!As!such,!he!was!beholden!to!the!City!Council!and!to!taxpayers,!which!had! important!consequences!for!his!architecture.!!For!one,!most!of!his!civic!projects! were!collaborative!works,!in!which!Perkins!had!to!cooperate!with!administrators,! who!frequently!demanded!design!concessions,!imposed!exacting!budgets,!or!held! power!of!final!approval!over!his!designs.!!In!other!words,!the!process!was!often! “design!by!committee,”!which!meant!that!the!final!architecture!represented!a!series! of!compromises!and!not!the!pure,!unmediated!vision!of!the!architect.!!! Because!the!client!and!the!intended!audience!for!such!taxPsupported!civic! projects!was!a!diverse!American!public,!civic!legibility!was!a!priority!and!a! challenge.!!Perkins!was!not!in!a!position!to!risk!public!ostracism!or!indifference!by! foisting!a!radical!architecture!onto!the!public.!!Instead,!he!balanced!forwardPlooking! design!elements,!such!as!simplified!geometric!ornament,!with!more!conventional! ones,!such!as!classical!orders.!!Such!compromises!resulted!in!buildings!that!looked! current!and!upPtoPdate!and,!at!the!same!time,!were!recognizable!as!symbols!of!civic! importance.!! The!prodigious!output!required!of!Perkins!by!the!City!Council,!often!on!a! meager!budget,!demanded!standardization.!!While!architect!to!the!School!Board,!for! example,!Perkins!was!responsible!for!overseeing!the!design,!construction,!or! improvement!of!approximately!a!dozen!school!buildings!each!year.!!To!streamline! the!design!process,!increase!efficiency,!and!lower!costs,!he!modified!familiar! template!plans!for!new!pedagogical!and!social!ideals,!introducing!minor!variations! depending!on!the!specific!needs!of!a!particular!site.!!He!adapted!various,!and!usually! historic,!architectural!languages!to!the!otherwise!similar!exteriors.!!Indeed,!the! question!of!authorship!–!whether!Perkins!designed!these!buildings!himself!or! managed!their!mass!production!by!his!team!of!assistants!and!contractors!–!is! perhaps!a!valid!one.!! Yet!the!plural,!cooperative!architecture!that!resulted!from!such!compromises! is!not!less!interesting!than!the!modern!avantPgarde!because!it!is!less!“pure.”!!!It!is! significant!precisely!because!its!multiplicities!tell!us!about!the!cultural!landscape!of! progressive!reform!in!the!United!States.!!Perkins’s!work!was!the!architectural! corollary!to!the!flexible,!pragmatic!principles!of!his!progressive!milieu.!!He!never! articulated!a!design!manifesto,!nor!did!he!advocate!one!architectural!idiom.!!He! insisted!that!his!priority!was!facilitating!social!exchange.24!!This!attitude!suggests! that!social!programs!were!equally!important!to!him!as!physical!structures.!!Instead! of!aesthetic!mandates,!Perkins!embraced!collaboration!and!adaptation.!!He!made! efforts!to!engage!the!public!by!incorporating!commonly!recognized!symbols!of!civic! significance.!!He!attempted!to!showcase!the!craftsmanship!of!local!artisans!in!his! ornamental!brickwork!and!terracotta.!!Standardizing!the!design!process!by!using! patterns!and!formulas!allowed!him!to!build!more!architecture,!which!had!the! potential!to!effect!widespread!reform!compared!to!constructing!only!a!few,!highly! specialized!buildings.!!Though!not!a!doctrine,!Perkins’s!flexibility!is!in!itself!a!design! principle!and!a!legitimate!architecture!to!study.!!!!!! In!many!ways,!the!process!of!compromise!and!collaboration!by!which! Perkins!arrived!at!many!of!his!architectural!designs!mirrored!the!very!democratic! process!endorsed!by!progressive!reformers.!!Once!architecture!becomes!codified! and!doctrinaire,!it!loses!the!ability!to!respond!to!the!multiple!and!constantly!shifting! goals!and!challenges!of!a!democratic!society.!!No!design!can!embody!or!fully! represent!this!fluid,!often!contentious,!and!unpredictable!deliberation!or!the!life! that!then!takes!place!in!and!around!a!building.!!In!short,!even!when!an!architect!has! democratic!aspirations,!there!is!no!democratic!architecture!per+se.!!It!is!the!flexible! process!of!design!that!renders!Perkins’s!architecture!democratic.! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 24 Dwight Perkins and Howell Taylor, “The Functions and Plan-Types of Community Buildings,” Architectural Record (October 1924): 289.  So!how!do!we!make!sense!of!Perkins,!his!architecture!and!his!social!politics,! given!his!adaptable!approach!to!architectural!representation!and!the!plurality!of! progressive!agendas?!!For!starters,!this!study!intentionally!embraces!his! “weaknesses”:!his!historical!status!as!a!relatively!minor!architect,!his!sometimes! bureaucratic!approach!to!building,!his!relatively!standardized!design!process,!and! his!aesthetic!eclecticism.!!These!selfPconscious!adaptations!give!us!insights!about! how!many!reformers!sought!to!grapple!with!the!challenges!of!democracy,! immigration,!assimilation,!and!education.!!This!dissertation!argues!that!the!very! fluidity!of!his!social!politics!and!architectural!strategies,!not!dogmatic!ideologies!or! strict!aesthetic!categories,!helped!Perkins!advance!his!goals!by!enabling!him!to! address!varied!audiences!under!shifting!circumstances.! Second,!within!this!complex!matrix!of!architectural!and!social!aspirations,!we! can!identify!some!common!threads!or!“flexible!principles”!–!a!set!of!architectural! and!political!tenets!that!are!simultaneously!consistent!and!elastic,!coherent!and! adaptable!to!changing!circumstances!–!which!can!help!us!to!navigate!ambiguous! territories.!!Perkins!was,!above!all,!a!champion!of!social!democracy.!!He!envisioned! his!social!centers!to!function!as!new!types!of!democratic!institutions!capable!of! facilitating!democratic!exchange!among!ethnically!and!economically!diverse! citizens.!!From!the!broad!public!appeal!of!these!social!centers,!we!can!see!that! Perkins!had!faith!in!the!abilities!of!ordinary!people!to!participate!in!and!collectively! advance!democratic!society.!!At!the!same!time,!Perkins!supported!expert!leadership! and!bureaucratic!mechanisms!for!directing!municipal!government,!frequently! working!as!an!appointed!expert!to!Chicago’s!park!and!school!boards.!!He!was!also! willing!to!work!for!social!democracy!within!the!political!arena,!not!just!through! architectural!design.!!As!a!member!of!numerous!informal!civic!organizations!and! official!municipal!committees,!Perkins!helped!draft!legislation,!secure!financing,!and! politically!lobby!for!causes!that!he!believed!would!advance!democratic!society.!!In! other!words,!Perkins!pursued!his!democratic!aspirations!from!multiple!angles,! including!design,!policy!making,!and!expert!administration,!which!increased!his! chances!of!affecting!tangible!social!change.!  Perkins!embraced!emerging!theories!of!social!psychology!and!nascent!social! science!disciplines!through!a!network!of!colleagues!affiliated,!both!loosely!and! institutionally,!with!the!University!of!Chicago.!!From!these!concepts!and! relationships,!Perkins!came!to!understand!that!individual!values,!beliefs,!and! attitudes!were!indelibly!bound!up!with!the!larger!socioPcultural!environment.!!This! realization!most!obviously!informed!his!social!democratic!politics,!but!his! environmental!determinism!also!manifested!itself!through!myriad!municipal! reforms!that!he!pursued,!such!as!crime!prevention,!park!construction,!disease! reduction,!and!public!health!and!hygiene!campaigns,!as!he!attempted!to!deal!with! the!physical!environments!of!individuals!and!communities.!!An!abiding!interest!in! the!body,!physical!health,!safety,!and!cleanliness!reappeared!throughout!his!career! in!different!contexts,!such!as!his!campaign!to!fireproof!all!public!schools;!his! attempts!to!safeguard!the!ocular!health!of!students!through!innovative!lighting! techniques;!and!the!construction!of!a!free!medical!clinic!for!treating!victims!of! tuberculosis!inside!Lincoln!Park.!!And!Perkins!often!appropriated!methods,!not!just! broad!ideas,!from!the!social!sciences.!!For!example,!he!frequently!relied!on!dataP mapping!graphic!techniques!and!compiled!statistics!and!data!to!objectively!explain! complex!socioPurban!phenomena.! Perkins!had!an!unwavering!faith!in!the!benefits!of!education,!both!for!the! individual!and!society.!!In!an!attempt!to!universalize!education!and!extend!its! advantages!to!the!largest!possible!number!of!people,!Perkins!encouraged!a!variety! of!learning!techniques!and!programs!through!his!different!social!centers.!! Settlement!houses!offered!informal!and!usually!practical!assistance!to!immigrant! adults,!such!as!English!language!courses,!civic!instruction,!and!legal!assistance.!! Children!pursued!comparatively!formal!academic!and!vocational!training!in!public! schools.!!Community!members!gained!knowledge!about!health,!hygiene,!physical! fitness,!and!nature!at!municipal!parks!and!playgrounds.!!Many!of!these!educational! initiatives!were!attempts!by!progressive!reformers!to!respond!to!the!challenges!of! unprecedented!immigration!rates!at!the!turn!of!the!century.!!Perkins!approached! the!ethnic!diversity!of!Chicago’s!population!with!an!attitude!of!openness!and! respectful!multiculturalism.!!Many!of!the!social!centers!he!designed!were!meant!for! immigrant!users!and!attempted!to!address!their!unique!needs!and!challenges.!!Even! as!he!acknowledged!ethnic!difference,!Perkins!supported!Americanization!and! assimilation!efforts!in!the!hopes!of!facilitating!the!upward!mobility!of!immigrants! and!advancing!his!concept!of!cooperative!social!democracy,!both!of!which!required! shared!cultural!values!as!well!as!a!respect!for!diversity.! Perkins!harbored!a!lifelong!interest!in!the!natural!environment,!and!one! could!even!say!he!was!nascent!environmentalist.!!His!sympathy!to!nature! manifested!itself!through!a!variety!of!architectural!and!civic!endeavors.!!The!most! ambitious!of!these!involved!a!protracted!political!campaign!to!preserve!native! forests!surrounding!Chicago,!known!today!as!the!Cook!County!Forest!Preserves.!!At! the!municipal!scale,!Perkins!designed!park!buildings!that!were!uniquely!sensitive!to! their!natural!surroundings,!and!he!incorporated!outdoor!recreation!spaces!and! teaching!gardens!into!public!school!grounds!whenever!space!permitted.!!He! attempted!to!introduce!a!modicum!of!outdoor!space!and!plantings!into!some!of! Chicago’s!most!overcrowded!and!polluted!slums!through!the!construction!of!local! playgrounds.!!He!was!also!a!member!of!several!conservation!groups!that!led!nature! hikes,!gathered!and!published!environmental!data,!and!lobbied!city!and!state! governments!in!an!attempt!to!galvanize!broad!public!support!for!preservation! causes.!! ! Lastly,!Perkins!was!a!pragmatist!and!staunchly!believed!in!the!ability!of! gradual,!contingent,!and!even!piecemeal!change!to!transform!society.!!He!was! willing!to!collaborate!and!compromise!with!others!to!realize!his!ambitions,!even!if! this!process!sometimes!altered!his!original!vision.!!His!practical!and!experimental! attitude!caused!him!to!adopt!certain!architectural!strategies.!!For!example,!Perkins! frequently!used!standardized!building!templates!that!he!further!refined!and! developed,!particularly!in!his!countless!designs!for!public!schools!across!the! Midwest.!!Standardization!helped!him!to!reduce!costs,!increase!his!architectural! production,!and!make!his!designs!accessible!to!lowerPincome!communities,! particularly!in!suburban!or!rural!areas.!!At!the!same!time,!his!regularized!building! templates!almost!always!left!enough!room!for!adaptation!or!phased!construction,! which!allowed!Perkins!to!respond!to!unique!local!contexts!and!challenges.!!He! usually!employed!familiar!massing!and!building!materials!in!an!effort!to!engage! entire!communities.!!Legible!symbols!of!civic!identity,!more!than!radical!design! innovations,!helped!Perkins!garner!the!broad!public!support!necessary!to!realize! social!change.! These!multiple!approaches,!strategies,!and!beliefs,!when!taken!together,!form! a!set!of!fluid,!sometimes!overlapping!guidelines!or!“flexible!principles”!–!democratic! aspirations;!civic!legibility;!involvement!with!the!social!sciences;!awareness!of!the! body,!hygiene,!and!public!health;!faith!in!universal!education;!concern!about!the! environment;!and!a!pragmatic,!collaborative!approach!to!problem!solving!–!which! consistently!motivated!Perkins,!but!in!varying!degrees,!under!different!scenarios,! sometimes!manifesting!themselves!in!entirely!different!ways.!!These!elastic!beliefs! order!the!subsequent!chapters!of!the!dissertation,!which!might!be!described!as! telescoping!lenses!that!probe!in!greater!detail!the!meanings,!architectural! applications,!and!limitations!of!Perkins’s!social!politics.!!! Chapter!1!introduces!aspects!of!the!“social!question”!most!relevant!for! Perkins,!including!immigration,!education,!and!sundry!municipal!reforms,!especially! park!and!playground!construction.!!It!outlines!key!influences!and!strategies!that! helped!him!advance!social!democracy,!particularly!the!impact!of!the!social!sciences! and!social!psychology,!his!willingness!to!work!within!existing!economic!and!state! apparatuses,!and!the!“neighborhood!center”!urbanPplanning!paradigm.!!Chapter!2! explores!the!institutional!and!architectural!evolution!of!settlement!houses!designed! by!Perkins,!the!first!neighborhood!centers!he!built,!tracing!their!transformation! from!private!charities!to!civic!institutions!fueled!by!sociological!experimentation.!! Propelled!by!a!set!of!interrelated!principles!centered!on!democratic!social!exchange,! the!settlement!movement!in!Chicago!deeply!informed!Perkins’s!attitudes!towards! immigration!and!education,!as!well!his!empirical!approach!to!problem!solving.! Chapter!3!analyzes!an!urban!plan!that!Perkins!designed!for!Chicago!in!1904! in!response!to!various!public!health!crises,!rising!crime!rates,!and!his!burgeoning! environmentalism.!!It!demonstrates!how!he!envisioned!the!city!as!an!overlapping! network!of!parks,!playgrounds,!and!forest!preserves!anchored!by!local! neighborhood!centers,!namely:!settlement!houses,!recreation!centers,!and!schools.!!I! suggest!that!Perkins!viewed!the!city!as!a!collection!of!social!forces!that!could!be! scientifically!tabulated!and!logically!ordered,!especially!illustrated!by!his!dataP mapping!techniques!appropriated!from!the!social!sciences.!!! Chapter!4!addresses!the!commercial!and!recreational!buildings!that!Perkins! designed!inside!Lincoln!Park,!a!large!pleasure!ground!on!Chicago’s!north!side.!! These!spaces!mainly!catered!to!upperP!and!middlePclass!families,!suggesting!that! Perkins!believed!municipal!improvements!should!include!the!pleasure!and!leisure! found!in!zoos,!cafés,!and!boating!clubs!as!much!as!ameliorating!disease!and!poverty.!! Situated!within!a!picturesque!landscape!comprised!of!lagoons!and!hills!bordered!by! Lake!Michigan,!these!buildings!gave!Perkins!the!opportunity!to!express!his!respect! for!the!natural!environment!by!experimenting!with!innovative!sitePplanning! techniques.! If!Lincoln!Park!circumscribed!a!politics!of!pleasure!and!natural!beauty,!the! municipal!playgrounds!that!Perkins!designed!for!overcrowded,!mainly!workingP class!neighborhoods!reaffirmed!his!abiding!concerns!regarding!public!health,! education,!and!immigration.!!Chapter!5!explores!how!the!axial,!formal!landscapes!of! playgrounds!–!peppered!with!athletic!fields,!apparatuses,!and!benches!–!and!their! considerable!field!houses!–!containing!classrooms,!gymnasiums,!and!libraries,!as! well!as!intricate!programming!schedules!–!reflected!widespread!beliefs!that! organized!play!conferred!democratic!values!like!sharing,!cooperation,!mutual! respect,!and!social!unity.!!Since!these!playgrounds!were!some!of!his!first!fully! realized!neighborhood!centers,!Perkins!explored!various!ways!to!convey!their!civic! and!institutional!identity!while!keeping!in!mind!economic!limitations,!leading!him!to! experiment!with!standardized!templates!and!to!combine!familiar!architectural! symbols!with!modern!geometric!ornament!and!brick!patterning.!! Various!currents!running!through!Perkins’s!settlement,!park,!and!playground! work!culminated!in!his!public!school!projects,!the!subject!of!chapter!6.!!His! enthusiasm!for!public!health,!hygiene,!and!democratic!exchange!caused!him!to! experiment!with!fireproof!construction,!optimal!lighting!arrangements,!and!modern! plumbing!systems,!as!well!as!to!augment!conventional!school!plans!with! playgrounds,!gymnasiums,!auditoriums,!and!libraries!that!were!open!to!the!entire! community.!!He!responded!to!progressive!curricular!reforms!and!new!pedagogical! theories!by!incorporating!workshops,!laboratories,!test!kitchens,!and!artistic!studios! into!schools.!!While!architect!for!the!Chicago!School!Board,!Perkins!collaborated! with!an!entire!bureaucratic!organization!filled!with!public!officials,!private! contractors,!engineers,!and!teams!of!draftsmen,!and!financial!constraints!forced!him! to!experiment!with!standardized!planPtypes.!!From!these!experiences!he!learned! about!flexibility!and!working!with!different!kinds!of!communities,!as!well!as!the! benefits!of!standardization!and!an!appreciation!of!changing!circumstances.!!These! insights!led!him!to!develop!unique!strategies!for!school!design,!such!as!“expandable”! templates!and!“connected!group!plans”!that!allowed!communities!to!finance!new! schools!over!time,!accommodate!future!population!growth,!and!respond!to!ever! shifting!pedagogical!approaches.!!Lastly,!Perkins!considered!public!schools!the! quintessential!neighborhood!center!and!so,!as!with!his!field!house!designs,!he! explored!various!ways!of!symbolizing!their!civic!identity.!!! To!map!such!flexible!principles!overtop!these!nowPfamiliar!civic!typologies!is! not!to!assert!them!as!a!doctrine!of!American!progressive!architecture!or!a! replacement!credo!for!a!defunct!Prairie!Style.!!Rather,!these!elastic!beliefs!give!us! the!flexibility!needed!to!address!the!complexity!of!progressive!reforms!and! architectural!strategies!that!motivated!Perkins!and!also!some!fixed!reference!points! for!understanding!a!movement!and!a!design!practice!that!defies!neat!categorization.!! Equipped!with!these!flexible!principles!we!can!resist!unconditional!aesthetic! interpretations!and!unqualified!political!criteria.!!This!way!of!understanding!Dwight! Perkins!and!early!modern!architecture!in!the!United!States!illuminates!the!rich!and! complex!social!politics!driving!both.  Chapter!One! Dwight!Perkins,!the!Citizen!Architect! ! “Here!in!Chicago!when!we!think!of!Dwight!Perkins…we!think!of!him!as!a!citizen!and!a!patriot!almost! before!we!think!of!him!as!an!architect;!and!if!we!wish!thoroughly!to!appreciate!his!work,!we!must! regard!it!in!the!light!of!his!high!ideals!of!the!responsibility!and!opportunities!of!citizenship.”! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!PPThomas!E.!Tallmadge,!1915! ! As!architectural!historian!Thomas!Tallmadge!noted!in!1915,!Perkins!was! strongly!committed!to!democratic!social!politics,!but!the!particular!nature!of!his! beliefs!and!architectural!strategies!must!be!determined!if!we!are!to!move!beyond! vague!associations!between!modern!American!architecture!and!progressive!social! reform.!!The!literature!on!the!progressive!movement!is!vast,!and!historians!have! identified!a!plurality!of!issues!that!concerned!reformers.!!Progressivism!evolved! against!the!backdrop!of!a!turbulent!transition!in!American!culture!that!occurred! between!roughly!1890!and!the!First!World!War.!!During!these!years,!the!country! was!moving!away!from!the!conditions!of!an!agrarian!society!based!on!individualism! and!local!“town!hall”!democratic!practices!towards!modern!conditions!of! industrialized!urban!life!characterized!by!transnational!social!and!economic! structures!in!which!corporations!played!an!increasingly!large!role.!!Most! progressive!initiatives!can!be!understood!as!attempts!to!deal!with!this! transformation.!!! Historians!have!explained!American!progressivism!from!different! perspectives!over!the!past!fifty!years.!!In!The+Age+of+Reform!Richard!Hofstadter! examines!broad!cultural!changes!that!concerned!everyday!citizens!during!this!time,! including!the!demise!of!the!agrarian!ideal!of!democracy,!the!rise!of!industry,!the! concurrent!influx!of!immigrants,!and!political!and!corporate!corruption.25!!In!The+ Search+for+Order!Robert!Wiebe!presents!progressivism!as!the!deliberate!attempt!of! an!emerging!middle!class,!mainly!urban!professionals,!to!substitute!bureaucratic! administration!for!outmoded!American!individualism!as!a!means!of!coping!with!the! problems!of!modern!industrial!society.26!!James!Weinstein!expands!upon!the! progressive!faith!in!administration!and!regulation!in!The+Corporate+Ideal+in+the+ !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 25 Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform, from Bryan to F.D.R. (New York: Vintage Books, 1955). 26 Robert Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967). Liberal+State,+1900J1918,!but!he!adopts!a!more!suspicious!view!of!progressive! reform!as!a!type!of!social!control!wielded!by!business!leaders!who!enjoyed!political! and!economic!hegemony.!!He!argues!that!corporate!leaders!harnessed!for!their!own! benefit!the!optimism!of!middlePclass!intellectuals!to!unify!the!classes!by!sponsoring! institutional!adjustments!that,!while!broadly!popular!on!the!surface,!in!fact!allowed! business!to!continue!their!entrepreneurial!activities!and!expansion!of!the!political! economy.27!!In!Efficiency+and+Uplift!Samuel!Haber!stresses!the!progressive!obsession! with!efficiency!and!scientific!management!in!terms!of!industrial!productivity!and! also!in!terms!of!social!efficiency,!whereby!the!effective!sorting!of!individuals!into! predetermined!social!roles!would!result!in!social!harmony.28!!James!Kloppenberg! examines!in!Uncertain+Victory!how!theories!of!social!psychology!and!philosophy! espoused!by!James!Dewey,!William!James,!and!others!members!of!what!he!terms!the! via+media!supported!the!regulative,!contingent!view!of!democracy!espoused!by!most! progressives.29!!More!recently,!Daniel!Rogers!expanded!on!Kloppenberg’s!broadP based!intellectual!history!in!Atlantic+Crossings,!where!he!investigates!the! international!scope!of!progressive!attitudes,!as!American!national!policy!shifted! from!one!of!isolationism!to!one!of!exchange!and!global!interdependence.30!!!!! Perkins!embraced!many!of!these!values!and!approaches,!though!not!all!of! them!and!not!in!equal!measure.!!In!order!to!contextualize!Perkins!and!his! relationship!to!such!broad!and!varied!cultural!transformations,!chapter!1!outlines! the!general!contours!of!progressivism!in!Chicago!and!introduces!specific!reformers! and!architects!that!impacted!Perkins.!!He!practiced!architecture!in!Chicago!for! nearly!four!decades!between!1890!and!the!early!1930s.!!During!this!time,!he!formed! lifelong!professional!and!personal!connections!with!local!municipal!reformers!and! sociologists!such!as!Jane!Addams,!Charles!Zueblin,!Jenkin!Lloyd!Jones,!Graham! Taylor,!and!John!Dewey.!!He!was!actively!involved!in!numerous!civic!organizations! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 27 James Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State, 1900-1918 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968). 28 Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift: Scientific Management in the Progressive Era, 1890-1920 (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1964; reprinted 1973). 29 James Kloppenberg, Uncertain Victory: Social Democracy and Progressivism in European and American Thought, 1870-1920 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986). 30 Daniel T. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1998). dedicating!to!resolving!municipal!problems!ranging!from!political!corruption!to!city! beautification.!!He!held!official!appointments!with!the!Special!Park!Commission,!the! Playground!Committee,!and!the!School!Board.!!He!worked!for!Daniel!Burnham!for! six!years!and!also!associated!with!a!burgeoning!school!of!modern!architects,!which! included!Frank!Lloyd!Wright,!Walter!Burley!Griffin,!Jens!Jensen,!Irving!and!Allen! Pond,!Robert!Spencer,!Myron!Hunt,!and!Marion!Mahoney.! From!these!relationships!we!can!begin!to!sketch!a!network!of!social!and! architectural!concerns!that!motivated!Perkins!for!much!of!his!career.!!Local! experiments!in!the!social!sciences!and!pragmatist!philosophy!shaped!his!cultural! values!and!reform!strategies.!!Burnham!and!other!municipal!reformers!introduced! him!to!concepts!of!rational!city!planning!and!bureaucratic!organization.!!His! apprehensions!about!the!urban!environment!translated!into!a!lifePlong!commitment! to!public!health!and!hygiene.!!Education!emerged!as!a!critical!weapon!in!his!arsenal! of!reform!strategies.!!And!lastly,!we!can!see!that!Perkins,!from!the!beginning,! endorsed!a!broad!vision!of!social!democracy!centered!on!social!cooperation,!mutual! responsibility,!and!gradual!social!progress.!!His!involvement!with!civic! organizations!and!his!employment!as!a!public!servant!suggest!that!he!hoped!to! accomplish!social!reform!by!working!institutionally!through!the!existing!state!and! economic!apparatus.!!This!chapter!proposes!that!Perkins!hoped!to!manage!the! inequalities!of!the!market!economy!by!creating!new!or!restructuring!existing!civic! institutions!–!namely,!settlement!houses,!neighborhood!playgrounds,!recreation! centers,!and!public!schools!–!because!he!believed!these!facilities!could!encourage! democratic!exchange!across!class!lines.!! ! “The!Social!Question”! Perkins!came!of!age!in!the!midst!of!a!profound!cultural!transformation! during!the!last!three!decades!of!the!nineteenth!century!when!Chicago,!and!indeed! the!entire!nation,!reached!industrial!maturity.!!His!childhood!recollections!illustrate! some!of!the!changes!and!challenges!that!would!ultimately!preoccupy!him!as!an! activist!and!architect.!!He!grew!up!on!the!south!side!of!Chicago!during!the!1870s!and! 1880s,!living!with!his!single!mother!on!a!busy!residential!street!named!Indiana! Avenue,!where!he!first!encountered!some!of!the!disturbing!effects!of!unchecked! capitalism!in!unplanned!municipalities.!!Perkins!later!recounted!how!competing! traction!companies!denuded!the!streets!and!erected!redundant!streetcar!lines!that! crisscrossed!their!neighborhood,!the!cars!banging!and!clanging!at!every! intersection.!!Poles!carrying!trolley!wires!replaced!shade!trees,!and!the!cedar!street! paving!blocks!rotted,!leaving!massive!muddy!potholes.!!In!one!particularly!vivid! memory,!Perkins!recalled!that!“one!of!the!beaten!horses!died!in!the!street!and!the! city!failed!to!remove!the!carcass.!!A!horrible!stench!resulted!and!a!pest!of!biting! black!flies.”31!!! Perkins!also!early!witnessed!the!challenges!of!shifting!gender!roles,! economic!hardship,!and!political!corruption!when!his!mother!Marion!Heald!Perkins! struggled!to!raise!him!alone!after!his!father!died!during!the!1870s.!!Marion!Perkins! worked!as!a!clerk!in!the!Internal!Revenue!office!to!support!herself!and!her!son,!but! an!unethical!politician!fired!her,!along!with!all!other!female!employees!in!the! department,!because!of!the!voting!franchise.32!!Ward!bosses!commonly!awarded! municipal!positions!in!exchange!for!political!votes,!and!since!women!could!not!vote! at!this!time,!their!employment!represented!little!more!than!an!opportunity!cost!to! many!politicians.!!A!period!of!substantial!and!prolonged!fiscal!insecurity!ensued!for! the!Perkins!family,!deeply!affecting!their!lives!and!outlooks.!!Perkins!dropped!out!of! school!in!the!eighth!grade!to!work,!and!his!mother!resorted!to!accepting!charity! from!affluent!friends!at!times.!!Their!financial!struggles,!while!not!abject!poverty!by! any!means,!certainly!sensitized!Perkins!to!the!social!and!economic!challenges!of! underprivileged!people!and!fueled!his!involvement!in!numerous!reform!initiatives! aimed!at!helping!Chicago’s!growing!underclass.!! These!anecdotes!from!Perkins’s!childhood!illustrate!some!of!the!troublesome! social!fallout!resulting!from!uncontrolled!industrialization.!!These!side!effects! ultimately!became!unbearable!and!helped!create!a!new!class!of!progressive! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 31 Eleanor Ellis Perkins, Perkins of Chicago (Evanston, IL: Self-published, 1966), 88. 32 Ibid., 66-68. Dwight Perkins was born in 1867 in Memphis, Tennessee, where Abraham Lincoln had appointed his father Leslie Perkins Judge Advocate. Leslie Perkins suffered a crippling stroke and eventually died sometime during the 1870s. It was during his illness that Marion Heald Perkins decided to return to Chicago to be near her family. reformers,!like!Perkins,!dedicated!to!ameliorating!them.!!!Chicago!was!one!of!the! epicenters!of!progressive!reform!probably!because!that!city,!perhaps!more!than!any! other!in!America,!emblematized!the!market!revolution.!!Little!more!than!a!frontier! outpost!in!1840,!Chicago!by!1890!ruled!a!vast!economic!empire!that!stretched!from! the!Ohio!Valley!in!the!east!to!the!Rocky!Mountains!in!the!west.!!Located!on!the! shores!of!Lake!Michigan!amidst!the!rich!Midwest!farmlands,!Chicago!became!the! preeminent!transportation!hub!of!the!nation,!connecting!the!agricultural!and! ranching!industries!of!the!west!with!the!commercial!and!manufacturing!centers!of! the!east.!!It!also!led!the!nation!in!industry.!!By!1890!Chicago!dominated!the!meat! slaughtering!and!packing!industry!and!was!one!of!the!top!three!producers!of!iron,! steel,!clothing,!boots,!shoes,!lumber!and!wood!products,!railroad!cars,!foundry!and! machine!shop!goods,!coffee,!leather!and!tanning,!copper,!tin,!sheet!iron,!and! innumerable!other!goods.!!A!population!explosion!accompanied!such!extraordinary! economic!growth,!as!foreign!immigrants!and!rural!migrants!alike!poured!into!the! city!looking!for!jobs.!!The!population!in!1840!was!4,500!people.!!By!1880!it!was! 500,000!and!by!1900,!1.7!million,!an!almost!unimaginable!increase.33!!! In!its!meteoric!rise!to!industrial!and!commercial!dominance,!however,! Chicago!was!only!the!newest!contender!in!a!fierce!battle!for!market!supremacy! among!cities!and!nations!of!the!North!Atlantic!economy.!!Manchester,!Glasgow,!and! Birmingham!in!Great!Britain!were!sprawling!agglomerations!of!textile!mills!and! factories!that!spewed!forth!a!seemingly!endless!supply!of!manufactured!goods,! textiles,!coal,!and!iron!ore.!!Britain!produced!almost!onePthird!of!the!world’s! manufactured!goods!in!1870!and!outpaced!every!other!nation!in!coal!and!iron!ore! production.!!The!“glare!and!slag”!of!forges!and!suffocating!soot!that!blanketed! manufacturing!cities!invited!disdainful!nicknames!like!“black!country”!and! “Coketown.”!!But!as!historian!Daniel!Rodgers!points!out,!“there!were!Coketowns! everywhere.”!!Across!Belgium,!through!the!northern!departments!of!France,!the! lower!Rhineland!and!the!Ruhr!in!Germany,!nearly!identical!copies!of!English! manufacturing!centers!pumped!out!textiles,!coal,!chemicals,!and!steel.!!In!the!United! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 33 David John Hogan, Class and Reform: School and Society in Chicago, 1880-1930 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1985), 2. States,!the!Pittsburgh!region!was!the!American!Ruhr,!as!Pennsylvania!mines!fed!the! enormous!energy!appetites!of!manufacturing!centers!like!New!York!and! Philadelphia.!!Illinois!coalfields!transformed!the!prairie!regions!around!Milwaukee! and!Chicago!into!an!industrial!powerhouse.!!The!United!States!matched!Britain!in! steel!production!by!1880!and!in!coal!production!by!1900.!!Samuel!Barnett,!founder! of!London’s!first!social!settlement,!Toynbee!Hall,!traveled!to!Chicago!in!1890!and! described!its!densely!packed!factories!as!a!Manchester!of!the!New!World.!Travel! writers!frequently!likened!Pittsburgh!to!the!British!“black!country”!or!“!hell!with!the! lid!off,”!according!to!one!author.!!The!great!industrial!cities!that!triangulated!across! the!North!Atlantic!were!more!alike!than!different,!as!common!forms!of!investment! capital,!management!techniques,!and!production!technology!slipped!across!national! and!political!boundaries.34!!!!!! Looking!back!in!1899,!John!Dewey,!a!professor!of!sociology!at!the!University! of!Chicago!from!1894!until!1904,!aptly!described!the!transformative!and!farP reaching!effects!of!industrialization:!“The!application!of!science!resulting!in!the! great!inventions!that!have!utilized!the!forces!of!nature!on!a!vast!and!inexpensive! scale;!the!growth!of!a!worldPwide!market!as!the!object!of!production,!of!vast! manufacturing!centers!to!supply!this!market,!of!cheap!and!rapid!means!of! communication!and!distribution!between!all!its!parts.”35!!The!cultural!shifts!spurred! by!the!market!revolution!were!so!extensive!that!he!could!describe!the!industrial! phenomenon!as!the!one!social!change!that!overshadowed!and!controlled!all!others:! “Through![industry]!the!face!of!the!earth!is!making!over,!even!as!to!its!physical! forms;!political!boundaries!are!wiped!out!and!moved!about,!as!if!they!were!indeed! only!lines!on!a!paper!map;!population!is!hurriedly!gathered!into!cities!from!the!ends! of!the!earth;!habits!of!living!are!altered!with!startling!abruptness!and! thoroughness…even!our!moral!and!religious!ideas,!the!deepestPlying!things!in!our! nature,!are!profoundly!affected.”!!Musing!on!how!thoroughly!industry!had! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 34 Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings, 44-47. 35 John Dewey, “The School and Society,” Combined Edition (Chicago: John Dewey, 1900; rev. ed. 1915, 1943; reprinted as combined edition with “The Child and the Curriculum” with introduction by Leonard Carmichael by University of Chicago Press, 1956), 9. Citations refer to the University of Chicago Combined Edition. reorganized!society,!he!concluded,!“one!can!hardly!believe!there!has!been!a! revolution!in!all!history!so!rapid,!so!extensive,!so!complete.”36!!! As!Dewey!suggested,!such!unprecedented,!and!for!the!most!part!unregulated,! growth!caused!enormous!and!prolonged!social!upheaval.!!The!generally!unsanitary,! inefficient,!and!overcrowded!conditions!of!modern!cities!that!Perkins!recalled! during!his!childhood!persisted!into!the!twentieth!century.!!In!1904!the!architect! could!still!criticize!Chicago’s!inadequate!transportation!and!postal!systems,! obstructed!drainage!canals!diverting!millions!of!tons!of!water!from!the!Chicago! River,!rampant!pollution!from!industrial!combustion,!and!narrow!roadways! strangled!by!congestion.!!Taken!together,!he!argued,!these!problems!represented! “an!enormous!waste!of!treasure,!time,!and!human!life.”37!!! The!“human!waste”!described!by!Perkins!was!especially!severe!for!workingP class!and!destitute!people,!in!part!because!these!groups!often!lacked!sufficient! political!power!and!resources!to!alter!their!environments!in!significant!ways.!!For!all! its!benefits,!industrial!capitalism!also!created!vast!social,!intellectual,!and!economic! inequalities.!!As!the!market!revolution!advanced!so!did!appalling!slums,!commercial! exploitation,!child!labor,!industrial!pollution,!inadequate!water!and!food!supplies,! and!impoverishment.!!Jane!Addams,!a!social!activist!and!founder!of!a!renowned! Chicago!settlement!named!Hull!House,!described!the!city’s!socioPurban!quagmire!in! striking!and!depressing!terms!worth!quoting!at!length:! The!streets!are!inexpressibly!dirty,!the!number!of!schools!inadequate,!factory! legislation!unenforced,!the!streetPlighting!bad,!the!paving!miserable!and! altogether!lacking!in!the!alleys!and!smaller!streets,!and!the!stables!defy!all! laws!of!sanitation.!!Hundreds!of!houses!are!unconnected!with!the!street! sewer.!!The!older!and!richer!inhabitants!seem!anxious!to!move!away!as! rapidly!as!they!can!afford!it.!!They!make!room!for!newly!arrived!emigrants! who!are!densely!ignorant!of!civic!duties….for![sweating!work]!no!basement!is! too!dark,!no!stable!loft!too!foul,!no!rear!shanty!too!provisional,!no!tenement! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 36 Dewey, “School and Society,” 9. 37 Dwight Perkins, Report of the Special Park Commission to the City Council of Chicago on the Subject of a Metropolitan Park System (Chicago: W.J. Hartman Company, printed 1905; compiled 1904), 55-56.  room!too!small,!as!these!conditions!imply!low!rental.!!Hence!these!shops! abound!in!the!worst!of!the!foreign!districts…there!is!a!constant!tendency!to! employ!school!children,!as!much!of!the!home!and!shop!work!can!easily!be! done!by!children.!!The!houses!of!the!ward,!for!the!most!part!wooden,!were! originally!built!for!one!family!and!are!now!occupied!by!several….the! tenementPhouse!legislation!in!Chicago!is!totally!inadequate.!!Back!tenements! flourish;!many!houses!have!no!water!supply!save!the!faucet!in!the!backyard;! there!are!no!fire!escapes.38!! !! Though!her!account!centered!on!Chicago,!Addams!could!have!been!describing! almost!any!industrialized!city!across!the!United!States!or!Europe.!!The!novelist! Arthur!Morrison,!for!example,!described!London’s!East!End!in!similarly! discouraging,!if!overly!moralistic,!terms!in!1891!as!“an!evil!growth!of!slums…where! foul!men!and!women!live!on!penn’orths!of!gin,!where!collars!and!clean!shirts!are!not! yet!invented,!where!every!citizen!has!a!black!eye,!and!no!man!combs!his!hair.”39!!!!! The!calamitous!social!and!environmental!conditions!of!Chicago,!while!not! entirely!unique,!generated!widespread!turmoil!across!social,!economic,!and!political! spectrums,!and!three!phenomena!were!particularly!germane!for!progressive!reform! in!Chicago:!labor!conflict,!immigration,!and!machine!politics.!!The!first!recorded! labor!strike!in!Chicago!was!in!1847.!!By!1900!workers!across!Illinois!had!struck!20,! 783!times.!!The!shocking!increase!in!the!frequency!of!strikes!was!overshadowed! only!by!their!escalating!violence.!!In!1877!the!“Great!Upheaval”!commenced!when! railroad!switchmen!working!for!the!Michigan!Central!Railroad!struck!in!response!to! threatened!pay!cuts,!triggering!a!massive!sympathy!strike!by!laborers!at!the! stockyards,!packing!houses,!tanneries,!stove!works,!clothing!factories,!and!brick! yards.!!The!unprecedented!scope!of!the!strike!paralyzed!the!city.!!Businessmen! quickly!and!literally!armed!themselves!to!quell!the!uprising.!!Industrialists!formed! “Law!and!Order!Leagues”!and!hired!thousands!of!militia,!armed!remaining!loyal! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 38 Jane Addams, “Hull House, Chicago: An Effort Towards Social Democracy,” copy at Chicago Historical Society (n.p.: [1900?]), 227-228. 39 Deborah E.B. Weiner, Architecture and Social Reform in late-Victorian London (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1994), 8. employees,!brought!in!federal!troops,!and!even!advocated!using!dynamite!against! strikers!to!restore!order.!!After!business!interests!successfully!broke!the!strike,! leading!magnates!such!as!Marshall!Field,!Cyrus!McCormick,!and!the!Chamber!of! Commerce!argued!to!keep!a!standing!militia!on!hand!to!combat!civil!disorder,! requested!the!construction!of!a!new!armory,!and!supported!vagrancy!statues! legalizing!the!arrest!of!the!unemployed!poor!or!people!caught!loitering!or! patronizing!saloons.40!!! Despite!increasingly!repressive!law!and!order!campaigns,!the!polarization!of! labor!and!capital!became!more!and!more!cataclysmic!as!the!century!wore!on.!!In! 1886!a!general!strike!demanding!an!eightPhour!workday!turned!deadly!when! demonstrators!gathered!at!Haymarket!Square!to!protest!the!shooting!of!a!striker! outside!the!McCormick!Harvesting!Company!plant.!!Someone!threw!a!bomb,!killing! six!policemen.!!One!hundred!individuals!suspected!of!harboring!radical!views!were! arrested,!and!the!state!attorney!general!indicted!the!leaders!of!the!International! Working!Peoples!Association!on!murder.!!Even!though!the!prosecution!lacked! evidence!linking!the!IWPA!leaders!to!the!bomb,!they!were!convicted!guilty!and! hanged!as!examples.41!!By!the!Pullman!strike!of!1894,!quelled!only!when!President! Cleveland!mobilized!the!federal!army!to!forcibly!restore!order,!many!Americans!had! come!to!approximate!such!violent!labor!confrontations!with!civil!war.42! Intertwined!with!the!labor!problem!was!the!soPcalled!“immigrant!problem.”!! ForeignPborn!individuals!or!children!of!immigrants!accounted!for!77%!of!Chicago’s! population!in!1900,!the!majority!hailing!from!Southern,!Eastern,!and!Central! Europe.!!Over!637,000!immigrants!settled!in!Chicago!alone!between!1880!and! 1930.43!!Unlike!earlier!waves!of!immigrants!from!northern!Europe,!this! demographic!consisted!primarily!of!unskilled!laborers,!with!little!or!no!knowledge! of!English,!and!even!less!education.!!Industrialists!viewed!them!as!nearly! inexhaustible!supply!of!cheap!labor.!!By!1910!immigrants!held!50%!of!jobs!in!the! meatpacking,!quarrying,!woolen!textiles,!coal!mining,!and!blast!furnace!industries! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 40 Hogan, Class and Reform, 5-6. 41 Ibid., 10. 42 Ibid., 5. 43 Ibid., 3. and!almost!70%!of!positions!in!copper!mining,!iron!mining,!and!suit,!coat,!and!cloak! production.!!Compounding!the!problem!was!a!rural!exodus!of!nativePborn! Americans!migrating!to!urban!centers.!!As!agricultural!practices!industrialized,!wellP capitalized!and!mechanized!corporate!farms!forced!smaller!productive!units!out!of! business.44!!Thousands!of!displaced!farmers!left!the!countryside!for!the!city!in! search!of!financial!stability!and!the!promise!of!factory!jobs.!!Like!foreign! immigrants,!rural!migrants!often!lacked!the!education!and!skills!necessary!to! succeed!in!the!new!industrial!social!order.!!!!! The!glut!of!unskilled!labor!caused!by!rural!and!international!migration!was! problematic!enough,!but!foreign!immigrants!in!particular!seemed!to!threaten! democratic!institutions!since!they!were!reluctant!to!culturally!adjust!to!their!new! environments.!!In!a!ground!breaking!statistical!analysis!of!wages!and!nationalities,! published!as!HullJHouse+Maps+and+Papers!in!1895,!Jane!Addams!and!Florence!Kelley! recorded!that!eighteen!different!nationalities!lived!in!the!HullPHouse!neighborhood! and!that!most!of!these!groups!lived!in!“colonies,”!meaning!ethnically!homogenous! ghettos!within!the!larger!community.45!!The!emergence!of!selfPcontained!immigrant! subPcommunities!worried!reformers!because!of!their!tendency!to!institutionalize!by! establishing!ethnically!segregated!schools,!clinics,!and!foreign!language!media.!! This!type!of!“ethnic!persistence”!contradicted!democratic!social!relations!because! immigrants,!and!more!importantly!their!offspring,!did!not!fully!assimilate.46!!Charles! Zueblin,!a!sociology!professor!at!the!University!of!Chicago!and!a!leader!in!the! settlement!movement,!lamented!the!divisive!effects!of!ghetto!life!when!he! excoriated!Jewish!Talmud!schools!in!Chicago!for!ruining!the!eyesight!of!young!boys! over!“Hebrew!characters”!and!distorting!their!minds!with!“rabbinical!casuistry.”!!He! was!concerned!that!such!narrowly!ethnic!learning!deferred!any!“hopes!for!American! citizenship!by!the!substitution!of!Yiddish!for!English.”47!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 44 David Nasaw, Schooled to Order: A Social History of Public Schooling in the United States (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), 91-93. 45 Agnes Sinclair Holbrook, “Map Notes and Comments,” in Hull-House Maps and Papers, 17. 46 Rivka Shpak-Lisak, Pluralism and Progressives: Hull House and the New Immigrants, 1890-1919 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 25. 47 Charles Zueblin, “The Chicago Ghetto,” in Hull-House Maps and Papers, 105.  An!entrenched!and!corrupt!system!of!machine!politics!only!seemed!to! perpetuate!the!downward!spiral.!!Local,!autocratic!ward!bosses!politically! controlled!Chicago,!as!well!as!most!major!American!cities,!through!their!networks!of! crony!politicians,!most!of!whom!cared!little!about!productive!efficiency!or!national! progress.!!The!“machine”!maintained!its!power!through!an!informal!and!unofficial! patronage!system,!whereby!neighborhood!bosses!dispensed!favors,!such!as!jobs!or! loans,!in!exchange!for!political!loyalty.!!Reformers!blamed!this!kind!of!kickback,! graft,!and!vote!buying!for!the!seeming!disintegration!of!democratic!government!in! the!metropolis!and!repeatedly!stressed!the!need!to!restructure!municipal! government!along!bureaucratic!lines!in!order!to!destroy!party!rule.!!Though! machine!politics!certainly!contributed!to!the!pervasive!corruption!then!crippling! many!large!cities,!the!ward!system!also!gave!minorities,!immigrants,!laborers!and! other!marginalized!groups!a!voice!in!municipal!affairs.48!!In!an!effort!to!solidify! political!power,!ward!bosses!would!nominate!a!diverse!crossPsection!of!people!to! municipal!boards.!!In!Pittsburgh,!for!example,!the!ward!system!elected!387!officials! before!1910,!and!67%!of!these!were!small!businessmen!–!grocers,!saloonkeepers,! liveryPstable!proprietors,!small!hotel!owners,!druggists!–!as!well!as!clerks,! bookkeepers,!skilled!and!unskilled!laborers.49!!In!short,!the!ward!system!was! curiously!representative!even!if!corrupt!at!times.! Taken!together,!the!maelstrom!of!labor!unrest,!unprecedented!immigration,! and!political!corruption!precipitated!what!many!Americans!described!as!a!“crisis!of! democracy.”!!Though!similar!social!injustices!had!existed!in!some!form!since!the! 1860s,!if!not!earlier,!the!cultural!conflict!had!escalated!in!intensity,!pervasiveness,! and!intractability!until!it!seemed!a!near!state!of!emergency!by!the!1890s.!!The! secretary!of!the!Charity!Organization!Society!of!Chicago!feared!that!“America!would! cease!to!be!‘one!people’!and!break!into!‘two!hostile!camps.’”50!!Jane!Addams,! reflecting!on!the!embarrassingly!inhumane!conditions!of!Chicago’s!ghettos,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 48 Nasaw, Schooled to Order, 105-6. 49 Joel H. Spring, Education and the Rise of the Corporate State (Boston: Beacon Press, 1972), 86. 50 Alexander Johnson, The Elusive Republic, quoted in Hogan, Class and Reform, 16. concluded,!“the!idea!underlying!our!selfPgovernment!breaks!down!in!such!a!ward.”51!! The!bitter!class!conflict,!unspeakable!living!conditions,!violent!labor!disputes,!and! government!and!business!corruption!had,!in!short,!reached!a!flash!point!by!the!end! of!the!century!that!seriously!threatened!social!stability!in!the!eyes!of!many! Americans.52!!! Such!factious!circumstances!occasioned!a!new,!international!generation!of! reformers!united!around!the!“social!question,”!an!umbrella!term!that!bound! together!the!overwhelming!number!of!social!ills!caused!by!the!market!revolution.! Earlier!generations!of!reformers!had!concentrated!on!restraining!the!powers!of!the! monarchial!state:!written!constitutions!and!selfPlimiting!governments,! parliamentary!autonomy,!expanded!suffrage,!and!popular!participation.!!But!as! capitalists!and!industrialists!took!the!reigns!of!authority!from!kings,!courts,!and! landed!gentry,!the!sources!of!power!and!anxiety!shifted!from!the!legal!structures!of! democracy!to!its!economic!and!social!forms.!!The!pains!of!capitalist!transformation! had!thrown!into!stark!relief!the!depths!of!human!misery!that!accompanied!it:! unspeakable!housing!conditions,!contaminated!food!and!water!supplies,!violent! social!conflict,!labor!exploitation,!abject!poverty,!and!so!on.!!Alarmed!citizens!and! governments,!possessed!with!an!overwhelming!need!to!“do!something”!concrete! about!such!injustices,!attempted!to!compensate!for!the!privations!of!the!market! revolution!by!instituting!practicable!solutions!in!the!shape!of!tenement!reform,! factory!regulation,!minimumPwage!legislation,!publicPhealth!campaigns,!municipal! housekeeping,!and!myriad!other!initiatives!that!attempted!to!deal!with!the!dayPtoP day!realities!of!modern!industrial!life.!!As!Daniel!Rodgers!described!it,!social!politics! was!“the!ambulance!wagon!of!industrial!capitalism.”53!At!its!core!then,!social!politics! involved!rethinking!the!conventional!roles!of!society!and!the!state.!!Progressives! hoped!to!expand!the!responsibilities!of!municipal!and!state!government!beyond! policies!of!minimal!intervention!to!include!the!provision!of!public!services!and! amenities,!such!as!playgrounds,!schools,!clean!water,!and!garbage!collection,!as!well! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 51 Addams, “Effort Towards Social Democracy,” 227. 52 Hogan, Class and Reform, 51. 53 Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings, 12, 53-54. as!the!regulation!of!industry!and!economic!markets!through!legislated!standards,! inspections,!and!investigative!committees.!!This!entailed!an!ambitious!program!of! institution!building,!as!reformers,!officials,!and!private!citizens!alike!experimented! with!various!socioPpolitical!mechanisms!–!some!private!and!voluntary,!others!public! and!bureaucratic,!and!still!others!somewhere!between!–!capable!of!administering! these!new!social!responsibilities.!!It!was!during!this!window!of!institutional! retooling!that!Perkins!and!his!milieu!operated.! !! Perkins!and!Chicago!Progressivism! !!From!a!young!age,!Perkins!collaborated!with!a!network!of!reformers!in! Chicago!who!were!loosely,!sometimes!only!informally,!affiliated!and!who!shared!a! recognizable!set!of!common!values!centered!on!various!aspects!of!the!social! question.!!As!a!child!in!the!1880s,!he!and!his!mother!joined!All!Souls!Church,!a!new! kind!of!nonsectarian!ministry!known!as!an!“institutional!church”!that!emphasized! social!and!educational!outreach!rather!then!conventional!religious!observance.!! Jenkin!Lloyd!Jones,!liberal!Unitarian!Reverend!and!uncle!to!architect!Frank!Lloyd! Wright,!founded!All!Souls!Church!on!Chicago’s!south!side!in!1882!in!order!to!pursue! a!broad!humanitarian!campaign!then!unusual!for!religious!organizations.54!!As! members!of!the!congregation,!Perkins!and!his!mother!both!subscribed!to!the!social! mission!of!All!Souls!and!to!some!degree,!Lloyd!Jones.55!!Under!the!direction!of!All! Souls,!Marion!Perkins!worked!to!establish!kindergartens!for!workingPclass!children! and!subsequently!helped!found!Helen!Heath!House,!a!social!settlement!affiliated! with!the!church.56!!During!the!1890s,!she!and!the!other!residents!split!from!All!Souls! and!founded!an!autonomous!settlement!called!Fellowship!House.57!!She!was!its! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 54 Joseph Siry, “The Abraham Lincoln Center in Chicago,” in JSAH 50, no.3 (September 1991): 235. 55 Marion Perkins and Lloyd Jones maintained a lifelong relationship, even after Marion established Fellowship House and undertook an extensive European tour. See correspondences, Perkins Papers. 56 Eleanor Perkins, Perkins of Chicago, 52-3 and 89-90. 57 Eleanor Perkins, Perkins of Chicago, 89-90. Frank Lloyd Wright and Perkins collaborated on the design of the new All Souls Church, to be discussed in chapter 2. Joseph Siry provides an extremely detailed account of the architectural evolution of All Souls, see “The Abraham Lincoln Center.” resident!Treasurer,!and!Perkins!sat!on!its!board!of!directors!for!most!of!his!life,!even! living!there!in!1902.58!!!!!!! !!Through!his!formative!involvement!with!All!Souls!and!Fellowship!House,! Perkins!became!acquainted!with!the!larger!settlement!and!sociological!community! in!Chicago,!three!members!of!which!would!indelibly!mark!his!social!politics:!Jane! Addams,!Charles!Zueblin,!and!John!Dewey.!!Jane!Addams!was!a!pioneer!in!the!social! sciences,!a!political!pacifist,!and!a!cultural!feminist.!!She!coPfounded!Hull!House!in! Chicago,!one!of!the!most!renowned!settlements!in!the!United!States,!with!Ellen! Gates!Starr!in!1889.!!At!Hull!House,!Addams!and!other!residents!practiced!a!kind!of! applied!sociology,!where!they!endeavored!to!improve!the!lives!of!underprivileged! people,!mostly!immigrants,!living!on!Chicago’s!southwest!side!by!providing! educational!programs!and!public!services.!Perkins!consistently!donated!money!to! Hull!House,!attended!its!lectures!and!programs,!and!met!with!Addams!to!discuss! issues!relevant!to!settlement!work.59!!In!1895!Addams!and!Florence!Kelley,!another! activist,!published!a!seminal!sociological!treatise,!HullJHouse+Maps+and+Papers,!in! which!they!combined!statistical!data!gathered!from!census!figures!and!interviews! with!geographic!projections!of!the!Hull!House!neighborhood!in!order!to!explore!the! relationships!between!ethnicity,!employment,!and!poverty.!!Maps+and+Papers! became!a!cornerstone!of!modern!social!science!practices!in!its!use!of!such!dataP mapping!techniques.!!Addams!published!ten!other!books,!two!of!the!most!significant! being!Democracy+and+Social+Ethics!(1902)!and!The+Spirit+of+Youth+and+the+City+Streets! (1909),!as!well!as!innumerable!articles.!!! Charles!Zueblin!was!an!early!resident!at!Hull!House!before!he!established! Northwestern!University!Settlement!in!1892!and!University!of!Chicago!Settlement! in!1899.!!He!and!Perkins!collaborated!frequently!and!remained!close!personal! friends!and!colleagues!their!entire!lives.!!In!1891!he!helped!found!the!city’s!first! University!Extension!program!at!the!University!of!Chicago,!serving!as!its!secretary.!! He!subsequently!taught!sociology!there!from!1892!until!1908!and!helped!found!the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 58 Perkins Papers, Box IV, Folder 11; and Eleanor Perkins, Perkins of Chicago, 89-90. 59 Jane Addams Papers, Special Collections, University of Illinois; Perkins Papers, Box IV, Folder 6. Perkins and Addams corresponded for decades, with preserved letters ranging from 1897-1932. American+Journal+of+Sociology,!the!preeminent!journal!of!the!emerging!social!science! discipline.60!!Addams!was!also!closely,!though!informally,!affiliated!with!the! University!of!Chicago!and!its!Department!of!Sociology.!!She!published!frequently!in! Zueblin’s!journal!and!occasionally!taught!college!courses!through!the!university’s! extension!program.!!! Zueblin!was!also!a!vocal!proponent!of!the!City!Beautiful!Movement!because! he!viewed!cities!as!the!natural!setting!for!democratic!society!since!they!encouraged! public!fellowship.!!Rejecting!democratic!ideals!based!on!isolated!agrarianism!and! land!ownership,!he!argued!instead!that!the!collective!life!of!cities,!not!individual! homesteading,!would!foster!a!new!civic!spirit,!a!sense!of!public!awareness!and! responsibility!that!would!result!in!socially!cooperative!communities.61!!Perkins! described!this!new!social!order!as!“the!principle!that!no!person!can!reach!his! highest!development!alone,!but!that!such!development!comes!through!communion! with!his!fellows.!!It!proceeds!on!the!premise!that!what!is!good!for!the!whole!is!good! for!the!individual,!and!vice!versa.”62!!They!both!lobbied!for!the!creation!of!public! spaces!–!squares,!parks,!playgrounds,!schools!–!that!could!gather!diverse!urban! publics!together.!!Zueblin!eventually!became!president!of!the!American!League!for! Civic!Improvement!and!published!frequently!on!city!beautification,!including! American+Municipal+Progress!(1902)!and!A+Decade+of+Civic+Development!(1905).!!!! Zueblin,!Addams,!and!Perkins!were!longtime!collaborators!and!shared! common!socioPpolitical!concerns!and!reform!strategies!derived!from!their! experiences!in!the!social!sciences.!!For!example,!in!1895!Zueblin!contributed!a! chapter!to!HullJHouse+Maps+and+Papers,!in!which!he!sensitively!analyzed!ghetto!life,! pointing!out!many!positive!cultural!differences!of!an!orthodox!Jewish!community.!! Three!years!later,!he!published!an!article!in!the!American+Journal+of+Sociology! entitled!“The!Movement!for!Small!Playgrounds,”!in!which!he!utilized!dataPmapping! techniques!similar!to!those!employed!by!Addams!and!Kelley!to!rationalize!and! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 60 Kevin Mattson, Creating a Democratic Public: The Struggle for Urban Participatory Democracy During the Progressive Era (University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998), 23, 27. 61 Ibid., 23-24. 62 Perkins and Taylor, “Functions and Plan-Types of Community Buildings,” 290. defend!the!construction!of!small!playgrounds!throughout!Chicago.!!Soon!after,! Perkins!appropriated!their!data!and!methods!when!he!devised!a!metropolitan!park! system!for!Chicago!in!1904,!substantiated!by!grim!statistics!on!population!densities,! disease!percentages,!and!mortality!rates!mapped!over!the!city’s!street!grid.!!Perkins! and!Zueblin!also!collaborated!as!members!of!Chicago’s!Special!Park!Commission! starting!in!1901,!during!which!time!they!helped!establish!dozens!of!small!parks! across!the!city.!!Starting!in!1905,!Perkins!and!Addams!joined!forces!for!several!years! while!they!both!worked!for!the!Chicago!School!Board.!!! A!mutual!concern!about!the!emotional!and!physical!injuries!that!industrial! cities!could!inflict!on!children!led!Zueblin!and!Addams!to!collaborate!again!in!1912! on!a!child!welfare!conference.!!The!Department!of!Social!Investigation!within!the! Chicago!School!of!Civics!and!Philanthropy!collected!and!published!the!symposium! papers!as!The+Child+in+the+City.63!!The!authors!represented!in!the!compendium!read! like!a!“who’s!who”!of!reformers!across!the!nation,!reproducing!in!one!table!of! contents!the!widespread,!loosely!affiliated!network!typical!of!progressive!circles,!as! well!as!their!shared!ambitions.!!Zueblin!contributed!a!paper!called!“The!City!Child!at! Play,”!and!Addams!wrote!about!“The!HullPHouse!Labor!Museum.”!Florence!Kelley,! Mary!McDowell,!Julia!Lathrop,!and!Lillian!Wald!represented!settlements!from! around!Chicago!and!New!York,!and!their!concerns!coalesced!around!education,!child! labor,!and!delinquency.!!Booker!T.!Washington!wrote!about!the!experiences!of! AfricanPAmerican!children,!and!various!doctors!discussed!proper!nutrition!and! physical!health.!!Backing!the!entire!event!were!industrialists!possessing!a!social! conscience,!including!Cyrus!McCormick.!!The!broad!spectrum!of!upperPmiddle!class! professionals,!settlement!workers,!and!wealthy!philanthropists!that!gravitated! towards!the!Child!Welfare!Conference!in!1912!was!indicative!of!the!diffuse! composition!of!the!progressive!movement!as!a!whole.!! Zueblin!and!Addams,!through!their!settlement!and!university!extension! work,!were!closely!affiliated!with!many!professors!at!the!University!of!Chicago,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 63 The Child in the City: A Series of Papers Presented at the Conference Held During The Chicago Child Welfare Exhibit (Chicago: The Department of Social Investigation, Chicago School of Civics and Philanthropy, 1912). especially!John!Dewey,!and!they!functioned!as!a!critical!link!between!Perkins!and! the!burgeoning!field!of!social!science.!!From!1894!until!1904!Dewey!taught!in!the! Department!of!Sociology,!where!he!pioneered!emerging!social!psychology!theories! that!drove!the!democratic!aspirations!of!many!progressives,!particularly!their!belief! in!reciprocal!class!relations.!!Social!psychology!conceptualized!the!individual!as!an! inherently!social!being,!whose!values!were!shaped!by!his!socioPcultural! environment.!!Unlike!liberal!ideology!whereby!man!was!atomistic!and!purely!selfP interested,!Dewey!argued!that!individuals!were!inextricably!grounded!in!social! communities!and!therefore!mutually!dependent.!!Echoes!of!social!psychology! reverberate!behind!Zueblin’s!optimism!about!a!collective!urban!conscience!and! Perkins’s!articulation!of!the!symbiotic!relationship!between!individuals!and!society.!! Addams!applied!these!ideas!to!the!modern!market!economy,!which!she!described!as! interconnected,!one!in!which!the!“dependence!of!classes!on!each!other!is! reciprocal.”64!!Social!psychology!may!have!originated!among!academics!and! intellectuals,!but!it!had!a!broad!appeal!and!popular!afterlife.!!Reformers!marshaled! its!message!of!social!cooperation!to!justify!countless!practical!applications!that! improved!life!for!everyday!people,!from!labor!regulation,!to!public!education,!to! sanitation!laws.!!It!was,!in!many!ways,!the!theoretical!counterpart!to!the!politics!of! social!democracy.! Underlying!and!partly!driving!Dewey’s!articulation!of!a!social!psychology! was!a!broad!philosophical!program!that!he!called!pragmatism,!which!deeply! informed!progressive!reform!strategies!centered!on!piecemeal!changes!and! contingent!progress.!!Pragmatism!was!a!radical!new!theory!of!knowledge!which! posited!that!human!values!did!not!exist!a+priori!as!absolutes,!but!rather!were! created!by!man!through!a!laborious,!continuous!process!of!experimentation!in!the! social!arena.!!Pragmatism!stressed!that!individuals!put!ideas!into!practice!in!the! social!environment!–!personal!choices!made!under!specific!cultural!conditions!–!and! then!perpetually!revised,!improved,!and!reconstituted!those!ideas!in!response!to!the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 64 Addams, “Effort Towards Social Democracy,” 226. “test”!results.65!!In!short,!human!values!shape!and!are!shaped!by!the!social! environment,!which!meant!both!were!forever!in!flux,!society!and!the!individual! together!grinding!slowly!but!inexorably!forward.!!For!Dewey,!pragmatism!was!a! comprehensive!ethical!and!philosophical!system!that!determined,!or!at!least! explained,!his!democratic!social!politics,!his!ideas!on!social!psychology,!and!even!his! pedagogical!theories.!!What!progressive!reformers!such!as!Perkins,!Addams,!and! Zueblin!took!from!pragmatism!was!less!systematic,!but!perhaps!more!practical!to! everyday!affairs:!its!emphasis!on!active!experimentation,!its!flexible!and!conditional! approach!to!problem!solving,!and!its!openness!and!embrace!of!change.!!Pragmatism,! in!effect,!denied!fixed!and!rigid!scenarios.!!It!fueled!progressive!beliefs!that!the! socioPurbanPindustrial!morass!before!them!was!not!inevitable!but!could!be!changed! and!improved!through!conscientious!action.! Finally,!a!dynamic!and!independent!woman!named!Lucy!Fitch,!whom!Perkins! eventually!married,!reinforced!his!progressive!social!politics!and!greatly!influenced! the!architect.!!The!two!met!in!Boston!while!she!was!studying!art!at!the!Museum!of! Fine!Arts!and!Perkins!was!studying!architecture!at!the!Massachusetts!Institute!of! Technology.!!She!taught!briefly!at!Pratt!Institute!in!New!York!before!marrying! Perkins!and!moving!to!Chicago,!where!she!made!a!reputation!for!herself!as!a! reformer!through!her!active!participation!in!the!Chicago!Women’s!Club!and!her! work!as!an!artistic!illustrator!of!school!drawing!books!for!the!Prang!Company.66!!! Lucy!Perkins!is!best!known!for!authoring!and!illustrating!a!highly!successful! series!of!children’s!books!called!The+Twins,!in!which!she!reveals!her!sympathy!for! cultural!pluralism.!!The+Twins!chronicled!the!adventures!of!genetically!identical! siblings!around!the!world!–!different!races!and!nationalities!–!with!the!stated! motive!of!imparting!tolerance!to!young!readers!of!all!classes!and!ethnic! backgrounds.67!!The!series!was,!in!essence,!a!type!of!cultural!anthropology!geared! towards!children,!a!variant!on!the!new!discipline!then!emerging!at!the!University!of! Chicago.!!The!books!respected!cultural!differences,!but!at!the!same!time,!their! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 65 Kloppenberg, Uncertain Victory, 329, 347. 66 Eleanor Perkins, Perkins of Chicago, 94. 67 Nelson, “Dwight Perkins,” 37-38. narratives!were!built!around!the!shared!humanity!common!to!all!peoples!–!life! challenges,!love,!fear,!family,!and!so!forth.!!The!didactic!lesson!was!to!find!human! similarities!within!a!multicultural!world!where!indifference!often!translated!into! prejudice.!!Lucy!Perkins!believed!such!stories!could!encourage!socially!cooperative! behavior!and!mutual!understanding!among!children,!and!of!course!ultimately! among!adults.! College!educated!and!career!oriented,!Lucy!Perkins,!like!Jane!Addams,! Florence!Kelley,!Lillian!Wald,!and!countless!other!progressive!female!activists,!was! representative!of!the!modern!“New!Woman”!who!worked!to!achieve!professional,! political,!and!economic!agency.!!Her!books!were!profitable!enough!that!she!helped! support!her!family!through!several!economic!recessions!when!Perkins’s! architectural!business!slowed.!!Moreover,!the!financial!stability!of!dual!incomes! enabled!Perkins!to!pursue!public!appointments.!!The!number!of!ambitious,! professional!women!involved!in!progressive!reforms!suggests!the!liberal!gender! politics!of!the!movement.!!! Lucy!Perkins!not!only!contributed!paychecks!but!also!ideas!and!design!talent! to!her!husband.!!Through!her!work!with!the!Chicago!Woman’s!Club,!she!helped! sponsor!a!smallPpark!improvement!project!designed!by!Birch!Burdette!Long,!which! she!published!in!the!1900!Chicago!Architecture!Club!annual!with!the!aim!of! inspiring!future!projects!for!improving!Chicago’s!urban!fabric.68!!She!designed! murals!for!some!of!Perkins’s!buildings,!including!the!University!of!Chicago! Settlement,!a!children’s!nursery,!and!the!Lincoln!Park!Refectory.!!In!1899!she! published!an!article!on!urban!planning!titled!“The!City!Beautiful,”!in!which!she! envisioned!a!Chicago!punctuated!with!wide!boulevards!connecting!public!parks;! small!playgrounds!brightening!overcrowded!workingPclass!neighborhoods;!and! railroads!submerged!to!conceal!their!noise!and!noxious!fumes.!!She!touched!upon! nearly!every!aspect!of!urban!and!social!planning!in!her!essay,!including!public! health,!political!corruption,!home!ownership,!public!housing,!public!education,!fire! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 68 Lucy Fitch Perkins, Chicago Architecture Club Exhibition Catalogue (1900): 32-33. prevention,!economic!prosperity,!and!nature!conversation.69!!It!is!not!an! exaggeration!to!say!that!Lucy!Perkins’s!1899!article!articulated!nearly!every! political!and!architectural!concern!that!would!preoccupy!Dwight!Perkins!for!the! duration!of!his!career!as!a!designer!and!activist.! In!1897!Perkins!capitalized!on!the!knowledge,!influences,!and!ideas!he!had! amassed!from!his!progressive!network!and!founded!the!first!of!many!reform!groups! he!would!lead,!an!informal!organization!called!“The!Committee!on!the!Universe.”!!Its! name!indicated!the!near!infinite!range!of!issues!that!concerned!the!group,!which! included!a!host!of!city!improvements,!such!as!sanitation,!transportation,!and!park! creation.!!Other!reformPminded!designers!in!his!milieu!joined!the!committee,!such! as!the!architects!Irving!and!Allen!Pond!and!the!landscape!architect!Jens!Jensen,!as! did!his!friend!and!colleague!Charles!Zueblin.!!The!Ponds!were!known!for!their! involvement!in!the!settlement!movement!and!designed!several!settlement!houses! around!Chicago,!including!Hull!House.!!Irving!Pond!was!also!an!avid!participant!in! local!Turner!societies,!a!gymnastic!association!of!German!origin!that!supported! “physical!culture”!programs!in!attempt!to!raise!public!awareness!of!health!and!the! body!through!exercise!and!nutritious!diets.!!On!the!occasion!of!his!seventieth! birthday,!Pond!amused!party!guests!with!a!short!program!of!calisthenics,!flips,!and! summersaults,!an!object!lesson,!if!you!will,!on!the!benefits!of!physical!fitness.70!! Jensen!pioneered!in!landscape!designs!that!relied!on!indigenous!plants!and!natural! compositions,!sometimes!called!“American”!landscapes.!!He!was!a!staunch! supporter!of!park!reform!and!fought!against!the!political!corruption!then!endemic! to!municipal!park!boards,!lambasting!politically!motivated!appointments!in! published!articles.71!!The!Ponds,!Jensen,!and!Zueblin!reinforced!Perkins’s! commitment!to!issues!related!to!physical!health!and!park!creation.!!Other!members! of!the!Committee!included!Perkins’s!benefactor!Annie!McClure!Hitchcock,!Maggie! Haley,!a!union!organizer!for!public!school!teachers,!the!artist!Lorado!Taft,!and! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 69 Lucy Fitch Perkins, “The City Beautiful: A Study of the Artistic Possibilities of Chicago,” The Inland Architect and News Record 43 (September 1899): 10-14. 70 See “Irving K. Pond, Noted Architect, Holds 70th Birthday Somersault Party,” in Chicago Men, n.p., copy in Burnham and Ryerson Library, Art Institute of Chicago. 71 Jens Jensen, “Parks and Politics,” in American Park and Outdoor Association (n.d.): 11. several!Hull!House!residents.72!!In!other!words,!Perkins!assembled!a!broad!team!of! collaborators!who,!while!professionally!diverse,!shared!many!common!social!and! political!values.! In!1898!Perkins!and!Zueblin!formalized!the!activities!of!the!“Committee!on! the!Universe”!when!they!founded!a!civic!organization!called!the!Municipal!Science! Club.73!!The!pair!broadly!conceived!of!the!Club!as!a!recommending!body!to!the! Chicago!City!Council!on!a!wide!range!of!urban!problems,!recalling!the!ambitious! program!of!the!preceding!Committee.!!Their!biggest!successes!came!in!the!realm!of! park!and!playground!reform.!!Perkins,!Zueblin,!and!other!members!compiled! several!reports!and!recommendations!regarding!Chicago’s!park!system,!which!they! convinced!Alderman!Jackson!to!present!to!the!City!Council.!!Their!arguments!were! persuasive!enough!that!the!Council!created!an!official!municipal!committee!in!1901,! called!the!Special!Park!Commission,!to!manage!the!problem!and!appointed!Perkins! and!Zueblin!as!founding!commissioners.74!!In!1904!the!City!Council!appointed! Jensen!to!the!Commission,!along!with!Graham!Taylor,!founder!of!Chicago!Commons! settlement!house.!!Between!1901!and!1910!this!group!collaborated!on!the! construction!of!innumerable!parks!and!playgrounds!around!Chicago!as!well!as!the! creation!of!a!band!of!nature!preserves!surrounding!the!city.!!During!this!time,! Perkins!also!designed!an!urban!and!regional!plan!for!Chicago!called!the! Metropolitan+Park+System.!!His!successes!as!a!municipal!consultant!were!substantial! enough!that!in!1905!the!Chicago!School!Board,!which!at!this!time!was!under!the! direction!of!progressive!reformers!including!Jane!Addams,!appointed!Perkins! architect!of!public!schools,!a!post!he!held!until!1910.! In!addition!to!such!official!positions,!Perkins!was!actively!involved!in!several! informal!civic!organizations!founded!by!progressive!reformers!who!wanted!to! influence!municipal!government.!!He!helped!found!a!Prairie!Club!that!campaigned! for!nature!preservation.!!He!was!the!first!president!of!the!Northwest!Park!District! and!chairman!of!the!Forest!Preserve!commission,!organizations!that!ultimately! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 72 Eleanor Perkins, Perkins of Chicago, 70-81. 73 Typescript of Origins of Municipal Science Club, Perkins Papers, Box III, Folder 2. 74 Typescript of Origins of Municipal Science Club. facilitated!the!creation!of!the!Cook!County!Forest!Preserves!outside!Chicago.!!He!was! active!with!the!North!End!Improvement!Association!and!a!member!of!the!Municipal! Arts!Commission,!both!of!which!supported!city!beautification!efforts.75!!Perkins!was! also!a!member!of!the!Chicago!Improved!Housing!Association,!which!worked!to! provide!sanitary,!affordable!housing!for!workingPclass!families,!who!typically! crowded!into!tenements!that!lacked!sufficient!running!water,!access!to!clean!air,! and!sunlight.!!Unfortunately!Perkins!would!not!have!many!opportunities!to!build! affordable,!humane!housing,!but!his!membership!in!the!CIHA!strengthened!his! existing!relationships!with!progressive!reformers!around!Chicago,!such!as!Jane! Addams,!Mary!McDowell,!Allen!Pond,!and!Graham!Taylor,!all!of!whom!were!also! members.! ! This!laundry!list!of!civic!memberships!reveals!an!important!strategy!wielded! by!progressives!to!reform!municipal!politics!–namely,!the!creation!of!collaborative,! civic!organizations!that!worked!with!a!flexible,!yet!powerful!public!sector!of! government.!!Ward!rule!politically!neutered!progressives,!who,!for!the!most!part,! were!affluent!interlopers!in!an!urban!environment!teeming!with!poor!immigrants! unlikely!to!vote!for!them.!!So!progressives!mobilized!the!state!apparatus!to!wrestle! control!of!government!away!from!party!bosses.!!They!established!powerful!and! wellPfunded!civic!organizations!to!pressure!the!city,!such!as!the!Commercial!Club,! the!City!Club,!the!Chicago!Women’s!Club,!and!the!Chicago!Civic!Federation.!!These! groups!financed!efficiency!studies,!investigated!and!published!incidents!of!corrupt! governance,!and!lobbied!the!State!Legislature!in!Springfield!to!force!changes!onto! Chicago.!!Graham!Taylor!persuaded!civic!reformers!in!Chicago!to!create!a!“reform! machine”!called!the!Municipal!Voters!League,!which!worked!to!replace!party!bosses! with!“aggressively!honest!and!capable!men.”76!Where!they!gained!power,! progressives!attempted!to!reorganize!city!administration!so!as!to!limit!the!spoils! system!of!machine!politics.!!They!founded!the!Chicago!Civil!Service!Commission!and! granted!it!the!power!to!classify!city!offices!under!merit!rules,!to!select!candidates! through!a!competitive!examination!system,!and!to!fire!civil!employees!for! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 75!Obituary,!The+Evanston+Review,!November!6,!1941!in!Perkins+Papers,!Box!III,!Folder!7.! 76 Hogan, Class and Reform, 38. incompetence.77!!Such!measures!were!meant!to!ensure!that!educated!specialists! governed!the!city!rather!than!politically!motivated!appointees.!!Perkins!was!part!of! this!broad,!ambitious!program!to!restructure!municipal!government!along! corporate!lines!in!the!hopes!of!minimizing!corruption.!!The!progressive!victory!was! short!lived,!as!party!politics!quickly!regained!control!and!held!it!until!the!1930s.!! Nevertheless,!these!territorial!disputes!were!the!backdrop!to!Perkins’s!career!and! informed!his!approach!to!civic!design.!!!! Several!critical!points!emerge!from!this!mélange!of!social!scientists,! designers,!authors,!activists,!and!committees!that!helped!shape!Perkins’s!flexible! principles.!!First,!Chicago!progressives!embraced!what!they!called!“social! democracy,”!a!term!which!raises!a!range!of!expectations,!from!a!fairly!conservative! “municipal!socialism,”!which!usually!revolved!around!the!establishment!of!soPcalled! natural!monopolies!like!streetcar!lines!and!utility!providers,!to!Marxian!socialism,! which!aimed!to!entirely!appropriate!the!means!of!production!from!the! bourgeoisie.78!!Perkins!and!his!milieu!fell!somewhere!in!the!middle!of!this!vast! continuum.!!Unsatisfied!with!intermittent!municipal!improvements!that!mainly! served!business!interests,!but!equally!wary!of!radicalism,!their!vision!of!social! democracy!hinged!on!broad,!sometimes!diffuse!ideals!of!social!cooperation,!mutual! responsibility,!gradual!progress,!and!active!participation!by!all!citizens.!!They! imagined!a!democracy!in!which!individuals!and!communities!together!participated! in!an!ongoing!process!of!testing,!negotiating,!and!compromising,!slowly!groping! their!way!towards!social!and!political!solutions!geared!towards!the!greatest!good! for!society,!not!simply!individual!gain.!!Social!psychology!and!pragmatist!philosophy! informed!this!vision,!which!reproduced!Dewey’s!belief!in!mutually!dependent,! socialized!men!and!his!contingent!view!of!social!progress.!!Though!slow,!messy,! conditional,!and!sometimes!frustrating,!progressives!believed!this!pragmatic,! democratic!process!best!reconciled!individual!desires!with!the!public!good.79! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 77 Ibid., 39. 78 Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings, 126. 79 Robert B. Westbrook, John Dewey and American Democracy (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1991), 38-46.  Education!greased!the!wheels!of!this!perpetually!moving!democratic! mechanism.!!Almost!all!Chicago!progressives!established!or!participated!in!various! kinds!of!educational!campaigns,!which!together!might!be!described!as!different! working!arms!of!the!same!broad!social!ideal.!!Zueblin,!Addams,!and!Perkins!viewed! settlement!houses!as!one!type!of!institution!capable!of!advancing!democratic! practices!because!their!programs!facilitated!ongoing!popular!education,!which! prepared!ordinary!folks!for!political!decisionPmaking!and!power.!!Similarly,! university!extension!programs!like!those!taught!by!Addams!and!Zueblin!targeted! the!general!public!and!focused!on!current!social,!economic,!and!political!topics,!a! type!of!continuing!adult!education!that!added!to!the!knowledge!of!everyday! citizens.80!!Dewey!opened!a!Laboratory!School!where!he!introduced!an! experimental!curriculum!grounded!in!social!psychology!and!pragmatist!philosophy,! which!aimed!to!teach!children!not!only!the!requisite!reading,!writing,!and!arithmetic! but!also!democratic!practices!of!collaboration,!cooperation,!and!the!active!testing!of! ideas.!!Books!like!those!written!by!Lucy!Perkins!imparted!progressive!attitudes! about!social!cooperation,!mutual!respect,!and!cultural!tolerance!to!future!citizens! and!their!parents.!!As!an!architect,!Perkins!made!clear!his!faith!in!the!benefits!of! popular!education!by!dedicating!his!career!to!building!the!spaces!where!these! public,!didactic!transactions!would!occur:!settlement!houses,!playgrounds,!and! schools.!!So!universal!was!the!progressive!optimism!surrounding!education!that!one! could!almost!say!learning!was!a!curePall!for!Chicago!reformers,!a!panacea!therapy! that!could!be!administered!through!their!newly!established!social!institutions.!!! Cities!were!the!vital!sites!of!progressive!social!experimentation,!mobilization,! and!contention!and!one!reason!Perkins!invested!so!much!energy!in!urban!and! regional!planning!and!neighborhood!renewal.!!As!Daniel!Rodgers!points!out,!readers! today!usually!associate!social!politics!with!nationPstates,!federal!governments! marshalling!vast!national!resources!to!institute!sweeping!programs.!!But! progressives!imagined!the!reverse:!reforming!the!nation!by!first!capitalizing!on!the! social!possibilities!of!its!cities.!!This!was!in!part!because!the!modern!metropolis,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 80 Mattson, Creating a Democratic Public, 23, 26-27. more!than!any!other!setting,!showcased!the!competitive,!fragmented!nature!of! industrial!capitalism!as!society!splintered!into!contending!interests!and!classes.!!The! abrupt!juxtapositions!of!incongruous!neighborhoods!–!stockyards!bordering! financial!districts,!workingPclass!tenements!and!factories!only!blocks!away!from! mansions!–!made!the!social!fissures!palpably!visible.!!But!cities!held!immense! promise!for!cultivating!a!democratic!social!sphere!because!they!were!also! collectivities.!!However!fractured!the!social!and!economic!strata!of!the!polis,! urbanites!lived!in!a!complex!web!of!mutual!dependency!sustained!by!shopkeepers,! peddlers,!ward!bosses,!factory!foremen,!laborers,!and!middlePmen!who!all!relied!on! each!other!for!shelter!and!sustenance.81!!Addams!described!the!interconnected! nature!of!urban!life:!“In!a!crowded!city!quarter…if!the!street!is!not!cleaned!by!the! city!authorities,!no!amount!of!private!sweeping!will!keep!the!tenement!free!from! grime;!if!the!garbage!is!not!properly!collected!and!destroyed,!a!tenement!house! mother!may!see!her!children!sicken!and!die!of!diseases!from!which!she!alone!is! powerless!to!shield!them…individual!conscience!and!devotion!are!no!longer! effective.”82!!This!is!why!Zueblin!believed!cities,!for!all!their!problems,!could!foster!a! new!civic!spirit!based!on!public!awareness!and!social!cooperation,!and!what! Addams!and!Perkins!meant!when!they!described!social!relations!as!reciprocal.!! Their!ambitions!crystallized!around!the!everyday,!material!services!of!urban!life,! such!as!water,!gas,!electricity,!streetcars,!public!baths,!housing,!public!services,! parks,!playgrounds,!and!schools,!and!also!around!the!less!visible,!but!no!less!vital,! institutional!and!political!structures!that!lay!behind!these!outward!manifestations!of! metropolitan!life.!!Though!progressive!reformers!did!organize!at!the!federal!level,! forming!national!leagues!and!associations!such!as!the!National!Playground! Association!or!National!Education!Association!and!eventually!a!progressive!political! party,!their!original!battlegrounds!were!local!socioPpolitical!terrains,!municipal! government,!and!individual!neighborhoods.! Lastly,!progressive!reformers!like!Perkins!maneuvered!within!a!fluid,! interstitial!power!structure,!causing!one!historian!to!dub!them!social!policy! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 81 Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings, 112-114. 82 Jane Addams, Second Twenty Years at Hull House, quoted in Hogan, Class and Reform, 29. “tinkerers.”!!They!overwhelmingly!came!from!a!portion!of!the!middle!class!that!was! uneasy!with!the!brutality!of!industrial!capitalism.!!They!hoped!to!curb,!though!not! entirely!strip,!its!power!by!restricting!sectors!of!the!market!where!the!social!costs! were!too!high,!such!as!child!labor!and!public!health.!!Their!social!politics!did!not! originate!with!systematic!understandings!of!society!but!with!piecemeal!and! practical!interventions,!as!they!experimented!with!an!array!of!possible!solutions!to! the!social!question.83!!It!is!significant,!for!example,!that!Perkins!never!espoused!any! grand!social!or!architectural!theory.!!He!preferred,!instead,!to!work!out!his!social! politics!through!his!architectural!practice,!refining!each!new!project!based!on! previous!experiences!and!standardizing!solutions!that!seemed!to!work.!!Zueblin!and! Addams!chose!to!operate!outside!the!academy!in!social!settlements!and!university! extension!programs.!!Settlements!afforded!them!opportunities!for!practical! experimentation!rather!than!abstract!theorizing!and!afforded!greater!freedom!of! speech!and!political!activism.84!!The!popular!curricula!and!broad!student!body!of! university!extension!programs!resisted!the!increasing!professionalization!and! specialization!of!modern!universities.!!Addams,!in!fact,!rejected!offers!to!become! directly!affiliated!with!the!Department!of!Sociology!at!the!University!of!Chicago.85!! Universities!provided!some!tinkerers!with!an!institutional!base!from!which!to! operate,!but!they!were!unreliable!shelters!for!controversial!reformers,!as!Zueblin! discovered!when!Harry!Judson,!president!of!University!of!Chicago,!fired!him!in!1908! over!the!provocative,!political!nature!of!his!lectures.86!!Perkins,!too,!was!relieved!of! his!official!post!with!the!Chicago!School!Board!when!he!antagonized!wealthy! business!interests!by!refusing!to!patronize!their!companies.! Perkins’s!farPranging!resume!of!civic!memberships,!municipal!appointments,! and!urban!plans!also!illustrates!the!porous,!indistinct!lines!between!the!state!and! society!at!the!turn!of!the!century.!!Governments,!particularly!local!systems,!relied! heavily!on!temporary!and!borrowed!expertise,!like!the!kind!Perkins!provided!as!a! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 83 Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings, 25-27. 84 Mary Jo Deegan, Jane Addams and Men of Chicago School, 1892-1918 (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Books, 1988), 10. 85 Ibid., 10. 86 Mattson, Creating a Democratic Public, 28-29. delegate!to!various!park!commissions!and!the!school!board.!!Tinkerers!rarely! drafted!policy,!but!rather,!made!proposals!framing!the!terms!of!debate,!which!were! then!battered!and!recast!by!officials!and!interest!groups!in!the!political!arena.!!In! this!sense,!many!were!amateurs!–!publicists,!researchers,!speakers,!and!activists.87!! But!the!reason!Perkins!formed!so!many!civic!associations,!directly!lobbied! governments,!accepted!shortPterm,!civilPservice!appointments,!gathered!countless! amounts!of!statistical!data,!and!published!reports!and!proposals!was!because!he! believed!that!his!actions,!as!an!individual,!could!influence!the!course!of!society.!! Progressives,!in!other!words,!provided!the!intellectual!and!practical!legwork!that! made!social!politics!possible.!!The!decades!surrounding!1900!were!a!time!of! immense!optimism!and!abundant!possibilities!for!ordinary!citizens!like!Perkins!who! were!deeply!concerned!about!world!around!them.! ! Progressive!Architectural!Strategies:!Education!and!Early!Professional!Experience! Even!as!Perkins!honed!his!social!politics!during!the!1890s,!he!also!began! hammering!out!the!architectural!strategies!that!would!help!him!advance!his!goals.!! His!formative!educational!and!professional!experiences!reinforced!many!of!his! flexible!principles!and!also!gave!him!concrete!design!tactics!for!realizing!them.!! Moreover,!reflecting!on!the!early!years!of!his!career!provides!opportunities!for! historians!to!challenge!widely!held!assumptions!about!modern!American! architecture,!such!as!its!emphasis!on!new!materials!and!functionalism,!romantic! individualism,!and!democratic!representations!that!might!have!little!or!no!effect.!! Much!of!the!existing!information!on!Perkins’s!formative!encounters!are! concentrated!in!a!selfPpublished!family!biography!authored!by!his!daughter!Eleanor! Perkins!in!1966,!more!than!twenty!years!after!the!architect’s!death.!!While!the! biographical!data!is!accurate,!many!of!her!quotes!and!interpretations!are!clearly! informed!by!secondary!sources!on!the!Chicago!School,!such!as!histories!written!by! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 87 Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings, 26. Hugh!Morrison!and!Carl!Condit.88!!These!scholars,!for!the!most!part,!ignored! Perkins,!as!did!subsequent!historians!of!the!Prairie!School,!because!Perkins!did!not! practice!in!a!consistently!modern!style!of!architecture.!!Instead,!he!was!willing!to! compromise,!respect!cultural!and!clientele!expectations,!and!he!rarely!foisted! radical!designs!onto!the!public.!!In!effect,!Perkins!worked!on!the!periphery!of!what! these!categorizing!historians!defined!as!modern!architecture.!!Yet!Eleanor!Perkins’s! efforts!to!retroactively!write!her!father!into!their!canon!are!instructive!because!her! mythmaking!creates!opportunities!to!challenge!their!overly!simple!classifications! and!to!better!understand!the!complex!motives!and!values!driving!Perkins,!as!well!as! modern!American!architecture!in!general.! Perkins!attended!architecture!school!at!the!Massachusetts!Institute!of! Technology!through!the!generosity!of!several!benefactors!and!mentors.!!He!had!no! formal!education!beyond!eighth!grade,!and!he!failed!to!gain!admission!on!his!first! attempt.!!It!was!not!unusual!for!adolescents,!even!middlePclass!teenagers,!to!leave! school!by!the!eighth!grade!or!even!earlier!to!work,!but!it!was!uncommon!for!collegeP bound!students.!!High!school!curriculums!during!the!1880s!were!directly!indexed!to! university!entrance!requirements!centered!on!classical!studies!like!Latin!and!Greek,! knowledge!not!usually!gained!through!apprenticeships!or!other!adolescent! occupations.89!!So!Perkins!embarked!on!a!vigorous!selfPtutoring!campaign,!and!Jane! Addams!arranged!for!a!Hull!House!associate!to!give!him!free!French!lessons.!!He! successfully!matriculated!on!his!second!attempt.90!!Nonetheless,!due!to!the!family’s! precarious!financial!situation,!his!mother!forbade!Perkins!to!attend!college!if!it! meant!incurring!debt.!!So!Annie!McClure!Hitchcock,!a!family!friend,!offered!him! financial!assistance!in!the!form!of!paid!living!expenses,!and!Perkins!earned!a! scholarship!covering!tuition.91!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 88 Hugh Morrison, Louis Sullivan: Prophet of Modern Architecture (1935; repr., New York: Norton, 1963); and Carl Condit, The Chicago School of Architecture: A History of Commercial and Public Building in the Chicago Area, 1875-1925 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964). 89 Theodore R. Sizer, Secondary Schools at the Turn of the Century (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1964), 56-59. 90 The French tutor was Mrs. H.M. Wilmarth, an occasional instructor at Hull House. 91 Eleanor Perkins, Perkins of Chicago, 26-37. Mrs. Hitchcock also paid off the mortgage on the Perkins house, evidence of the generosity of their circle of friends and also of their real financial need.  Perkins!thus!personally!understood!the!twin!challenges!posed!by!financial! insecurity!and!limited!education,!and!his!persistence!in!pursuing!an!advanced! degree!suggests!his!commitment!to!education!as!a!fundamental!requirement!of! social!progress.!!The!family!biography!includes!an!anecdote!where!Perkins!lectured! his!mother!on!universal!education,!going!so!far!as!to!describe!it!as!a!right!in!nearly! political!terms.!!According!to!the!family!lore,!Marion!Perkins!retrenched!into!an! attitude!of!individual!selfPsufficiency!when!Perkins!suggested!asking!for!financial! assistance!to!pursue!his!degree,!insisting!he!earn!the!money!himself!before!even! applying!to!college.92!Perkins!responded!that!his!personal!education!benefited!the! whole!society:!“If!anybody!wants!to!pay!for!my!college!education!they!are!doing!the! country!and!themselves!a!favor!as!well!as!me…the!United!States!can’t!run!itself! without!educated!citizens.”93!!Such!an!attitude!prefigured!progressive!theories! regarding!the!mutually!dependent!nature!of!modern!society!and!the!critical!role! that!education!played!in!a!democracy.!!Perkins!would!later!embrace!universal! education!for!all!people.!! During!his!fourth!year!of!study,!Perkins!declined!a!full!stipend!to!continue! studying!at!M.I.T.!and!also!reportedly!abandoned!plans!to!attend!the!Ecole!des! BeauxPArts.94!!The!family!biography!rationalizes!his!decision!by!claiming!that! Perkins!had!become!critical!of!the!mimetic!approach!to!design!practiced!in!both! schools:!“Architecture!as!it!was!being!taught!and!practiced!did!not!have!integrity! either!in!conception!or!execution.!!It!was!becoming!a!mere!disciplined!conformity!to! imitation!and!was!a!scholastically!correct!copying!of!architectural!styles!established! by!the!great!buildings!of!Europe…Dwight!felt!more!and!more!clearly!that! somewhere,!somehow!a!genuine!American!architecture!expressing!the!forms!and! needs!of!American!life!must!be!brought!to!birth.”95!!The!narrative!of!an!independent! thinking,!pioneer!architect!courageously!striking!out!on!his!own!to!discover!a!truly! American!style!of!architecture!is!a!nearly!hackneyed!refrain!in!many!architectural! histories!of!the!United!States,!and!one!that!dovetails!all!too!neatly!with!the!country’s! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 92 Ibid., 26-37. 93 Ibid., 30. 94 Ibid., 40-1. 95 Ibid., 38-40. selfPfashioned!national!identity!as!a!land!of!exceptional,!rugged!individualists!–!an! identity,!it!should!be!pointed!out,!that!was!becoming!pure!fiction!by!the!end!of!the! nineteenth!century!and!certainly!by!1966!when!Perkins’s!biography!was!published.!!! What!is!interesting!about!the!account!is!how!Perkins!reportedly!understood! what!was!peculiar!about!American!artistic!patronage!compared!to!that!in!Europe.!! Historically,!elite!rulers!within!the!church!or!the!state,!who!possessed!cultivated! upbringings!and!artistic!perception!to!match!their!extensive!coffers,!had!controlled! artistic!patronage!in!Europe.!!In!the!United!States,!however,!wealth!and!by!extension! art!patronage!was!dispersed!among!larger!portions!of!the!population!who!lacked! the!aristocratic!upbringing!and!artistic!taste!of!European!patrons.!!According!to! Perkins,!the!result!was!a!corresponding!devolution!of!artistic!quality:! There!was!a!difficulty!in!producing!great!and!creative!architectural!design! inherent!in!one!of!the!greatest!tenets!of!American!philosophy.!!Buildings! were!necessarily!controlled!by!those!who!paid!for!them.!!Riches!in!America! were!no!longer!in!the!hands!of!men!like!Louis!14th!or!Lorenzo!de! Medici….Great!art!had!throughout!the!ages!been!produced!by!the!princes!of! the!church!and!state!who!controlled!the!wealth,!who!were!capable!of! perceptive!patronage!and!knew!what!to!buy…the!greatness!of!America!lay!in! the!fact!that!great!wealth!was!coming!rapidly!into!the!hands!of!large! numbers!of!common!people!who!had!neither!the!taste,!knowledge!or!training! of!hereditary!aristocrats!and!felt!it!safer!to!copy!or!buy!the!established!great! designs!of!Europe,!rather!than!to!establish!anything!that!was!natively! American.!!As!wealth!increased,!the!buildings!of!America!became! increasingly!imitative,!big!without!being!great,!and!costly!without!either! inspiration!of!refinement.96! ! In!other!words,!Perkins!reportedly!believed!that!the!democratization!of!society,!so! critical!to!the!American!national!philosophy!and!his!own!social!politics,!was!at!odds! with!the!production!of!original!architecture.!!The!patronizing!assumption!that! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 96 Ibid., 38-9. ordinary!people!lacked!intelligence!and!refinement!is!significant!because!it!reveals!a! persistent,!if!veiled,!belief!held!by!many!progressive!reformers!that!society!was,!in! fact,!best!led!by!an!educated!elite!of!professional!bureaucrats.!!Perkins,!for!one,! believed!in!both!equalitarianism!and!expert!administration,!a!contradiction!inherent! in!the!progressive!movement!as!a!whole!and!one!that!he!never!entirely!reconciled.! Eleanor!Perkins,!however,!did!reconcile!the!conflict!between!social! democracy!and!creative!architecture!in!her!biography!by!invoking!the!aesthetic! possibilities!of!new!materials,!namely,!steel!and!reinforced!concrete.!!According!to! her,!Perkins!purportedly!associated!these!substances!with!“American”!values!such! as!market!capitalism!and!industry:!! A!great!new!element!in!building!material!was!transforming!the!whole! building!process.!!Steel!!!The!progeny!of!steel!and!concrete!was!reinforced! concrete.!!No!longer!were!the!forms!of!architecture!compelled!to!obey!the! necessities!of!stone!and!brick!masonry!and!lumber.!!The!new!materials!and! the!new!engineering!needs!and!the!new!conditions!of!the!industrial!age! would!force!architecture!into!new!forms.!!The!greatness!of!classic!Greek!or! Renaissance!or!Gothic!or!other!immortal!architectural!achievements!of!the! past!would!have!a!genuine!rebirth!in!an!architecture!formed!by!the! functioning!of!free!enterprise,!modern!materials,!and!mass!production.97! ! Such!a!structural!and!material!reading!of!modern!design!is,!like!the!narrative! of!the!American!pioneer,!common!stock!in!histories!of!American!architecture.!!While! such!rhetoric!served!to!situate!Perkins!firmly!in!the!trajectory!of!an!emerging! modern!architecture,!he!did!not,!in!fact,!work!primarily!in!steel!and!concrete.!!Nor! did!he!produce!the!dematerialized!architecture!of!glass!and!metal!implied!by!such! statements,!as!did!many!of!his!European!counterparts.!!Perkins!most!often!worked! in!the!very!stone,!brick,!and!lumber!he!allegedly!indicted,!and!it!is!unlikely!that!he! ever!articulated!these!architectural!theories!given!his!aversion!to!sweeping! generalizations,!noncommittal!attitude!towards!aesthetics,!and!somewhat!reticent! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 97 Ibid., 58. writing!style.!!But!resolving!such!discrepancies!between!Perkins’s!actual! architectural!production!and!the!historical!categorization!of!it!as!modern,!American,! or!whatever,!is!less!important!than!understanding!what!such!discrepancies!reveal! about!those!categories:!namely,!that!at!some!point!they!become!useless!monikers,!in! this!case!incapable!of!reflecting!beyond!materials!and!aesthetics.!!Rather!than!trying! to!read!modern!stylistic!features!into!his!buildings,!we!should!understand!that!his! flexibility!in!architectural!design!is!precisely!what!helped!him!engage!society!so!as! to!advance!his!progressive!social!and!political!agendas.!!! The!sequence!of!events!after!Perkins!left!M.I.T.!is!obscured!by!historical! omissions.!!According!to!the!family,!he!quit!school!in!order!to!work!for!a!prominent! New!York!architectural!firm,!a!choice!likely!informed!by!his!budding!relationship! with!Lucy!Perkins.!!But!for!reasons!that!are!unclear!the!New!York!job!never! materialized.!!Instead,!Perkins!worked!briefly!for!a!Boston!firm.!!Some!scholars!have! speculated!it!was!the!office!of!Henry!Hobson!Richardson,!though!this!is! unconfirmed.!!Perkins!retained!a!paper!fragment!signed!by!the!famed!Boston! architect!in!his!personal!keepsakes,!which!historians!alternatively!argue!is!a!pay! stub!or!an!autograph.98!There!is!no!employee!record!of!Perkins!in!the!remaining! materials!from!Richardson’s!practice.99!!!What!is!certain!is!that!he!returned!to! Chicago!after!leaving!school!rather!than!going!to!Paris,!New!York,!or!remaining!long! in!Boston.!!! Back!in!the!Midwest,!Perkins!worked!as!a!draftsman!in!various!architectural! firms!before!securing!a!position!in!1888!with!the!office!of!Daniel!Burnham!and!John! Wellborn!Root,!two!of!Chicago’s!leading!architects.!100 !!He!flourished,!his!rapid! advancement!within!the!firm!reportedly!causing!problems!with!senior!employees! who!perhaps!resented!his!success.101!!In!1891!Burnham!made!Perkins!manager!of! the!Chicago!office!when!the!senior!architect,!now!a!prominent!national!figure,! opened!a!second!office!on!the!South!Side!in!order!to!oversee!the!planning!of!the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 98 Perkins Papers, Box IV, Folder 2. 99 Siry, “Abraham Lincoln Center,” 239, note 20. 100 Thomas Eddy Tallmadge, “Biography of Perkins,” Brickbuilder 24 (July 1915): 146; and Eleanor Perkins, Perkins of Chicago, 49-50. 101 Eleanor Perkins, Perkins of Chicago, 49-50. World’s!Columbian!Exposition.102!!As!office!manager,!Perkins!may!have!supervised! the!completion!of!John!Root’s!last!commissions!after!the!principal!unexpectedly!and! prematurely!died!of!pneumonia!that!same!year.103 !! Eleanor!Perkins!capitalized!on!her!father’s!employment!with!Burnham!and! Root!to!associate!him!with!the!evolution!of!modern,!tallPoffice!buildings,!in!many! ways!the!symbol!of!early!modern!architecture!in!the!United!States.!!She!claims!that! Perkins!partly!designed!the!Monadnock!Building,!long!characterized!by!historians! as!a!harbinger!of!an!emerging!modern!architecture!predicated!on!structural! expression!rather!than!historical!precedent!(Figure!1.1).104!!There!is!no!consensus! among!historians!as!to!the!veracity!of!her!account!and!no!extant!records!to!verify!it.!! Eric!Emmett!Davis!writes!that!Perkins!worked!on!the!Monadnock!design!only!after! Root’s!death,!which!situates!Perkins!more!as!an!executor,!rather!than!generator,!of! the!design.105!Mario!Manieri!Elia!argues!that!Daniel!Burnham!himself!designed!the! building,!not!Root!or!any!associate!architect.106!!It!difficult!to!know!which!version!of! events!is!most!accurate,!but!Eleanor!Perkins’s!account!warrants!attention!for!the! way!it!attempts!to!cast!Perkins!as!a!modern!architect!rejecting!academicism.! Perkins’s!formative!experience!with!high!buildings!may!have!been!reinforced! from!another!direction!–!the!example!of!Louis!Sullivan.!!Sullivan!himself!and! subsequent!biographers!have!widely!credited!him!as!an!innovator,!even!the! inventor!by!some!accounts,!of!the!modern!tall!office!building.!!Numerous!times!in! the!Perkins!family!biography,!Eleanor!Perkins!depicts!her!father!as!an!avid!admirer! of!Sullivan!and!his!quest!for!an!“authentically!American”!expression!of! architecture.107!!Perkins!reportedly!believed!Sullivan!to!be!“the!greatest!original! genius!among!American!architects”!and!declined!the!security!of!a!permanent! teaching!position!at!Harvard!because!of!his!loyalty!to!him:!“I!believe!what!Louis! Sullivan!says.!!Now!is!the!time!to!take!a!great!step!forward!in!architecture.!!An! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 102 Eleanor Perkins, Perkins of Chicago, 61; and Davis, Social Consciousness and Prairie School Architecture, 4. 103 Davis, Social Consciousness and Prairie School Architecture, 4. 104 For example, see Morrison, Louis Sullivan and Condit, Chicago School of Architecture. 105 Davis, “Dwight Heald Perkins,” in Thresholds, 25. 106 Mario Manieri Elia, Louis Henry Sullivan (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1996), 89. 107 Eleanor Perkins, Perkins of Chicago, 59, 82, and 92. American!style!is!ready!to!get!born.!!There!are!enough!thinking!architects!here!to! begin!what!could!be!known!as!the!Chicago!School.”108!!These!recollections!are!likely! exaggerated!since!Perkins,!in!his!own!writings,!never!mentions!Root,!Sullivan,!or! any!romantic!quest!for!an!American!style!of!architecture.!!Perkins!explicitly!avoided! the!aesthetic!question!when!writing!on!his!own!civic!centers,!claiming!that!“no! permanent!or!distinctive!style”!identifies!them.!!Instead,!Perkins!defined!them!in! abstract!and!social!terms,!as!places!that!provide!“inspiration!and!opportunities!for! the!development!of!the!higher!life!of!the!people.”109!!! Nevertheless,!the!biography!recounts!one!interaction!between!Perkins!and! Sullivan!in!sufficient!detail!to!merit!consideration!because!it!offers!an!alternative! reading!of!their!alleged!relationship,!one!centered!on!urban!planning!rather!than! skyscrapers.!!The!two!architects!reportedly!met!during!the!final!days!of!the!World’s! Fair!outside!of!Sullivan’s!Transportation!Building,!where!Sullivan!had!gone!alone!to! commune!with!his!design!before!its!demolition.!!Not!surprisingly,!their!conversation! revolved!around!the!future!of!steelPframed!skyscraper!construction.!!What!is! unexpected!about!their!dialogue!is!that!Sullivan!conceptualized!the!tower!not!as!an! individual!monument!but!as!a!largePscale,!urban!structure,!built!en+masse!as!a! defining!characteristic!of!the!modern!city,!the!towers!separated!from!each!other!and! capable!of!rapid!and!endless!transformation!due!to!the!efficiency!of!lightweight!steel! construction!(Figure!1.2).!!Sullivan!reportedly!told!Perkins:!“Cities!from!now!on! must!be!lightly!built.!!The!buildings!must!go!up!one!day!and!down!the!next.!!Steel! construction!can!be!constantly!rearranged.!!Skyscrapers!must!be!set!away!from!each! other!by!themselves.!!Tall!buildings!lose!their!soaring!quality!and!become!mutually! destructive!when!they!front!on!narrow!streets.”110!!! Architectural!historian!Mario!Manieri!Elia!points!out!that!Sullivan!had! articulated!a!similar!idea!three!years!earlier!in!an!article!published!in!the!Graphic! titled!“The!High!Building!Question.”!!In!this!essay,!Sullivan!effectively!proposed!an! urbanPplanning!model!organized!around!the!skyscraper!and!the!rationalization!of! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 108 Ibid., 82, 92. 109 Perkins and Taylor, “Functions and Plan-Types of Community Buildings,” 289. 110 Eleanor Perkins, Perkins of Chicago, 83. Chicago’s!building!regulations!through!the!introduction!of!setback!laws,!anticipating! both!European!rationalism!and!New!York’s!1916!zoning!code.!!In!short,!Sullivan! sought!to!elevate!skyscrapers!from!the!scale!of!a!building!to!that!of!the!city.111!!It!is! possible!then,!that!Sullivan’s!influence!on!Perkins!had!more!to!do!with!rationalized! urban!planning!than!with!the!articulation!of!the!individual!high!building!or!the! search!for!a!national!language!of!design.! Despite!the!weight!given!to!Sullivan!in!the!Perkins!biography,!Daniel! Burnham!surely!had!a!greater!impact!on!the!young!architect.!!Perkins!worked!for! Burnham!for!six!years!between!1888!and!1894,!and!it!was!through!Burnham!that!he! first!encountered!progressive!urbanPplanning!theories.!In!1890!Burnham!received! the!commission!to!spearhead!the!design!of!the!1893!World’s!Fair,!and!the!cultural! strategies!represented!by!this!event!offer!entirely!different!understandings!of!what! constituted!modern!architecture!and!city!planning!in!the!1890s.!!Perkins!does!not! appear!to!have!worked!directly!on!the!Fair,!but!he!was!surely!aware!of!its!design!as! the!manager!of!Burnham’s!Chicago!operations.112!!!!! Burnham!was!head!coordinator!of!the!Fair,!managing!the!individual!firms! commissioned!to!design!specific!buildings!on!the!Fair!grounds.!!He!conceived!of!the! Fair!as!an!antiPlocal,!international!affair,!and!he!signified!such!global!aspirations!by! favoring!wellPestablished!East!Coast!architects!and!by!selecting!French!classical!as! the!architectural!style!of!the!event.!!French!classical!was!an!arguably!universal! design!language!in!comparison!to!the!individualistic!expressions!of!many!western! architects!searching!for!an!indigenous!American!style!of!architecture.113 !!To!this! internationalizing!end,!the!most!important!section!of!the!Fair!grounds,!the!Court!of! Honor,!followed!BeauxPArts!planning!principles:!white,!classical!buildings!with! uniform!cornice!heights!organized!around!an!axial!and!hierarchical!central!court,!all! situated!in!picturesque!parklands!(Figure!1.3).!!Critics!and!the!general!public!alike! immediately!recognized!the!rationalized,!sanitized,!gleaming!vision!of!this!“White! City”!and!its!attendant!park!spaces!as!an!urbanPplanning!ideal.!!Charles!Zueblin! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 111 Manieri Elia, Louis Henry Sullivan, 89-90. 112 Eleanor Perkins, Perkins of Chicago, 61-2. 113 Manieri Elia, Louis Henry Sullivan, 93. went!so!far!as!to!locate!the!origins!of!progressive!city!planning!with!the!Fair,! describing!its!significance,!literally,!in!black!and!white!terms:!“The!contrast!which! was!presented!between!the!White!City!of!Chicago!and!the!black!city!of!Chicago!was! no!greater!than!that!between!the!old!conception!of!the!city!beautiful!and!the! new.”114!! Manieri!Elia!perceptively!notes!that!the!planning!of!the!Fair!coincided!with! the!first!iterations!of!Sullivan’s!original!urbanPdesign!method!and!proffered! precisely!the!opposite!cultural!vision:!an!antiPprovincial,!intercontinental!coalition! that!sought!international!status!even!if!that!meant!resorting!to!Old!World!cultural! symbols!versus!a!somewhat!provincial!independence!from!Europe!and!proud! loyalty!to!American!individualism.!!As!a!cultural!strategy,!the!Fair!signified!a! departure!from!the!old,!individualistic!form!of!laissezPfaire!competition!toward!an! economic!and!social!system!predicated!on!a!more!impersonal,!collective! organization!and!bureaucracy.!!This!new!model!of!corporate!organization!–!both!at! the!Fair!and!in!society!at!large!–!relied!on!coordination!and!compromise!in!the! service!of!unity,!architecturally!symbolized!by!the!universalizing!BeauxPArts! language.115!!Zueblin!was!so!moved!by!the!feeling!of!cooperation!and!unity! embodied!by!the!Fair!that!he!described!the!White!City!as!a!“socialist!achievement,! the!product!of!many!minds!inspired!with!a!shared!goal,!working!for!the!common! good.”116!!Of!course,!socialist!politics!did!not!actually!drive!the!Fair;!much!of!it!was! privately!financed.!!But!Zueblin’s!comment!demonstrates!how!many!progressives,! including!Perkins,!understood!the!concept!of!social!democracy!–!namely,!as!a! cooperative!social!organization!predicated!on!mutual!responsibility!for!the!common! good!that!operated!within!existing!capitalist!financial!structures.!!!! According!to!the!family!biography,!Perkins!criticized!Burnham’s!decision!to! impose!an!imported,!BeauxPArts!formula!onto!the!Fair,!telling!his!boss,!“in!free! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 114 Charles Zueblin, “A Decade of Civic Improvement,” Presidential Address delivered at St. Paul, Minnesota (September 26, 1902), 10-11. 115 Manieri Elia, Louis Henry Sullivan, 96. 116 Charles Zueblin, A Decade of Civic Development (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1905), 61; also Manieri Elia, Louis Henry Sullivan, 96. America,!architecture!must!be!free!and!honest!and!inspired.”117!!Eleanor!Perkins! describes!an!encounter!between!him!and!a!group!of!French!visitors!to!the!Fair!who! had!heard!that!a!“new!American!style”!was!developing!but!complained!that! Sullivan’s!Transportation!Building!was!the!only!evidence!of!this!burgeoning! movement!they!could!find!at!the!exposition.!!Expectedly,!Perkins!reaffirmed!their! opinion,!remarking!that!Sullivan!was!“the!greatest!original!genius!among!American! architects.”!!However,!when!the!French!praised!Sullivan’s!“rich!and!remarkable”! ornamentation,!Perkins,!or!at!least!Eleanor!Perkins,!profoundly!misunderstands!the! senior!designer!when!he!responded:!“Mr.!Sullivan’s!ornament!was!beautiful!and! original,!but!it!was!the!least!important!part!of!his!work.!!His!greatness!lay!in!his!new! forms!that!followed!the!function!of!the!building!and!the!character!of!its!materials.!! Mr.!Sullivan’s!forms!were!not!derived!from!imitating!classical!structures.!!He! enriched!the!surfaces!merely!to!make!glad!the!eye!of!the!passerby!who!for!the!most! part!knew!nothing!of!the!necessities!of!construction.”118!!In!practice,!Sullivan’s! personal!system!of!ornament,!derived!in!part!from!evolutionary!theory!and!from! German!idealist!philosophy,!was!probably!the!most!significant!aspect!of!his! architectural!practice,!or!at!least,!it!was!certainly!on!par!with!his!functionalism.!!! What!is!important!about!these!recollections!regarding!Perkins!and!the!Fair!is! less!the!question!of!an!authentic,!national!architectural!language!–!it!is!clear!by!now! that!Eleanor!Perkins!wrote!her!father’s!biography!to!accord!with!a!structural,! material,!and!functional!reading!of!modern!architecture!–!but!rather,!the! relationship!between!those!architectural!languages!and!the!larger!cultural! strategies!they!do!or!do!not!represent.!!The!degree!to!which!Perkins!opposed! Burnham’s!formulaic!application!of!the!FrenchPclassical!style!to!the!Fair!buildings!is! less!relevant!than!the!fact!that!Perkins!staunchly!supported!the!larger!ideological! and!cultural!changes!associated!with!the!event,!concepts!that!ultimately!figured!into! his!flexible!principles:!bureaucratic!administration,!rationally!planned!cities,!park! reform,!social!cooperation,!and!civic!legibility.!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 117 Eleanor Perkins, Perkins of Chicago, 59. 118 Ibid., 60.  When!the!Fair!closed!in!1894,!Perkins!left!Burnham’s!office!to!open!his!own! private!practice,!and!his!first!independent!projects,!while!unremarkable!compared! to!his!mature!work,!present!a!far!more!complex!set!of!negotiations!than!a!simple! question!of!style.!!His!first!commission!was!an!office!building!for!the!Steinway!Piano! Company,!a!12Pstory!tower!constructed!by!the!Winslow!Brothers,!manufacturers!of! architectural!ironwork!(Figure!1.4).!!Perkins!originally!partnered!on!the!design!with! George!Selby,!a!former!employee!he!poached!from!Burnham.!!Selby,!however,! contributed!so!little!work!that!Perkins!bought!out!the!remainder!of!Selby’s!contract! and!completed!the!project!in!1895!with!drafting!assistance!from!his!cousin!and! pioneer!female!architect,!Marion!Mahoney.119!!! Conceived!as!a!“temple!of!music,”!the!program!of!Steinway!Hall!called!for!a! 700Pseat!theater!capable!of!productions!ranging!from!chamber!concerts!and!recitals! to!operas,!as!well!as!dramatic!performances!requiring!up!to!50!performers;!various! rental!offices!and!studios;!and!a!lecture!hall!with!a!300Pperson!capacity!for!public! lectures!and!educational!programs!(Figures!1.5!–!1.7).120!!Perkins!apportioned!the! Steinway!Hall!Theater!so!that!every!seat!had!a!full!view!of!the!stage,!an!approach! frequently!hailed!at!the!time!as!democratic!since!it!eliminated!the!class!distinctions! indicated!by!luxury!boxes!with!prime!views!and!cheaper!wing!seats!with!obstructed! sight!lines.121!He!also!experimented!with!a!number!of!technical!and!structural! advancements,!including!fireproof!construction,!novel!ventilation!techniques!that! eliminated!cold!drafts,!industrial!freight!elevators,!and!a!complete!system!of!electric! lighting.122 !!The!exterior!of!Steinway!was!utterly!standard,!clad!in!brick!and! terracotta!and!boasting!an!eclectic!combination!of!historical!details.!!Ionic!pilasters,! a!wrought!iron!portePcochere,!and!an!ornamented!cornice!lent!a!vaguely! Renaissance!appearance!to!the!structure!according!to!contemporary!critics.123!!! In!1901!Perkins!designed!the!Machinery!and!Electrical!Building!for!the! TransPMississippi!Exposition!in!Omaha,!Nebraska,!where!fair!organizers!followed! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 119 Eleanor Perkins, Perkins of Chicago, 89; and Davis, Social Consciousness and Prairie School Architecture, 5. 120 “A Perfect Recital Hall,” n.p., Perkins Papers, 222-6. 121 Ibid., 223-224. 122 Ibid., 219, 222-223. Perkins did rely heavily on steel in the frame and studding at Steinway Hall. 123 Ibid., 219-222. the!precedent!set!by!the!1893!Fair!and!adopted!French!classical!as!the!architectural! language!of!the!event.!!Perkins!complied!with!a!lowPrise,!horizontally!oriented! pavilion!articulated!with!the!Doric!order,!arcades,!and!uniform!cornice!heights! (Figure!1.8).!!But!in!an!attempt,!perhaps!a!bit!transparent,!to!signify!the!modern! technologies!housed!by!the!structure!–!industrial!machines!and!electrical! innovations!–!Perkins!decorated!the!open!surfaces!with!a!connective!system!of! pulleys!and!gears!that!replicated!mechanical!conveyance!in!a!type!of!industrial! architecture+parlante.124!!! During!these!same!years,!Perkins!also!designed!Hitchcock!Hall,!a!dormitory! for!undergraduate!men!at!the!University!of!Chicago,!a!commission!he!garnered! through!his!benefactor!and!the!financier!of!the!building,!Alice!McClure!Hitchcock.!! University!trustees!insisted!that!his!addition!sympathize!with!the!uniformly!Gothic! style!of!the!campus,!originally!designed!by!Henry!Ives!Cobb.125!!They!specifically! asked!the!architect!to!recreate!the!dormitories!of!Oxford!University!and!even!sent! him!to!Europe!in!1900!to!study!Gothic!architecture.!!Perkins!admitted!in!his!written! travel!observations!that!the!“Oxford!spirit”!could!not!be!literally!copied!and! transplanted!to!Hyde!Park.126!!In!order!to!resolve!the!inherent!contradiction! between!the!Gothic!language!mandated!by!the!trustees!and!the!impossibility,!or!at! least!the!undesirability,!of!reproducing!that!language,!Perkins!instead!married! elements!culled!from!contemporary!and!historical,!local!and!international! traditions,!creating!one!of!his!first!truly!plural!architectural!solutions.!!! Complying!with!the!requirements!of!the!commission,!he!articulated!the! façade!of!Hitchcock!Hall!with!recognizable!Gothic!details,!such!as!pointed!arches,! crenellation,!and!an!enclosed!cloister.!!He!also!incorporated!decorative!details! evocative!of!the!local!Midwest!culture.!!Ornamental!corncobs!emerging!from!their! stone!husks!and!other!plants!and!flowers!native!to!Illinois!comprise!the!exterior! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 124 Davis, Social Consciousness and Prairie School Architecture, 6. 125 Albert Tannler, “The Creation of Hitchcock Hall 1900-1902,” n.p., Perkins Papers, Box III, Folder 3, 24-26. Hitchcock donated the funds for Hitchcock Hall in memory of her late husband Charles Hitchcock, a prominent attorney. University trustees originally commissioned Charles Coolidge of the Boston-based firm Sheply, Rutan and Coolidge to design the dormitory, but Hitchcock insisted the commission go to Perkins, again assisting the burgeoning architect. 126 Tannler, “Creation of Hitchcock Hall,” 27. system!of!ornament!(Figures!1.9!–!1.10!and!1.13!–!1.16).!!Perkins!continued!the!local! flavor!on!the!interior,!where!Richard!Bock,!a!local!sculptor!who!frequently!worked! with!regional!architects!such!as!Frank!Lloyd!Wright,!executed!an!impressive!frieze! depicting!stylized!indigenous!flora.127!!Perkins!designed!the!large!library!table,!but! the!university!purchased!most!of!the!furniture!from!other!designers,!including! numerous!pieces!by!Gustav!Stickley.128!!Stickley!was!a!WisconsinPborn!designer!and! founding!editor!of!The+Craftsman,!an!important!organ!of!Arts!and!Crafts!ideals!in!the! United!States!that!featured!the!philosophies!of!many!emerging,!Midwestern! designers!(Figures!1.11!–!1.12).!!Perkins!was!able!to!harmonize!Hitchcock!Hall!with! the!broader!University!of!Chicago!campus!and!to!associate!it!with!an!internationally! accepted!language!for!university!design.!!At!the!same!time,!he!expressed!something! of!the!unique,!local!characteristics!of!Midwestern!America.!!! ! Taken!together,!Steinway!Hall,!the!Machinery!Building,!and!Hitchcock!Hall! might!appear!to!be!an!eclectic!crew!of!buildings,!and!in!some!ways,!it!might!be!fair! to!criticize!Perkins!in!these!early!years!as!derivative!and!conformist.!!However,! these!starter!commissions!are!early!indicators!of!his!emerging!flexible!principles,! particularly!in!the!way!Perkins!attempted!to!reconcile!contradictory!demands,!even! if!awkwardly!at!first.!!Steinway!Hall!both!utilized!modern!structural!advancements! and!signified!its!civic!dimension!through!a!dignified!architectural!language.!!When! Perkins!adhered!to!the!universal!classical!style!dictated!by!Fair!organizers!in!his! Machinery!Building,!he!acknowledged!the!cooperative!spirit!such!uniformity! represented,!as!well!his!willingness!to!work!collaboratively!and!within!given! parameters.!!At!the!same!time,!Perkins’s!inclusion!of!what!Eric!Emmett!Davis!called! a!“modern!order”!of!pulleys!and!gears!demonstrated!his!simultaneous!desire!to!look! forward!and!engage!modern!life.!!Hitchcock!Hall!satisfied!both!the! internationalizing,!historicizing!appetite!of!the!trustees!and!showcased!local,! contemporary!priorities.!!This!flexible,!plural!approach!should!not!be!categorically! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 127 “Refurbishing Hitchcock,” On the Midway, University of Chicago Magazine (n.d.), 2. 128 “Refurbishing Hitchcock,” 2; Tannler, “Creation of Hitchcock Hall,” 28. In addition to the Stickley and Perkins furniture, William Morris designed two chairs for the library at Hitchcock Hall. dismissed!as!the!uncertainty!of!an!inexperienced!architect!but!rather,!understood!as! experiments!leading!towards!a!more!consistent!set!of!design!principles.!!! Even!if!Steinway!Hall!was!ordinary!in!many!ways,!scholars!frequently! mention!the!building!in!histories!of!modern!American!architecture!because!of!the! architects!who!rented!space!inside!it.!!Perkins!ran!his!private!practice!out!of!a!large! office!and!drafting!studio!he!rented!in!the!attic!of!Steinway.!!When!Perkins!fired! Selby,!however,!he!spent!much!of!his!architectural!fee!buying!out!the!deadbeat! partner!and!needed!to!reduce!office!expenses.!!He!asked!friends!and!colleagues!to! share!the!drafting!space,!and!subsequently!the!Steinway!studio!became!a!locus!of! emerging!architectural!talent.!!Frank!Lloyd!Wright,!Irving!and!Allen!Pond,!Robert! Spencer,!Myron!Hunt,!Marion!Mahoney,!and!Jules!Guerin,!the!artist!who!would! render!Burnham’s!Plan+of+Chicago!in!1909,!all!took!up!residence!there.!!Walter! Burley!Griffin!joined!the!studio!in!1900!as!an!employee!of!Perkins,!before!marrying! Mahoney!and!moving!to!Wright’s!Oak!Park!Studio!in!1902.129!!Historians!have! discussed!at!length!how!this!collaborative!studio!almost!singlehandedly!steered! design!in!Chicago!towards!a!modern,!prairie!style!of!architecture.!!However,!many!of! the!above!practitioners!worked,!like!Perkins,!in!historicist!or!plural!styles,!including! even!Frank!Lloyd!Wright!before!1901.!!The!cooperative!Steinway!studio!speaks! more!to!an!informal,!casual!group!of!designers!who!perhaps!shared!collective! attitudes!and!ambitions,!rather!than!to!a!consistent!design!language!or!recognized! school.!!It!was!the!fluidity!and!flexibility!of!this!group,!not!any!imagined!collective! identity,!which!served!Perkins!after!1900,!when!he!finally!set!about!constructing!the! civic!spaces!that!he!envisioned!advancing!his!democratic!social!politics.! ! The!Neighborhood!Center! Perkins’s!diffuse!social!politics!and!corresponding!architectural!strategies! merged!and!crystallized!into!a!lifelong!campaign!to!construct!new!types!of!civic! institutions!across!Chicago,!collectively!called!neighborhood!centers,!which!could! advance!the!causes!of!social!democracy.!!Progressives!saw!that!the!disturbingly! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 129 Eleanor Perkins, Perkins of Chicago, 89; Davis, Social Consciousness and Prairie School Architecture, 5. polarized!and!unstable!socioPurban!relations!created!by!industrial!capitalism! demanded!changes!to!social!organization.!!They!hoped!to!revive!a!sense!of! community!spirit,!connectedness,!and!shared!purpose!by!creating!local,!urban! institutions!capable!of!knitting!together!the!fractured!segments!of!modern!society.!! They!also!understood!that!this!project!could!not!entail!returning!to!nineteenthP century!practices,!which!were!incapable!of!responding!to!contemporary!problems,! or!a!complete!break!from!existing!social!and!political!models,!which!would!only! exacerbate!the!disjointed,!antagonistic!feelings!of!already!splintered!communities.!!! If!reformers!sensed!the!general!shape!that!modern!civic!institutions!should! take,!their!challenge!was!to!determine!their!specific!forms!and!programs,!how!they! should!function,!and!who!should!use!them.!!Throughout!the!nineteenth!century,!the! smallPtown!meeting!had!been!the!primary!cultural!vehicle!for!democratic!exchange,! and!the!village!hall!was!the!space!where!citizens!gathered!to!discuss!and!resolve!the! problems!facing!their!communities.130!!Though!progressives!believed!the!city! naturally!generated!a!public!culture!–!a!social!world!where!strangers!interacted! daily!in!its!streets,!modes!of!transportation,!and!plazas131!–!industrialism!and!the! related!“immigrant!problem”!undermined!the!townPhall!model.!!Immigrants!tended! to!selfPsegregate!into!ethnic!colonies,!a!social!compartmentalization!that!isolated! them!from!the!larger!society,!perpetuating!ethnic!and!racial!marginalization.!!Most! were!unskilled!laborers!who!spoke!little!or!no!English,!characteristics!that!when! combined!with!unrestricted!immigration!quotas!provided!an!endless!stream!of! underpaid,!overworked,!industrial!wage!earners!so!desperate!for!employment!they! endured!whatever!capitalist!abuses!necessary!to!keep!a!job.!!Put!simply,!the!cultural! conditions!of!the!industrial,!immigrant!ghetto!were!utterly!at!odds!with!the! nostalgic,!New!England!townPhall!concept,!which,!for!the!most!part,!did!not!have!to! organize!ethnically!diverse,!industrialized!populations!into!a!cooperative! democratic!community!since!its!users!were!comparatively!homogeneous.!!! The!“neighborhood!center”!answered!these!competing!claims!for!both! continuity!and!familiarity,!as!well!as!the!ability!to!respond!to!new!socioPindustrial! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 130 Mattson, Creating a Democratic Public, 14-15. 131 Ibid., 8-9. crises.!!Alternatively!called!“social!centers”!or!“community!centers,”!the! neighborhood!center!concept!grew!out!of!the!university!extension!and!public!forum! programs!of!the!1890s,!which!sought!to!educate!adults!so!that!they!could!better! participate!in!public!life.!!It!reached!a!zenith!in!1912!when!Republicans,!Democrats,! and!the!Progressive!Party!endorsed!the!idea.132!!As!the!social!center!movement! evolved,!its!forms!expanded!to!include!countless!iterations:!commercial!enterprises! like!the!YMCA;!philanthropic!ventures!like!settlement!houses;!and!civic!institutions! such!as!public!schools,!municipal!playgrounds,!and!recreation!facilities.!!Perkins! pinpointed!the!broad!meaning!of!community!centers!when!he!defined!them!as!any! building!“designed!for!purposes!similar!to!those!provided!for!by!public!and!semiP public!club!houses,!in!which!the!membership!is!democratic!and!local,!as!for!example! the!park!recreation!building!or!the!privately!maintained!settlement!house.”133!!As! the!social!center!movement!matured,!taxPsupported!civic!enterprises,!such!as!public! schools!and!municipal!recreation!facilities,!emerged!as!the!prevailing!type!of! neighborhood!center.!!Progressives!believed!that!publically!funded!services! encouraged!a!sense!of!proprietorship,!which!suited!their!democratic!ambitions,! whereas!privately!financed!institutions!inadvertently!patronized!people.!!Perkins! eventually!came!to!consider!public!schools!the!penultimate!neighborhood!center! because!they!incorporated!the!various!programs!offered!at!parks,!playgrounds,!and! settlement!houses!into!one!facility.!! Neighborhood!centers!were!critical!sites!of!intervention!and! experimentation!for!progressive!reformers,!and!Perkins!spent!most!of!his!career! building!different!versions!of!them.!!!These!civic!institutions!encouraged!social! exchange!and!learning!among!diffuse!members!of!the!public.!!They!also!provided! greatly!needed!public!services,!such!as!safe!and!supervised!recreation!outlets,! childcare,!and!healthcare.!!Their!scale!of!operation!–!the!neighborhood!–!invited! broad!community!participation!since!they!were!local.!!Perkins!designed!them!to! look!current!and!upPtoPdate,!but!also!familiar!and!welcoming!so!as!to!encourage! wide!public!use.!!Popular!participation!was!critical!to!progressive!visions!of!social! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 132 For a general history of the social center movement see Mattson, Creating a Democratic Public. 133 Perkins and Howell, “Functions and Plan-Types of Community Buildings,” 289. democracy,!which!required!the!active!involvement!of!all!citizens.!!As!Zueblin! commented,!“one!can!be!a!citizen!only!by!participation,!and!that!not!merely!in!the! annual!casting!of!the!ballot,!but!in!daily!citizenship.”134!!Neighborhood!centers! demarcated!a!physical!and!social!ground!where!this!could!happen.!!! Progressive!institution!building!was!neither!a!nostalgic!resuscitation!of! preindustrial!patterns!nor!a!radical!restructuring!of!current!systems.!!Progressives! considered!precedents,!but!they!also!worked!to!restructure!and!revitalize!civic! institutions!so!they!could!respond!effectively!to!the!realities!of!modern!life.!!In!other! words,!progressives!did!not!entirely!abandon!town!hall,!but!instead!preserved!its! essential!core!–!local,!democratic!social!exchange!–!while!reconfiguring!its!outward! forms,!giving!birth!to!the!modern!community!center.!!This!is!probably!the!most! lasting!legacy!of!progressivism!in!the!United!States.!!Public!schools,!playgrounds,! and!recreation!facilities!still!socially!organize!most!communities!today,!both!urban! and!suburban.!!The!subsequent!chapters!of!this!dissertation!explore!in!detail!the! neighborhood!centers!Perkins!designed!in!order!to!illuminate!the!successes,! failures,!and!limitations!of!these!remarkable!social!inventions!to!advance!social! democracy. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 134 Zueblin, quoted in Mattson, Making of a Democratic Public, 24.  Chapter!Two! Social!Settlements:!Between!Private!Philanthropy!and!Public!Institution! ! “The!authors’!conception!of!a!community!building!is!that!it!is!one!which!provides!inspiration!and! opportunities!for!the!development!of!the!higher!life!of!the!people.!!It!is!distinguished!from!the!merely! utilitarian!factory,!where!the!products!are!material,!in!that!a!user!of!such!a!building!and!its!facilities,! may!be!a!healthier,!a!wiser!or!a!better!man!or!woman.!!It!is!the!outcome!of!recognition!of!the! principle!that!no!person!can!reach!his!highest!development!alone,!but!that!such!development!comes! through!communion!with!his!fellows.!!It!proceeds!on!the!premise!that!what!is!good!for!the!whole!is! good!for!the!individual,!and!vice!versa.”! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!PPDwight!H.!Perkins!and!Howell!Taylor,!1924! ! ! The!first!type!of!social!institution!that!Perkins!attempted!to!restructure! towards!democratic!ends!was!the!settlement!house.!!In!addition!to!the!four! settlement!complexes!he!designed,!he!sought!to!make!other!architects!and!citizens! aware!of!the!significance!of!this!organization.!!When!the!Chicago!Architecture!Club! appointed!him!editor!of!their!annual!exhibition!catalogue!in!1900,!Perkins!dedicated! one!of!the!thematic!spreads!to!the!“Settlement!House!Type.”!!The!topic!alone! transformed!the!usually!prosaic!yearbook!illustrated!with!tasteful!if!unchallenging! BeauxPArts!designs!into!a!manifesto!calling!for!urban!and!social!reform.!!In!his! introduction!to!the!plates,!Perkins!attempted!to!define!the!settlement,!and!in!so! doing,!revealed!the!difficulty!of!classifying!a!movement!nearly!as!layered!and!diffuse! as!the!progressive!movement!itself.!!According!to!Perkins,!the!settlement!house!was! the!physical!manifestation!of!a!new!“effort!for!social!service”!because!it!provided! amenities!such!as!living!apartments,!gymnasia,!classrooms,!academic!instruction,! art!galleries,!and!theaters!to!lowPincome!neighborhoods.!!Perkins!argued!these! social!centers!“belong!neither!to!individuals!nor!to!a!class,!but!include!the!social!and! educational!wellPbeing!of!all!the!people!in!the!community,”!and!so!consequently,!he! believed!the!settlement!house!to!be!“preeminently!democratic!and!genuine.”!!At!the! same!time,!most!settlement!houses!expressly!targeted!workingPclass!immigrants! and!sometimes!reconstituted!the!very!class!biases!they!attempted!to!abolish.!!The! settlement!movement,!Perkins!concluded,!“is!generally!understood!without!being! closely!defined.”135! Such!definitional!and!architectural!fluidity!speak!to!the!multiple,!ambiguous,! and!occasionally!contradictory!goals!driving!the!settlement!movement,!but! commonalities,!of!course,!existed.!!The!settlement!movement!in!Chicago!was! propelled!by!a!set!of!interrelated!principles!centered!on!the!concept!of!democratic! social!exchange.!!Faith!in!the!democratic!benefits!of!“social!intercourse”!meant!that! many!reformers!espoused!a!doctrine!of!respectful!cultural!pluralism.!!However,! most!were!also!keenly!worried!about!the!unprecedented!influx!of!immigrants!from! Southern!and!Eastern!Europe,!most!of!whom!were!unskilled!laborers!who!spoke! little!or!no!English.!!So!they!designed!educational!programs!aimed!at!providing! vocational!and!language!skills,!which!to!some!extent!also!assimilated!and! acculturated!these!ethnically!diverse!newcomers!to!American!values.!!An!abiding! interest!in!the!social!sciences!and!by!extension!pragmatist!philosophy!also! characterized!the!Chicago!movement!and!deeply!informed!its!activities!in!the! realms!of!education,!recreation,!and!its!role!visPàPvis!municipal,!state,!and!federal! governments.!!This!chapter!will!demonstrate!how!Perkins!registered!these!evolving! beliefs!in!his!various!settlement!house!designs!–!which!included!University!of! Chicago!Settlement,!Northwestern!University!Settlement,!the!institutional!church!All! Souls,!and!the!Olivet!Institute!–!and!how!he!ultimately!generated!a!consistent! building!type!that!reflected!the!institutionalization!of!the!settlement!and!the! professionalization!of!charity.!! ! Origins!of!the!Settlement!House:!Private!Charity!or!Public!Service?! The!settlement!house!movement!originated!with!university!extension! programs!and!religious!missions!in!England!during!the!1880s,!an!unsurprising! birthplace!since!that!nation!had!industrialized!earlier!than!most!of!Europe!and!was! all!too!familiar!with!the!social!collateral!damage!caused!by!the!market!revolution! and!rapid!urbanization.!Clergymen!and!professors,!alarmed!by!the!class! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 135 Dwight Perkins, Introduction to “Settlement House Type,” in the annual exhibition catalogue for the Chicago Architecture Club (1900), 63. antagonisms!precipitated!by!this!new!world!order,!hoped!to!reunite!contentious! social!classes!by!establishing!charitable!outposts!in!impoverished!neighborhoods.!! At!settlement!houses!they!offered!free!academic!instruction!to!the!less!fortunate! and!promoted!a!vaguely!Christian!message!of!social!service!and!brotherhood,! sometimes!called!the!social!gospel!to!differentiate!their!broad!cultural!mission!from! religious!proselytizing.!!! Settlement!leaders!believed!that!personal!contact!between!the!classes!was! crucial!to!fostering!“social!harmony”!in!modern!cities.!!Carried!away!by!romantic! projections!made!by!Augustus!Pugin!and!John!Ruskin,!early!reformers!tended!to! mythologize!preindustrial!class!relations,!presuming!them!to!be!unified,!intimate,! and!interdependent.!!It!was!naïve,!of!course,!to!speak!of!“social!harmony”!in! medieval!society,!which!had!been!fractured,!unfair,!and!difficult!in!its!own!ways,!but! the!ideal!was!alluring.!!The!balance!entailed!obligations!on!all!sides.!!Almsgiving!had! been!central!to!feudal!equilibrium.!!Cultural!standards!expected!the!rich!to! personally!distribute!charity!to!the!poor,!who!in!turn!repaid!the!generosity!with! large!donations!of!their!labor!and!respect.!!This!circuit!of!mutual!dependency! stabilized!society,!but,!it!should!be!pointed!out,!also!perpetuated!class!hierarchies.!!! By!the!end!of!the!nineteenth!century,!the!direct!exchange!that!characterized! almsgiving!was!becoming!obsolete!as!society!industrialized!and!urbanized.!!Modern! charity!was!increasingly!anonymous.!!As!cities!grew,!they!became!geographically! divided!along!class!lines,!with!the!poor!living!and!working!in!squalid!ghettos!far! removed!–!physically!and!socially!–!from!the!middle!and!upper!classes.!!Distance! rendered!charitable!donations!impersonal,!an!anonymity!that!settlement!leaders! believed!eroded!the!feelings!of!mutual!dependence!responsible!for!the!accord!of!the! old!social!order.!!In!short,!the!poor!felt!less!obligated!to!uphold!status!quo!socioP economic!relations,!and!the!rich!were!increasingly!unsympathetic!to!their!struggles.!! The!result!was!suspicion!and!tension!between!the!two!classes.!136!!! ! Hoping!to!restore!social!cohesion,!reformers!lived!at!the!settlement!house! and!literally!became!residents!of!the!neighborhood.!!Daily!contact!with!their! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 136 Deborah E.B. Weiner, “The Architecture of Victorian Philanthropy: The Settlement House as Manorial Residence,” in Art History 13, no. 2 (June 1990), 24. povertyPstricken!neighbors!effectively!rePpersonalized!their!charitable!gestures.!! Divided!classes!would!mingle!in!this!ideal!scenario,!the!downtrodden!learning!the! refinements!of!life!from!their!social!superiors,!the!well!off!sensitized!to!the! hardships!of!the!poor.!!Samuel!Barnett,!founder!of!London’s!Toynbee!Hall,!the!first! settlement!house,!summarized!the!essence!of!the!settlement!as!an!artificial!feudal! seat,!where!the!reigning!chief!would!entertain!his!subordinates,!provide!a!few! cultural!alms!like!art!exhibits!or!musical!concerts,!and!generally!offer!the!hospitality! that!was!his!source!of!power:!! Hospitality!was,!in!old!days,!if!not!the!secret,!then,!to!a!large!extent!the! source!of!power!of!the!chief.!The!feudal!lord!entertained!his!followers!and! welcomed!strangers.!!The!master!was!the!host!of!his!apprentices,!and! national!events!were!marked!by!feasts!in!which!all!shared.!!They![the! disparate!social!classes]!must!thus!meet,!as!it!were,!off!their!guard.!!They! learnt!to!know!one!another’s!thoughts!and!manners,!they!discovered!points! of!likeness,!and!came!into!quiet!possession!of!a!common!inheritance.137! ! Barnett!established!Toynbee!Hall!in!1884!in!London’s!demoralized!East!End! ghetto,!and!its!vaguely!medieval!design!points!to!the!somewhat!anachronistic!and! contradictory!goals!driving!the!early!settlement!movement.!!Toynbee!Hall!evoked!a! manorial!country!residence!with!its!loosely!Elizabethan!design,!which!included!red! brick,!stepped!gables,!and!tall,!fluted!chimneys.!!Its!quadrangle!plan!recalled!its! Oxford!University!origins!and!contained!a!library,!classrooms,!a!drawing!room,!and! accommodations!for!sixteen!residents,!all!surrounding!an!interior!courtyard.!!The! court!insulated!the!house!interior!from!the!clamor!of!the!surrounding!streets!and! generally!reinforced!a!“castle!and!moat”!effect,!as!historian!Guy!Szuberla!described! the!site!plan.138!!Interior!decoration!followed!the!genteel!fashions!of!the!day:!walls! painted!pale!green!and!hung!with!Japanese!prints;!latticePpaned!windows!framed!by! heavy!drapes!and!cushioned!seats;!a!grand!piano,!gilded!screen,!and!oriental!rugs! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 137 Samuel Barnett, “Hospitalities,” in The University and the Social Problem, ed. John M. Knapp (London, 1895): 53, quoted in Weiner, “Architecture of Victorian Philanthropy,” 219. 138 Guy Szuberla, “Three Chicago Settlements: Their Architectural Form and Social Meaning,” in Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society (July 1977): 117. (Figures!2.1–2.2).139!!Residents!invited!locals!to!lectures,!college!instruction,!art! exhibitions!and!musical!performances!held!at!the!house,!or!neighbors!could!just! relax!among!the!albums,!pictures,!and!refined!décor!of!the!drawing!room,! presumably!absorbing!cultivated!values!by!sheer!proximity!to!cultivated!objects.!!! Toynbee!Hall!captured!the!imagination!of!American!reformers,!and!the! settlement!house!movement!quickly!became!one!of!the!most!striking!examples!of!a! transatlantic!progressive!dialogue.!!The!institution!was!a!magnet!for!American! visitors.!!Jane!Addams!visited!in!1887,!1888,!and!1889,!before!establishing!Hull! House!in!Chicago.!!Charles!Zueblin!sojourned!there!before!establishing! Northwestern!University!Settlement!and!University!of!Chicago!Settlement.!!Robert! Woods!of!Andover!House!in!Boston,!Vida!Scudder!of!College!Settlement!in!New! York,!and!Stanton!Coit,!founder!of!the!first!settlement!in!the!United!States!called! Neighborhood!Guild!on!the!Lower!East!Side!of!New!York!City,!all!made!their!rounds! at!Toynbee!Hall!and!appropriated,!to!some!degree,!its!social!and!architectural! message.140! ! After!visiting!Toynbee!Hall,!Jane!Addams!reproduced!its!English!manor! syntax!when!she!founded!Hull!House!in!1889,!which!became!the!model!for!other! settlements!in!Chicago,!including!some!designed!by!Perkins.!!She!purchased!an! existing!house!built!in!1856!for!Charles!Hull!on!the!southwest!side!of!the!city!and! hired!Irving!and!Allen!Pond!to!design!numerous!additions!to!enlarge!the!house.!!The! Ponds!articulated!their!additions!in!the!domestic!English!style!–!tripartite!windows,! fanlights,!cupolas,!Tudor!gabling,!brickedPin!quoins,!and!dormers!–!and!arranged! them!around!an!interior!courtyard!(Figure!2.3–2.5).!!Addams!tastefully!furnished! the!interior!just!as!she!would!have!outfitted!a!more!respectable!address:!with! photographs!and!other!memorabilia!she!collected!in!Europe,!as!well!as!some!family! mahogany.!!According!to!her,!the!carefully!chosen!décor,!images,!and!cultural! paraphernalia!on!the!interior!together!with!the!historicist!architecture!outside!lent! to!the!settlement!house!“all!those!adjuncts!which!the!cultivated!man!regards!as! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 139 Weiner, “Architecture of Victorian Philanthropy,” 212. 140 Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings, 64. good!and!suggestive!of!the!best!life!of!the!past.”141!!Irving!and!Allen!Pond!quickly! became!prominent!settlement!architects,!usually!recycling!the!“Old!English”!manor! house!style!as!at!David!Swing!House!and!Chicago!Commons,!founded!by!Graham! Taylor!(Figures!2.6P2.9).! Perkins!responded!to!the!architectural!precedent!set!by!the!Ponds!in!the!first! two!settlement!houses!he!designed!for!the!University!of!Chicago!and!Northwestern! University.!!Zueblin!helped!establish!both!settlements,!and!Perkins!published!his! initial!designs!for!them!in!the!1900!Chicago!Architecture!Club!catalogue!that!he! edited.!!As!illustrated!in!the!exhibition!plates,!the!University!of!Chicago!Settlement! evoked!vaguely!homePlike!associations!with!its!gabled!roof,!chimneys,!and!flower! boxes.!!The!plan!was!a!quadrangle!with!an!open!interior!court,!recalling!college! campus!designs.!!An!axial!gallery!that!contained!reading!and!meeting!rooms!flanked! one!side!of!the!courtyard,!and!across!the!quadrangle!was!a!large!auditorium!with!a! stage!that!anchored!the!settlement.!!A!hall!with!a!stairwell!and!an!octagonal!office! for!head!resident!Mary!McDowell,!loosely!medieval!in!character,!linked!the!two! volumes!and!enclosed!the!courtyard!(Figures!2.10–2.11).!!Perkins!also!employed!the! “domestic!English”!architectural!vocabulary!at!Northwestern!University!Settlement,! which!if!anything!was!even!more!picturesque!and!historical!than!his!designs!for!the! University!of!Chicago!Settlement!(Figures!2.12–2.13).!!! The!domestic!English!style!proliferated,!in!part,!because!many!reformers! believed!that!the!historic!architecture!and!cultured!interior!appointments!would! morally!and!intellectually!“uplift”!the!underprivileged!and,!at!the!same!time,! promote!interaction!between!the!educated,!affluent!sectors!of!society!and!the!less! fortunate.!!The!vaguely!medieval!and!“homePlike”!character!of!early!settlement! houses!gave!tangible!expression!to!the!neighborly!hospitality!offered!by!the! settlement!residents,!as!well!as!their!idealized,!nostalgic!view!of!preindustrial!class! relations.!!In!this!way,!settlement!houses!were!sometimes!selfPconscious!attempts!to! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 141 Addams, Twenty Years at Hull-House, 94. reconstitute!a!social!order!fundamentally!at!odds!with!the!realities!of!the!modern! urban!slum.142! Perkins!may!have!reiterated!the!domestic!English!architectural!language!in! his!first!settlement!house!designs,!but!he!clearly!disagreed!with!the!latent! paternalism!of!the!English!model!when!he!described!settlements!as!belonging! “neither!to!individuals!nor!to!a!class,!but![including]!the!social!and!educational!wellP being!of!all!the!people!in!the!community.”!!Perkins!believed!settlement!houses!were! “preeminently!democratic.”143!!Despite!shared!origins,!settlements!in!the!United! States!developed!along!different!lines!from!those!in!England,!most!of!which! remained!modified!missions.144 !!Americans!settlements,!though!still!loosely! associated!with!churches!and!universities,!evolved!into!fairly!independent! institutions!dedicated!to!democratic!social!exchange!and!modern!sociological! experimentation!rather!than!individual!charity,!philanthropy,!or!Victorian!concepts! of!hospitality.!!Addams!vehemently!distinguished!the!settlement!from!charity:!“I!am! always!sorry!to!have!Hull!House!regarded!as!a!philanthropy,!although!it!doubtless! has!strong!philanthropic!tendencies!and!has!several!distinct!charitable! departments…but!to!call!that!effort!philanthropy!is!to!use!the!word!unfairly!and!to! underestimate!the!duties!of!good!citizenship.”145!!She!defined!the!settlement!as!“an! attempt!to!make!social!intercourse!express!the!growing!sense!of!the!economic!unity! of!society,!to!add!the!social!function!to!democracy.”146!!Though!she!criticized!many! aspects!of!industrial!capitalism,!Addams!recognized!that!the!interdependence!of!the! market!economy!could!be!a!model!for!social!relations.!!Society!must!become!more! cooperative,!or!democratic,!just!as!industrial!capitalism!had!shifted!away!from!a! policy!of!laissezPfaire!competition!towards!one!of!mutual!dependence!among!major! producers.!!!!!!! Like!Perkins,!many!American!reformers!believed!settlements!could!empower! workingPclass!people!by!providing!them!with!resources!to!facilitate!their!social!and! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 142 Weiner, “Architecture of Victorian Philanthropy,” 219. 143 Perkins, “Settlement House Type,” 63. 144 Allen B. Davis, Spearheads for Reform: The Social Settlement and the Progressive Movement 1890- 1924 (1967; rept., New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1984), 16. 145 Addams, “An Effort Toward Social Democracy,” 241. 146 Ibid., 226. economic!advancement.!!Addams!argued!that!the!problems!of!the!working!class! were!unfairly!confounded!with!those!of!the!truly!idle!and!incorrigible:!“Working! people!live!in!the!same!streets!with!those!in!need!of!charity,!but!they!themselves! require!and!want!none!of!it.!!As!one!of!their!number!has!said,!they!require!only!that! their!aspirations!be!recognized!and!stimulated!and!the!means!of!attaining!them!put! at!their!disposal.”147!!Other!reformers!echoed!her!rhetoric!of!democratic!selfP sufficiency.!!Zueblin!remarked!that!not!charity!but!“opportunity!is!what!the! foreigner!in!our!cities!needs.”148!!The!editor!of!Commons!magazine,!the!organ!of! Graham!Taylor’s!Chicago!Commons!settlement,!wrote,!“The!settlement!bases!its! existence,!its!hope,!its!endeavor!on!the!firm!foundation!of!Democracy!–!on!the!thesis! that!the!people!must!and!can!and!will!save+themselves.”149!!Perkins!and!his!milieu! clearly!saw!modern!settlements!as!a!means!of!democratizing!society,!providing! public!services!rather!than!dispensing!alms.! The!emphasis!Perkins!placed!on!the!auditorium!at!University!of!Chicago! Settlement,!by!far!the!largest!volume!in!the!complex,!embodied!his!democratic! ambitions.!!He!believed!that!assembly!halls!facilitated!democratic!exchange!because! the!entire!community!could!gather!together!there!for!speeches,!public!debates,! performances,!and!even!sporting!events.!!Community!meetings!were!especially! important!vehicles!of!democratic!exchange.!!But!Perkins!also!considered!recreation! an!important!didactic!tool,!and!he!designed!the!auditorium!with!moveable!seats!and! storage!spaces!so!it!could!serve!as!a!gymnasium!when!emptied!of!its!furnishings.!! Reformers!believed!that!sporting!events!imparted!valuable!cultural!lessons!to! players!about!“teamwork”!and!perseverance,!and!the!physical!exertion!and! excitement!counteracted!the!mindless!and!repetitive!routines!of!many!industrial! jobs.!!Perkins!rounded!out!the!physical!education!program!of!the!settlement!with! lockers!rooms,!a!bowling!alley,!a!rubbing!room,!and!fencing!rooms.150!!He!also! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 147 Ibid., 241. 148 Zueblin, “The Chicago Ghetto,” 96. 149 John Gavit, “Missions and Settlements,” in Commons 2 (February 1898): 1, quoted in Davis, Spearheads for Reform, 15. 150 See illustrations and descriptions Annual of the Chicago Architectural Club, being the Book of the Fifteenth Annual Exhibition, 1902 (Chicago: Art Institute of Chicago, 1902). The University of Chicago Settlement, as constructed, looked markedly plainer than Perkins’s original design. valued!ethnic!performances.!!They!allowed!minorities!to!express!their!cultural!roots! and!also!encouraged!understanding!and!tolerance!among!audience!members!of! different!ethnic!backgrounds.!!Settlement!leaders!encouraged!minority!groups!to! reenact!Greek!dramas,!Russian!fables,!or!other!theatrical!displays!they!valued.!!At! the!University!of!Chicago,!Lucy!Perkins!symbolized!the!acculturative!function!of! these!ethnic!ensembles!in!a!didactic!mural!she!painted!above!the!assembly!hall! stage.!!She!used!neighborhood!children!as!models!to!paint!MayJPole+Dance,+Children+ of+All+Nations,!in!which!youngsters!vividly!dressed!in!various!ethnic!costumes!unite! around!the!may!pole,!an!image!that!prefigures!today’s!multiculturalism!(Figure! 2.14).151! Perkins!additionally!signified!the!nascent!civic!identity!of!American! settlements!in!his!design!for!Northwestern!University!Settlement,!where!he! abandoned!the!conventional!quadrangle!for!a!“selfPcontained”!plan.!!He!effectively! combined!the!various!programs!of!Northwestern!Settlement!–!auditorium,! gymnasium,!classrooms,!reading!libraries!–!into!a!single,!massive!structure!rather! than!separating!them!into!discreet,!picturesque!units!ringing!an!interior!courtyard! (Figure!2.13).!!In!the!quadrangle!arrangement,!the!individual!volumes!of!the! settlement!operated!as!quasiPindependent!buildings.!!In!fact,!some!reformers! advocated!dispensing!with!centralized!settlements!altogether.!!They!proposed! instead!to!scatter!settlement!programs!throughout!the!slums!in!freestanding! structures!in!order!to!provide!“separate!centers!of!influence!so!as!to!attack!the! needs!of!the!neighborhood!from!different!angles!and!at!very!close!range.”152!!Rather! than!atomizing!the!settlement!and!diluting!its!institutional!identity,!however,! Perkins!merged!its!various!programs!into!a!coherent!complex,!the!size!and!unity!of! which!enhanced!its!cultural!authority!and!expressed!its!increasingly!institutional! organization.! Perkins!salvaged!the!courtyard!of!the!quadrangle!plan!by!moving!it!to!the! street!front,!which!better!expressed!the!democratic!aspirations!of!modern! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 151 Szuberla, “Three Chicago Settlements,” 124, 126. 152 Fiske Kimball, “The Social Center, Part II: Philanthropic Enterprises,” in The Architectural Record (June 1919): 531. settlements!because!the!garden!was!more!accessible!to!the!public.!!The!enclosed! quadrangle!plan!may!have!recalled!monastic!or!university!educational!spaces,!but! its!cloistered!effect!severed!connection!to!the!street,!creating!a!protective!enclave! within!the!city!rather!than!an!inviting!and!accessible!community!space.!!Historians! have!tried!to!argue!that!the!numerous!doorways!punctuating!the!walls!of! quadrangle!settlements!created!a!porous!boundary!through!which!the!public!could! move!freely.153!!Nonetheless,!a!frank!look!at!the!street!fronts!of!most!Chicago! settlements!reveal!imposing!walls!broken!only!by!basement!clerestory!windows! fronting!most!of!the!sidewalk.!!In!1919!the!architecture!critic!Fiske!Kimball! criticized!the!quadrangle!plan!for!its!fiscal!and!spatial!irresponsibility,!as!well!its! inappropriate!symbolic!connotations:!“Aside!from!its!extravagance,!and!ordinary! impracticability!under!urban!conditions,!however,!it!has!been!rightly!felt!to!be! unsuited!to!the!spirit!of!the!settlement,!which!faces!outward!rather!than!inward!and! seeks!to!assimilate!itself!as!closely!as!possible!to!the!conditions!of!life!in!the! neighborhood.”154 !!In!practice,!public!access!at!Northwestern!University!Settlement! was!primarily!visual!since!a!retaining!wall!physically!separated!the!court!from!the! vehicular!and!pedestrian!traffic!of!the!roadway!and!sidewalk.!!Still,!the!new!site!plan! allowed!Perkins!to!combine!the!various!functions!of!the!settlement!into!one!volume,! an!important!step!towards!the!institutionalization!of!the!settlement!as!a!civic! organization!and!the!standardization!of!its!building!type.! At!the!University!of!Chicago!and!Northwestern!University!Settlements,! Perkins!made!provisions!for!a!variety!of!programs!that!advanced!far!beyond! specialized!college!courses!and!art!exhibits,!suggesting!he!and!other!reformers! viewed!settlement!houses!as!broad!community!centers.!!Libraries,!recreation! facilities,!stages,!and!auditoriums!actively!encouraged!democratic!social!exchange!in! the!form!of!public!education,!dramatic!performances,!athletic!competitions,!and! community!meetings.!!In!its!emphasis!on!social!democracy!and!upward!mobility,!the! American!settlement!movement!differed!from!its!English!counterparts.!!Samuel! Barnett!of!Toynbee!Hall,!for!example,!endorsed!a!mutually!dependent!but!unequal! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 153 Szuberla, “Three Chicago Settlements,”118, 120. 154 Kimball, “Philanthropic Enterprises,” 527. class!system:!“Classes!must!exist.!!A!body!in!which!every!member!is!a!hand!could!do! no!work,!and!a!city!of!one!class!would!have!no!life…the!terms!‘rich’!and!‘poor,’!if!not! exact!definitions,!represent!clearly!enough!the!two!great!classes!of!society,!their! unity!means!strength,!their!division!means!ruin.”155!Barnett’s!characterization!of!the! urban!poor!as!a!source!of!cultural!“life,”!vigorous!diversity,!and!industrial!strength! obviously,!and!selfPservingly,!reinforced!the!hegemony!of!the!ruling!classes.!!Critic! Francis!Hackett,!writing!in!the!New+Republic,!was!just!one!of!many!who!excoriated! settlements!for!only!temporarily!soothing!the!injustices!wrought!by!industrial! capitalism!without!providing!for!real!social!change,!“offering!cocoa!and!sponge!cake! as!a!sort!of!dessert!to!the!factory!system.”156!!! For!Perkins!and!his!milieu!the!philanthropic!arrangement!was!fundamentally! at!odds!with!their!aspirations!for!democratic!equality,!selfPsufficiency,!and!upward! mobility.!!This!is!not!to!say!that!English!reformers!were!ignorant!of!democratizing! tendencies,!or!that!their!American!counterparts!were!not!equally!elitist!or!nostalgic.!! Barnett!himself!beseeched!reformers!to!approach!the!working!class!in!a!spirit!of! neighborliness,!not!condescension,!and!pointed!out!that!they!had!more!to!learn! from!the!poor!than!to!teach!them.157!!And!American!reformers,!despite!their! democratic!rhetoric,!usually!still!believed!that!they!were!part!of!a!“benevolent!elite”! best!suited!to!lead!the!working!class!because!they!were!educated!but!disinterested.!! Nonetheless,!these!divergent!attitudes!indicate!differences!of!opinion!with!regard!to! the!role!of!settlements,!and!their!evolution!from!private!philanthropy!to!civic! institution!can!be!understood,!at!least!in!part,!as!a!response!to!uniquely!American! conditions,!namely,!immigration!and!the!emerging!social!science!disciplines!at!the! University!of!Chicago.!! ! ! Settlement!House!as!Sociological!Laboratory! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 155 Samuel Barnett, ed., “Class Divisions in Great Cities,” in Towards Social Reform (London, 1909), 27, quoted Weiner, “Architecture of Victorian Philanthropy,” 218. 156 Francis Hackett, review of Lillian Wald, House on Henry Street, New Republic 5 (January 8, 1916): 255, quoted in Davis, Spearheads for Reform, 17. 157 Weiner, “Architecture of Victorian Philanthropy,” 218.  Emerging!theories!of!social!psychology!and!pragmatist!philosophy!pioneered! by!John!Dewey!at!the!University!of!Chicago!deeply!informed!Chicago’s!settlement! movement,!particularly!its!emphasis!on!mutual!social!responsibility.!!Social! psychology!conceptualized!the!individual!as!an!inherently!social!being,!whose! values!were!shaped!by!his!socioPcultural!environment,!through!“communion!with! his!fellows”!as!Perkins!described!it.!!Environments!were!not!fixed,!however.!! Environments!affected!men,!and!men!altered!their!environments!–!a!reciprocal,! fluid,!and!malleable!relationship!that!suggested!extensive!possibilities!for!social!and! urban!reform.!!In!this!closed!but!flexible!circuit,!individuals!were!compelled!by!their! own!selfPinterest!to!regulate!and!improve!the!socioPcultural!landscape!as!a! condition!for!realizing!their!own!ambitions.158!!Addams!reiterated!such!ideas!when! she!wrote!that!in!a!democratic!country,!no!higher!political!or!civic!life!can!be! achieved!except!through!the!masses!of!people,!and!so!“the!good!we!secure!for! ourselves!is!precarious!and!uncertain…until!it!is!secured!for!all!of!us!and! incorporated!into!common!life.”159!!Addams!went!so!far!as!to!identify!mutual!class! dependency!as!the!ideological!basis!of!the!settlement!movement:!“HullPHouse!was! soberly!opened!on!the!theory!that!the!dependence!of!classes!on!each!other!is! reciprocal…that!the!social!relation!is!essentially!a!reciprocal!relation.”160! The!connections!between!social!psychology,!pragmatism,!and!the!Chicago! settlement!movement!were!not!simply!rhetorical.!!Perkins!may!have!interacted! directly!with!Dewey!through!their!shared!settlement!involvement!at!Hull!House!and! University!of!Chicago!Settlement,!and!he!certainly!absorbed!ideas!about!social! psychology!and!pragmatism!from!close!colleagues!such!as!Addams!and!Zueblin.!!The! latter!were!institutionally!or!informally!affiliated!with!the!University!of!Chicago! during!Dewey’s!tenure.!!Addams,!in!fact,!maintained!an!intimate!personal!and! professional!relationship!with!Dewey!throughout!her!life.!!He!was!a!founding! member!of!the!board!of!trustees!for!Hull!House!and!frequently!visited!the! settlement.!!He!lectured!at!its!Plato!Club!and!delivered!formal!addresses,!including!a! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 158 Westbrook, John Dewey and American Democracy, 39-45. 159 Addams, Twenty Years at Hull-House, 116. 160 Ibid., 91. lecture!series!titled!“Social!Psychology,”!in!which!he!expounded!his!theories!of! knowledge.161 !!Upon!the!death!of!his!young!son,!Gordon,!Dewey!held!the!memorial! services!at!Hull!House.!!His!daughter!Jane,!named!after!Addams,!remarked!in!her! writings!that!Addams!and!Hull!House!both!shaped!Dewey’s!concepts!of!democracy,! particularly!his!faith!in!a!fully!participatory!political!system.162!!The!Chicago! settlement!movement!clearly!moved!in!an!overlapping!orbit!with!Dewey!and!the! University!of!Chicago.!!! Chicago!settlement!leaders!took!the!social!environment,!rather!than!the! individual,!as!ground!zero!for!affecting!social!change.163!Their!environmental! determinism!led!many!to!conduct!social!science!research!in!the!form!of!surveys,! geographic!mapping,!and!data!collection!on!myriad!socioPeconomic!phenomena,! such!as!population!density,!employment!statistics,!income!levels,!ethnicity,!disease! transmission,!and!crime!rates.!!Published!findings!correlated!abstract!social! statistics!–!incomes,!ethnicity,!and!so!forth!–!to!the!physical!environment.!!The! unquestioned!assumption!was!that!seemingly!objective!data!could!galvanize! municipal!government!and!private!citizens!to!make!improvements.!!Perkins!would! embraced!this!approach!in!1904!when!he!published!plans!for!a!Metropolitan+Park+ System!for!Chicago,!which!he!defended!almost!entirely!with!social!science!research.!!! Jane!Addams!and!Florence!Kelley!were!the!first!to!conduct!a!systematic! sociological!investigation!of!a!modern!American!city,!and!they!published!their! findings!in!1895!as!HullJHouse+Maps+and+Papers.!!A!collection!of!essays! supplemented!with!factual!census!schedules!and!two!multicolored!maps!depicting! demographic!data!on!the!nineteenth!ward!in!Chicago,!Maps+and+Papers!was!a! bellwether!of!the!increasing!influence!the!social!sciences!had!on!the!settlement! movement.!!The!maps!created!by!Kelley!drove!the!project.!!Hired!by!the!United! States!Department!of!Labor!in!1893!as!Special!Agent!Expert!in!charge!of!Chicago,! Kelley!spent!years!with!the!help!of!government!officials!collecting!statistical!data!on! the!ward’s!national!and!ethnic!makePup,!wages,!occupations,!and!housing! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 161 Ibid., 435. 162 Davis, Spearheads for Reform, 58. 163 Ibid., 16. conditions.164!!Mapping!her!statistical!findings!over!geographic!projections!of! Chicago’s!street!grid!enabled!Kelley!to!draw!compelling!conclusions!about!the! relationships!between!ethnicity,!environment,!and!poverty!in!a!graphically!succinct! manner,!the!visual!immediacy!of!which!allowed!audiences!to!quickly!grasp!the!crux! of!her!argument!(Figure!2.15).!!! Since!Kelley’s!dataPmaps!were!based!on!statistical!analysis,!their! mathematical!and!scientific!nature!legitimated!her!results,!lending!her!arguments! the!authority!of!objective!facts.!!The!introduction!to!Maps+and+Papers!emphasized! the!objective!approach!taken!in!compiling!the!data,!which!was!painstakingly! accumulated!by!surveying!every!house,!tenement,!and!room!in!the!ward!and!then! corroborating!the!data!obtained!by!crossPreferencing!responses.!!For!example,! statements!by!different!workers!in!the!same!trade!confirmed!the!accuracy!of!wages,! unemployed!seasons,!and!so!forth.!!Described!as!a!“photographic!reproduction”!of! Chicago’s!slums,!the!authors!insisted!Maps+and+Papers!simply!presented!actual! conditions!versus!advancing!theories,!and!in!this!way,!illustrated!a!method!of! research!that!was!scientific!and!verifiable.165!!!!! Complimenting!the!quantitative!dataPmaps!in!HullJHouse+Maps+and+Papers! were!qualitative!essays!textually!examining!the!cultural!conditions!of!poverty!in! Chicago.!!The!articles!reflected!the!environmental!determinism!driving!settlement! workers!in!Chicago,!as!their!point!of!departure!was!the!socioPeconomic! environment!of!the!poor,!not!their!personal!shortcomings.!!Florence!Kelley! excoriated!the!“sweating”!system!of!labor,!where!workers!earned!pennies!perPpiece! to!handPfinish!clothing!or!to!roll!cigars!at!home.!!She!argued!that!sweating! destabilized!families!because!mothers!and!children!often!undertook!such!labor,!and! sweating!also!introduced!environmental!and!health!hazards!into!the!home.166!!Ellen! Gates!Starr!blamed!slavish!working!conditions!for!the!uninspired!machined!goods! and!spiritually!degraded!men!that!daily!flowed!out!of!the!factory.167 !!Zueblin! contributed!an!essay!analyzing!Chicago’s!Jewish!quarter,!in!which!he!praised!the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 164 Deegan, Jane Addams and Chicago School, 56, 58. 165 Agnes Sinclaire Holbrook, “Map Notes and Comments,” in Hull-House Maps and Papers, 11-14. 166 Florence Kelley, “The Sweating System,” in Hull-House Maps and Papers, 27-45. 167 Ellen Gates Starr, “Art and Labor,” in Hull-House Maps and Papers, 165-167. industriousness!of!Jewish!immigrants!but!also!worried!that!their!ethnically! segregated!schools!hindered!the!upward!mobility!of!their!children.168!!Julia!Lathrop! criticized!inefficient!and!corrupt!government!agencies!for!contributing!to!the! suppression!of!the!poor.169!!Based!on!interviews!and!observation!rather!than! statistics,!the!essays!were!more!anecdotal!than!the!maps!and!charts!and!served!to! put!a!human!face!on!objective!data.!!They!pinpointed!issues!vital!to!the!settlement! movement,!such!as!corrupt!municipal!government,!child!labor,!inadequate! education,!immigration,!and!industrialization.!!Moreover,!they!held!the!social,! political,!and!economic!environment!responsible!for!the!plight!of!Chicago’s! underprivileged!classes.!!! Driven!by!social!science!research,!settlements!in!Chicago!evolved!from!semiP private!philanthropies!into!sociological!laboratories,!a!base!of!operations!from! which!to!study!and!collect!data!on!urban!phenomenon.!!The!study!of!urban!life!was! a!defining!characteristic!of!the!Chicago!School!of!Sociology!at!the!University!of! Chicago.!!Faculty!members!expressly!founded!the!University!of!Chicago!Settlement! designed!by!Perkins!as!an!extension!of!the!departments!of!economics!and!sociology.!! One!professor!called!it!“a!laboratory!of!social!service!in!the!city…a!window!for!the! sociological!department.”170!!Other!local!and!national!settlement!leaders!shared! these!attitudes.!!Graham!Taylor,!founder!of!Chicago!Commons,!wrote!that!one!of!the! most!important!functions!of!the!settlement!was!to!conduct!social!and!educational! experiments.171!!Robert!Park,!a!sociology!faculty!member!at!the!University!of! Chicago,!described!the!character!of!the!modern!settlement!as!a!“controlled! experiment.”!!Robert!Woods,!founder!of!Andover!House!in!Boston,!argued!as!early! as!1893!that!the!transcendent!function!of!university!settlements!was!to!become! laboratories!of!social!science.!!He!considered!the!poor,!crowded!wards!served!by! settlement!houses!to!be!representative!samples!of!all!urban!social!problems.!!It! followed!that!the!settlement!was!an!appropriate!training!ground!for!students!of! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 168 Zueblin, “The Chicago Ghetto,” 105. 169 Julia Lathrop, “The Cook County Charities,” in Hull-House Maps and Papers, 143-161. 170 Albion Small quoted in Deegan, Jane Addams and Chicago School, 34; and Davis, Spearheads for Reform, 113. 171 Davis, Spearheads for Reform, 79. social!science,!who!would!emerge!from!the!microcosm!of!the!ghetto!as!experts! equipped!to!work!in!the!broader!discipline!of!sociology.172!!!! Not!all!settlement!leaders!were!comfortable!viewing!the!poor!as!scientific! specimens,!however,!including!Perkins.!!He!worried!the!new,!quasiPscientific!status! of!settlements!might!render!them!inflexible!and!unapproachable,!and!he!suggested! their!“institutional!aspects”!should!be!downplayed.173!!Addams!also!complained!that! she!“objected!to!the!phrase!‘sociological!laboratory’!applied!to!us,!because! settlements!should!be!something!much!more!human!and!spontaneous!than!such!a! phrase!connotes.”174!!In!the!preface!to!HullJHouse+Maps+and+Papers,!she!explained! that!settlement!residents!were!not!primarily!engaged!in!sociological!investigation! but!in!“constructive!work.”175!!They!prioritized!the!needs!of!people!over!research,! and!so!reformers!usually!took!a!pragmatic!approach!to!settlement!activities.!!They! put!ideas!into!practice!and!then!revised!them!in!response!to!feedback!from!the! “study!participants”!rather!than!follow!abstract,!scientific!protocol.!!At!the!same! time,!settlement!leaders,!including!Addams,!conceded!that!sociological!research!was! necessary,!and!a!laboratory,!by!definition,!is!a!space!where!ideas!are!tested,!not! simply!theorized.176!!These!dichotomies!illustrate!the!ambiguous!position!of!social! settlements,!hovering!somewhere!between!personal!charity!and!professional! institution.!!!!! !Perkins’s!involvement!with!the!settlement!movement!had!profound! implications!for!his!burgeoning!flexible!principles.!!Settlement!leaders!shared!his! commitment!to!social!democracy!and!reinforced!his!broad!understandings!of!social! psychology!and!pragmatism.!!They!emphasized!practical!and!flexible! experimentation!over!abstract!theories!or!rigid!ideology.!!At!the!same!time,!many! settlement!leaders!clearly!believed!in!the!power!of!science,!statistics,!and!expertise! to!organize!and!rationalize!unruly!social!and!urban!phenomena,!a!strategy!Perkins! would!embrace.!!They!also!believed!that!the!social!and!physical!environment! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 172 Deegan, Jane Addams and Chicago School, 34-35. 173 Perkins, “The Settlement House Type,” 63. 174 Addams, Twenty Years at Hull-House, 308. 175 Addams, Hull-House Maps and Papers, vii-viii. 176 Deegan, Jane Addams and Chicago School, 35. affected!an!individual’s!behavior!and!beliefs.!!It!followed!that!civic!spaces!could!be! instrumentalized!as!a!vehicle!of!social!change,!a!correlation!with!obvious! significance!for!Perkins!as!an!architect.!!Lastly,!especially!indicated!by!the!Hull! House!maps,!progressive!social!scientists!considered!the!scope!of!their!reform! activities!to!extend!outward!from!individual!settlement!houses!to!the!scale!of!the! city,!a!greatly!expanded!sphere!for!progressive!action!that!would!drive!Perkins’s! approach!to!city!planning.! ! Settlement!House!as!School:!From!Academics!to!Active!Learning! Even!as!settlement!houses!evolved!into!sociological!outposts!for!collecting! data,!conducting!surveys,!and!experimenting!with!reform!strategies,!they!also! prefigured!what!would!become!an!indispensable!progressive!civic!institution:! public!schools.!!Perkins!believed!that!one!of!the!most!important!functions!of!social! settlements!was!to!educate!its!users,!to!expand!the!intellectual!horizons!of!everyday! people!who!might!otherwise!lack!opportunities!for!personal!growth,!to!provide,!as! he!phrased!it,!“inspiration!and!opportunities!for!the!development!of!the!higher!life! of!the!people.”177!!Such!personal!transformation!and!enlightenment!did!not! necessarily!mean!material!gain!for!Perkins,!though!increased!standards!of!living!or! better!employment!opportunities!might!result!from!higher!education.!!He!had!in! mind!more!abstract!advantages.!!He!differentiated!community!buildings!like! settlement!houses!from!“the!merely!utilitarian!factory,!where!the!products!are! material,!in!that!a!user!of!such!a!building!and!its!facilities,!may!be!a!healthier,!a! wiser!or!a!better!man!or!woman.”178!His!emphasis!was!less!on!providing!social! scientists!with!a!laboratory!from!which!to!pursue!their!research,!which!arguably! served!the!professional!ambitions!of!some!reformers!as!much!as!their!impoverished! “test!subjects.”!Rather,!Perkins!focused!on!facilitating!educational!experiences!that! could!enlighten!underprivileged!people,!providing!them!with!intellectual!resources! and!practical!skills!to!improve!their!own!lots!in!life.!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 177 Perkins and Howell, “Functions and Plan-Types of Community Buildings,” 289-290. 178 Ibid., 290.  The!spirit!of!pragmatic!experimentation!that!infused!Chicago!progressivism! inspired!Perkins!and!his!milieu!to!emphasize!practical!and!dynamic!educational! programs!over!academic!instruction,!and!settlement!houses!quickly!became!the!first! testing!grounds!for!progressive!pedagogical!techniques.!!The!twin!challenges!posed! by!immigration!and!industrial!labor!forced!the!change.!!Early!settlement!workers! had!attempted!to!intellectually!and!morally!“uplift”!the!underprivileged!by!offering! free!university!courses,!art!exhibits,!and!lectures!because!they!believed!that! interaction!with!cultural!artifacts!could!bring!meaning!to!otherwise!drab!lives.!!The! first!programs!offered!at!Hull!House!included!an!art!exhibit,!a!literature!class! covering!George!Eliot’s!Romola,!Dante,!Browning!and!Shakespeare,!and!a!Plato!Club! for!discussing!philosophical!questions.179!!Academic!subjects!attracted!some!of!the! Old!World!intelligentsia!and!also!provided!a!professional!outlet!for!many!settlement! workers,!particularly!collegePeducated!women!with!few!other!professional! prospects.!!Reformers!quickly!realized,!however,!that!most!laboring!immigrants! were!indifferent!to!university!extension!classes!because!reading!Shakespeare!in!the! evenings!did!little!to!change!their!socioPeconomic!situations.!!Immigrant!workers! needed!practical!and!concrete!assistance!that!was!closely!related!to!their!daily! lives.180!! Settlement!residents!almost!immediately!recognized!that!working!mothers! desperately!needed!kindergartens!and!daycare!facilities.!!Emerging!pedagogical! theories!espoused!by!Friedrich!Froebel!intrigued!many!reformers,!and!they!tried!to! encourage!the!natural!development!of!children!through!creative!play,!nature!study,! artistic!expression,!and!group!activities.!!The!emphasis!reformers!placed!on!active! “learn!by!doing”!techniques!led!them!to!lobby!for!gymnasiums,!parks,!playgrounds,! and!recreation!centers!where!people!could!learn!through!physical!activity.!!This! reinforced!Perkins’s!own!commitment!to!park!reform,!and!he!included!gymnasiums! in!all!of!his!settlement!designs.!!Settlements,!in!fact,!constructed!many!of!Chicago’s! first!playgrounds!before!Perkins!and!other!park!reformers!helped!transform!them! into!a!municipal!responsibility.!!Residents!also!constructed!gardens!in!the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 179 Davis, Spearheads for Reform, 40-41. 180 Ibid., 43. courtyards!of!settlement!houses,!sponsored!summer!camps,!and!led!nature!hikes!in! the!hopes!of!teaching!children!something!about!botany,!biology,!or!even!just!the! general!benefits!of!rural!life.181 !!! Language!was!a!formidable!barrier!for!most!adult!newcomers,!and! settlements!almost!always!offered!English!classes.!!Though!most!progressives! respected!cultural!differences,!they!also!understood!that!some!degree!of! assimilation!was!necessary!for!immigrants!to!succeed!in!society.!!They!often! combined!language!courses!with!basic!civic!lessons,!hoping!to!make!learning! English!more!relevant!to!adults!and!also!to!combat!corrupt!municipal!politics!by! teaching!foreigners!the!legal!and!social!apparatus!of!democratic!government!and! their!responsibilities!as!citizens.!!Social!science!clubs!were!one!of!the!most!popular! vehicles!for!advancing!democratic!socioPpolitical!exchange.!!Settlements!sponsored! lectures!held!in!their!auditoriums!or!classrooms,!which!were!followed!by!public! debates.!!These!events!introduced!participants!to!a!wide!range!of!political!issues.!! SinglePtax!clubs!debated!Henry!George’s!land!use!theories;!Young!Citizen’s!Clubs! kept!informed!of!municipal!affairs;!others!discussed!current!events.!!Clubs!provided! a!common!forum!where!individuals!possessing!divergent!viewpoints!could!meet,! their!debates!being!a!type!of!democratic!dialogue.!!Reformers!also!saw!public! discussions!as!a!way!to!moderate!political!radicalism.!!They!operated!as!a!pressure! release!valve,!where!pent!up!hostilities,!misunderstandings,!and!grievances!could!be! aired!in!an!orderly!way!rather!than!manifesting!themselves!through!violence,!riots,! and!strikes.!!Reformers!hoped!public!forums!would!introduce!immigrants!to!the! American!penchant!for!compromise,!tolerance,!and!moderate!politics.!!As!Addams! wrote,!“Nothing!so!disconcerts!a!social!agitator!as!to!find!among!his!auditors!men! who!have!been!through!all!that!and!who!are!quite!as!radical!as!he!in!another! direction.”182! Many!immigrants!also!desperately!needed!vocational!training,!and!Perkins! began!including!manual!training!and!domestic!science!workshops!in!his!settlement! house!plans.!!Most!progressives!worried!about!industrial!exploitation!and!child! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 181 Ibid., 43-45. 182 Addams, “An Effort Toward Social Democracy,” 240. labor,!but!they!also!realized!vocational!training!facilitated!gainful!employment!and! generated!muchPneeded!income.!!Settlements!located!near!textile!factories!began! teaching!women!and!children!how!to!make!buttonholes!and!operate!sewing! machines.!!Hull!House!offered!courses!in!metalworking,!enameling,!woodworking,! weaving,!dressmaking,!millinery,!and!cooking.!!Domestic!science!programs!trained! immigrant!women!to!be!housekeepers,!cooks,!and!nannies.183!Sometimes!these! programs!patronized!immigrants!as!much!as!enlightened!them.!!Many!reformers! were!appalled!by!the!disorganized!way!their!immigrant!neighbors!kept!house,!and! to!some!extent!domestic!science!courses!were!attempts!to!instill!middlePclass! standards!of!hygiene!and!housekeeping!into!minority!women.!!At!the!same!time,! many!foreigners!were!baffled!by!unfamiliar!methods!of!urban!household! management,!such!as!where!to!buy!pasteurized!milk!or!how!to!sterilize!baby! bottles,!and!domestic!science!programs!delivered!this!valuable!knowledge.!! Settlement!workers!such!as!Jane!Addams!and!Graham!Taylor!eventually!pressured! public!school!systems!to!assume!responsibility!for!vocational!training.!!They!lobbied! the!National!Education!Association!and!were!board!members!of!interest!groups! such!as!the!National!Society!for!the!Promotion!of!Industrial!Education.184!!Their! efforts!resulted!in!widespread!curricular!changes!that!permanently!altered!the! course!of!public!education.! Their!involvement!with!immigrants!and!vocational!training!ultimately!led! many!progressive!reformers!to!support!organized!labor.!!Settlement!houses!opened! their!classrooms!and!auditoriums!for!union!meetings!and!provided!legal!counseling.! In!some!cases,!residents,!including!Jane!Addams,!actively!mediated!labor!disputes.!! Many!progressives!believed!that!unions!democratized!industrial!affairs!by! equalizing!the!power!of!workers!and!capitalists,!a!process!Addams!described!as!the! “power!to!combine”!that!distinguished!the!modern,!interdependent!political! economy.185 !!Organized!labor!also!introduced!immigrants!to!the!democratic!process,! as!unions!negotiated,!compromised,!and!ideally,!though!not!always!in!practice,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 183 Davis, Spearheads for Reform, 46-47. 184 Ibid., 50-52. 185 Addams, “A Factor in the Labor Movement,” in Hull-House Maps and Papers, 197. worked!with!capitalists!in!an!orderly!and!peaceful!manner!to!arrive!at!solutions!to! labor!disputes.186!Unions!also!hastened!the!assimilation!of!immigrants!in!the!minds! of!many!reformers,!since!laborers!of!various!ethnicities!were!forced!by!economic! necessity!to!work!and!struggle!together.187!Despite!their!broad!support!for! organized!labor,!progressives!cautioned!against!the!party!enthusiasm!that!so!often! infused!unions!and!transformed!their!democratic!foundations!into!vindictive!class! warfare.!!Addams!warned,!“The!labor!movement!must!include!all!men!in!its!hopes.!! It!must!have!the!communion!of!universal!fellowship.”188 !Radical!labor!complained! the!conciliatory!process!nullified!the!revolutionary!potential!of!the!working!class!by! eliminating!violent!strikes!and!social!upheaval,!but!most!progressives!considered! negotiation!and!compromise!indicative!of!the!contingent,!democratic!process!and! therefore!a!means!of!advancing!social!democracy.! Through!their!active!involvement!with!education,!childcare,!vocational! training,!immigration,!and!organized!labor,!settlements!evolved!into!quasiPpublic! institutions,!what!Addams!described!as!an!“information!and!interpretation!bureau.”!! Settlements!often!acted!as!unofficial!employment!offices,!helping!immigrants!find! work,!training!them,!and!advising!them!about!career!decisions.189!!They!operated!as! “commission!merchants”!or!liaisons!between!existing!public!services!and!the! communities!those!offices!hoped!to!serve.!!Addams!argued!such!a!broker!was!sorely! needed,!especially!among!newly!arrived!foreigners:!“The!hospitals,!the!county! agencies,!and!State!asylums,!are!often!but!vague!rumors!to!the!people!who!need! them!most.”190!!Settlements!cooperated!with!the!Chicago!Public!Library!to!establish! reading!rooms!in!settlement!houses,!thus!providing!visitors!who!might!never!enter! a!library!with!access!to!books,!newspapers,!and!magazines.!!Settlements!facilitated! the!treatment!of!tuberculosis!by!sending!the!afflicted!to!the!Daily!News!Fresh!Air! Fund,!a!sanitarium!on!the!shores!of!Lake!Michigan.!!Settlements!forged!relationships! with!visitingPnurse!associations,!police!departments,!health!departments,!children’s! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 186 Davis, Spearheads for Reform, 105, 112. 187 Shpak-Lisak, Pluralism and Progressives, 28. 188 Addams, “A Factor in the Labor Movement,” in Hull-House Maps and Papers, 204. 189 Davis, Spearheads for Reform, 52. 190 Addams, “An Effort Towards Social Democracy,” 236. aid!societies,!humane!societies,!and!myriad!other!religious!and!municipal!relief! agencies!in!an!effort!to!coordinate!assistance!to!immigrants!and!to!make!existing! public!services!more!efficient.191!!Settlements,!in!short,!acted!within!an!interstitial! space!between!private!philanthropies!and!public!institutions.!!In!this!way,!they! came!to!be,!in!the!words!of!Graham!Taylor,!“not!a!church,!but…a!helper!of!all! churches…not!a!charity,!but!expects!to!aid…all!existing!charities…not!a!school,!but! purposes!to!be!a!source!and!agency!of!educational!effort.”192!Settlement!leaders! were,!in!many!ways,!unofficial!representatives!of!their!immigrant!constituencies,! lobbying!on!their!behalf,!providing!them!with!public!services,!and!voicing!their! concerns!to!official!government!channels.!! Some!historians!have!interpreted!settlements,!with!all!their!meddling!in! education,!industrial!affairs,!and!governance,!as!selfPserving!attempts!by!middleP class!reformers!to!acculturate!foreigners,!quell!social!unrest,!perpetuate!statusPquo! social!relations,!and!restrict!immigrants!to!manual!labor.193!!Yet!most!settlement! leaders!gradually!developed!programming!in!response!to!the!challenges!and!needs! of!their!underprivileged!neighbors,!not!simply!to!benefit!themselves.!!Addams! defended!settlements!against!such!charges!by!pointing!out!that!theses!institutions! “spring!from!no!preconceived!notion!of!what!a!social!settlement!should!be,!but!have! increased!gradually!on!demand.”194!!!!! Rather!than!regarding!settlements!with!suspicion,!it!is!more!useful!to! understand!them!as!pragmatic!points!of!experimentation.!!Settlement!houses!were! places!where!progressive!reformers!tested!ideas!and!theories!in!practice,!and!where! members!of!society!accepted,!revised,!or!resisted!those!ideas.!!Such!a!dialectical! process!eventually!transformed!the!original!impetus!into!something!new,!created! cooperatively!through!a!collective!process!of!trial!and!error.!!The!architecture!critic! Fiske!Kimball!pinpointed!this!meaning!when!he!explained!that!the!settlement! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 191 Ibid., 235-236. 192 Herman F. Hegner, “Scientific Value of the Social Settlements,” in The American Journal of Sociology 3 (July 1897 - May 1898): 174-5. 193 See Weiner, “Architecture of Victorian Philanthropy;” Shpak-Lisak, Pluralism and Progressives; Paul Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820-1920 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1978), 156. 194 Addams, “Effort Towards Social Democracy,” 229. “intentionally!proceeded!by!constant!individual!experiment,!undertaking!this! activity!or!that!as!the!needs!of!the!particular!neighborhood!have!suggested.”195 !! Perkins!articulated!the!flexibility!of!the!settlement!movement!when!he!wrote!that!it! was!“generally!understood!without!being!closely!defined.”196!!Addams!perfectly! summed!up!the!pragmatic!character!of!the!settlement!when!she!wrote:!“The!one! thing!to!be!dreaded!in!the!Settlement!is!that!it!loses!its!flexibility,!its!power!of!quick! adaptation,!its!readiness!to!change!its!methods!as!its!environment!may!demand.!!It! must!be…ready!for!experiment.”197!!In!this!context,!the!picturesque!architectural! treatment!Perkins!gave!to!his!first!settlement!houses!can!be!seen!as!attempts!to! accommodate!the!experimental!and!everPshifting!programs!of!progressive! reformers.! ! The!Challenges!of!Civic!Legibility! The!picturesque!massing!that!Perkins!employed!at!University!of!Chicago!and! Northwestern!University!Settlements!was!an!architectural!strategy!that!allowed!him! to!accommodate!the!experimental!and!constantly!evolving!programs!offered!at! settlement!houses.!!Since!settlements!lacked!a!standard!form!of!organization!or!a! fixed!schedule!of!activities,!they!resisted!architectural!standardization.!!In!fact,! limited!financial!resources!forced!many!settlements!into!preexisting!structures,!to! which!rooms!were!added!as!needed.!!Most!settlement!houses!grew!into!an! aggregate!of!volumes!constructed!or!remodeled!over!time.!!This!accretive! construction!process!suited!the!pragmatic!character!of!settlements,!which!added!or! renovated!spaces!according!the!shifting,!changing!needs!of!their!constituents.!!The! domestic!English!style!was!an!expedient!method!of!handling!these!uneven,! asymmetrical!building!complexes!as!much!as!it!was!a!symbol!of!preindustrial!social! cohesion.!!Kimball!praised!the!picturesque!variability!of!settlement!architecture!for! its!informal,!antiPinstitutional!effect.198!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 195 Kimball, “Philanthropic Enterprises,” 526. 196 Perkins, “Settlement House Type,” 63. 197 Addams, Twenty Years at Hull-House, 126. 198 Kimball, “Philanthropic Enterprises,” 526.  What!distinguished!the!settlement!house!was!less!the!particular!architectural! language!of!its!design!than!its!dramatic!contrast!from!the!surrounding! neighborhood.!!Its!conspicuousness!enhanced!its!civic!importance.!!The!sheer!scale! of!most!settlements!–!University!of!Chicago!and!Northwestern!Settlements!occupied! most!of!a!city!block!–!was!enough!to!suggest!their!cultural!authority.!!Their! historical!architecture!and!refined!interior!decoration!only!reinforced!this! impression,!regardless!of!which!particular!style!they!advertised.!!Addams! pinpointed!the!visual!impact!of!architectural!contrast!when!she!recalled!how!the! gracious!façade,!wide!hall,!and!open!fireplaces!of!Hull!Houses!stood!out!against!the! backdrop!of!squalid,!overcrowded!frame!cottages!and!occasional!brick!tenements! that!constituted!Chicago’s!west!side.!!One!immigrant!who!often!visited! Northwestern!University!settlement,!ultimately!built!by!the!Pond!brothers!and!not! by!Perkins,!described!it!as!“something!like!in!books.!!The!building!was!entirely! different!from!the!buildings!surrounding!it.!!It!reminded!me!of!early!America!in!the! East!–!because!of!the!diamond!shaped!windows,!the!doors.”199! General!civic!legibility!was!clearly!more!important!to!settlement!house! design!than!the!trappings!of!a!specific!style.!!As!late!as!1924,!Perkins!claimed!that! while!community!buildings!had!developed!a!recognizable!individuality,!“it!is!too! early!to!write!about!the!most!appropriate!style!of!architecture!for!them.”200! Architects!concentrated!on!conveying!the!broad!impression!that!settlements!were! considerable,!permanent!institutions,!which!encouraged!immigrants,!reformers,! critics,!and!government!alike!to!take!them!seriously.!!Addams!articulated!this! sentiment!when!she!described!the!symbolic!meaning!of!the!Hull!House!buildings!as! simply!making!progressive!ambitions!concrete:!“They!clothed!in!brick!and!mortar! and!made!visible!to!the!world!that!which!we!were!trying!to!do;!they!stated!to! Chicago!that!education!and!recreation!ought!to!be!extended!to!the!immigrants.”201!!!! Despite!their!flexible!attitudes!regarding!the!architectural!representation!of! settlement!houses,!reformers!were!keenly!aware!of!the!symbolic!power!of! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 199 Michael Rachwalski, personal interview by Szuberla, “Three Chicago Settlements,” 119. 200 Perkins and Howell, “Functions and Plan-Types of Community Buildings,” 289. 201 Addams, Twenty Years at Hull-House, 150. architecture!and!its!possibilities!for!communicating!with!the!public.!!Addams! described!the!settlement!house!as!a!“Cathedral!of!Humanity,”!a!sort!of!secular! religion,!and!wrote!its!building!should!be!“low!and!wide!spreading!as!to!include!all! men!in!fellowship!and!mutual!responsibility!even!as!the!older!pinnacles!and!spires! indicated!communion!with!God.”202!Perkins!distinguished!between!traditional! religious!institutions!and!modern!secular!settlements,!which!led!him!to!advocate!a! functionalist!approach!to!settlement!house!design:!! No!money!is!put!into!the!embellishment!of!an!architectural!monument!to! stand!through!the!ages.!!The!building!is!frankly!and!simply!a!means!to!a! social!end.!!Its!very!limitations!and!the!newness!of!the!problem!presented! make!the!settlement!buildings!more!closely!expressive!of!the!life!of!the! present!than,!for!instance,!the!church!edifice,!with!its!ecclesiastical! architecture!handed!down!from!previous!ages.!!There!is!no!precedent!to! govern!their!architectural!expression!–!these!buildings!must!be!designed!as!a! direct!response!to!definite!needs.203! Allen!Pond!agreed!with!Perkins!when!he!described!settlement!architecture!as! “wholly!without!parallel!in!the!past,”!adding!that!the!buildings!should!also!“accord! with!the!most!advanced!principles!of!sociology!and!technology.”204!! Given!these!visions!of!an!updated,!culturallyPforward!settlement!house!based! on!the!social!sciences!and!progressive!education,!it!is!not!surprising!that!Perkins! abandoned!the!domestic!English!style!and!its!feudal!connotations!for!an! institutional!appearance!that!better!conveyed!the!transformed!identity!of!the! settlement!house!as!a!civic!center,!sociological!outpost,!and!even!community!school.!! His!first!opportunity!to!experiment!in!this!direction!came!in!1898!when!Jenkin! Lloyd!Jones!commissioned!his!nephew!Frank!Lloyd!Wright!and!Perkins!to!design! the!Abraham!Lincoln!Center.!!The!Center!was!an!expansion!of!All!Soul’s!Church,! Jones’s!new!urban!ministry!grounded!in!social!reform!rather!than!conventional! religious!observance.!!Wright!and!Perkins!were!obvious!choices!as!the!architects.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 202 Ibid., 149. 203 Perkins, “Settlement House Type,” 63. 204 Allen B. Pond, “The Settlement House,” in The Brickbuilder 11 (September 1902): 184-185; Szuberla, “Three Chicago Settlements,” 116. Both!were!members!of!All!Soul’s!congregation,!and!they!shared!studio!space!atop! Steinway!Hall.!!The!project!took!five!years!to!complete,!and!the!Center!finally! opened!in!1903!(Figure!2.16).!!!! Perkins!collaborated!closely!with!Wright!and!Jones!to!design!Abraham! Lincoln!Center.!The!lengthy!and!sometimes!frustrating!process!suggested!the! pragmatic!and!cooperative!way!that!Perkins!approached!architectural!design.!!Jones! had!been!planning!the!Center!since!1890,!and!he!held!definitive!views!about!the! program!and!appearance!of!the!building.!!He!envisioned!Abraham!Lincoln!Center!as! a!nonsectarian,!mixedPuse!neighborhood!facility!that!incorporated!a!drugstore,!a! library,!a!kindergarten,!a!manual!training!school,!reading!rooms,!church!offices,! classrooms,!meeting!spaces,!an!auditorium,!speculative!rental!suites,!and!a! gymnasium.205!!The!social!settlement!most!closely!approximated!the!type!of! institution!Jones!imagined,!but!in!his!mind!the!Abraham!Lincoln!Center!was!not! quite!a!settlement!house.!!Jones!was!critical!of!the!raison!d’être!of!early!settlements,! which!called!for!the!privileged!classes!to!work!in!the!service!of!the!lower!classes.!! Such!class!divisions!contradicted!the!social!harmony!espoused!by!Unitarianism,!the! religious!denomination!of!Jones!and!All!Souls!congregation.206!!Instead,!Jones! wanted!to!combine!the!programs!of!a!church!and!a!settlement!into!one!selfP contained,!institutionally!and!typologically!novel!facility,!“the!first!of!its!kind!in!the! world.”207! Jones!proposed!to!accommodate!the!various!functions!of!Abraham!Lincoln! Center!in!a!sevenPstory!tower!so!as!to!convey!its!original!civic!and!humanitarian! mission.!!Two!of!his!architectural!criteria!were!that!the!Center!be!monumental!in! scale!and!modern!in!style.!!Jones!maintained!that!an!impressive!scale!would!give!the! Center!an!architectural!presence!that!evoked!the!cultural!authority!of!medieval! cathedrals!without!literally!mimicking!their!appearance,!and!modern!styling!would! convey!the!congregation’s!novel!social!mandate.!!His!vision!looked!more!like!an! office!building!than!a!church!or!a!house,!which!distinguished!the!Center!from!both! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 205 Siry, “Abraham Lincoln Center,” 237, 247. 206 Ibid., 242. 207 Ibid., 237, 240. ecclesiastical!church!edifices!and!the!domestic!English!style!of!most!settlements.208!! In!1891!the!trustees!of!All!Soul’s!purchased!a!lot!across!the!street!from!the!original! church!building!where!Jones!could!realize!a!structure!“which!is!carried!high!enough! to!ensure!a!compact!housing!of!varied!educational,!social!and!philanthropic! interests!on!highPpriced!ground!at!a!centre!of!commercial!activity.”209!!! The!nomenclature!Jones!used!to!describe!Abraham!Lincoln!Center!is! significant!in!light!of!the!organization’s!distinctive!institutional!identity.!!Jones! originally!called!the!facility!All!Souls!Building.!!But!in!1900!he!proposed!the!name! Abraham!Lincoln!Center!to!distinguish!the!Center!from!the!Unitarian!congregation.!! Jones!eventually!went!so!far!as!to!withdraw!All!Souls!from!the!Unitarian! denomination!so!as!to!pursue!his!broadly!humanitarian!agenda!unencumbered!by! any!religious!affiliation.!!He!also!avoided!calling!the!organization!a!social!settlement,! despite!their!overlapping!programs.!!Jones!favored!the!term!“center”!because!it! suggested!the!unity!of!mankind!and!implied!the!building!was!a!nonsectarian! community!hub,!a!social!center,!rather!than!a!feudal!manor!house!or!religious! organization.!!Jones!qualified!the!Center’s!identity!by!appending!Abraham!Lincoln!to! its!name.!!Jones!had!served!in!the!Union!Army!for!most!of!the!Civil!War!during! Lincoln’s!presidency,!and!he!believed!that!Lincoln!had!transcended!petty! partisanship!and!represented!the!civic!interests!of!all!creeds.!!The!tolerance! symbolized!by!Lincoln!was!a!perfect!symbol!of!the!compassionate,!humanitarian! aims!of!the!Center.210!!!!! Perkins!and!Wright!referenced!the!tallPoffice!building!quite!literally!in!their! first!design!for!Abraham!Lincoln!Center,!which!they!presented!to!Jones!in!1900.!! Their!initial!renderings!depict!the!Center!as!a!nine!story,!freestanding!block! articulated!with!uninterrupted!vertical!piers!above!large!groundPfloor!display! windows,!a!composition!that!looked!remarkably!similar!to!Louis!Sullivan’s! Wainwright!Building!(Figures!2.17–2.18).!!Wright!had!worked!in!the!offices!of!Adler! and!Sullivan!in!the!late!1880s,!and!so!it!is!perhaps!unsurprising!that!he!and!Perkins! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 208 Ibid., 237, 240. 209 Robert Spencer, “Frank Lloyd Wright,” quoted in Siry, “Abraham Lincoln Center,” 248. 210 Siry, “Abraham Lincoln Center,” 242-243. followed!Sullivan’s!precedent!in!their!first!attempt!at!designing!the!Center.!!In! response!to!Jones’s!repeated!invectives!to!economize,!Perkins!and!Wright!reduced! projected!construction!costs!by!using!brick!instead!of!cut!stone!on!the!exterior!and! by!minimizing!ornamentation.!!Jones!approved!of!their!decision!to!use!only!one!type! of!brick!throughout!the!building,!because!its!material!unity!expressed!his!ideals!of! social!harmony.211!!! Jones,!however,!rejected!the!initial!scheme!for!the!Abraham!Lincoln!Center! because!he!felt!its!exterior!uniformity!misrepresented!the!essence!of!his!vision!since! the!auditorium!–!the!heart!of!All!Souls!congregation!and!the!center!of!secular!civic! exchange!–!was!not!expressed!on!the!exterior.!!The!regularity!of!the!vertical!piers! organized!but!also!concealed!the!multiplicity!of!functions!behind!them.! So!Perkins!and!Wright!revised!the!design!in!1902.!!Their!second!scheme!clearly! expressed!the!twoPstory!auditorium!through!the!vertical!windows!that!spanned!and! united!the!second!and!third!floors.!!They!also!distinguished!the!other!functions!on! the!exterior!through!various!window!sizes!and!architectural!treatments.!!Jones’s! study,!the!Unity!Club,!the!library,!and!church!offices!occupied!the!ground!floor.!! Residential!quarters!and!seminar!rooms!for!divinity!and!sociology!students!were!on! the!fourth!floor,!and!a!gymnasium!and!various!meeting!rooms!occupied!the!upper! stories.!!Perkins!and!Wright!also!reduced!the!height!of!the!Center!to!six!stories! (Figure!2.19).!!The!lower!building!height!together!with!the!redesigned!exterior,!now! subdivided!by!program!into!its!constituent!levels,!gave!the!Center!a!predominantly! horizontal!appearance.!!The!Center!was!beginning!to!look!more!like!a!civic! institution!than!an!office!building.212! Jones!still!insisted!on!rigorous!simplifications!to!the!design!due!to!financial! constraints.!!Wright!became!so!frustrated!that!he!could!not!produce!the!necessary! working!drawings!and!specifications!need!for!definitive!contractor!bids,!and!so! Jones!asked!Perkins!to!complete!the!building!independently.213!!Perkins!had!more! experience!and!perhaps!more!patience!than!Wright,!and!he!also!had!a!track!record! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 211 Ibid., 248. 212 Ibid., 252. 213 Ibid., 257. for!delivering!designs!that!were!realizable!and!met!with!client!expectations.!!In! short,!he!was!more!willing!than!Wright!to!compromise!and!work!with!patron! demands.!!Jones!expressly!praised!Perkins’s!flexible!and!unPdogmatic!approach!to! the!design!process!when!he!explained!his!decision!to!fire!Wright!and!retain!Perkins! to!the!building!committee:!“The!simplicity!of!the!building!which!I!wanted!was!not!in! accordance!with!the!architectural!ambitions!of!Perkins!and!Wright,!and!it!was! because!of!this!divergence!that!the!matter!was!taken!out!of!their!hands!and!put!into! Perkins’s!hands!–!because!he![Perkins]!was!willing!to!embody!my!ideas,!and!not! his.”214!!! When!Perkins!finally!completed!the!Abraham!Lincoln!Center!in!1903,!its!final! design!represented!a!series!of!compromises!and!negotiations.!!Perkins!respected! Jones’s!desire!for!a!radically!simple!and!economic!design,!and!so!he!constructed!a! dramatically!severe!building.!!He!eliminated!nearly!all!exterior!embellishment!and! architectural!detail!from!the!Center!and!relied!instead!on!the!building’s!impressive! scale,!minimalist!appearance,!and!streamlined!volume!to!suggest!a!commanding! presence!(Figure!2.20).!!The!design!was!so!plain,!in!fact,!that!Perkins!became! uncomfortable!with!how!far!he!had!compromised!and!acquiesced.!!Towards!the!end! of!their!collaboration,!Perkins!resisted!ceding!total!control!of!the!project!to!Jones! because!he!feared!for!his!professional!reputation.!!After!unsuccessfully!lobbying! Jones!to!make!changes!to!the!design,!Perkins!relented,!but!he!insisted!that!the! following!words!be!printed!on!every!elevation!and!perspective!of!the!Abraham! Lincoln!Center:!“Designed!in!accordance!with!specific!directions!given!by!Jenkin! Lloyd!Jones!and!against!the!protest!of!D.H.!Perkins.”215!! Though!Perkins!ultimately!rejected!authorship!of!the!Abraham!Lincoln! Center,!his!experiences!working!with!Jones!influenced!his!understanding!of!the! social!settlement,!both!as!an!organization!and!as!an!architectural!problem.!!Jones! anticipated!the!evolution!of!settlement!houses!from!private!philanthropies!to!civic! centers!when!he!articulated!the!secular!and!broadly!humanitarian!social!goals! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 214 Letter from Jones to L.J. Lamson, August 19, 1903, Jones Letter Book, June 17, 1903-May 18, 1904, 86, 88 (Jones Collection, Meadville-Lombard), quoted in Siry, “Abraham Lincoln Center,” 258. 215 Letter from Perkins to Jones, July 14, 1903 (Jones Collection, Meadville-Lombard), quoted in Siry, “Abraham Lincoln Center,” 258. driving!his!Center!in!1891.!!And!he!certainly!impressed!upon!Perkins!the! importance!of!creating!a!distinct!architectural!type!for!these!emerging!cultural! facilities.!!Most!settlement!houses!had!an!accretive!appearance,!but!Jones!insisted! that!the!expansive!programs!of!his!Center!be!accommodated!in!a!single,!selfP contained!volume!that!concentrated!and!amplified!its!institutional!authority.!! Moreover,!the!auditorium!emerged!as!the!predominant!symbolic!space!of!the! Center.!!Perkins!thus!came!to!identify!settlement!houses!as!monumental!community! centers!that!facilitated!social!exchange!rather!than!picturesque!houses!that! administered!private!charity.!!! Perkins!finally!formulated!a!coherent!architectural!expression!for!the! modern,!sociologically!and!pedagogically!driven!settlement!house!when!he!designed! the!Olivet!Institute!in!1916.!!The!facility!was!entirely!selfPcontained!and!housed!a! staggering!number!of!programs:!gymnasium,!natatorium,!auditorium,!reading!room,! library,!offices,!classrooms!for!drawing,!arithmetic,!English,!music,!typewriting,! bookkeeping,!vocational!training!studios,!carpentry!workshops,!kitchens!for! domestic!science!training,!and!an!assortment!of!club!rooms!that!could!be!rented!for! community!meetings!(Figures!2.21–2.24).!!Kimball!described!the!project!as!“the! most!comprehensive!single!building!for!social!purposes!yet!proposed!in!America!by! any!philanthropic!agency.”216!!The!abundance!of!rooms!meant!that!departments!had! space!to!expand!when!needed.!!Instructors!maximized!public!use!of!the!facility!by! offering!educational!programs!in!three!shifts!throughout!the!day.!!Perkins!even! listed!different!morning!and!evening!activities!for!certain!rooms!in!floor!plans!for! the!Institute.!!The!centrally!located!auditorium!was!the!heart!of!the!Olivet!plant!and! the!principle!space!of!democratic!social!exchange.!!It!effectively!replaced!the! cloistered!quadrangle!courtyard!with!a!space!for!communityPwide!gatherings.!! Finally,!Perkins!eliminated!the!residential!apartments!usually!included!in!settlement! houses.!!Taken!together,!these!changes!suggested!that!Olivet!Institute!was!not!a! feudal!manor!or!private!charity!but!had!evolved!into!a!broad!community!center.!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 216 Kimball, “Philanthropic Enterprises,” 541.  Perkins!conveyed!the!new!civic!identity!of!settlement!houses!on!the!exterior! of!the!Olivet!Institute.!!The!facility!was!a!threePstory!horizontal!block!with!slightly! projecting!corner!volumes.!!A!regular!grid!of!large,!rectangular!windows!created!a! consistent!rhythm!of!horizontal!and!vertical!lines!that!organized!the!façade!into!a! uniform!sheath!concealing!the!surfeit!of!programs!inside.!!Loosely!medieval! pinnacles,!entry!arches,!and!infrequently!placed!ornamental!panels!were!the!only! historical!references!in!a!design!that!was!otherwise!standardized,!judicious,!and! current.!!Rationalizing!the!design!allowed!Perkins!to!signify!the!scientific!basis!of! modern!settlement!houses!driven!by!sociological!investigation,!as!well!as!their!new! institutional!authority.!!Some!critics!worried!that!such!a!regularized!architectural! treatment!was!undesirable!for!settlement!houses!because!it!looked!too! “educational,”217!but!the!aesthetic!transformation!expressed!the!burgeoning!civic! roles!played!by!settlements.! In!his!renderings,!Perkins!imagined!Olivet!Institute!located!in!a!verdant!park! space!surrounded!by!trees!and!greenswards.!!The!perspective’s!foreground!depicts! fencedPin!public!gardens,!where!neighbors!could!grow!vegetables!and!at!the!same! time!absorb!the!botanical,!biological,!and!spiritual!lessons!nature!offered.!!Such!a! bucolic!setting!completely!contradicted!the!original!context!of!the!settlement!house,! which!was!the!unsanitary,!overcrowded,!industrial!slum.!!Perkins!chose!to!situate! Olivet!Institute!within!the!paradigm!of!City!Beautiful!civic!spaces!instead!of!the! urban!ghetto.!!The!beautified!and!improved!surroundings!of!Olivet!Institute! certainly!emphasized!its!civic!role,!calling!to!mind!public!libraries,!schools,!and! museums.!!But!it!also!suggested!how!Perkins!ultimately!instrumentalized!the! community!center!as!an!urbanPplanning!model,!a!tool!for!reorganizing!the!entire! city.! ! Settlements!at!the!Scale!of!the!City! In!1894!W.T.!Stead!prophesied!the!relationship!between!the!settlement! house,!the!neighborhood!center,!and!City!Beautiful!urban!planning!in!his!visionary! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 217 Ibid. text!If+Christ+Came+to+Chicago.!!Published!just!as!Burnham’s!White!City!closed,!and!all! its!visionary!implications!for!architecture!and!city!planning!with!it,!Stead!envisioned! an!ideal!Chicago!of!the!twentieth!century!predicated!on!the!lessons!of!the!1893! World’s!Fair:!an!efficient!metropolis!organized!by!futuristic!railroads!and! technology,!rendered!aesthetically!pleasing!through!a!system!of!open!park!spaces! punctuated!with!civic!architecture!reminiscent!of!the!BeauxPArts!inspired!Court!of! Honor!buildings.!!In!this!utopian!idyll,!the!Manufactures!Building!from!the!Fair!was! transformed!into!a!“People’s!Institute,”!so!named!to!reference!an!early!settlement!in! London!called!the!People’s!Palace.!!The!People’s!Institute!formed!the!nucleus!of!a! “Democratic!university!system!in!Chicago,”!a!farPflung!network!of!civic!institutions! located!in!each!ward!of!the!city!and!responsible!for!educating!the!public.!!Stead! imagined!the!settlement!house!assuming!this!job:!“Every!ward!in!the!city!had!its! Institute!and!every!precinct!its!Hull!House!outpost.!!Hull!House!had!gradually! extended!its!borders!until!it!had!become!the!greatest!social!center!of!the!city.!!It!had! its!affiliates!in!every!one!of!the!two!thousand!precincts,!who!were!living!among!the! people,!sharing!their!life.”218!!In!other!words,!settlement!houses!evolved!into!civic! centers!that!were!dispersed!across!the!entire!city,!each!center!organizing!and! regulating!its!local,!urban!neighborhood.!!In!this!way,!settlements!transformed!the! inchoate,!industrial!city!into!a!system!of!interconnected!participatory!democracies.!! Perkins,!and!indeed!many!progressive!reformers,!shared!Stead’s!urbanP planning!vision,!which!effectively!organized!the!city!into!discreet!but!interrelated! neighborhood!units!managed!by!local!community!centers.!!In!1906!Graham!Taylor! proposed!a!rationalized!Chicago!administered!by!a!dispersed!network!of!settlement! houses.!!Taylor!anticipated!the!institutionalization!of!the!settlement!movement! when!he!argued!that!settlement!houses!were!only!paving!the!way!for!“real”!social! centers!like!park!field!houses!and!public!schools,!both!of!which!Taylor!characterized! as!“the!people’s!own!house.”!!Taken!together,!the!overlapping!functions!of! settlement!houses,!recreation!centers,!and!public!schools!operated!as!acculturative,! democratic!training!centers,!or!“schools!of!citizenship”!as!Taylor!called!them.!!At!the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 218 W.T. Stead, If Christ Came to Chicago: A Plea for the Union of All Who Love in the Service of All Who Suffer (Chicago: Laird & Lee, 1894), 427-428; Szuberla, “Three Chicago Settlements,” 124. neighborhood!center,!“people!of!different!nationalities!and!neighborhoods![could]! meet!and!mingle,!learn!how!to!coPoperate!and!exchange!values.”219!!! Frederic!C.!Howe!likewise!characterized!the!settlement!house!as!a! microcosmic!city!beautiful!–!aesthetically!ordered!and!socially!organized.!!His!1905! progressive!manifesto,!The+City:+The+Hope+of+Democracy,!illustrated!the!degree!to! which!many!reformers!believed!the!rationalized!city!was!the!principle!site!for! democratic!exchange,!with!settlement!houses!and!public!parks!leading!the!way:! “The!settlement!is!the!equivalent!of!the!outdoor!park…it!promotes!order,!it!lessens! crime…and!organizes!the!life!and!energy!of!the!slum!and!turns!it!into!good! channels.”220!!In!1904!Perkins!graphically!reiterated!the!progressive,!neighborhoodP centerPplanning!model!when!he!mapped!Chicago’s!existing!settlement!houses,! public!schools,!and!playgrounds!together!with!proposed!recreation!centers!in!his+ Metropolitan+Park+System.!!In!his!plan,!Perkins!visualized!a!city!organized!by! redundant!types!of!civic!centers!that!arguably!reduced!crime,!disease,!and! delinquency.221!!In!short,!reformers!believed!that!the!organized,!wellPordered! spaces!of!neighborhood!centers!fostered!social!unification,!cultural!assimilation,!and! democratic!exchange,!whereas!the!urban!wilderness!engendered!chaos.222!!! Implied!in!these!visions,!even!if!not!overtly!stated,!was!the!impending! absorption!of!the!settlement!house!and!its!functions!into!other!urban!institutions,! namely,!public!recreation!centers,!parks,!and!schools.!!According!to!Kimball,!the! ideological!contradiction!behind!settlements!–!“that!a!band!of!cultured!outsiders! could!become!at!will!neighbors!of!the!poor!while!maintaining!conditions!of!life!and! internal!association!artificial!to!the!slums”!–!was!an!inherent!defect.!!Perkins!agreed,! arguing!that!truly!public,!taxPsupported!civic!centers!were!preferable!to!the! philanthropic!and!thus!unavoidably!paternal!nature!of!settlements:!“The!park!and! school!boards!have!the!advantage!of!deriving!their!support!and!authority!which! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 219 Graham Taylor, “By Graham Taylor,” Chicago Daily News, September 27, 1912, quoted in Szuberla, “Three Chicago Settlements,” 127. 220 Szuberla, “Three Chicago Settlements,” 128; also see Frederic C. Howe, The City: The Hope of Democracy (1905; rept. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1967), 227-231. 221 See Perkins, Metropolitan Park System. The significance of Perkins’s plan for Chicago will be discussed in detail in the next chapter. 222 Szuberla, “Three Chicago Settlements,” 127. they!exercise!in!the!administration!of!these!centers!from!the!people!themselves.!! There!is!no!element!of!charity!in!the!park!recreation!center.”223!!These!paradoxes! only!intensified!as!the!settlement!movement!evolved!away!from!its!original! emphasis!on!personally!administered!charity!and!into!a!quasiPpublic!institution! dispensing!social!services!and!lobbying!for!political!reform.!!With!every!public! playground!settlements!succeeded!in!building,!every!sanitation!law!they!helped! pass,!every!tenement!they!reformed,!and!every!patient!they!sent!to!a!sanitarium,!the! raison!d’être!of!settlement!houses!disappeared,!replaced!by!municipal!park!boards,! housing!commissions,!and!public!health!offices.!!Kimball!eloquently!summarized! that!“the!ultimate!glory!of!the!settlements!will!be!to!have!rendered!settlements! unnecessary.”224!!! In!the!end,!the!interstitial!space!occupied!by!the!modern!settlement!–! ambiguously!suspended!somewhere!between!private!philanthropy!and!public! institution!–!was!its!undoing.!!Despite!the!ephemeral!nature!of!the!settlement! movement,!it!significantly!contributed!to!and!reinforced!Perkins’s!burgeoning! flexible!principles,!especially!in!its!emphasis!on!social!democracy,!progressive! education,!and!pragmatic!experimentation.!!These!principles!persisted!into!the!next! phase!of!Perkins’s!career!as!a!civic!architect,!when!he!turned!his!attention!to! designing!the!next!generation!of!public!institutions!charged!with!rationalizing!the! city!and!educating!and!acculturating!its!diverse!inhabitants:!parks,!playgrounds,! recreation!centers,!and!public!schools. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 223 Perkins and Howell, “Function and Plan-Types of Community Buildings,” 290. 224 Kimball, “Philanthropic Enterprises,” 543.  Chapter!Three! Planning!the!Progressive!City:!From!Neighborhood!Center!to!Regional!Plan! ! “A!better!architectural!and!livable!city!cannot!be!brought!about!by!grand!plans!that!are!instigated! from!above!and!thrust!upon!the!people!from!without…[A]n!ideal!democracy!is!not!striving!for!wealth! as!reflected!in!the!desire!for!monarchial!pomp!and!splendor…[I]t!stands!for!human!happiness.”!! !!!!!!PPJens!Jensen,!A+Greater+West+Park+System,!1920! ! ! In!1904!Perkins!published!a!design!for!a!Metropolitan+Park+System,!in!which! he!gave!form!to!the!“neighborhood!center”!urbanPplanning!model!described!by! Stead,!Taylor,!and!Howe.!!By!mapping!Chicago’s!existing!settlement!houses,!public! schools,!and!playgrounds!together!with!proposals!for!new!recreation!centers,! Perkins!envisioned!a!city!organized!by!a!network!of!local!civic!centers!that,!he! argued,!would!reduce!crime,!disease,!and!delinquency!and!transmit!progressive! cultural!values.225!!These!social!centers!were!spatially!ordered!into!a!city!and! regional!plan!mostly!structured!around!park!spaces!that!operated!at!three!scales:! small!neighborhood!playgrounds,!midPsized!pleasure!grounds,!and!an!expansive! greenbelt!of!forest!preserves!surrounding!and!containing!the!city!(Figure!3.1.).!! These!green!spaces!together!with!their!concomitant!social!centers!functioned!as! component!parts!of!a!comprehensive!urban!system!designed!to!provide!amenities! to!wealthy,!middlePclass,!and!workingPclass!neighborhoods!alike,!helping!to! transform!an!industrialized,!socially!stratified,!and!ethnically!diverse!society!into!a! healthy,!educated,!democratic!community.!! Perkins!was!certainly!not!the!only!visionary!to!imagine!alternative!futures! for!the!modern!metropolis.!!Reformers!almost!universally!advocated!rationalizing,! systematizing,!sanitizing,!and!otherwise!ordering!the!modern!city.!!Ebenezer! Howard!envisioned!a!decentralized!polis!in!1902!by!proposing!to!construct!entirely! new!“garden!cities”!that!were!limited!in!size,!located!in!the!unspoiled!countryside,! and!surrounded!by!a!permanent!greenbelt,!with!all!land!being!communally!owned.!! Le!Corbusier!likewise!sought!to!bring!“light,!air,!and!“greenery”!to!the!city!but!by! increasing!rather!than!dispersing!populations!densities.!!GlassPandPsteel! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 225 See maps in Perkins, Metropolitan Park System. skyscrapers,!each!standing!completely!free!in!the!midst!of!a!great!park,!and! elaborately!coordinated!transportation!systems!dominate!the!various!versions!of! his!Radiant!City!concept!of!the!1920s!and!30s.!!Frank!Lloyd!Wright!all!but! obliterated!the!modern!city!in!1932!when!he!proposed!“Broadacre!City,”!which! imagined!an!entirely!dispersed!network!of!individual,!privately!owned!homes!linked! together!by!superhighways!that!crisscrossed!the!nation.!!Progressive!urban!utopias! proposed!to!ameliorate!the!social!and!economic!hardships!that!accompanied!most! industrialized!cities,!but!they!differed!widely!in!their!strategies!for!doing!so.!! Howard,!Le!Corbusier,!and!Wright!all!proposed!the!wholesale!abandonment!of! existing!cities,!preferring!to!build!new!communities!tabula+rasa!rather!than!make! piecemeal!improvements.!!Howard!was!a!cooperative!socialist.!!Wright!was!a! staunch!individualist!and!disciple!of!Henry!George,!an!economist!that!proposed!to! eliminate!conflicts!between!labor!and!capital!through!universal!land!ownership.!! These!examples!constitute!only!a!few!of!the!urbanPplanning!visions!proposed!in!the! first!decades!of!the!twentieth!century,!but!their!plurality!demonstrates!the! competing,!even!contradictory,!priorities!and!reforms!endorsed!by!urban! planners.226! Perkins!alternatively!rejected,!endorsed,!and!modified!various!progressive! planning!strategies!in!his!Metropolitan+Park+System!according!to!his!flexible! principles.!!First,!Perkins!was!a!realist.!!The!point!of!departure!for!his!plan!was!the! present!reality!of!Chicago!in!1904!–!the!existing!parks,!schools,!settlements,! transportation!systems,!population!densities,!mortality!and!crimes!rates!–!in! contrast!to!many!visionaries!who!proposed!utopian!schemes!for!future!cities.!!He! substantiated!his!proposal!with!statistical!data!and!graphic!mapping,!an!approach! informed!by!the!social!sciences!and!his!involvement!with!Hull!House.!!DataPmapping! techniques,!in!fact,!became!his!key!urbanPplanning!strategy.!!His!proposed! improvements!were,!for!the!most!part,!modest!and!feasible:!an!expansion!of!Lincoln! Park,!the!construction!of!small,!neighborhood!playgrounds,!and!the!acquisition!of! unsettled!land!outside!the!city!to!serve!as!a!forest!preserve.!!Perkins!was,!in!short,!a! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 226 For a detailed comparison see Robert Fishman, Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century: Ebenezer Howard, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Le Corbusier (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1994). pragmatist!when!it!came!to!urban!planning.!!He!arguably!sacrificed!vision!for! gradual!change!with!this!approach,!but!his!discreet!interventions!had!the!advantage! of!being!practicable!and!realizable.!!! Perhaps!unsurprisingly!given!his!contingent!view!of!progress,!Perkins! worked!within!the!existing!political!system!to!advance!his!ideas.!!He!was!a!member! of!the!Special!Park!Commission!and!chairman!of!the!Playground!Committee,!and!so! he!devised!his!urban!plan!as!a!municipal!employee.!!He!also!worked!collaboratively,! directly!in!partnership!with!Jens!Jensen!and!more!broadly!with!the!entire!Special! Park!Commission.!!Comparative!radicals!such!as!Wright!and!Howard!operated! alone,!outside!the!system,!and!proposed!sweeping!economic!and!political! restructurings!of!society.!!As!a!civil!servant,!Perkins!resisted!the!political!corruption! then!rampant!in!Chicago!and!lobbied!for!reforms!of!all!kinds,!but!he!had!faith!in!the! power!of!a!bureaucratic!government!led!by!benevolent!experts!to!improve!society.!! Disease!prevention,!hygiene,!and!physical!fitness!were!his!overriding!concerns,!and! so!public!health!interests,!more!than!political!economy,!drove!his!proposals.!! Perkins!also!revealed!himself!to!be!an!early!environmentalist,!as!the!most!ambitious! aspect!of!his!Metropolitan+Park+System!was!the!preservation!of!thousands!of!acres!of! native!prairie!forest!outside!Chicago.!!This!chapter!probes!the!substance!of!Perkins’s! “practical!utopia”!for!Chicago,!a!vision!both!feasible!and!capable!of!transformative! results,!demonstrating!something!of!the!multiple!progressive!agendas!that!informed! municipal!reform!at!the!turn!of!the!century!but!also!pinpointing!some!fixed! reference!points!that!guided!Perkins!and!his!milieu.! ! Planning!for!the!Plan:!Early!Urban!Reform!Efforts! Perkins!had!been!engaged!with!urban!reform!since!1897!when!he!and! Zueblin!coPfounded!the!Municipal!Science!Club,!an!organization!that!united! businessmen,!community!leaders,!and!settlement!workers!for!the!purpose!of! identifying!and!resolving!pressing!urban!problems.!!Perkins!and!Zueblin!believed! that!the!dearth!of!accessible!park!space!in!Chicago!was!a!major!shortcoming!for!the! city.227!!State!legislation!had!established!a!park!system!in!1869!comprised!of!three! districts!that!operated!autonomously:!the!Lincoln!Park!Commission,!the!West!Park! Commission,!and!the!South!Park!Commission.!!The!parks!established!by!each! commission,!when!taken!together,!formed!an!impressive!chain!of!parks!and! connecting!boulevards!that!encircled!Chicago.!!However,!most!of!these!verdant! commons!were!on!the!outskirts!of!the!city,!which!left!the!majority!of!neighborhoods! inside!the!perimeter!virtually!devoid!of!park!space!(Figure!3.2).228!Their!outlying! locations!inadvertently!restricted!park!access!to!affluent!people!with!enough!leisure! time!and!money!to!travel!to!them!by!private!vehicle.!!Zueblin!summarized!the! problem!in!the!American+Journal+of+Sociology:!“A!city!of!a!million!and!half! inhabitants,!under!present!conditions,!always!contains!a!large!mass!of!overworked,! underpaid,!and!densely!crowded!people.!!This!class!can!rarely,!if!ever,!visit!the! distant!parks.”229!!! Perkins!and!the!Municipal!Science!Club!engaged!in!various!public!relation! events!and!political!lobbying!efforts!in!order!to!raise!public!awareness!about!the! alarming!social!ramifications!of!Chicago’s!inequitable!park!distribution.!!The!Club! invited!Jacob!Riis!to!lecture!about!park!reform!at!Hull!House!in!1898.!!Riis!was!a! muckraking!photojournalist!and!public!speaker!who!had!captured!national! attention!in!1889!with!his!photographic!essay!How+the+Other+Half+Lives.230 !!He!used! slides!to!illustrate!his!lectures,!which!helped!him!make!visually!compelling! arguments!about!the!perils!of!urban!life,!in!part!because!he!pioneered!the!use!of! flash!photography.!!By!igniting!magnesium!powder!in!portable!“frying!pans,”!Riis! could!shoot!pictures!inside!windowless!tenements!and!work!in!the!grimmest!slums! throughout!the!night,!helping!him!capture!the!most!impoverished,!desperate,!and! even!criminal!city!dwellers!on!film.!!His!powerful!photographs,!compared!to! drawings,!were!arguably!objective!in!their!mechanical!creation,!and!they! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 227 Typescript of origins of Municipal Science Club. For personal correspondences between Zueblin and Perkins see Box III, Folder 7. Other members included George Sikes, George Hooker, and Edwin Winston. 228 Perkins, Metropolitan Park System, 24. The chain of parks included Lincoln Park, Humboldt Park, Garfield Park, Washington Park, and Jackson Park, the latter two designed by Frederick Law Olmsted. 229 Charles Zueblin, “Municipal Playgrounds in Chicago,” in The American Journal of Sociology 4, no. 2 (September 1898): 146. 230 Riis first published How the Other Half Lives in 1889 as an article in Scribner’s magazine, and he subsequently published it as a book by the same title in 1890. substantiated!his!vivid!verbal!descriptions!of!human!suffering.!!Perkins!recognized! that!such!techniques!were!an!effective!marketing!strategy!for!progressive!causes! because,!in!their!apparent!immediacy,!they!galvanized!public!support!for!social!and! urban!reforms!(Figure!3.3).!!He!later!marshaled!the!emotionally!compelling! possibilities!of!photography!to!promote!his!conservation!causes!when!compiling!his! Metropolitan+Park+System.!!!! Perkins!also!established!a!task!force!within!the!Municipal!Science!Club!called! the!Small!Parks!and!Playground!Subcommittee,!which!pressured!the!Chicago!City! Council!on!park!reform!beginning!in!1898.!!The!City!Council!finally!agreed!in!1901! to!organize!a!Special!Park!Commission!to!investigate!and!resolve!Chicago’s! shortcomings!regarding!recreation!spaces,!and!they!appointed!Perkins!and!Zueblin! founding!commissioners.231!!The!members!of!the!SPC!resembled!the!broad!coalition! of!the!Municipal!Science!Club!responsible!for!its!creation.!!Perkins!represented! architects;!Zueblin!represented!the!vacation!school!movement!and!playground! advocates;!Graham!Taylor!spoke!for!the!social!settlement!movement;!and!O.C.! Simonds!and!Jens!Jensen!represented!landscape!designers.!!Various!businessmen! and!philanthropists!such!as!Brian!Lathrop!and!Clarence!Buckingham!also!joined!the! Commission.!!Perkins!had!succeeded!in!attracting!diverse!interest!groups!to!his! cause,!which!enabled!him!to!elevate!park!improvement!from!a!private!concern!to!an! officially!sanctioned!and!publicly!funded!enterprise.! Perkins’s!first!assignment!as!an!SPC!delegate!was!to!conduct!a! comprehensive!study!of!Chicago’s!existing!park!and!playground!facilities!and! propose!solutions!to!whatever!deficits!he!identified.232!!He!collaborated!with!Jens! Jensen!on!the!exhaustive!project,!which!took!several!years!to!complete.!!!The!pair! divided!the!work!according!to!their!professional!expertise.!!Perkins!compiled!the! statistical!data,!wrote!the!text,!and!designed!proposed!additions!to!the!existing!park! system.!!Jensen!conducted!an!extensive!inventory!of!the!soil!and!vegetative! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 231 Perkins, Metropolitan Park System, 27. On Riis, see Benjamin McArthur, “The Chicago Playground Movement: A Neglected Feature of Social Justice,” in Social Service Review (September 1975): 380; and Robert E. Grese, Jens Jensen: Maker of Natural Parks and Gardens (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 43. 232 Perkins, Metropolitan Park System, 14. character!of!the!region,!which!he!documented!with!photographs!of!native!prairie! ecosystems!interspersed!throughout!the!proposal.!!They!completed!their! investigation!in!1904!and!published!it!as!the!Report+of+the+Special+Park+Commission+ to+the+City+Council+of+Chicago+on+the+Subject+of+a+Metropolitan+Park+System!in!1905.!! The!methodology!Perkins!employed!to!write!the!report!is!significant!because!it! reveals!the!degree!to!which!he!relied!on!techniques!appropriated!from!the!social! sciences.! ! Statistics,!Science,!and!Sociology:!Methods!of!the!Metropolitan+Park+System! When!Perkins!drafted!the!Metropolitan+Park+System,!he!borrowed!heavily! from!sociological!studies!previously!conducted!by!Zueblin,!and!his!appropriations! suggest!how!the!social!sciences!informed!the!direction!of!his!architectural!practice.!! In!his!introduction!to!the!plan,!Perkins!reported!that!Chicago!provided!only!one!acre! of!parkland!per!846!persons!in!1900,!statistical!data!that!Zueblin!had!already! published!in!his!book!American+Municipal+Progress!in!1902.!!This!figure!ranked! Chicago!in!thirtyPsecond!place!among!American!cities!with!a!population!over! 100,000,!a!serious!decline!from!the!secondPplace!rating!enjoyed!by!the!city!in!1870.!! By!comparison,!New!York!City!had!a!population!double!that!of!Chicago!and!provided! 497!acres!of!parkland!per!person.233 !!Perkins!also!compared!Chicago’s!park!system! to!others!around!the!North!Atlantic!economy.!!Small!black!and!white!maps! illustrated!how!abysmally!inadequate!Chicago!park!provisions!were!compared!to! the!park!systems!of!other!major,!international!cities,!such!as!London!and!Paris.!!The! feverish!competition!between!these!great!metropolises!clearly!did!not!stop!with! industrial!supremacy.!!Like!Perkins,!progressives!around!the!world!frequently! compared!their!achievements!in!the!realm!of!social!politics,!sharing!ideas!but!also! gauging!their!successes!and!shortcomings.234! Perkins!quoted!Zueblin!verbatim!when!he!argued!that!the!distribution!of! Chicago’s!parks!was!even!more!problematic!than!their!limited!number:!“The!way!in! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 233 Charles Zueblin, American Municipal Progress (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1902), 243 and 294; reprinted in Perkins, Metropolitan Park System, 36. 234 Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings, 44. which!one!part!of!the!city!is!favored!at!the!expense!of!another!may!be!best!indicated! by!observing!that!the!eleven!wards!which!contain!the!bulk!of!the!park!and! boulevard!system!include!1,814!acres!of!park!space,!the!population!being!about! 425,000;!this!means!234!people!to!each!acre!of!park!space.!!The!remaining!twentyP three!wards!of!the!city,!with!a!population!of!over!a!million,!contain!228!acres!of! park,!or!4,710!people!to!each!acre!of!park!space.”235!!The!uneven!distribution!of! park!spaces!meant!that!nearly!700,000!people!lived!more!than!one!mile!from!any! large!park,!Zueblin!concluded!and!Perkins!seconded.!!This!was!an!impractical! distance!for!most!workingPclass!people!given!their!limited!leisure!hours,!and!it!was! especially!unrealistic!for!small!children.236!!Perkins!argued!that!no!one!should!live! more!than!onePhalf!mile!from!a!park.237 ! If!such!data!presented!demoralizing!conditions,!Perkins!fortified!his!evidence! with!two!emerging!sociological!techniques!–!statistics!and!mapping!–!that!he! borrowed!from!Zueblin!and!Jane!Addams!(Figures!3.4!and!2.15).!!Perkins!created! five,!oversized!maps!combining!statistics!on!Chicago’s!population!density,!the!park! system,!the!transportation!system,!the!street!grid,!disease!outbreaks,!and!criminal! activity,!which!he!folded!into!the!back!of!the!Metropolitan+Park+System!proposal.!! Perkins!illustrated!his!solutions!to!Chicago’s!urban!crisis!in!the!first!map,!to!be! discussed!below,!while!the!subsequent!four!projections!assailed!readers!with! statistical!evidence!of!public!health!and!safety!problems!correlated!to!an! inadequate,!poorly!distributed!park!system.!!In!map!2,!for!example,!Perkins! superimposed!a!plan!of!the!existing!park!system!overtop!the!land!area!occupied!by! railroads!and!manufacturers!in!Chicago,!which!were!concentrated!along!the!river!to! the!north,!the!downtown!lakefront,!and!the!Union!Stockyards!to!the!south.!!The! comparison!demonstrated!that!Chicago’s!parks!were!a!considerable!distance!from! most!innerPcity!industrial!wards!(Figure!3.5).!!In!map!3,!Perkins!overlaid!Chicago’s! relative!population!density!with!the!existing!park!and!boulevard!system,!most!of! which!bordered!areas!of!low!population!density!(0P75!persons!per!acre).!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 235 Zueblin, “Municipal Playgrounds in Chicago,” 147-148; and Perkins, Metropolitan Park System, 36. 236 Zueblin, “Municipal Playgrounds in Chicago,” 146. 237 Perkins, Metropolitan Park System, 59-60. Overcrowded!districts!were!furthest!from!any!greenswards!or!parkways,!making!it! clear!that!the!underprivileged!people!living!in!those!ghettos!had!the!least!park! access!(Figure!3.6).!!His!fourth!projection!rendered!this!inequity!all!the!more!vexing! by!charting!relative!rates!of!mortality,!infant!mortality,!diphtheria,!typhoid,!and! juvenile!crime,!all!rising!and!all!concentrated!in!those!same!overcrowded,!industrial! wards!(Figure!3.7).!!In!his!fifth!map,!Perkins!projected!school!playgrounds,!overtop! the!existing!park!system!again,!and!assigned!quality!ratings!to!the!former,!which! made!obvious!the!depressing!fact!that!the!majority!of!playgrounds!in!manufacturing! neighborhoods!were!nonPexistent!or!substandard.!!A!superimposed!diagram!of! railroad!lines!exacerbated!the!“playground!problem”!since!it!demonstrated!that! existing!train!routes!did!not,!for!the!most!part,!go!to!the!outlying!parks!(Figure!3.8).! Taken!together,!the!various!projections!and!charts!rendered!the!conclusions! of!Perkins’s!investigation!graphically!undeniable:!Chicago’s!manufacturing!districts! were!the!most!crowded,!the!poorest,!and!had!the!highest!rates!of!mortality,!disease,! and!crime!in!the!city.!!These!neglected!wards!were!also!the!furthest!away!from!any! of!the!existing!parks.!!As!far!as!Perkins!was!concerned,!the!correlation!between!park! space!and!such!vexing!social!problems!was!unquestionable,!as!was!the!solution:! The!facts!relating!to!overcrowding,!high!rate!of!mortality,!infectious!disease,! juvenile!crime!and!delinquency!and!the!utter!absence!of!park!or!playground! facilities!are!shown!by!Maps!2,!3,!and!4…It!is!unnecessary!to!point!out!the! startling!coincidence!in!the!areas!where!such!conditions!are!prevalent.!!It!is! also!impossible!to!avoid!the!conclusion!that!parks!and!playgrounds!must!be! established!in!the!midst!of!such!areas!and!that!immediately!and!regardless!of! expense.238! ! Nowhere!else,!in!all!his!writings,!would!Perkins!so!clearly!express!his!belief! in!environmental!determinism.!!He!understood!that!parks!and!playgrounds!were! not!solely!responsible!for!lower!crime!and!disease!rates!reported!in!middleP!and! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 238 Perkins, Metropolitan Park System, 54-55. The association of juvenile crime with biological diseases should be noted, the implication being that delinquency was a sort of moral pathology that could be cured through physical intervention. upperPmiddlePclass!neighborhoods.!!Chicago!only!had!a!handful!of!playgrounds!in! 1904,!mostly!adjacent!to!settlement!houses,!so!they!were!hardly!a!widespread! amenity!enjoyed!by!either!affluent!or!poor!families.!!Nor!could!greenswards!and! jungle!gyms!entirely!prevent!malfeasance,!illness,!or!death!in!poor!neighborhoods.!! But!Perkins!firmly!believed!that!places!and!programs!could!encourage!or!discourage! certain!kinds!of!behavior.!!His!faith!in!the!ability!of!environments!to!affect!people,! and!vice!versa,!drove!his!architecture!practice.!!He!exploited!the!concise,!objective! character!of!statistics!and!dataPmaps!to!help!him!convince!a!skeptical!City!Council! that!they!desperately!needed!to!build!parks!and!playgrounds!in!Chicago’s!industrial! ghettos!for!the!health!and!safety!of!the!public.! ! Perkins!presented!the!City!Council!with!a!fourPpronged!solution!that!would! greatly!expand!park!access!for!all!Chicagoans,!which!he!illustrated!in!a!boldly! colored!map,!the!first!projection!of!the!series!(Figure!3.1).!!Perkins!divided!the! metropolitan!area!into!four!zones.!!The!first!zone!encompassed!the!overcrowded,! industrial!sectors!of!the!inner!city,!where!he!prescribed!the!creation!of!numerous! small!parks!and!playgrounds!to!be!located!on!vacant!lots!or!slumPcleared!land.!!Zone! 2!included!the!original!1869!park!system!that!circumscribed!the!deteriorating! downtown!slums,!which!Perkins!argued!should!be!enlarged.!!With!this!part!of!his! proposal,!Perkins!basically!affirmed!expansion!work!that!had!already!been!in! progress!at!Lincoln!and!Grant!Parks!since!the!1890s.!!Zone!3!surrounded!the! original!park!chain,!extending!beyond!Chicago’s!city!limits!to!the!northern!boundary! of!Cook!County,!west!almost!to!the!Des!Plaines!River,!and!south!to!the!Calumet! River.!!Here!Perkins!recommended!the!acquisition!of!1,000!acres!of!additional!small! parklands!and!a!large!tract!of!8,300!acres!called!Skokie!Park.!!Lastly,!Perkins! envisioned!a!vast!forest!preserve!that!encircled!the!first!three!zones!and!operated!as! a!greenbelt!containing!the!city.!!This!fourth!zone!originated!with!Lake!Michigan!and! the!northern!county!line,!extended!south!along!either!bank!of!the!Des!Plaines!River,! veering!further!west!to!encompass!Salt!and!Flag!Creeks,!and!terminated!at!Lake! Calumet!on!the!south!side.!!Here,!native!forests!still!grew!in!the!nutrientPrich!soil!of! riverbanks!and!primitive!beaches!left!behind!by!a!receding!Lake!Michigan.!!A! topographical!highlight!of!the!region!included!a!7,000Pacre!hilly!area!to!the! southwest,!the!highest!land!in!the!Chicago!vicinity.239!!Much!of!this!land!was!still! unsettled,!and!Perkins!hoped!to!preserve!this!native!prairie!environment!from!the! onslaught!of!advancing!urban!civilization.!!!!! In!crafting!such!an!ambitious!and!geographically!widespread!park!system,! one!might!even!say!a!regional!plan,!Perkins!was!reasonably!in!danger!of!repeating! the!errors!committed!by!the!original!park!commissioners:!namely,!constructing! distant!and!thus!inaccessible!parks.!!However,!Perkins!argued!that!previous! planners!were!not!visionary!enough!and!accused!them!of!utterly!lacking!confidence! in!Chicago’s!potential!for!growth.!!Their!shortsightedness,!he!claimed,!had!resulted! in!overcrowded!transportation!facilities!that!by!1900!encumbered!rather!than! facilitated!travel;!drainage!canals!so!obstructed!that!millions!of!tons!of!water!were! diverted!from!the!Chicago!River!causing!shortages;!and!a!central!business!district! choking!on!its!own!pollution!and!congestion,!having!no!radial!arteries!or!open! spaces!(Figure!3.9).!!Taken!together,!such!problems!represented!an!“enormous! waste!of!treasure,!time!and!human!life”!according!to!Perkins,!oversights!he!was! determined!to!avoid!in!the!park!system.240!!! Perkins!recited!the!usual!attributes!credited!to!Chicago!as!evidence!of!the! city’s!imminent!population!explosion:!its!proximity!to!the!agrarian!hinterlands,!its! location!on!the!inland!seas,!and!its!status!as!a!railroad!hub!and!center!of! manufacturing!and!commerce!all!portended!a!prosperous!future.!!Unsatisfied!with! such!circumstantial!evidence,!however,!Perkins!fortified!his!anecdotal!testimony! with!numerical!projections!culled!from!the!Arnold!Traction!Report!in!order!to! precisely!estimate!Chicago’s!future!growth!on!a!“mathematical!and!scientific!basis.”!! A!ChicagoPbased!engineer!named!Bion!J.!Arnold!calculated!the!city’s!population! expansion!at!7.2%!per!year,!a!percent!increase!derived!from!1902!population! averages.!!A!statistical!prediction!based!purely!on!historical!data!without!including! future!variables!is!clearly!fallacious,!but!Arnold’s!formula!lent!scientific!legitimacy! to!Chicago’s!expansionist!dreams!and!gained!him!respect!as!a!consultant!on! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 239 Perkins, Metropolitan Park System, 59-63 and maps; and Grese, Jens Jensen. 67. 240 Perkins, Metropolitan Park System, 55-6. numerous!municipalPplanning!initiatives.241!!Starting!from!Arnold’s!prognosis,! Perkins!“conservatively”!figured!a!5%!growth!rate!for!Chicago.!!According!to!this! measure,!Chicago’s!population!would!be!five!million!by!1952,!spiraling!to!ten! million!if!populations!outside!the!city!limits!were!included.!!Perkins!argued!that!the! “science!of!cities!is!now!so!generally!understood!that!citizens!of!Chicago!cannot! plead!ignorance!as!an!excuse!for!neglect!to!provide!for!the!needs!of!the!future.”!!He! insisted!that!land!for!nature!preserves!and!outlying!pleasure!grounds!be!purchased! immediately!for!“citizens!of!the!future!city”!before!settlers!and!speculators!drove!up! real!estate!values,!destroyed!the!forests,!or!otherwise!interrupted!the!continuity!of! his!plan.242!!Such!outlandish!population!projections!seem!preposterous!today!–! Chicago’s!population!did!peak!around!1952!but!at!approximately!3.6!million!before! declining!precipitously.243!!Nevertheless,!the!scope!of!Perkins’s!vision!reflected!his! faith!in!the!benefits!derived!from!comprehensive!urban!planning,!and!the!fact!that! he!relied!on!quantifiable!data!to!supplement!the!usual!boosterism!of!Chicago’s! apologists!suggested!a!certain!confidence!in!expertise,!the!social!sciences,!and! statistics.!!! ! Chicago’s!Plans:!Perkins,!Burnham,!and!Jensen! Perkins!was!not!the!only!designer!to!imagine!alternative!futures!for!Chicago! in!the!opening!years!of!the!twentieth!century.!!Both!his!former!employer!Daniel! Burnham!and!his!colleague!Jens!Jensen!responded!with!their!own!schemes!for! rationalizing!and!beautifying!the!city.!!At!times,!Burnham!and!Jensen!reiterated!and! elaborated!aspects!of!the!Metropolitan+Park+System,!but!they!also!challenged!and! reinterpreted!Perkins.!!The!similarities!and!differences!between!their!three!plans! illuminate!some!of!the!competing!contours!of!progressive!urban!planning!in!the! United!States,!which!was!rational!as!well!as!nostalgic!at!times,!statistically!grounded! some!moments!and!spiritually!driven!at!others.!!None!of!their!plans!were! implemented!immediately!or!in!their!entirety,!but!the!texture!provided!by!their! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 241 Perkins, Metropolitan Park System, 56-9; Carl Smith, The Plan of Chicago: Daniel Burnham and the Remaking of the American City (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2006), 35. 242 Perkins, Metropolitan Park System, 56-7, and 59. 243 Smith, Plan of Chicago, 35. comparison!sharpens!our!understanding!of!the!motives,!aspirations,!and! methodologies!that!guided!Perkins!in!his!quest!to!create!a!rational!and!humane! urban!environment!capable!of!restoring!democratic!social!organization.! Daniel!Burnham’s!1909!Plan+of+Chicago!is!the!best!known!of!the!three! schemes,!lauded!by!his!contemporaries!for!the!way!it!married!grandiose,! neoclassical!civic!monuments!with!spacious,!axial!boulevards!and!rationalized! transportation!systems!into!an!apparently!seamless!City!Beautiful!capable!of! relieving!congestion,!pollution,!and!uplifting!debased!urban!dwellers!(Figures!3.10P 3.12).244!!The!Chicago!Commercial!Club,!of!which!Burnham!himself!was!a!member,! commissioned!the!Plan+of+Chicago,!and,!perhaps!unsurprisingly,!it!emphasized!the! financial!gains!to!be!had!from!this!kind!of!beautification.!!Founded!in!1877,!the!club! limited!its!membership!to!an!elite!group!of!men!representing!a!range!of!commercial! interests.!!Most!members!were!top!executives!in!heavy!industry,!largePscale! wholesaling,!or!banking!and!finance,!and!qualification!for!election!to!the!club! included!what!their!official!history!called!“conspicuous!success.”!!Their!stated! mission!was!to!advance!prosperity!and!growth!in!Chicago.!!This!took!the!form!of! streamlining!the!locations!of!railway!passenger!terminals!and!freight!transfer! depots,!widening!existing!streets,!cutting!new!radial!arteries!through!downtown,! and!constructing!a!regional!highway!system!outside!the!city.!!The!Commercial!Club! intended!these!improvements!to!facilitate!movement!in!and!out!of!the!central! business!district,!the!“Heart!of!Chicago”!according!to!its!members!and!the!seat!of! their!prosperity.245!! The!Commercial!Club!concentrated!on!efficient!circulation!because! congestion!and!pollution!seriously!threatened!commercial!profits,!the!“engine!of! urban!vitality”!in!their!opinion.!!As!Perkins!had!pointed!out!in!1904,!Chicago’s! streets!were!literally!paralyzed!by!the!traffic!and!“smoke!nuisance”!that! accompanied!the!plethora!of!offices,!stores,!banks,!hotels,!theaters,!and!terminals,!all! competing!for!space!in!a!highPdensity,!highPlandPvalue!area.!!Improving! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 244 See Daniel Burnham and Edward H. Bennett, Plan of Chicago, prepared under the direction of the Commercial Club during the years 1906, 1907, and 1908, ed. Charles Moore (Chicago: The Commercial Club 1909). 245 Smith, Plan of Chicago, 86-7. transportation,!traffic!flow,!and!“general!convenience”!would!increase!profits,! bolster!credit,!lift!property!values,!and!stimulate!the!production!of!even!more! wealth.!!“Good!order!was!essential!to!material!advancement,”!the!club!claimed.246!! Creating!a!convenient,!rationally!planned!and!sanitary!city!was!congruent!with!the! profit!motives!of!Commercial!Club!members.247!! The!attention!Burnham!paid!to!commercial!revenue!is!striking!compared!to! Perkins’s!emphasis!on!public!health!and!safety.!!Profit!mongering!has!been!the!most! common!criticism!of!Burnham’s!plan,!expounded!since!it!first!appeared,!namely,! that!it!prioritized!financial!conditions!over!living!and!working!conditions!and!by! extension,!the!upper!class!over!the!poor.!!The!Plan!commissioners!presented! themselves!as!“disinterested!men!of!wide!experience,”!a!selfPappointed,!benevolent! elite!qualified!by!their!executive!sophistication!to!transform!the!metropolis!through! largePscale,!infrastructural!projects.!!Burnham!insisted!that!the!Plan!“conceals!no! private!purpose,!no!hidden!ends,”!but!only!a!“determination!to!bring!about!the!best! conditions!of!city!life!for!all!the!people.”248!To!this!end,!he!included!public!museums,! libraries,!and!parks!in!his!scheme,!even!incorporating!the!outerPbelt!park!system! proposed!by!Perkins!in!1904.249!!He!admonished!laissezPfaire!capitalism,!once! responsible!for!Chicago’s!spectacular!growth!and!a!system!with!which!the! Commercial!Club!likely!sympathized,!for!creating!the!begrimed,!overcrowded! ghettos!that!vitiated!the!urban!fabric.!!Speculative!realPestate!agents!and! unscrupulous!builders!received!a!lashing!for!prioritizing!personal!gain!over!public! health.!!He!supported!eminent!domain!procedures!when!necessary!to!widen!streets,! eradicate!sanitation!dangers,!or!otherwise!improve!living!and!working! conditions.250!!Yet,!as!progressive!as!these!improvement!measures!and!attitudes! sound,!they!still!come!across!in!the!Plan!as!auspicious!byPproducts!of!increased! commercial!profits.!!Burnham!argued!that!public!amenities!were!necessary!to! attract!and!retain!the!massive!labor!force!required!to!power!Chicago’s!industries,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 246 Ibid., 35. 247 Ibid., 95. 248 Ibid., 95. 249 Burnham, Plan of Chicago, pp. 43-44. Burnham paraphrased many of the suggestions made by Perkins in the Metropolitan Park System, and he directly credits Perkins in a footnote. 250 Ibid., 99-101. manpower!which,!of!course,!also!generated!handsome!profits!for!business! magnates.251!!!Regulation,!while!desperately!needed,!also!operated!as!a!stopgap!to! prevent!public!takeover!of!housing!and!industrial!markets.!!The!Plan!preserved,! albeit!in!slightly!diminished!capacity,!the!private!interests!of!the!Commercial!Club.! In!some!ways,!Perkins!differed!only!in!degree!from!Burnham,!and!similar! paradoxes!characterized!the!Municipal!Science!Club.!!Club!members!were!a! homogeneous!group,!mostly!nativePborn,!college!educated,!and!affluent,!though! “conspicuous!success”!was!not!a!criterion!of!membership.!!They!too!considered! themselves!expert!caretakers!of!the!common!good.!!The!Municipal!Science!Club,! however,!was!more!strongly!aligned!with!the!settlement!movement!and!with! sociology!than!with!private!capital,!even!though!some!businessmen!and!rich! philanthropists!counted!among!them.!!Perkins!and!Zueblin!were!affiliated!with! numerous!social!settlements,!as!well!as!the!Department!of!Sociology!at!the! University!of!Chicago.!!Other!members!included!the!Pond!brothers,!unofficial! architects!to!the!settlement!community,!and!several!Hull!House!residents.!!Women! also!figured!more!prominently!in!the!Municipal!Science!Club,!including!both! Perkins’s!and!Zueblin’s!wives,!whereas!the!Commercial!Club!was!comprised!entirely! of!men.252!!Since!women!played!a!leading!role!in!the!settlement!movement,!their! involvement!with!the!Club!is!perhaps!to!be!expected,!but!it!also!suggests!the!catholic! beliefs!of!the!Club!with!regard!to!gender!politics.!!!!!! As!an!organization,!the!Municipal!Science!Club!attempted!to!work!within!the! existing!political!system.!!The!Club!originated!as!a!private,!civic!association!not! unlike!the!Commercial!Club,!but!Perkins,!Zueblin,!and!other!Municipal!Club! members!worked!closely!with!Alderman!William!S.!Jackson!to!present!their! resolutions!directly!to!the!Chicago!City!Council.!!Their!cooperative!efforts! transformed!the!Club!into!a!governmentPsanctioned!enterprise,!the!Special!Park! Commission.253!!Many!reformers!from!the!private!club!counted!as!original! appointees!to!the!SPC,!including!Perkins!and!Zueblin.!!In!effect,!the!Municipal! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 251 Burnham, Plan of Chicago, 45-50; Smith, Plan of Chicago, 52. 252 Typescript of the Origins of the Municipal Science Club. 253 Typescript of the Origins of the Municipal Science Club; and Perkins, Metropolitan Park System, 27. Science!Club!became!officially!and!publicly!consecrated!with!the!formation!of!the! SPC.!!Perkins!and!Jensen!were!working!as!civil!servants!under!the!auspices!of!the! municipal!government!when!they!authored!their!ambitious!park!system!between! 1901!and!1904.! !! The!Chicago!Commercial!Club!forged!a!new!kind!of!alliance!when!they! commissioned!Burnham!to!redesign!Chicago,!one!where!citizens!operated! autonomously!from!the!government!for!the!purpose!of!making!comprehensive! changes!to!a!major!city.254!!The!private!sector!entirely!financed!and!manned!the! Plan,!so!its!commissioners!operated!independently!from!the!public!realm.!!They! claimed!their!outsider!status!helped!them!combat!the!widespread!political! corruption!then!crippling!Chicago’s!municipal!government!and!impeding!reform! efforts.!!The!Plan!commissioners!were!arguably!“disinterested”!because!of!their! independence!from!the!crooked!public!sector,!and!they!used!their!considerable! financial!resources!and!social!clout!to!pressure!public!officials!into!making! changes.255!!In!waging!a!sort!of!guerilla!war!against!the!municipal!government,!the! Commercial!Club!could!present!itself!as!a!vanguard!of!much!needed!political!reform.!!!! That!Perkins,!Jensen,!and!Zueblin!were!public!servants!is!not!to!say!they! were!complicit!in!the!unethical!political!climate!of!Chicago.!!They!fought! vociferously!against!municipal!corruption.!!Perkins!made!clear!the!impartial!and! active!political!role!designers!should!play!when!he!wrote,!“it!is!the!duty!of!architects! to!enter!politics!and!take!an!active,!selfPforgetting!part!in!public!affairs.”256!Perkins! refused!to!participate!in!corrupt!kickbacks!while!he!was!architect!to!the!Chicago! School!Board,!which!ultimately!cost!him!his!appointment.!!Jensen!published!articles! admonishing!politically!motivated!park!appointments!and!holding!such! unscrupulous!favoritism!responsible!for!Chicago’s!deteriorating!park!system.!!He! too!refused!to!accept!political!graft,!prompting!the!West!Park!Commission!to!fire! him!as!superintendent.!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 254 Smith, Plan of Chicago, 71. 255 Ibid., 49-52. 256 Dwight Perkins, “Is Architecture a Living Art?” Inland Architect and News Record 29, no. 4: 35-36; and Davis, “Dwight Heald Perkins,” in Thresholds: 27.  Perkins!and!Burnham!made!use!of!opposing!financial!and!political!strategies,! private!versus!public,!for!advancing!their!municipal!reforms,!suggesting!some!of!the! multiplicities!of!the!progressive!movement.!!Burnham!and!the!Commercial!Club! clearly!preferred!to!tap!private!individuals!and!private!capital!to!change!society.!! Their!distrust!of!the!masses!and!the!public!sector!could!be!interpreted!as!an!elitist,! patronizing!approach!to!reform,!regardless!of!their!selfPstyled!image!as! disinterested!benefactors.!!Perkins’s!willingness!to!work!for!change!as!a!public! servant!suggests!a!certain!faith!in!large,!bureaucratic!governments!staffed!by! professional!experts!to!provide!for!the!common!good,!though!“expert”!direction!still,! on!some!level,!marginalized!everyday!people.!!In!short,!progressive!reform!in! Chicago,!or!anywhere,!was!by!no!means!a!unified!movement.!!It!was!comprised!of! multiple,!fragmented,!overlapping,!and!at!times!competing!agendas,!which!renders! any!neat!classification!of!its!aims!and!motives!difficult.!!! Perkins!and!Burnham!chose!to!illustrate!their!plans!with!considerably! different!graphic!content,!which!further!reinforced!their!inimical!reform!strategies.!! Burnham’s!Plan!was!more!visually!seductive.!!He!spared!no!expense!hiring!seven! gifted!artists!–!the!most!talented!being!Jules!Guerin!and!Fernand!Janin!–!to!prepare! drawings!for!the!Plan,!because!he!was!convinced!that!compelling!illustrations!were! vital!for!persuading!wealthy!Chicagoans!to!endorse!his!proposals.!!He!even! volunteered!$10,000!of!personal!money!towards!the!expense!of!printing!the!color! illustrations.!!The!artistic!team!chose!a!subdued!color!palette!of!pastel!beiges!and! blues!juxtaposed!with!deep!violets!and!browns.!!Their!illustrations!plied!viewers! with!fantasies!of!a!unified,!neoclassical!cityscape!punctuated!by!uncluttered,!axial! thoroughfares,!grand!civic!centers,!and!formal!gardens!and!plazas.!!Many!of!the! illustrations!are!drawn!from!an!aerial!perspective!so!elevated!that!the!strolling! pedestrians!pictured!look!more!like!swarming!ants!than!men,!bestial!and! locomotive!traffic!all!but!disappears,!and,!as!historian!Carl!Smith!has!noted,!the! curvature!of!the!earth!is!even!visible.257 !!The!effect!is!ethereal,!which!as!a! conversion!tactic!successfully!enlisted!readers!to!Burnham’s!cause!but!as!a!design!is! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 257 Smith, Plan of Chicago, 74, 90-1. more!suggestive!than!definitive.!!The!illustrations!operate!autonomously!as!art! objects!first!and!planning!documents!second,!a!characterization!born!out!by!the!way! in!which!the!Plan!was!published:!each!copy!was!individually!numbered!as!part!of!a! “deluxe!limited!special!edition”!akin!to!a!fine!art!publication,!which!rewarded! subscribers!whose!payments!funded!the!plan.258!!!!! Perkins!abandoned!academic,!pictorial!rendering!in!favor!of!dataPmapping! techniques,!which!shifted!the!focus!of!his!plan!away!from!utopian!idylls!of!a!future! Chicago!towards!the!social!realities!of!pestilence,!overcrowding,!and!delinquency! that!plagued!the!city!in!1904.!!His!choice!reveals!the!sociological!rather!than! commercial!or!artistic!program!underlying!his!plan.!!Perkins!appropriated!the! methodology!of!mapping!demographic!data!against!population!density!from!his! colleagues!Zueblin!and!Addams,!which!allowed!him!to!succinctly!present!complex! arguments!correlating!overcrowding,!disease!transmission,!mortality,!and!crime! rates!to!a!lack!of!park!spaces.!!His!maps!and!tables!assaulted!readers!with!grim! percentages!that!broadcast!in!mathematical!detail!the!wretched!quality!of!life! endured!by!many!Chicagoans.!!The!predominance!of!projections!and!charts!make! clear!that!these!people!and!these!problems!are!the!raison+d’être!of!his!plan.!!To!be! fair,!Burnham!condemned!the!degrading!effects!of!slum!living!in!his!text,!but!the! filth,!poverty,!sickness,!and!crime!of!those!slums!is!utterly!missing!from!his! otherworldly,!pristine!illustrations.!It!could!be!argued!that!Perkins!was!equally! guilty!as!Burnham!of!propagating!a!dehumanized!city!by!quantifying!blighted!areas! in!percentage!terms!of!mortality!rates,!typhoid!numbers,!and!crime!levels.!!If! Burnham’s!Plan!reduced!people!to!undifferentiated!specks!decorating!a!vast! cityscape!in!its!aerial!vistas,!they!are!still!only!numbers!and!percentages!in!Perkins’s! maps.!DataPmapping!did!have!an!advantage!over!picturesque!rendering,!however,!in! that!allowed!Perkins!to!translate!subjective!human!suffering!into!a!calculable! science,!which!meant,!at!least!in!theory,!that!such!misery!could!be!solved!using! rational!means.!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 258 Ibid., 85, 94.  In!comparing!illustrative!material,!the!lack!of!attention!paid!by!Perkins!to! architecture!per+se,!specific!buildings!and!their!designs,!is!striking.!!There!are!no! drawings!of!architecture!–!the!city!is!rendered!in!purely!diagrammatic!terms.!!By! contrast,!one!of!the!most!remarkable!aspects!of!Burnham’s!Plan!was!that!his! architectural!projections!ignored!the!strides!Chicago!had!made!in!the!realm!of! modern!commercial!architecture,!much!of!which!Burnham!himself!designed.!!His! Plan!visually!reduced!Chicago’s!variegated!cityscape!to!a!uniform!fabric!that!served! mainly!as!a!backdrop!to!grand,!neoclassical!gestures,!such!as!museums,!libraries,! and!government!quarters.!!The!most!impressive!of!these!was!an!enormous!Civic! Center,!a!neoclassical,!domed!building!rising!over!forty!stories!and!depicted!in!an! elevation!that!unfolded!to!demonstrate!its!imposing!scale!relative!to!its! surroundings.!!Burnham!was!not!proposing!the!complete!destruction!of!Chicago’s! urban!fabric!–!the!imagery!is!intended!to!inspire!viewers,!not!to!offer!accurate! depictions!of!contemporary!Chicago!or!precise!blueprints!for!her!architectural! future.!!Nevertheless,!Burnham!was!clearly!preoccupied!with!architectural! representation.!!He!even!complimented!his!imagined!renderings!with!photographs! depicting!Parisian!BeauxPArts!buildings!interspersed!throughout!the!Plan.!!The! point!was!to!convince!readers!of!the!merits!of!neoclassical!design!as!an!urbanP reform!strategy!and!to!provide!examples!that!Chicago!architects!could!emulate.259!!!!!! Perkins!also!complemented!the!charts!and!maps!in!his!Metropolitan+Park+ System!with!photographs!taken!by!Jensen!of!undeveloped!prairie!ecosystems! surrounding!Chicago,!such!as!the!forests!lining!the!Des!Plaines!River!(Figure!3.13).!! Architecture!was!again!absent,!aside!from!the!occasional!squatter!shanty!or! dilapidated!warehouse,!usually!pictured!as!evidence!supporting!their!demolition.!! The!photographs!illustrate!the!wildlife!environs!that!Perkins!and!Jensen!proposed! to!transform!into!protected!nature!preserves.!!They!also!illustrate!Jensen’s! understanding!of!“plant!sociology,”!an!emerging!science!(and!telling!term)!later! called!plant!ecology.!!Botanist!Henry!C.!Cowles,!a!friend!of!Jensen!and!a!professor!at! the!University!of!Chicago,!pioneered!the!field!of!plant!sociology.!!He!studied!plants! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 259 Ibid., 91-4. as!“living!communities”!where!flora!coexisted!in!ecological!association!rather!than! as!individual!autonomous!organisms,!a!new!approach!to!studying!wildlife!at!the! time!and!one!that!informed!Jensen’s!thinking!about!the!use!of!native!plants!in! landscape!designs.!!Jensen!recalled!how!he!first!noticed!that!plants!fit!together,! aesthetically!and!biologically,!into!cooperative,!symbiotic!communities!of!“friends”! during!exploratory!walks!with!Cowles.!!The!photographs!Jensen!took!for!the! Metropolitan+Park+System!alternated!between!closePups!showing!specific!features!of! an!individual!species!and!widePrange!shots!capturing!the!entire!plant!and!its! associated!habitat.260!!Jensen!intended!his!images!to!encourage!the!preservation!of! Chicago’s!hinterlands.!!Moreover,!the!notion!that!plants!lived!in!mutually! cooperative,!harmonious!communities!as!“friends”!was!also!a!natural!metaphor!for! the!cooperative,!democratic!communities!that!he!and!Perkins!ultimately!hoped!to! foster!through!their!parks,!which!they!conceived!of!as!community!centers!not!just! pastoral!landscapes.!!! If!architectural!representation!played!a!leading!role!in!Burnham’s!plan,!it! seems!to!have!played!only!a!supporting!role,!or!arguably!no!role,!in!Perkins’s! Metropolitan+Park+System.!!One!obvious!explanation!for!Perkins’s!seeming! indifference!to!architectural!design!is!the!fact!that!his!metropolitan!plan!is!primarily! a!park!system,!whereas!Burnham’s!Plan!was!more!broadly!construed!to!include! redesigned!transportation!hubs,!civic!centers,!and!a!central!business!district!in! addition!to!parks.!!Perkins!was!more!concerned!with!nature!preserves,!parks,!and! playgrounds.!!As!outdoor!landscapes,!it!could!be!argued!that!such!spaces!did!not! need!design,!or!at!least!not!architectural!design.!!But!the!eight!buildings!Perkins! designed!during!his!tenure!with!the!Special!Park!Commission!and!the!Lincoln!Park! District!tell!us!that!he!was!not!indifferent!to!architectural!design.!!He!prioritized! sociological!experimentation!over!architectural!representation!when!he!emphasized! the!locations,!amenities,!and!abilities!of!parks!to!ameliorate!socioPurban!conditions! of!overcrowding,!poverty,!alienation,!and!disease.!!Perkins!viewed!architecture!as!a! site!for!social!experimentation!as!much!as!an!opportunity!for!aesthetic!display.! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 260 Grese, Jens Jensen, 52.  In!1920!Jensen!published!his!own!expansion!plan!for!Chicago!entitled!a! Greater+West+Park+System!(Figure!3.14).!!His!scheme!was!essentially!an!elaboration! and!building!out!of!Zone!3!proposed!by!Perkins!in!the!Metropolitan+Park+System,!but! notable!differences!and!similarities!between!their!two!approaches!throw!into!relief! various!planning!strategies!that!informed!Perkins.!!Both!Jensen!and!Perkins!were! firmly!committed!to!nature!conservation,!but!Jensen!paid!infinitely!more!attention! to!the!details!of!restoring!indigenous!environments!since!he!was!a!landscape! architect.!!He!painstakingly!identified!all!remaining!natural!topographical!features! on!Chicago’s!west!side,!and!these!surviving!terrains!determined!the!locations!of!his! proposed!park!additions.!!Perkins,!on!the!other!hand,!relied!on!statistical!data! regarding!disease!transmission!and!mortality!rates!to!determine!most!park! locations!because!he!believed!in!the!rationale!behind!the!social!sciences.!!! Perkins!strongly!supported!preserving!the!natural!forests!outside!Chicago,! and!he!lobbied!the!State!legislature!for!years!to!pass!conservation!laws.!!But!if! Perkins!concerned!himself!primarily!with!the!political!maneuvering!required!to! protect!native!countryside!from!development,!Jensen!emphasized!the!botanical! strategies!necessary!to!preserve!them.!!Jensen!argued,!for!example,!that!the!best! way!to!restore!spoiled!river!landscapes!was!to!plant!species!once!plentiful!along! naturally!occurring!prairie!waterways,!such!as!soft!maples,!elms,!linden,!water!lilies,! and!the!Hibiscus+Militaris.!!Cultivating!indigenous!landscapes!was!both!patriotic!and! practical!according!to!Jensen.!!He!believed!that!native!terrains!could!inspire!a! national!and!regional!conscience!among!diverse!American!citizens:!“Things!in!our! native!landscape…they!weave!themselves!into!a!national!conscience!well!worth! while.!!Our!native!landscape!is!too!rich!and!grand!to!permit!of!its!extinction.!!It!one! of!the!great!treasures!out!of!which!MidPAmerica!will!develop!a!culture!of!its!own.”261 !! Indigenous!plantings!were!also!cheaper!and!more!sustainable.!!So!Jensen!supported! reforestation!efforts!in!areas!with!gravelly!or!sandy!soil,!such!as!along!river!bluffs!or! ancient!lake!beaches,!because!these!soils!had!good!drainage!for!trees.!!He!opposed! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 261 Jens Jensen, A Greater West Park System (Chicago: West Chicago Park Commissioners, 1920), 39. importing!trees!into!parks!created!from!barren!prairie,!because!they!quickly!died!in! the!wet!clay!and!had!to!be!replaced.262!!! Jensen,!like!Perkins,!usually!endorsed!practicable!improvements!and! believed!in!the!power!of!gradual!changes!to!ultimately!yield!transformative!results.!! One!of!the!most!pragmatic!proposals!in!his!Greater+West+Park+System!simply!called! for!landscaping!Chicago’s!existing!“checker!board”!street!grid!in!order!to!cultivate! public!respect!for!neatness,!cleanliness,!and!beauty.!!Jensen!imagined!small!gardens! placed!at!every!intersection!so!as!to!relieve!the!monotony!of!the!endless!street!line! (Figure!3.15).!!Parkways!and!gardens!planted!with!irregularly!spaced!trees!and! bushes!further!counteracted!the!unrelenting!geometry!of!existing!thoroughfares,!as! did!artistically!spaced!fountains,!sculptures,!and!benches.263!!Such!discreet! interventions!were!much!more!affordable!and!realistic!than!the!sweeping,!axial! boulevards!that!Burnham!imagined!slicing!through!Chicago’s!urban!fabric.!!Jensen! acknowledged!that!such!cosmetic!solutions!would!not!entirely!solve!Chicago’s! problems,!but!he!believed!that!small!improvements!would!inspire!people!and! slowly!reform!the!entire!urban!and!social!environment:!“The!result!will!be!that!from! year!to!year!there!will!be!an!increase!in!the!number!of!those!who!will!appreciate!a! better!life!for!both!their!own!good!and!for!that!of!their!descendants.”264! Jensen!tended!to!romanticize!the!prairie!landscape!as!a!symbol!of!freedom,! selfPsufficiency,!and!American!exceptionalism!in!the!Greater+West+Park+System.!!The! West!Park!District!occupied!territory!that!bordered!sparsely!settled!prairie,!and! Jensen!hoped!his!proposed!parks!would!operate!as!staging!grounds!from!which! urbanites!could!survey!the!American!frontier!and!absorb!its!moral!lessons.!!“In! looking!over!great!stretches!of!prairie,!where!one!may!feel!the!force!of!the!west! wind!and!the!expanse!of!MidPAmerica,”!he!wrote,!“one!becomes!conscious!of!the! greatness!and!the!freedom!of!our!open!country…[T]here!is!nothing!written!by!man! that!can!compare!with!it!in!inspiration!as!one!of!the!principle!factors!in!building!a! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 262 Ibid., 19. 263 Ibid., 44. 264 Ibid., 57. noble!race.”265!!He!also!proposed!a!network!of!regularly!spaced!municipal!farms!and! kitchen!gardens,!where!he!imagined!that!the!urban!populace!could!participate!in!the! production,!sale,!and!consumption!of!their!own!food.!!These!community!gardens! contained!orderly!rows!of!vegetables,!cranberry,!blueberry,!and!currant!bushes!for! harvesting!fresh!provisions,!as!well!as!market!halls!and!service!buildings!for! processing!and!selling!them!(Figure!3.16).!!The!image!of!a!cultivated,!rationally! controlled!nature!that!Jensen!presented!at!the!community!farms!was!a!counterpoint! to!the!rugged!wilderness!he!imagined!to!exist!just!beyond!the!garden!walls.!!The! anachronism!of!amateur!farmers!absorbing!cultural!lessons!administered!by!the! frontier!suggests!Jensen’s!nostalgic!social!politics,!and!Perkins,!along!with!most!of! his!milieu,!rejected!such!sentimental!notions.!!Perkins!accepted!the!realities!of! industrialized!society!and!attempted!to!establish!sensible!institutions!for!managing! it.!! The!crown!jewel!of!Jensen’s!Greater+West+Park+System!was!a!neighborhood! center!called!Lloyd!Center,!which!recapitulated!and!elaborated!on!the!districted! urbanPplanning!model!espoused!by!Perkins,!Stead,!Taylor,!and!many!other! progressives.!!Lloyd!Center!was!the!nucleus!of!its!neighborhood.!!It!contained!a! school!and!a!multipurpose!community!building,!which!housed!a!library,!an!art! gallery,!a!theater!for!dramatic!performances,!a!gymnasium,!and!an!assortment!of! meeting!rooms.!!Expansive!grounds!surrounded!the!building!complex!and!contained! a!naturally!landscaped!bathing!pool,!a!kindergarten!playground!with!sand!pits,! athletic!fields!for!team!sports,!and!school!gardens!(Figure!3.17).!!Jensen!had!a!flair! for!the!dramatic,!and!he!incorporated!into!Lloyd!Center!a!plantation!of!large!trees!to! provide!some!“mysticism!of!the!forest,”!council!rings!and!fire!pits!for!outdoor! gatherings,!and!a!performance!space!called!“players!hill”!to!accommodate!music! concerts!and!theatrical!presentations.266!!His!fascination!with!creative!selfP expression,!play,!and!activePlearning!techniques!allied!him!with!progressive! educational!strategies!endorsed!by!Perkins,!Jane!Addams,!and!many!members!of!the! settlement!movement.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 265 Ibid., 27. 266 Ibid., 45.  Jensen!imagined!Lloyd!Center!functioning!in!conjunction!with!nearby!mixedP use!residential!and!commercial!blocks,!which!together!formed!a!selfPsustaining! village!in!the!Garden!City!tradition!(Figures!3.18!–!3.19).!!Jensen!criticized! unplanned!suburbanization!because!bedroom!communities!could!not!function! autonomously!as!selfPreliant!towns,!which!undermined!progressive!democratic! visions!because!it!discouraged!popular!social!exchange.!!Affluent!families!usually!led! the!suburban!exodus!in!an!attempt!to!escape!the!increasingly!repressive!urban! environment,!but!their!migration!only!amplified!class!stratifications!and! exacerbated!the!crisis!of!democracy.267!!Jensen!hoped!to!stem!“white!flight”!by! marrying!the!benefits!of!city!and!country!living.!!Each!block!approximated!in! microcosm!the!density!and!coherency!of!urban!neighborhoods,!because!they!were! mixedPuse!developments!and!because!Jensen!pushed!all!the!buildings!forward!to!the! street!front!(Figure!3.18).!!This!arrangement!produced!a!unified!street!line!and!left! the!interior!of!each!block!open!for!communal!parklands.!!Jensen!landscaped!these! interior!greenswards!in!a!picturesque!manner!with!irregularly!spaced!plantings! evocative!of!the!natural!countryside.!!Curving!drives!connected!the!parks!into!a! sequence!of!interior!landscapes.!!Lloyd!Center,!with!its!constituent!shops,!homes,! and!gardens,!effectively!recuperated!something!of!the!small,!New!England!village! ideal!(Figure!3.19).!!!!! Since!Jensen!considered!these!neighborhood!units!preeminently!democratic! in!scope,!“part!of!the!people,!intimate!in!its!relationship!to!them,”!Lloyd!Center! lacked!entrance!arches,!gateways,!or!other!symbols!of!exclusivity.!!Jensen!was! explicit!that!Lloyd!Center!had!no!“monumental!ambitions”!and!instead!was!“simple,! unpretentious,!and!intimate.”268!!Jensen’s!populist!attitude!mirrored!the!broadly! democratic!and!“grassroots”!mentality!of!many!progressives,!including!Perkins.!! Jensen!expressly!criticized!sweeping!and!elitist!approaches!to!urban!planning!in!the! Greater+West+Park+System:! A!better!architectural!and!livable!city!cannot!be!brought!about!by!grand! plans!that!are!instigated!from!above!and!thrust!upon!the!people!from! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 267 Ibid., 59. 268 Jensen, Greater West Park System, p. 48.  without;!it!must!come!from!within!and!must!grow!out!of!the!soul!of!the! people!themselves.!!An!ideal!democracy!is!not!striving!for!wealth!as!reflected! in!the!desire!for!monarchial!pomp!and!splendor,!or!as!expressed!in!false! standards!of!life;!its!aims!are!higher.!!It!stands!for!human!happiness;!its! slogan!is!truth.!!The!neighborhood!center!must!be!an!honest!expression!of! the!life!of!the!all!the!people.269! ! Perkins!and!Jensen!clearly!shared!an!affinity!for!the!neighborhood!center! urbanPplanning!paradigm!and!its!democratic!potential.!!Jensen!departed!from! Perkins,!however,!when!he!leveraged!the!community!center!as!a!means!of! recuperating!social!values!centered!on!private!home!ownership!and!contact!with! the!land.!!Jensen!argued!that!the!“spirit!of!the!neighborhood!center!group!should!be! to!create!a!love!for!the!home,!to!stimulate!a!desire!for!beautiful!home!environs,!and! to!discourage!tenement!and!apartmentPhouse!living.”270!!Private!gardens!were! integral!to!his!vision!because!he!believed!that!direct!contact!with!“Mother!Earth”! nurtured!the!body!and!soul.271!!Public!parks!were!temporary!stopgaps!to!combat! pollution,!congestion,!and!immorality,!but!they!were!only!the!first!phase!of!a!larger! urban!vision!according!to!Jensen:!“To!surround!each!home!with!a!garden!must!be! the!final!solution!to!urban!life.”272!!He!appropriated!the!architectural!vocabulary!of! the!home!into!his!representations!of!Lloyd!Center,!which!approximate!picturesque! houses!with!gabled!roofs!and!dormers.!!Jensen!even!insisted!that!private!land! ownership!was!the!basis!of!American!socioPpolitical!organization!when!he!claimed,! “To!own!a!bit!of!native!soil!is!the!backbone!and!the!security!of!our!democracy.”273!! Perkins,!on!the!other!hand,!embraced!metropolitan!life.!!He!focused!his!energies!on! reinvigorating!civic!spaces!rather!than!extending!private!land!ownership.!!Civic! spaces!were!inherently!public,!so!they!encouraged!democratic!exchange!across!class! lines!more!effectively!than!privately!owned!properties.! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 269 Ibid., 46. 270 Ibid., 47. 271 Ibid., 52. 272 Ibid., 58. 273 Ibid., 57. ! Shifting!Scales:!From!the!Neighborhood!to!the!Region! Perkins!staunchly!supported!municipal!improvements,!but!he!also!dedicated! a!significant!portion!of!his!career!to!preserving!natural!woodlands!that!surrounded! Chicago.!!Perkins!obviously!did!not!“design”!the!forest!preserves!in!the!conventional! sense!of!the!term,!but!nevertheless,!their!conservation!advanced!many!of!his! progressive!social!goals!and!also!required!adroit!political!maneuvering!on!his!part.!! His!son!Lawrence!Perkins,!also!an!architect!and!founding!partner!of!the!ChicagoP based!firm!Perkins!and!Will,!described!the!Forest!Preserves!as!his!father’s!greatest! passion,!his!“cause.”274!!The!project!literally!lasted!for!decades,!and!the!challenges,! successes,!and!failures!Perkins!encountered!while!rallying!public!support,! negotiating!between!competing!interest!groups,!and!lobbying!the!State!legislature! for!conservation!laws!epitomized!the!contingent,!democratic!practices!that!he! endorsed.! The!prairie!woodlands!occupied!substantial!territory!lining!the!Des!Plaines! River!and!the!ancient!beaches!of!Lake!Michigan,!as!Perkins!illustrated!in!Zone!4!of! his!Metropolitan+Park+System!(Figure!3.1).!!Perkins!worried!encroaching! development!would!destroy!this!rare!topography,!and!he!suggested!that!the!State! purchase!the!forests!before!realPestate!speculation!drove!up!land!prices!and! denuded!its!unique!ecology.!!Other!reformers!had!entertained!similar!ideas!before! him.!!Jensen!published!an!initial!conservation!scheme!for!the!forests!in!1903!called!a! “Proposed!System!of!Forest!Parks!and!Country!Pleasure!Roads.”!!He!had!extensively! botanized!the!region!with!his!friend!and!plant!ecologist!Cowles,!and!so!Jensen!was! especially!familiar!with!the!irreplaceable!geography,!flora,!and!fauna!of!the! woodlands.275!!In!1904!the!Chicago!City!Council!formed!an!“Outer!Belt!Commission”! to!investigate!the!concept,!though!it!took!until!the!1920s!to!purchase!the!land.276!!An! emerging!environmentalism!gripped!much!of!the!nation!by!the!late!nineteenth! century!as!reformers,!politicians,!and!nature!lovers!alike!realized!that!the!seemingly! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 274 Lawrence B. Perkins, “Personal Note,” introduction to Davis, Social Consciousness and Prairie School Architecture, 3. 275 Grese, Jens Jensen, 74. 276 Perkins, Metropolitan Park System. endless!American!frontier!had!closed.!!Since!at!least!the!eighteenth!century,!cultural! concepts!of!an!untamed!American!wilderness!had!fueled!national!identities! centered!on!rugged!pioneers,!selfPsufficiency,!and!individualism,!as!well!as!an! economic!and!political!policy!of!limitless!expansion.!!The!domestication!of!the! frontier!threatened!these!national!mythologies,!not!to!mention!profits!and!political! power,!and!helped!generate!a!conservation!movement!dedicating!to!salvaging!the! most!striking!fragments!remaining!of!America’s!landscape!as!national!parks.!! Perkins!was!sympathetic!to!this!cultural!shift!and!worked!to!advance!conservation! causes!at!the!local!and!state!levels!by!preserving!the!native!prairie!forests!around! Chicago.! Perkins!mobilized!conservation!as!an!urbanPplanning!strategy,!even!while!he! also!believed!in!the!restorative!powers!of!nature!and!genuinely!embraced!its! broadly!spiritual!dimension.!!The!woodlands!encircled!Chicago,!and!so!Perkins! viewed!their!unspoiled!landscape!as!a!potential!greenbelt!capable!of!curbing! rampant!suburbanization.!!But!the!region!signified!different!things!to!different! people,!and!various!interest!groups!presented!countless!rationales!in!favor!of! conserving!or!developing!the!woodlands,!transforming!it,!quite!literally,!into!a! contested!terrain.!!Perkins!was!a!member!of!a!local!organization!called!the!Prairie! Club!whose!members!argued!that!untouched!landscapes!offered!an!unparalleled! spiritual!and!physical!release!for!modern!urbanites!compared!to!the!“artificial! surroundings”!and!“conventional!environments”!of!city!parks.277!!Jensen!agreed,! adding!that!such!spiritual!nirvana!also!counteracted!the!materialism!of!modern! society.!!Jensen!additionally!valued!unspoiled!prairie!landscapes!for!their!historical! associations!with!Native!American!tribes,!ancient!trading!routes,!and!frontier!forts.!! In!his!mind,!the!forest!preserves!could!function!as!a!veritable!history!lesson!since! they!represented!a!fragment!of!uncivilized!Illinois!“as!the!white!man!found!it!–!a! different!world!from!the!manPmade!one.”!!He!even!proposed!to!erect! commemorative!tablets!detailing!the!significance!of!special!sites,!which!would!help! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 277 Prairie Club member T.W. Allinson quoted in Grese, Jens Jensen, 125. educate!the!public!about!the!geological!and!historical!development!of!the!region.278!! More!instrumentally,!Social!Darwinists!argued!that!the!botanical!drama!for!survival! that!characterized!wild!plant!ecology,!whereby!each!organism!competed!with!others! for!sunlight,!water,!and!nutrients,!supplied!valuable!lessons!to!observers!about! struggling!to!advance!in!a!society!with!finite!resources.279!!! Perkins!and!Jensen,!for!the!most!part,!resisted!biological!metaphors!that! categorically!affirmed!laissezPfaire!social!politics.!!Still,!the!idea!that!untamed!nature! could!instill!into!visitors!a!manufactured!national!conscience!centered!on!the!land! appealed!to!many!Chicagoans!because!it!offered!one!way!to!acculturate!and! assimilate!their!enormous!immigrant!population.!!Jensen!exalted!vast!prairies,! where!people!could!“feel!the!force!of!the!west!wind!and!the!expanse!of!MidP America,”!for!their!ability!to!communicate!“the!greatness!and!the!freedom!of!our! open!country”!to!revelers.280!!He!also!proposed!to!construct!“council!rings”!at! regular!intervals!along!the!rivers!and!canals!winding!through!Chicago’s!forest! preserves!because!he!considered!them!powerful!tools!for!fashioning!communities!of! people!with!shared!values.281!!Council!rings!consisted!of!a!circular!arrangement!of! rocks!enclosing!a!fire!pit,!sometimes!with!wooden!seats!capping!the!boulders,! where!people!gathered!to!tell!stories,!assuage!sorrows,!and!generally!commune! with!others!(Figure!3.20).!!Jensen!considered!them!modern!reenactments!of!the! primordial!fire,!the!origin!of!mankind’s!earliest!societies,!and!therefore! preeminently!democratic!and!a!powerful!symbol!of!American!identity:!“In!this! friendly!circle,!around!the!fire,!man!becomes!himself.!!Here!there!is!no!social!caste.!! All!are!on!the!same!level,!looking!each!other!in!the!face.!!A!ring!speaks!of!strength! and!friendship!and!is!one!of!the!great!symbols!of!mankind.!!The!fire!in!the!center! portrays!the!beginning!of!civilization,!and!it!was!around!the!fire!our!forefathers! gathered!when!they!first!set!foot!on!this!continent.”282!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 278 Jensen, Greater West Park System, 15; and Grese, Jens Jensen, 129-130. 279 Grese, Jens Jensen, 125. 280 Jensen, Greater West Park System, 127. 281 Ibid., 43. 282 Grese, Jens Jensen, 139.  Council!rings,!as!an!architectural!strategy,!were!perhaps!the!purest!symbols! of!a!desire!for!community!building.!!Jensen!essentially!stripped!the!most!primitive! hut!of!its!masonry!hearth,!roof!coverings,!and!textile!walls!until!just!the!primordial! fire!remained,!demarcated!only!by!a!paleontological!arrangement!of!rocks!that!mark! the!earth!as!a!site!for!social!exchange.!!Jensen!eventually!transcended!the!council! ring!concept!and!its!stone!markers!with!landscapes!he!called!“Clearings,”!which! were!simply!physical!openings!in!the!forest.!!He!gave!this!name!to!his!most!precious! landscapes,!and!described!them!as!both!“a!clearing!in!the!woods!and!a!clearing!in! the!mind.”!!Jensen!saw!“The!Clearing”!as!a!stage!for!human!theater,!pageantry,!and! song,!a!microcosm!of!Nature!where!man!could!commune!with!God!–!architecture! distilled!to!pure,!unmediated!space.283 !! !Perkins!appreciated!the!social!value!of!pageants,!theatrical!displays,!and! creative!expression,!but!his!practical!nature!predisposed!him!toward!concrete! action!and!experimentation.!!He!mainly!embraced!political!and!civic!strategies!for! advancing!his!conservation!agendas.!!Perkins!galvanized!public!support!by!leading! “prairie!walks”!through!proposed!forest!preserve!land!as!a!member!of!the!Prairie! Club,!an!organization!founded!by!Jensen!in!1908!to!acquaint!the!public!with! Chicago’s!natural!environs!(Figure!3.21).!!Prairie!walks!were!mainly!a!marketing! strategy!that!attracted!middlePclass!interest.!!The!outings!were!usually!day!hikes,! which!paradoxically!relied!on!the!very!industrial!technology!responsible!for!the! steady!destruction!of!the!wilderness!–!the!railroads.!!Modern!transportation!made! roundPtrip,!singlePday!excursions!to!farPflung!prairie!landscapes!possible.!!Industrial! advancement,!in!effect,!had!simultaneously!created!the!need!to!escape!the!city!and! the!means!by!which!to!do!so.!!The!Prairie!Club!eventually!became!one!of!the! strongest!political!backers!of!the!Forest!Preserve!Bill!in!Illinois.284!!Perkins!also! joined!another!conservation!group!founded!by!Jensen!in!1913!called!“Friends!of!our! Native!Landscape.”!!The!“Friends”!collected!data!on!scenic!and!historic!areas! throughout!Illinois!and!promoted!legislation!to!protect!them.!!Their!most! conspicuous!success!was!the!preservation!of!the!Indiana!Dunes,!a!naturally! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 283 Ibid., 136-137. 284 Ibid., 121. occurring!sand!dune!landscape!stretching!along!the!southern!shores!of!Lake! Michigan.285 !! Political!maneuvering!was!an!equally!important!reform!strategy!as!public! relations,!and!Perkins!tirelessly!inventoried!land!purchases,!drafted!legislation,! lobbied!politicians,!and!filed!legal!suites!during!the!decades!it!took!to!secure!the! forest!preserves.!!After!first!proposing!the!conservation!scheme!in!his!Metropolitan+ Park+System,!Perkins!helped!draft!a!Forest!Preserve!bill!detailing!their! establishment!and!management!in!1909.286!!However,!land!speculators!challenged! the!1909!bill!with!their!own!version!allowing!them!to!accrue!handsome!profits!from! the!sale!of!the!woodlands.!!The!Illinois!legislature!passed!the!amended!act,!even! though!its!financial!jerry!rigging!increased!public!expenditures!and!would!likely! curtail!conservation!measures.!!Perkins!and!his!supporters!mounted!a!counterP attack.!!Perkins!traveled!to!the!state!capital!in!Springfield!on!donated!funds!to! persuade!the!Governor!against!the!specious!bill.!!Ultimately,!Perkins!prevailed.!!The! spurious!legislation!was!already!law,!but!the!Governor!circumvented!the!ruling!by! failing!to!appoint!commissioners!within!the!required!time!frame,!so!the!legislation! expired.!!Perkins!and!his!fellow!environmentalists!presented!two!more!Forest! Preserve!bills!to!the!Illinois!congress!before!finally!securing!the!legislation.!!The! political!battle!was!so!protracted,!in!fact,!that!Perkins!doubted!his!final!success.!!He! tested!the!legitimacy!of!the!final!Forest!Preserve!Act!by!filing!a!lawsuit!against!his! own!bill!on!the!grounds!that!it!was!unconstitutional.!!Perkins!lost!this!lawsuit,! inversely!proving!the!validity!of!his!bill.!!The!State!purchased!most!of!the!woodlands! during!the!late!1920s!and!early!1930s.!!By!1933!the!Cook!County!Forest!Preserve! included!most!of!the!sites!recommended!by!Perkins!and!Jensen.287!!! !!!The!immense!political!operations!and!public!campaigns!required!to!realize! the!Forest!Preserves!were!not!conventional!architectural!practices,!but!they! illustrate!many!of!the!progressive!aspirations!and!reform!tactics!that!Perkins! embraced,!namely!his!willingness!to!collaborate,!his!sympathy!to!nature,!and!his! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 285 Ibid., 122-124. 286 Perkins, Metropolitan Park System; and Typescript of March 1909 Bill, Chicago Historical Society. 287 Davis, “Dwight Heald Perkins,” in Thresholds, 31; and Davis, Social Consciousness and Prairie School Architecture, 15. faith!in!the!contingent!democratic!process.!!In!the!end,!the!Forest!Preserves!were! less!effective!as!a!democratic!social!condenser!than!as!a!political!tool!that!rallied! middlePclass!professionals!and!intellectuals!to!create!a!powerful!voting!block!in! favor!of!park!reforms!of!all!kinds.!!But!workingPclass!families,!who!arguably!most! needed!the!restorative!and!cultural!influences!of!untamed!nature,!rarely!communed! with!wildlife!in!the!outlying!preserves!or!participated!in!spiritual!journeys!around! council!rings.!!Traveling!to!such!distant!sites!was!still!a!considerable!burden!on!their! limited!financial!means!and!leisure!time.288!!Moreover,!passive!recreation!was! falling!out!of!favor!by!the!early!twentieth!century,!as!park!goers,!rich!and!poor!alike,! began!choosing!active!recreational!pursuits,!such!as!riding!bicycles!and!playing! competitive!sports.!!The!contemplative!quality!of!nature!walks!or!bonfires!probably! seemed!anachronistic!and!dull!by!comparison.!!The!significance!of!the!Forest! Preserves,!especially!from!an!environmental!perspective,!is!undeniable,!but!Perkins! quickly!realized!that!city!parks!and!neighborhood!playgrounds!were!more!efficient! instruments!of!acculturation!and!social!reform!because!they!were!more!accessible! to!the!marginalized!groups!he!hoped!to!uplift.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 288 Grese, Jens Jensen, 122.  Chapter!Four! Between!Untouched!Nature!and!Commercial!Culture:!Lincoln!Park!and!the! Urban!Pleasure!Ground! ! “The!creation!of!parks!by!any!city!must!be!commended!as!the!first!step!of!municipal!art!outPofPdoors! and!a!prime!necessity!for!improving!the!health!and!morality!of!those!who!have!to!pass!their!lives!in! these!congested!spots…park!making!is!a!measure!by!which,!together!with!other!great!municipal! undertakings,!the!intelligence!of!its!citizens!is!judged.”! !!!!!!!!PPJens!Jensen,!“Parks!and!Politics,”!n.d.!! ! ! Perkins!advanced!his!convictions!regarding!physical!health!and!recreation! through!five!buildings!he!constructed!inside!Lincoln!Park!between!1908!and!1920:! the!South!Pond!Refectory,!a!restaurant!and!rowboat!rental;!the!Boat!House,!a! meeting!and!storage!space!for!private!boaters;!the!Lion!House,!animal!quarters!and! exhibition!space!for!the!Lincoln!Park!Zoo;!Park!Place!Café!and!Winter!Shelter,!a! combined!concession!stand,!restroom,!and!warming!shelter!for!ice!skaters;!and!the! Daily!News!Fresh!Air!Sanitarium,!a!medical!clinic!for!the!treatment!of!tuberculosis.!!! Laid!out!in!1860!and!expanded!several!times!before!1900,!Lincoln!Park!was!a!1,208P acre!“pleasure!ground”!that!was!primarily!landscaped!in!a!naturalistic!manner.!!It! mainly!catered!to!upperP!and!middlePclass!residents!living!nearby!in!the!upscale,! northPside!neighborhoods!of!Chicago,!since!the!park!was!largely!inaccessible!by! public!transportation!at!the!time.!!! Each!of!Perkins’s!buildings!inside!Lincoln!Park!indicates!shifting!attitudes! towards!physical!culture!and!the!proper!use!of!park!space.!!By!1900!vigorous! pursuits!like!rowing!matches,!races,!and!organized!nature!study!had!begun! replacing!previously!unstructured!uses!of!parks,!such!as!strolling,!bicycling,!casual! bird!watching,!and!picnicking.!!Reformers!believed!dynamic!activities!combated!the! physically!sedentary!conditions!of!many!clerical,!commercial,!and!professional!jobs.!! Park!boards!began!constructing!cafes!and!“comfort!stations,”!or!restrooms,!because! they!hoped!to!encourage!visitors!to!spend!an!entire!day!at!the!park!so!as!to! maximize!its!benefits.!!Some!critics!opposed!such!civilizing!interventions.!!They! contended!that!restaurants,!zoos,!and!bathrooms!were!unsuitable!additions!to!parks! since!they!recalled!city!life,!which!undermined!the!naturalism!they!believed!was!the! raison+d’être!of!parks.!!Even!more!peculiar!in!their!minds!was!the!inclusion!of!free! medical!clinics!on!park!grounds,!which!signaled!emerging!scientific!evidence!that! the!germs!that!caused!disease!were!communicable.!!As!public!health!became!a! major!responsibility!of!the!city,!officials!sought!new!ways!to!exert!control,!while! opponents!resisted!such!measures!because!free!sanitariums!attracted!undesirable,! unhealthy,!usually!underprivileged!people!to!parks.!!Like!so!many!projects!that! Perkins!designed,!Lincoln!Park!was!a!contested!terrain!where!multiple!social!visions! competed!for!authority.! ! His!environmentalism!led!Perkins!to!experiment!with!innovative!siteP planning!techniques!inside!Lincoln!Park,!as!he!struggled!to!preserve!its!picturesque! landscape!while!adding!the!new!types!of!programs!the!public!now!wanted.!!That! mediation!resulted!in!some!of!his!most!sitePsensitive!architecture,!buildings! uniquely!contextual!to!their!surroundings.!!In!part!for!this!reason,!he!followed! accepted!building!techniques!in!designing!many!of!his!park!buildings,!such!as! obscuring!a!comfort!station!at!the!base!of!a!large!hill!or!combining!the!refectory! with!a!groundPlevel!boathouse.!!Although!the!architectural!representation!of!these! buildings!varied!considerably,!all!but!one!shared!a!common!vocabulary!of!brick!and! terracotta.!!Such!everyday!materials!lowered!costs!while!still!conveying!a!sense!of! permanence!and!civic!identity.!!In!sum,!by!visually!joining!individual,!farPflung! structures!into!a!coherent!architectural!and!programmatic!language,!Perkins! elevated!Lincoln!Park!into!a!recognizable!and!unified!civic!entity.! Because!Perkins!so!frequently!championed!municipal!reforms!aimed!at! improving!living!conditions!for!Chicago’s!underclass,!most!of!his!Lincoln!Park! amusements,!which!mainly!functioned!to!entertain!affluent!consumers!during!their! leisure!hours,!seem,!on!the!surface,!to!lack!political!poignancy!compared!to! settlement!houses!and!public!schools.!!But!they!are!also!evidence!of!his!flexible! approach!towards!social!reform!and!architectural!design.!!His!sympathy!to!nature! and!passion!for!bodily!health!led!him!to!embrace!a!variety!of!ways!for!encouraging! wholesome!recreation!and!habits!for!the!wealthy!and!poor!alike,!from!lighthearted! hobbies!like!ice!skating,!to!nature!study!at!the!zoo,!to!therapeutic!treatments!offered! at!medical!clinics.!!Advancing!social!democracy!certainly,!perhaps!even!primarily,! entailed!equalizing!socioPeconomic!opportunities!for!the!underprivileged,!but! Perkins!recognized!that!it!also!involved!extending!services!and!improvements!to! comparatively!prosperous!individuals.! ! ! The!Constructed!Nature!of!Lincoln!Park! Lincoln!Park!had!existed!in!some!form!or!another!since!the!midPnineteenth! century.!!It!originated!as!a!sixtyPacre!parcel!of!unused!cemetery!land!in!1860!that! abutted!the!overcrowded!and!unsanitary!City!Cemetery,!which!reformers!targeted! as!a!public!health!menace!on!account!of!its!shallow,!leaking!graves!in!close! proximity!to!lake!water.!!In!1869!state!legislation!established!the!Lincoln!Park! Commission!to!run!the!grounds.!!Lincoln!Park!was!one!component!of!a!system!of!six! large!parks!encircling!Chicago.!!The!others!were!Washington!and!Jackson!Parks! presided!over!by!the!South!Park!Commission,!the!district!where!Daniel!Burnham! orchestrated!the!1893!World’s!Fair,!and!Douglas,!Central!(now!Garfield),!and! Humboldt!Parks!run!by!the!West!Park!Commission,!headquarters!to!Jens!Jensen!by! the!turn!of!the!century!(Figure!3.2).!!! By!1869!public!opposition!to!the!contaminated!burial!grounds!at!Lincoln! Park!was!strong!enough!to!force!the!exhumation!and!removal!of!all!bodies!from!City! Cemetery.!!So!the!park!expanded!into!the!reclaimed!cemetery!grounds.!!This!was!the! first!of!nine!major!expansion!campaigns!ultimately!responsible!for!its!current!size!of! 1,!208!acres!extending!along!six!miles!of!Chicago’s!lakefront!(Figure!4.1).289!!The! Lincoln!Park!Commission!would!acquire!some!of!this!additional!land!by! consolidating!public!properties!and!by!purchasing!private!real!estate.!!However,! threePquarters!of!Lincoln!Park!was!created!from!a!landfill!program!so!expansive!and! ongoing!that!as!late!as!1910!residents!were!filing!complaints!about!the!“noise! disturbance”!created!by!the!continuous!passage!of!dump!carts!carrying!ash!and! debris!for!the!infill.290!!Due!to!limited!tax!revenues,!the!Lincoln!Park!Board! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 289 National Register of Historic Places Nomination for Lincoln Park, compiled by Julia Sniderman, Bart Ryckbosch, and Laura Taylor (Chicago: Chicago Park District, 1994), 9. 290 Official Proceedings of the Lincoln Park Commission, vol. 7, August 13, 1907 – December 20, 1910, Special Collections, Chicago Park District, 213. For specifications regarding each expansion see National Register Nomination for Lincoln Park, pp. 5-7. The park appears to have reached its current size by 1957. abandoned!its!original!plan!to!hire!Frederick!Law!Olmsted!to!design!the!entire!park! landscape,!and!instead,!it!hired!local!nurserymen!and!gardeners!to!design!each! extension!piecemeal.!!One!of!the!most!prominent!of!these!was!O.C.!Simonds,!who! acted!as!consulting!landscape!designer!to!Lincoln!Park!from!1903!to!1913.!!He!and! Perkins!collaborated!on!at!least!one!occasion.291!!!!!! Early!park!commissioners!conceived!of!Lincoln!Park,!and!the!other!five!parks! comprising!the!1869!ring!plan,!as!a!“pleasure!ground,”!a!generously!apportioned! park!ideally!designed!in!a!picturesque!manner,!which,!while!entirely!contrived,!was! evocative!of!a!natural!landscape.!!Separate,!curving!drives!for!pedestrians!and! vehicular!traffic,!open!meadows!defined!by!irregular!groves!of!trees,!and!manmade! water!features!all!facilitated!the!passive!contemplation!of!nature!and,!in!so!doing,! rejuvenated!the!body!and!spirit!(Figures!4.2P4.3).!!The!naturalistic!design!also! counteracted!the!regularity!of!the!street!grid,!where!men,!animals,!and!machines! alike!all!vied!for!space!amidst!the!haze!of!the!pervasive!“smoke!nuisance”!typical!of! industrial!cities!at!the!turn!of!the!century.!!Reformers!perceived!the!pleasure!ground! as!an!antidote!to!the!artificial!and!even!dangerous!urban!environment.!!For!these! reasons,!they!believed!that!any!buildings!constructed!in!a!pleasure!ground!should! harmonize!with!the!landscape,!either!through!plantings,!architectural!style,!or!an! unobtrusive!site.!!! Different!interest!groups!soon!projected!their!own!values!onto!city!parks.!! Public!health!advocates,!alarmed!at!the!rampant!pestilence!and!disease!of! overcrowded!cities,!argued!that!open!spaces!and!trees!cleared!the!air!of!“miasmas,”! which!they!mistakenly!thought!transmitted!illnesses!like!cholera,!diphtheria,!and! scarlet!fever.292!!Communion!with!nature!also!seemed!to!cure!nervous!disorders,! such!as!neurasthenia,!a!malady!causing!symptoms!like!anxiety,!insomnia,!and!vague! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 291 Julia Sniderman, “Bringing the Prairie Vision into Focus,” in Prairie in the City: Naturalism in Chicago’s Parks, 1870-1940 (Chicago: Chicago Historical Society with cooperation of Chicago Park District and Morton Arboretum, 1991): 20, 29. 292 Nancy Tomes, The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women, and the Microbe in American Life (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1998), 55-58. body!pains!that!was!associated!with!the!professional!classes!and!believed!to!be! caused!by!the!overPexcitement!and!stimulation!of!modern,!urban!life.293!!! Other!reformers,!such!as!Jensen!and!Olmsted,!argued!that!parks!were!the! penultimate!democratic!setting,!a!place!where!the!poor!and!wealthy!alike!could! gather!for!neighborly!recreation!and!transcend!their!class!and!economic! disparities.294!!Informal,!picturesque!landscapes!contributed!to!these!political! readings.!!Many!designers!considered!formal,!geometric!gardens!to!be!ostentatious! displays!of!wealth,!which!they!argued!had!more!in!common!with!European! imperialism!than!American!democracy.295!!Designers!like!Jensen!preferred!native! species!of!plants!rather!than!exotic!varieties!since!they!were!hardier,!easier!to! cultivate,!and!indigenous.296!!! The!romanticPera!image!of!ruminative!observers!reflecting!on!nature!began! to!subside!by!the!latePnineteenth!century.!!By!the!1880s,!Lincoln!Park!offered!a!wide! variety!of!attractions,!including!concerts,!parades,!fireworks!displays,!boat!exhibits,! horseless!carriage!contests,!turner!club!exhibitions,!swings,!and!bicycle!and!foot! races.!!Concessions!included!singleP!and!doublePpony!phaeton!rentals!for!touring!the! park;!swanPshaped,!pedalPboat!rentals!capable!of!holding!up!to!twelve!people;!and! fruit!stands!and!photographers.297!!Imported!landscape!features!punctuated!Lincoln! Park’s!picturesque!grounds!and!recalled!the!same!“imperial”!European!gardens!that! reformers!criticized.!!The!park!board!created!a!FrenchPinspired!garden!in!the!1870s! and!replanted!its!geometric!configurations!seasonally.!!It!still!borders!the!southern! end!of!a!Conservatory!built!by!Joseph!L.!Silsbee!in!1895!to!propagate!and!exhibit! exotic!flowers.!!They!added!a!Victorian!lily!pool!in!1889!and!constructed!a! powerhouse!nearby!to!heat!the!water!so!that!gardeners!could!cultivate!exotic! species!of!plant!life,!including!the!fragile!Victoria+regia,!whose!leaves!grew!to!six!feet! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 293 George Frederick Drinka, M.D., The Birth of Neurosis: Myth, Malady, and the Victorians (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984), 212-213, 217-225. 294 Galen Cranz, The Politics of Park Design: A History of Urban Parks in American (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1982), 8, 34, 40-42; Grese, Jens Jensen, 15-17. 295 Grese, Jens Jensen, 26. 296 Cranz, Politics of Park Design, 37. 297 National Register Nomination for Lincoln Park, 68. in!diameter.!!Two!more!tropical!ponds!appeared!between!1906!and!1908,!belying! the!climate!of!northern!Illinois!(Figures!4.4P4.5).298!!!! By!the!turn!of!the!century,!Lincoln!Park!also!harbored!a!variety!of! architectural!structures,!each!designed!by!different!architects!in!distinctive! historical!styles.!!M.E.!Bell!built!a!brightly!painted,!hexagonal!pavilion!out!of! roughhewn!wooden!posts!in!1883.!!Joseph!Silsbee!designed!a!comfort!station!in!the! form!of!a!picturesque!cottage!with!a!gabled!entry!porch!in!1888.!!The!Chicago! Academy!of!Sciences!constructed!a!heavily!ornamented,!neoclassical!building! designed!by!Patton!and!Fisher!in!1893!(Figure!4.6).!!Jarvis!Hunt!designed!a!Classical! Revival!Bird!House!in!1904,!and!the!powerhouse!was!a!Flemish!Revival!structure.299!!! The!combination!of!such!diverse!architectures!exaggerated!the!theatrical!character! of!the!park.!!Any!buildings,!particularly!such!conspicuous!ones,!contradicted! pleasure!ground!concepts,!so!Lincoln!Park!was!hardly!a!pure!example!of!such! theories!when!Perkins!began!working!for!its!park!board.! ! Cultured!Amusement!as!Urban!Antidote! The!first!structure!Perkins!designed!for!Lincoln!Park!in!1908!combined!a! private,!finePdining!restaurant,!a!casual!lunch!counter,!and!a!rowboat!rental,! collectively!called!the!South!Pond!Refectory.300!!Its!broad!commercial!program! speaks!to!expanding!social!expectations!regarding!parks!and!their!functions,!namely! that!they!could!provide!popular!entertainments,!dining!opportunities,!and!other! amusing,!leisurePtime!activities!beyond!simple!contact!with!nature.!!The!refectory! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 298 Ibid., 12-13, 67. 299 National Register Nomination for Lincoln Park, 10-11, 14-20, 23. 300 The South Pond Refectory is now called Café Brauer after the concessionaire Paul Brauer who operated the restaurant and cafeteria there, as well as at other Lincoln Park venues, such as Perkins’s North Pond Skating Shelter. The restaurant suffered considerably during the Great Depression and from the prohibition of alcohol sales on Park District property, finally closing in 1941. It was a storage facility for Lincoln Park until 1980, at which time new legislation reinstating alcohol sales on park property created investment interest in reviving the old refectory. Most of this interest called for considerable alterations to the original building in order to modernize its kitchen facilities and enlarge its dining area, which prompted the Park District to seek landmark status for the structure. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986. A sensitive restoration project was initiated to transform the refectory into a viable restaurant while also preserving the architectural integrity of Perkins’s design. Café Brauer reopened in 1990. For preservation details see Jane H. Clarke, “Perkins in the Park,” in Inland Architect (September/October 1990): 40-42. was!located!on!a!lagoon!in!the!southern!part!of!the!park!near!the!zoo.!!It!was!a!twoP story!structure!consisting!of!a!central!hall!flanked!on!the!north!and!south!by!two! curved!loggias.!!The!restaurant!occupied!the!second!story,!commanding!views!of!the! lagoon!and!adjoining!lawns.!!!The!lunchroom!occupied!the!ground!floor!near!the! water’s!edge,!where!patrons!could!also!access!the!rowboat!concession!(Figures!4.7P 4.10).!!Operating!such!an!enterprise!entailed!considerable!expense,!and!the!Lincoln! Park!Board!offset!the!costs!by!renting!the!business!to!private!concessionaire!Paul! Brauer.!!In!return!for!the!concession!venue,!Brauer!was!contractually!obligated!to! pay!$7,500!per!annum!in!rent,!6%!interest!on!the!cost!of!the!new!building,!and!an! additional!$2,000!per!year!for!the!maintenance!and!“permanent!improvement”!of! any!park!structures!that!fell!under!his!control!as!park!restaurateur.301!!! Park!boards!across!the!country!were!ambivalent!about!the!merits!of!such! publicPprivate!consortiums,!although!they!were!not!an!unusual!arrangement.!! Concessionaire!control!of!refectories!clearly!identified!the!businesses!as! commercial,!private!enterprises!–!the!sort!of!profitPseeking!ventures!many! reformers!believed!should!not!contaminate!public!parks,!which!theoretically! provided!a!respite!from!marketPbased!pursuits.!!Opponents!argued!that!municipal! park!boards!should!manage!concessions!in!order!to!mitigate!speculative!intrusions! into!the!public!realm.!!Profits!earned!from!refreshment!sales!could!then!be! channeled!towards!less!profitable!sectors!of!the!park,!such!as!path!maintenance.!!In! this!way,!the!commercial!intrusion!of!the!restaurant!would!at!least!benefit!the! public!rather!than!the!entrepreneur.!!For!most!park!districts,!however,!public! management!of!concessions!was!economically!impossible!given!the!limited!funds! usually!allocated!to!park!boards,!especially!if!the!business!foundered.!!Horace!W.! Peaslee,!Architect!of!Public!Buildings!and!Grounds!to!Washington!DC,!summarized! the!dilemma!when!he!wrote!that!park!refectories!were!“of!the!greatest!annoyance!to! the!park!officials!if!lacking!popularity.”302 !!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 301 Official Proceedings of the Lincoln Park Commission, vol. 7, May 13, 1908, Special Collections, Chicago Park District. 302 Horace W. Peaslee, “Park Architecture, Part IV. Refectories,” in The Park International, ed. George Burnhap (January 1921): 23. ! The!concessionaire!debate!was!fueled!by!the!perceived!problem!of!attracting! sufficient!patronage!to!justify!the!expense!of!a!restaurant.!!Some!Americans!still! regarded!restaurants!with!suspicion,!associating!them!immorality,!drunken!brawls,! and!even!prostitution!on!the!one!hand!or!elite!extravagance!on!the!either.!!Park! commissioners!eagerly!took!up!this!latter!association,!marketing!their!refectories!as! nineteenthPcentury!“casinos”!for!amusing!the!wealthy.!!The!refectory!atmosphere,! with!its!music,!elegant!wine!glasses,!and!supper!dancing,!evoked!the!ambience!of! elegant,!private!establishments.303!Some!boasted!that!the!cuisine!served!at!the!South! Pond!Refectory!rivaled!classy!downtown!restaurants.!!The!central!“Grand!Hall”!was! even!rented!for!fancy!balls!and!social!functions.304!!Complying!with!these! aspirations,!Perkins!outfitted!the!interior!of!the!hall!with!an!enormous!skylight,!art! glass!windows,!chandeliers,!terracotta!decoration,!glazed!faience!tiles,!and! patterned!brick!in!order!to!cultivate!a!gay,!casino!atmosphere.!!Bright!green,! exposed!rafters!matched!a!terracotta!freeze,!painted!by!his!wife,!Lucy!Perkins.!!The! freeze!depicted!vignettes!of!idyllic!landscapes,!effectively!reproducing!on!the! interior!the!type!of!pastoral!views!to!be!had!outside!(Figures!4.11P4.12).305!!! Restaurant!advocates!also!enticed!customers!by!associating!park!refectories! with!“Continental”!practices!of!dining!outdoors,!which!lent!them!an!air!of! sophistication!in!the!minds!of!many!Americans.!!Promotional!literature!compared! American!park!restaurants!to!terrace!cafés!overlooking!Lake!Como!in!Italy!and! dignified!beer!gardens!in!Budapest!and!Vienna,!all!touted!as!examples!of!natural,! effortless!living.!!Perkins!catered!to!such!fancies!at!the!Lincoln!Park!refectory!by! including!openPair!dining!rooms!that!overlooked!the!pond.!!Elevated,!covered! loggias!and!pavilions!adorned!with!blooming!vines!permitted!dining!al+fresco!rain!or! shine,!day!or!night,!without!the!distant!travel,!while!the!lagoon!view!operated!as!a! sort!of!manufactured!Lake!Como!(Figure!4.13).306!!The!sensuous!food,!music,!and! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 303 Cranz, Politics of Park Design, 20; and “Chicago Parks and Their Landscape Architecture,” in The Architectural Record 24 (July 1908), 28. 304 An Illustrated Guide of Lincoln Park Chicago (Chicago: Gunthorp-Warren Printing Company, 1911), 25. 305 For more on materials and architectural details of the refectory see National Register Nomination for Lincoln Park, 72; and Clarke, “Perkins in the Park,” 41-2. 306 Peaslee, “Refectories,” 23-24, 29, 31. vistas!at!the!South!Pond!Refectory!provided!a!cultural!experience,!downplaying!its! commercial!motive.307!!!! The!casino!concept!mainly!appealed!to!the!wealthy,!which!undermined!the! prevailing!belief!that!public!parks!should!cater!to!all!classes!of!people.!!Outspoken! critics!argued!that!“an!edifice!for!dining!‘distinguished!guests’!is!not!requisite!to!a! park,!for!the!service!can!be!performed!equally!well!elsewhere!and!therefore!such!a! building!should!not!be!allowed!there.”308!!Yet!affluent!consumption!bolstered!park! revenues,!so!refectory!designs!paid!special!attention!to!upperPclass!expectations.! The!lunching!businessman!demanded!promptness!since!his!time!was!limited,!which! necessitated!advanced!food!preparation,!steamers,!and!warming!places! incorporated!into!the!kitchen!design.!!Park!restaurants!also!cultivated!the!feel!of!a! “restful!resort,!where!a!momentary!relaxation!may!be!obtained!from!the!business! grind.”309!!Perkins!enhanced!the!holidayPlike!atmosphere!of!the!casino!by!painting! the!loggia!ceilings!an!offPwhite!color,!a!very!unusual!technique!for!the!time,!which! made!the!roof!appear!to!float,!augmenting!the!airiness!of!the!terraces.310!!White! Doric!columns!supported!the!loggias!and!contributed!to!the!highPend,!Continental! feel!of!the!restaurant.!!Park!literature!cited!additional!techniques!for!creating!a! refined!ambience,!such!as!the!use!of!exotic!awnings!or!picturesque!flowerpots.311!! Wealthy,!educated!patrons!would,!in!theory,!recognize!such!fine!details!and!come!to! view!park!dining!as!a!cultural!pursuit.! Even!as!the!restaurant!targeted!affluent!consumers,!the!ground!floor! cafeteria!of!the!South!Pond!Refectory!catered!to!a!broad!public.!!Some!democratic! mixing!of!populations!perhaps!occurred.!!The!soda!fountains!and!lunch!counters! typically!offered!in!park!cafeterias!targeted!families!with!young!children!who! preferred!more!casual!dining!or!aspiring!young!professionals!still!on!a!budget.!! Laborers!working!in!the!manufacturing!district!just!west!of!Lincoln!Park,!along!the! northern!branch!of!the!Chicago!River,!likely!took!occasional!advantage!of!the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 307 Cranz, Politics of Park Design, 21. 308 George Burnap, Parks: Their Design, Equipment and Use (Philadelphia and London: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1916), 188. 309 Peaslee, “Refectories,” 26. 310 Clarke, “Perkins in the Park,” 42. 311 Peaslee, “Refectories,” 26. “popular”!cafeteria!prices!touted!by!the!Lincoln!Park!Commission.!!Still,!refectories! separated!the!refreshment!stand,!cafeteria,!and!restaurant!in!order!to!facilitate! efficient!operation,!although!prevailing!class!expectations!were!probably!more! important.!!A!1921!article!in!The+Park+International!explained!that!“the!cafeteria! clientele!does!not!like!to!sit!down!for!a!meal!with!transient!sodaPfountain!patrons! moving!in!and!around,!and!the!patrons!who!prefer!regular![table]!service!and!are! willing!to!pay!for!it!do!not!like!the!contrast!with!cafeteria!service.”312 !The!twoPstory! design!of!the!South!Pond!Refectory!allowed!Perkins!to!completely!separate!the! restaurant!from!the!cafeteria,!with!finePdining!patrons!accommodated!on!the!upper! level,!commanding!the!best!views.!!! Faced!with!the!dilemma!of!harmonizing!the!commercial!motive!of!the!South! Pond!Refectory!–!its!rowboat!rentals,!supper!dancing,!and!teeming!lunch!counter!–! Perkins!experimented!with!inventive!sitePplanning!solutions.!!The!site!was! essentially!divided!into!two!parts:!Center!Street!to!the!west!and!the!lagoon!to!the! east.!!Perkins!located!the!refectory!between!the!two!environments.!!The!eastern! elevation!of!the!structure!conformed!to!the!irregular!shape!of!the!lagoon,!the!“arms”! of!the!loggias!effectively!wrapping!around!the!pond.!!This!eastern!face!boasted!large! expanses!of!glass!and!the!openPair!terraces,!which!rendered!the!boundary!between! architecture!and!nature!porous!(Figure!4.7).!!The!western!façade!facing!Center! Street!was!its!foil.!!The!entrance!was!the!only!interruption!to!the!otherwise!solid! surface!that!almost!entirely!lacked!windows,!which!effectively!sealed!it!off!from!the! landscape.!!The!effect!on!the!western!side!was!a!solid,!impenetrable!box.!!Perkins! integrated!geometric,!polychromePbrick!patterns!into!the!wall!plane,!which!both! ornamented!it!and!visually!reinforced!its!solidity!(Figure!4.8).! Perkins’s!refectory!mediated!between!two!landscapes!–!the!urban! environment!of!Center!Street!to!the!west!and!the!naturalistic!lagoon!to!the!east!–! operating!as!a!veritable!portal!between!the!city!and!the!park.!!Such!an!active!role!for! park!architecture!was!unconventional!in!terms!of!picturesque!planning!theories! that!informed!pleasure!ground!design.!!Buildings!in!eighteenthPcentury!English! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 312 Peaslee, “Refectories,” 32. gardens!were!typically!distant!focal!points!in!the!background!of!picturesque!vistas,! playing!a!comparatively!passive!role!in!the!landscape.!!In!contrast,!the!South!Pond! Refectory!was!both!subservient!to!the!landscape!(conforming!to!the!topography!of! the!lagoon)!and!regulating!(negotiating!between!streetscape!and!garden).!!The! landscape!and!the!building!were!incomplete!without!each!other,!creating!what!Wim! de!Wit!and!William!W.!Tippens!described!as!a!“synergistic!relationship”!between!the! two!mediums.313!!Perkins!most!likely!prioritized!practical!considerations!as!much!as! romantic!synergisms!when!he!designed!the!site!plan.!!The!curved!loggias!embraced! the!lagoon!edge!but!also!increased!the!distance!between!diners!and!the!road.!!The! impenetrable!western!volume!shielded!patrons!from!the!noise,!dust,!and!exhaust!of! the!automobiles!that!approached!the!refectory!from!Center!Street,!to!say!nothing!of! the!unsanitary!waste!of!horses.!!!!! These!sitePplanning!strategies,!while!undoubtedly!innovative!and!contextual,! were!commonly!used!across!the!country!and!spoke!equally!to!prevailing!attitudes! about!park!architecture.!!The!twoPstory!casino!scheme!with!open!loggias!sited!on!a! body!of!water!was!standard!for!park!refectories!at!the!time,!with!park! commissioners,!architects,!and!landscape!designers!alike!agreeing!on!their!format.!! LowPrise!structures!disrupted!the!naturalistic!environment!in!the!least!possible! manner,!regardless!of!the!regional!context.!!Open!pergolas!and!loggias!provided!a! stage!from!which!visitors!could!drink!in!the!restorative!landscape!views!and!be!seen! doing!so.!!Water!features!enticed!customers!by!offering!entertainment!in!the!form!of! boating!or!people!watching.!!In!fact,!landscape!designers!and!park!boards! considered!water!features!the!most!“dependable!attraction”!of!the!casino!layout,!an! opinion!that!essentially!recasts!the!romantic!notion!of!a!synergistic!relationship! between!architecture!and!nature!as!a!marketing!tactic.314!!Perkins!was!clearly! responding!to!widespread!expectations!and!commercial!necessity!as!much!as! romantic!conceptions!about!the!relationship!between!architecture!and!nature.!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 313 Wim de Wit and William W. Tippens, “Prairie School in the Parks,” in Prairie in the City: Naturalism in Chicago’s Parks, 1870-1940 (Chicago: Chicago Historical Society, 1991), 34. 314 Peaslee, “Refectories,” 23, 25; and Cranz, Politics of Park Design, 42-44.  The!refectory!formula!was!used!in!parks!across!the!country,!such!as!at!Belle! Isles!in!Detroit!and!Franklin!Park!in!Boston!(Figures!4.14P4.15).315!!Editors!at!The+ Architectural+Record!confirmed!the!standardization!of!the!combined!refectoryP boathouse!as!a!virtually!universal!formula!for!the!building!type,!using!language! nearly!identical!to!a!description!of!Perkins’s!refectory:! Essentially!alike!in!plan!and!general!manner!of!treatment…they!are!situated! on!a!body!of!water!with!a!stone!terrace,!immediately!overlooking!the!pond.!! If!the!ponds!are!used!for!boating…the!boats!are!reached!on!a!lower!level!than! the!terrace…the!people,!consequently,!who!are!enjoying!a!meal!or!a!lookout! in!the!building!or!on!the!terrace!are!not!troubled!by!the!coming!and!going!of! the!boatmen.!!All!of!these!buildings!are!long,!low!structures,!approached! through!formal!courts,!and!thrown!open!in!their!central!division!to!promote! free!movement!of!people!who!wish!to!pass!through!to!the!other!side.316 ! ! Architectural+Record!illustrated!its!article!on!park!architecture!with! refectories!designed!in!entirely!different!architectural!languages,!including!vaguely! Spanish!or!mission!styles!and!a!comparatively!modern,!vaulted!pavilion!(Figures! 4.16P4.18).!!Belle!Isles!and!Franklin!Park!borrowed!Renaissance!motifs.!!If!refectory! plans!were!generally!consistent,!clearly!their!architectural!idioms!were!not.!!This! diversity!of!architectural!vocabularies!challenges!the!argument!that!such!siteP sensitive,!lowPrise,!horizontal!buildings!represented!an!emerging!style!unique!to!the! Midwest.!!However,!park!commissioners!agreed!that!refectories!should!convey!a! sense!of!monumentality!and!permanence!befitting!a!civic!building,!whatever!their! specific!architectural!style.!!Journals!reported!that!pleasure!ground!casinos!should! be!elaborate!in!design!and!plan!and!built!of!expensive!materials.!!According!to!The+ Architectural+Record,!casinos!were!not!“cheap!and!flimsy!structures,!such!as!would! be!erected!on!some!private!picnic!grounds….![T]hey!are!substantial!buildings,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 315 Peaslee, “Refectories,” 23, 25; and Cranz, Politics of Park Design, 42-44. 316 “Chicago Parks and Their Landscape Architecture,” 29-30. Zimmerman’s two refectories were located in Douglas and Garfield Parks, both under the jurisdiction of the West Park Commission. surrounded!by!appropriate!schemes!of!landscape!gardening.”317!!When!the!Lincoln! Park!Board!commissioned!Perkins!to!design!the!South!Pond!Refectory,!it! emphasized!such!standards,!explaining!that!“this!building!should!stand!for!all!time,! and!should,!therefore,!be!built!thoroughly!well,!and!should!be!made!attractive!as!the! chief!building!of!resort!in!the!park!for!the!public.”318!!Symbolic!properties!aside,!a! properly!dignified!structure!justified!using!tax!revenues!to!construct!park!buildings.!! Informal!buildings!and!native!landscapes!were!difficult!to!defend!as!public! expenditures!because!there!was!little!apparent!effect!in!return!for!the!money! spent.319!!The!Lincoln!Park!Commission,!in!fact,!encountered!considerable! difficulties!financing!their!refectory,!forcing!them!to!raise!the!interest!rate!owed!by! concessionaire!Paul!Brauer!to!defray!building!costs.320 !! Perkins!clearly!faced!multiple,!competing!demands!in!designing!the!South! Pond!Refectory:!wellPestablished!precedents!and!expectations!dictated!a!certain!set! of!parameters!and!limitations;!the!Lincoln!Park!Board!desired!a!permanent,! monumental!civic!gesture!but!also!struggled!to!finance!the!building;!and!the!bucolic! surrounds!of!the!refectory!called!for!a!sympathetic!treatment!of!its!landscape!even! while!meeting!commercial!demands.!!He!reconciled!these!by!using!structural! rationalism!to!convey!a!sense!of!monumentality!and!permanence,!while!also! suggesting!the!progressive!nature!of!the!modern!park!and!its!updated!functions.!! Symmetrical!massing!and!distinguished,!geometric!ornament!identified!buildings! that!entailed!serious,!public!expenditure!and!also!appeared!upPtoPdate.!!If!everyday! materials!like!brick!and!terracotta!were!solid!and!direct,!they!also!accentuated! accessibility!and!helped!Perkins!reduce!construction!costs.!!Precedent!called!for! horizontal!buildings!so!as!to!minimize!their!intrusion!into!the!landscape,!but! Perkins,!ever!alert!to!the!environment,!took!additional!steps!to!harmonize!the! refectory!with!its!natural!setting.!!The!hipped!roof!was!constructed!from!green,! French!pan!tiles!with!overhanging!eaves.!!The!color!of!the!green!tiles!harmonized! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 317 Ibid., 28. 318 Official Proceedings of the Lincoln Park Commissioners, vol. 7, December 9, 1908, Special Collections, Chicago Park District. 319 Cranz, Politics of Park Design, 34. 320 Official Proceedings of Lincoln Park, vol. 7, December 9, 1908. with!the!landscape,!and!the!lowPpitched!roof!anchored!the!structure!to!the!earth.!! Reddish!polychrome!brick!walls!recalled!clay!and!mud,!and!matching!redPtinted! mortar!was!roughly!applied!so!as!to!bleed!into!the!brick,!an!intentionally!crude! masonry!meant!to!correspond!to!the!rustic!character!of!the!park.!!Perkins!creatively! worked!within!budget!limitations!by!using!brick!rather!than!cut!stone,!even!raking! the!mortar!to!create!parallel!shadow!lines!on!the!façade!that!reinforced!the! generally!horizontal!presence!of!the!building.321!!The!design!resulting!from!these! mediations!suggest!his!flexible!principles!as!much!as!any!emerging,!regional! architectural!style.!!Perkins!was!willing!to!collaborate!and!respect!the!expectations! and!budgets!of!park!commissioners,!even!as!he!endeavored!to!elevate!the!South! Pond!Refectory!to!a!notable!civic!work!and!engage!creatively!with!the!environment.! ! The!“Vigorous”!Life:!Sports!as!Urban!Antidote! Perkins!built!two!sports!shelters!inside!Lincoln!Park!between!1908!and! 1914,!a!Boathouse!and!a!Winter!Skating!Shelter!and!Café.!!Such!additions!signaled! changing!attitudes!with!regards!to!park!use,!which,!by!the!turn!of!the!century,! trended!toward!active!recreation!rather!than!passive!enjoyment!of!natural!scenery,! although!both!were!seen!as!ways!to!counteract!the!overPstimulation!of!modern!city! life.322!!Yachting,!rowing,!and!canoeing!were!particularly!popular!because!women! and!men!could!both!participate.323!!Winter!sports,!such!as!tobogganing!and!skating,! were!enormously!successful!since!they!allowed!yearPround!use!of!the!park,!a! substantial!increase!in!efficiency!from!the!perspective!of!park!officials.!!Most!park! districts!flooded!athletic!fields!to!create!ice!rinks!or!built!warming!shelters!near! existing!water!features!that!froze!during!the!colder!months.!!Many!park!boards! advertised!ice!conditions!to!encourage!attendance,!and!the!Special!Park!Commission! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 321 For details on the preservation of the South Pond Refectory, see Clarke, “Perkins in the Park,” 41. 322 Cranz, Politics of Park Design, 15. 323 Horace Peaslee, “Park Architecture, Part VI: Boathouses,” in Park International (May 1921): 232; and National Register Nomination for Lincoln Park, 63. recorded!the!number!of!viable!“skating!days”!their!shelters!and!ice!maintenance! made!possible.324!!! Plans!for!the!Boathouse!began!in!September!1907!when!the!Chicago!Boat! Club!petitioned!the!Lincoln!Park!Board!for!permission!to!erect,!at!their!own! expense,!a!new!boathouse!to!replace!the!one!destroyed!by!construction!of!a! concrete!bridge!known!as!Lagoon!Bridge,!which!traversed!a!waterway!previously! used!by!the!boaters!on!the!north!side!of!the!park.!!Private!funding!of!boathouses! was!not!uncommon!and!may!have!been!a!means!for!park!officials!to!limit!such! structures.!!Outspoken!critics!complained!that!if!parks!stored!all!the!canoes!and! rowboats!people!used,!the!facilities!would!be!ubiquitous!and!disfigure!the! landscape.!!Park!officials,!however,!were!obliged!to!provide!some!facilities!due!to! the!sport’s!overwhelming!popularity.325!!! Perkins!was!sensitive!to!these!competing!positions,!so!he!literally!built!the! Boathouse!into!the!ground!so!as!to!minimize!disruption!to!the!landscape.!!The! brownPtinted!reinforced!concrete!of!the!semicircular!sports!shelter!blended!into!the! earth.!!The!entire!structure!was!topped!with!twoPandPaPhalf!feet!of!loam!so! shrubbery!and!trees!could!be!planted!over!it.!!Boaters!accessed!the!entrance!though! an!eastPfacing!courtyard!demarcated!by!the!semicircular!arms!of!the!curved! concrete,!the!only!exposed!side!of!the!building!(Figure!4.19).!Prismatic!skylights! punctured!the!manmade!berm!that!camouflaged!the!building,!admitting!overhead! light!to!compensate!for!the!near!lack!of!windows.!!Inside!was!a!storage!shed! measuring!180!feet!by!40!feet!capable!of!stocking!between!120P200!racing!shells! and!canoes,!a!locker!room,!toilets,!baths,!and!an!assembly!hall!within!its! subterranean!walls.326!!Guides!to!Lincoln!Park!marveled!at!the!“peculiar!structure,”! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 324 See 1901 Annual Report of the Special Park Commission, 10; 1904 Annual Report of the Special Park Commission, 8, 11; 1906 Annual Report of the Special Park Commission, 10; and Cranz, Politics of Park Design, 13 325 Official Proceedings of the Lincoln Park Commissioners, vol. 7, September 11, 1907, Special Collections, Chicago Park District; and Peaslee, “Boathouses,” 232. 326 1908 Annual Report of the Lincoln Park Commissioners, 19-21; and Illustrated Guide of Lincoln Park, 27. the!existence!of!which!was!barely!discernable,!calling!it!the!“most!unique!structure! in!the!park.”327!!! Landscape!architect!O.C.!Simonds!assisted!Perkins!in!the!design!of!the! Boathouse!and!was!partly!responsible!for!its!unusual!site!planning,!which!embodied! his!conviction!that!park!architecture!should!be!subservient!to!the!natural! landscape.328!!At!the!same!time,!its!unique!site!planning!can!be!attributed!to! widespread!conventions!governing!boathouse!construction,!which!often!called!for! their!concealment.329 !!The+Park+International!pointed!out!that!boathouses!were! points!of!departure!rather!than!points!of!interest,!and!therefore,!their!presence! should!be!minimized.!!This!was!achieved!through!plantings!that!concealed!the! structure,!or!conversely,!through!an!exaggerated,!conspicuous!use!of!ornamental! detail!that!conveyed!no!evidence!of!its!real!function,!effectively!“hiding”!the! utilitarian!boathouse!behind!a!veil!of!architectural!pretension.330!!The!Lincoln!Park! Commission!preferred!“mounds!thickly!planted!with!trees!and!shrubs”!as!a!means! of!screening!park!buildings,!and!it!praised!the!use!of!this!technique!at!the! boathouse,!the!winter!skating!shelter,!the!power!station,!and!the!stable!because!it! improved!the!appearance!of!the!park.331! Concrete!was!a!practical!choice!given!the!underground!site,!but!it!was!also!a! pragmatic!response!to!financial!limitations.!!Erection!of!the!privately!funded! boathouse!proceeded!simultaneously!with!the!construction!of!the!concrete!Lagoon! Bridge,!and!the!Lincoln!Park!Commission!arranged!for!a!considerable!amount!of!the! bridge!form!material!to!be!recycled!in!building!the!boathouse.!!This!substantially! reduced!costs!for!the!Chicago!Boat!Club.!332!!Sharing!form!material!might!also! account!for!the!unusual!curved!plan!of!the!boathouse,!since!the!bridge!is!a!sweeping! arch!spanning!one!hundred!feet.!!The!congruence!between!the!bridge!and!the! boathouse!–!concrete!material!and!curved!forms!–!resulted!in!a!unified!and! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 327 Illustrated Guide of Lincoln Park Chicago, 27. 328 National Register Nomination for Lincoln Park, 24. 329 Cranz, Politics of Park Design, 49. 330 Peaslee, “Boathouses,” 231. 331 1908 Annual Report of the Lincoln Park Commissioners, 27-8. 332 Ibid., 21. remarkably!modern!landscape!composition,!unique!in!Perkins’s!career!(Figure! 4.20).! Most!sports!enthusiasts!welcomed!public!assistance!for!maintaining!private! athletic!organizations!in!parks.!!Private!boat!clubs!across!the!nation!often!struggled! with!the!heavy!overhead!costs!of!maintaining!the!elaborate!shelters,!storages,!and! locker!rooms!demanded!by!the!sport,!and!the!Chicago!Boat!Club!was!no!different.!! The!Club!was!actually!a!consortium!of!various!rowing!clubs!that!united!in!order!to! combine!funds!for!their!building!campaign.333!!Despite!their!pooled!resources,!the! group!evidently!needed!the!public!subsidy.!!They!defaulted!on!their!construction! payments!in!1910,!prompting!the!Lincoln!Park!Board!to!evict!them!from!the! premises.!334!!The!Chicago!Boat!Club!was!only!saved!when!the!president!reorganized! the!club!as!a!nonPprofit!business!and!charged!annual!membership!fees!that!enabled! it!to!generate!income.335!!A!victory!from!the!perspective!of!the!private!members,! boatingPasPbusiness!undermined!the!ideal!of!the!pleasure!ground!as!a! noncommercial,!noncompetitive,!ruminative!public!sphere.!!! Perkins!responded!to!the!environment!with!equal!sensitivity!when!he! designed!the!North!Pond!Winter!Skating!Shelter!in!1913P14.!!The!structure!housed!a! public!restroom!with!a!small!concession!stand!that!was!heated!in!the!winter,!and!so! it!doubled!as!a!warming!shelter!for!ice!skaters.!!The!comfort!station!replaced!a! preexisting!restroom!and!café!on!the!northern!end!of!the!park,!which!had!closed! due!to!a!considerably!damaged!and!leaking!roof!that!Perkins!had!tried! unsuccessfully!to!repair.336!Perkins!built!the!North!Pond!shelter!into!a!sloping!hill! called!Mount!Prospect.!!Only!two!sides!of!the!shelter!were!exposed!and!accessible! from!outside.!!An!open!terrace!in!the!front!of!the!building!simultaneously! foreground!the!shelter!and!joined!it!to!North!Pond!lagoon.!!The!shelter!thus! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 333 Official Proceedings of the Lincoln Park Commissioners, vol. 7, September 11, 1907; and Peaslee, “Boathouses,” 232. 334 1908 Annual Report of the Lincoln Park Commissioners, 21. 335 Peaslee, “Boathouses,” 232; and Official Proceedings of the Lincoln Park Commissioners, vol. 7, March 9, 1910 and June 8, 1910, Special Collections, Chicago Park District. 336 Official Proceedings of the Lincoln Park Commission, vol. 7, March 13, 1908 and March 31, 1910, Special Collections, Chicago Park District. The North Pond Skating Shelter was originally called Park Place Café. The building has been restored and is a restaurant called North Pond. effectively!mediated!between!two!landscape!features,!the!hill!and!the!pond!(Figure! 4.21).337! Perkins!responded!to!prevailing!cultural!attitudes!regarding!waste! elimination!as!much!as!the!environment!when!he!designed!the!site!plan!of!the!North! Pond!Shelter.!!Mitigating!the!embarrassment!about!using!comfort!stations!was!a! significant!design!consideration.!!Despite!their!obvious!necessity,!planners!were! often!reluctant!to!install!restrooms!because!they!provided!opportunities!for! licentious!behavior,!and!the!reference!to!bodily!functions!seemed!to!deface!the! idyllic!beauty!of!park!landscapes.338!!Consequently,!discretion!was!paramount.!! Perkins!acknowledged!such!concerns!by!embedding!the!shelter!into!the!base!of! Mount!Prospect,!partially!obscuring!the!structure.!!At!the!same!time,!restrooms! needed!to!be!conveniently!located!and!easy!to!find,!so!he!placed!the!comfort!station! at!a!popular!destination!point!–!a!naturally!occurring!and!decently!large!hill,! unusual!in!the!generally!flat!prairie!topography,!which!terminated!in!a!pond.!!Park! journals!frequently!advocated!placing!restrooms!near!preferred!rendezvous!points,! especially!in!large!parks!where!obscure!locations!would!be!difficult!to!access.!!The! proximity!to!popular!gathering!spots!made!them!–!and!their!abashed!users!–!less! obvious:!“Just!as!an!individual!is!least!conspicuous!in!a!crowd,!so!the!more!easily! accessible!from!travel!lines!a!parkPcomfort!station!is!made,!the!less!embarrassment! is!experienced!in!its!use.”339!!! Park!journals!also!contended!that!comfort!station!exteriors!were!best! designed!in!a!straightforward!manner.!!Critics!disapproved!of!the!American! tendency!to!overPembellish!such!structures!with!historic!details!that!only!called! more,!and!unfavorable,!attention!to!them.!!This!could!discourage!broad!public!use.!! Many!Americans!still!bypassed!complementary!public!restrooms!and!paid!money!to! use!hotel!bathrooms.!!Some!articles!urged!architects!to!follow!European!examples,! where!restroom!facilities!were!neat,!frank,!decently!arranged!buildings!that!were! “attractive”!and!subsequently!“patronized!by!all!classes.”!!Cleanliness!was!crucial,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 337 National Register Nomination for Lincoln Park, 23. 338 Cranz, Politics of Park Design, 10-11; and Horace W. Peaslee, “Park Architecture, III: Lodges,” in The Park International (November 1920): 226-7. 339 Peaslee, “Lodges,” 227. specifically!by!hose!pressure,!so!substantial!but!simple!construction!was!necessary.!! Designers!advised!using!minimal!trim!and!glazed!or!enameled!brick!since!it!resisted! water!as!well!as!the!graffiti!and!the!jackPknife!incisions!that!commonly!defaced! public!toilets.340!!In!short,!the!ideal!comfort!station!was!“a!good!servant,!humble!but! not!homely,!retiring!but!not!secretive,!efficient!but!not!officious.”341! Perkins!met!these!competing!demands!with!a!simple,!rectangular!box! constructed!of!brown!brick!with!a!horizontal!roof!punctuated!by!two!vertical! chimneys.!!The!interplay!between!horizontal!and!vertical!elements!continued!on!the! façade,!where!projecting!brick!piers!separated!seven!upright!windows,!themselves! comprised!of!twin!glass!panes.342!!The!repetition!of!piers!upon!glass!created!a! vertical!rhythm!across!the!facade,!which!at!the!same!time!was!contained!by!the! predominately!horizontal!orientation!of!the!overall!volume,!the!flat!roof,!and!the! nearly!stagnant,!placid!lagoon.!!Perkins!combined!several!natural!materials!–!brick,! wood,!and!flagstone!–!on!the!exterior,!their!various!earthPtone!colors!harmonizing! together!and!with!the!landscape.!!These!materials!also!introduced!a!subtle!play!on! textures!into!the!design,!since!the!smooth!wood!contrasted!with!the!coarse!brick! and!even!rougher!stone.!!Perkins!continued!with!the!same!materials!inside,!since! glazed!brick!made!for!easier!cleaning.!!The!juxtaposition!of!textures,!rhythms,!and! landscape!features!at!North!Pond!resulted!in!a!satisfying,!dignified!composition!that! met!sanitation!requirements!without!relying!on!fussy!historical!features.!!Despite! the!seemingly!unremarkable,!and!at!times!actively!suppressed,!program!of!comfort! stations,!he!managed!to!transform!North!Pond!into!a!modern,!civic!amenity!worthy! of!public!respect.! ! Education!at!the!Pleasure!Ground:!the!Lincoln!Park!Zoo! Perkins’s!new!Lion!House!for!the!Lincoln!Park!Zoo!(1912)!continued!an! expansion!campaign!that!began!in!1899!and!was!also!an!effort!to!update!the! zoological!campus!following!“the!most!advanced!and!successful!ideas!in!the!care!of! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 340 Peaslee, “Lodges,” 229-230. 341 Ibid., 225. 342 These windows may have originally opened to serve as vending space for the concession stand. See National Register Nomination for Lincoln Park, 23. wild!animals.”343!!This!ambitious!development!program!reflected!trends!that! increasingly!included!cultural!institutions!like!zoos,!aquariums,!and!botanical! gardens!inside!parks!to!provide!a!“living!lesson!for!students!of!natural!history.”344!! Such!programming!offered!relatively!structured!courses!of!nature!study,!a!marked! contrast!to!simply!relaxing!outdoors.!!The!zoo!was,!in!fact,!a!chief!park!attraction,! and!park!commissioners!claimed!they!were!inherently!democratic!since!they! attracted!visitors!of!all!ages,!abilities,!and!ethnicities.345! Despite!such!benefits,!the!public!expressed!conflicting!attitudes!towards!the! Lincoln!Park!zoological!collection.!!Park!purists!opposed!them!because!animal! entertainments,!however!cultural!or!educational,!detracted!from!the!recreational! character!of!the!park.!!Others!argued!that!zoological!exhibitions!were!too!stringent! because!they!required!study!and!examination,!exertions!better!left!for!school.346!! Many!visitors,!however,!found!zoos!both!enjoyable!and!educational.!!A!delegation!of! Chicago!citizens!petitioned!the!Lincoln!Park!Board!in!1881!to!express!their! disapproval!of!animal!sales.!!The!delegation!requested!that!the!animal!stock!be! increased,!specifically!with!lions.347 !!The!zoo!was!so!popular!that!the!Lincoln!Park! Board!was!able!to!fund!their!expensive,!wildPanimal!program!entirely!through! private!donations.348!! All!the!same,!the!everPlarger!animal!collection!demanded!that!the!Lincoln! Park!Board!modernize!the!zoo!for!sheer!practical!reasons.!!The!zoo!had!originated! somewhat!spontaneously!in!1868!when!Central!Park!in!New!York!donated!two!pair! of!swans,!which!then!successfully!reproduced.!!By!1873!Lincoln!Park!owned! seventyPfive!animals,!all!donated,!including!four!eagles,!eight!peacocks,!two!elk,!and! a!bear.349!!Only!one!permanent!structure!existed!to!house!all!the!animals!prior!to! 1899,!however,!and!this!containment!building!had!only!been!constructed!ten!years! earlier.!!During!the!winter!months,!this!universal!animal!house!sheltered!tropical! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 343 I.J. Bryan, Report of the Commissioners and History of Lincoln Park (Chicago: Lincoln Park Commissioners, 1899), 124-5. 344 Ibid., 126. 345 Ibid., 126. 346 Cranz, Politics of Park Design, 14. 347 Bryan, History of Lincoln Park, 80. 348 Ibid., 126. 349 Ibid., 77. species!as!diverse!as!birds,!tigers,!lions,!leopards,!and!hyenas!in!detached!cages!in! the!center!of!the!building.!!During!the!warmer!months,!zookeepers!transported!the! animals!to!outdoor!pens,!a!dangerous!process!that!entailed!driving!the!animals!into! moveable!cages!and!relocating!them,!an!obvious!hazard!to!employees,!the!public,! and!the!animals!alike.!!Hardier!species!like!bear,!buffalo,!raccoons,!and!sea!lions! were!kept!outdoors!year!round!in!wooden!sheds,!both!unsightly!and!difficult!to! clean,!and!these!were!sometimes!attached!to!crude!and!apparently!unfenced! habitats!such!as!“bear!pits.”350 !!Not!surprisingly,!accidents!and!escapes!were! common.!!Bears!quickly!learned!how!to!climb!out!of!their!rockPlined,!but!otherwise! unsecured!dens.!!They!roamed!the!park!on!a!nightly!basis!and!walked!on!the!ice!of! Lake!Michigan!during!the!winter.!!When!Duchess,!an!elephant!acquired!in!1888,!ran! amuck!while!being!transported!to!her!summer!quarters,!she!crushed!flower!beds! and!fences,!uprooted!a!small!summer!structure,!and!tore!the!entry!gate!to!a!nearby! brewery!off!its!hinges.!!Several!marauding!sea!lions!waddled!into!a!downtown! restaurant!after!breaking!free!from!their!unfinished!pen.!!One!of!them,!perhaps!the! smarter!of!the!bunch,!plunged!into!Lake!Michigan,!never!to!return.351!!No!human! injuries!occurred!during!these!episodes,!but!the!animals!were!not!always!so!lucky,! several!being!hurt!or!killed!during!their!recapture.352!!!! One!obvious!solution!to!such!dangerous,!ineffective,!and!unsanitary! conditions!was!to!separate!the!animal!species!into!different!habitats,!each!specially! designed!for!their!unique!physical!needs.!!To!this!end,!the!animal!kingdom!at! Lincoln!Park!Zoo!was!rationalized!and!subdivided!according!to!the!modern! taxonomic!system,!with!species!roughly!categorized!by!animal!class,!such!as! reptiles,!birds,!and!felines.!!Modernized!and!differentiated!containment!buildings! and!habitats!were!gradually!erected!for!each!category.!!Perkins’s!1912!Lion!House! came!between!a!Bird!House!designed!in!1904!by!Jarvis!Hunt!and!a!reptile!center! designed!by!Edwin!W.!Clark!in!the!1920s.!!The!reorganized!zoo!campus!effectively! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 350 Ibid., 124-5. 351 Ibid., 78-80, 82-83. 352 Ibid., 80, 84. reproduced!in!built!form!modern!scientific!methods!of!biological!classification!and! study.!! Of!all!the!Lincoln!Park!buildings!that!Perkins!designed,!the!architectural! representation!of!the!Lion!House!was!possibly!the!least!sympathetic!to!its!natural! surroundings,!despite!the!fact!that!the!structure!literally!sheltered!and!exhibited! wildlife.!!The!principle!volume!of!the!Lion!House!was!a!triumphal!arch!constructed! of!reddishPbrown!brick!that!harmonized!with!the!nearby!South!Pond!Refectory.!! Outdoor!cages!and!artificial!rocks!flanked!the!north!and!south!sides!of!the!building! (Figure!4.22).!!Four!ornamental!lions,!two!seated!near!the!impost!blocks!of!the!arch! and!two!sparring!above!its!keystone,!presided!over!the!archway!and!frankly! expressed!the!program.!!The!lions!were!made!of!tile!and!depicted!in!profile,!looking! vaguely!Assyrian!or!reminiscent!of!a!noble!family!crest.!!The!result!was!a!sort!of! architecture+parlante!as!obvious!as!Perkins’s!boathouse!was!disguised.!!Under!the! watchful!guard!of!the!lions,!visitors!entered!the!central!exhibition!space!through!the! archway,!which!continued!on!the!interior!in!the!form!of!a!barrel!vault!with!a!ribbed! tile!ceiling.!!The!space!was!lit!by!clerestory!windows!above!and!lined!with!animal! cages!below,!which!Perkins!relocated!from!the!center!aisle!to!the!southern!wall,! where!they!connected!to!the!outdoor!habitats.353!!! By!choosing!to!design!the!Lion!House!in!a!recognizably!classical!style,! Perkins!legitimated!the!zoo!as!a!public!and!cultural!institution!and!also! acknowledged!other!zoo!structures!in!the!immediate!vicinity.!!The!Bird!House!was!a! classical!revival!structure,!with!an!entry!pediment!made!of!terracotta!tile!and!a! gabled!roof!clad!with!brown!asphalt!shingles.!!Two!ornamental!eagles!flanked!the! entrance,!perched!on!brick!piers.354!!The!inclusion!of!animal!caricatures!on!façades! continued!into!the!1920s,!when!Clark!adorned!his!brown!brick,!Georgian!style! Reptile!House!with!turtles,!frogs,!and!seahorses!carved!from!limestone.!!The! classical!motifs,!brick!materials,!and!animal!representations!functioned!as!a!type!of! connective!tissue,!visually!uniting!buildings!that!otherwise!would!have!appeared!to! be!what,!in!fact,!they!were:!disparate!structures!constructed!by!different!architects,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 353 National Register Nomination for Lincoln Park, 14. The Lion House was rehabilitated in 1992. 354 Ibid. separately!and!over!a!long!period!of!time.!!Thus,!to!some!extent,!Perkins!responded! sensitively!to!context,!the!built!context!of!the!zoo!and!also!its!social!context!as!a! cultural!institution.! ! From!Personal!Hygiene!to!Public!Health:!the!Daily!News!Fresh!Air!Sanitarium! Perkins!designed!the!Daily!News!Fresh!Air!Sanitarium!in!1913,!his!last!and! most!controversial!addition!to!Lincoln!Park!and!an!institution!that!circumscribed! nearly!all!his!concerns!correlating!ethnicity,!class,!and!the!environment!with!disease! transmission,!public!health,!and!hygiene.!!The!Chicago!Daily!News!privately! sponsored!the!outpatient!clinic!with!the!goal!of!providing!food!and!basic!medical! services!to!the!underprivileged.355!!Despite!this!noble!cause,!citizen!protests!delayed! its!construction!for!years,!and!Perkins!only!completed!the!structure!in!1920.!!The! public!debates!around!the!sanitarium!revealed!widespread!cultural!prejudices!with! regard!to!ethnicity!and!poverty!–!namely,!the!stereotype!that!poor,!nonPwhites!were! somehow!contaminated,!unclean,!and,!according!to!new!understandings!of! bacteriology!emerging!at!the!time,!contagious.!!Nevertheless,!the!sanitarium! together!with!its!myriad!educational!programs!signaled!shifting!attitudes!with! regard!to!health!and!hygiene.!!Wellness!and!cleanliness!were!no!longer!personal! practices,!home!remedies!administered!in!private.!!As!scientific!advancement! revealed!many!common,!deadly!diseases!to!be!transmissible!through!bacteria!or! germs!–!not!inherited!–!health!became!a!public!responsibility.!!The!sanitarium!was!a! treatment!facility!for!patients!suffering!from!communicable!infections!like! tuberculosis,!but!it!also!became!an!educational!institution,!a!site!where!hygienic! practices!were!standardized,!codified,!and!disseminated!to!the!public.!! Perkins!gave!the!sanitarium!a!loosely!domestic!feel!through!his!choice!of! materials!and!inclusion!of!recognizably!homePlike!architectural!symbols.!!The! infirmary!was!lowPrise,!only!onePandPaPhalf!stories,!constructed!of!reddish!brick,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 355 “Chicago Daily News Fresh-Air Sanitarium,” in Lincoln Park Promotional Material, Special Collections, Chicago Park District. The Lincoln Park Board and the Chicago Daily News brokered a deal governing their private-public relationship, whereby the newly created property would revert to the Lincoln Park Commissioners should it be abandoned by the Daily News Corporation. See Official Proceedings of the Lincoln Park Commissioners, vol. 8, September 10, 1913, Special Collections, Chicago Park District, 259. with!overhanging!eaves,!gabled!dormers,!and!a!pitched!roof!over!the!main!entrance.!! The!site!was!a!newly!manufactured!strip!of!shoreline!created!in!1908!when!“Picnic! Island,”!a!naturalistically!landscaped,!dayPretreat!floating!in!the!waters!of!Lake! Michigan,!was!reconnected!to!the!mainland!of!Lincoln!Park.356!!The!structure! consisted!of!two!principal!volumes!situated!at!right!angles!to!each!other:!a!covered,! openPair!pavilion!that!ran!parallel!to!the!shoreline!and!an!enclosed!wing!containing! offices!and!classrooms.!!Four!times!a!day,!volunteers!served!free!milk!and! sandwiches!in!the!pavilion,!whose!open!structure!maximized!exposure!to!healthy! lake!breezes!and!sunshine.!!Babies!slept!in!baskets!hung!from!the!ceiling,!while! nurses!and!mothers!soothed!toddlers!and!young!children!in!the!many!rocking!chairs! scattered!throughout!the!space!(Figures!4.23P4.25).!357!!Good!nutrition,!clean!air,! and!rest!were!the!best!treatment!options!available!at!the!time!for!the!prevention! and!sometimes!cure!of!tuberculosis,!typhoid!fever,!cholera,!and!other!common! communicable!diseases.358!!Yet!many!victims!could!not!afford!even!these!simple! therapies.!!Most!sanitariums!were!remotely!located!and!expensive!–!a!luxury! beyond!the!reach!of!people!who!could!not!always!afford!wholesome!meals!or!wellP ventilated!living!quarters,!let!alone!a!sabbatical!in!the!country.!!With!the!help!of!the! Chicago!Daily!News,!parents!and!friends!brought!between!30,000!and!40,000! children!to!the!sanitarium!every!summer,!some!for!medical!care,!others!to!enjoy!the! lake!breezes!and!free!food.!!An!additional!7,000!to!10,000!mothers!and!3,500!babies! visited!throughout!the!year.359! Obviously!the!significance!and!controversy!around!the!Fresh!Air!Sanitarium! requires!a!discussion!of!public!health!risks!and!reforms!in!the!early!twentieth! century.!!The!emphasis!on!food!and!milk!distribution!at!Perkins’s!clinic!underscored! the!seriousness!of!malnutrition!and!hygiene!as!contributing!factors!to!the!spread!of! communicable!illnesses.!!Children!under!five!years!old!accounted!for!onePfourth!of! all!deaths!in!1910,!the!most!common!culprit!being!unremitting!diarrhea!and! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 356 The infill of Picnic Island was part of an expansion project managed by O.C. Simonds between 1904 and 1908, which added 275 acres to Lincoln Park. See National Register Nomination for Lincoln Park, 26. 357 “Chicago Daily News Fresh-Air Sanitarium.” 358 Tomes, Gospel of Germs, 115. 359 “Chicago Daily News Fresh-Air Sanitarium.” dehydration!caused!by!“dirty!milk”!and!contaminated!drinking!water.360!!To!combat! the!spread!of!typhoid!fever,!cholera,!and!other!gastrointestinal!diseases,!many!cities! opened!clean!milk!dispensing!stations!in!tenement!districts.!!Chicago!became!the! first!city!in!the!world!to!legislate!the!use!of!pasteurized!milk!in!1909,!which,!along! with!improved!methods!for!purifying!public!drinking!water,!was!a!significant!factor! in!curbing!epidemic!diseases.!361!! The!heimlich!appearance!of!the!Fresh!Air!Sanitarium!encouraged!broad! public!use!with!its!familiar!and!inviting!forms,!but!its!domestic!character!also! suggested!how!progressive!reformers!hoped!to!extend!municipal!sanitation! standards!into!the!private!realms!of!housecleaning!and!personal!hygiene.!!Clean! milk!and!water!alone!did!little!to!curb!infection!rates!if!people!were!not!also! educated!about!processes!of!germ!transmission!and!hygienic!practices.!!Reformers! and!health!officials!frequently!conducted!educational!programs!at!sanitariums,! recreation!centers,!and!public!schools,!where!they!translated!scientific!knowledge! on!bacteriology!gained!in!the!laboratory!into!everyday!rituals!of!hygienic!behavior.!! The!staff!at!municipal!dairy!stations,!for!example,!not!only!provided!pasteurized! milk!but!also!instructed!people!on!its!dietary!value,!how!to!store!it!(cold!and! covered),!how!to!boil!it!if!they!doubted!its!purity,!and!how!to!sterilize!the!bottles! with!soap!and!hot!water.362!!Most!people!still!believed!that!diseases!like!tuberculosis! were!hereditary!afflictions,!prompting!antiPtuberculosis!societies!to!mount!the!first! public!health!campaigns!to!convince!people!this!was!a!communicable!disease!and! train!them!out!of!commonplace!habits!that!transmitted!it,!like!kissing,!coughing,! spitting,!or!sharing!utensils.363!!!! New!understandings!with!regards!to!the!interdependency!of!modern!society! drove!many!of!these!public!health!campaigns.!Not!only!were!germs!mobile!and!vital,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 360 Suellen Hoy, Chasing Dirt: The American Pursuit of Cleanliness (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 109. 361 Ibid., 108. 362 Ibid., 110. 363 Tomes, Gospel of Germs, 113-114. The Lincoln Park Board also hosted anti-tuberculosis fairs at municipal playgrounds including Seward and Hamlin Parks, both designed by Perkins. See Official Proceedings of the Lincoln Park Commissioners, vol. 8, October 7, 1913, Special Collections, Chicago Park District. they!were!classless.!!The!health!commissioner!of!New!York!City!dubbed!the!microbe! a!“Social!Leveller”:!! The!microbe!of!disease!is!no!respecter!of!persons...the![wealthy]!cannot! afford!to!sit!at!his!wellPcovered!table!and!forget!the!absence!of!food!in!the! [poor!person’s]!room,!because!that!absence!of!food!means,!sooner!or!later,! that!disease!will!break!out!in!the!room,!and!the!microbes!or!their!spores!will! in!time!pass!the!heavy!curtains!on!the!windows!of!the!mansion!and!find!their! prey!inside…this!is!the!Socialism!of!the!microbe,!this!is!the!chain!of!disease,! which!binds!all!the!people!in!a!community!together.364!! The!idea!that!germs!were!equal!opportunity!predators!was!not!entirely!true,!of! course.!!Poor,!immigrant,!nonPwhites!were!more!likely!to!contract!communicable! diseases!due!to!factors!outside!their!control,!such!as!low!wages!that!prevented!them! from!purchasing!soaps!or!healthy!foods,!poor!housing!that!lacked!running!water,! light,!or!access!to!fresh!air,!and!a!lack!of!education!with!regards!to!personal!hygiene.!! The!scientific!realities!of!germ!transmission!prompted!affluent!Americans!to!realize! that!disease!prevention!was!not!simply!a!matter!of!individual!health!and!cleanliness! (much!easier!for!the!wealthy!to!achieve)!but!was!inextricably!linked!to!larger!socioP economic!problems,!such!as!unsafe!tenements,!unfair!wages,!and!unregulated!food! distribution.365!In!this!way,!public!health!concerns!ultimately!galvanized!a!host!of! municipal!improvements.! Perkins!demonstrated!his!commitment!to!issues!of!public!health!when!he! persevered!through!seven!years!of!public!protest!to!construct!the!Fresh!Air! Sanitarium.!!Critics!argued!that!private!organizations!like!the!Daily!News!should!not! be!allowed!to!conduct!business,!however!philanthropic,!on!public!park!property.!! The!Lincoln!Park!Commissioners!likely!agreed!to!the!arrangement!because! corporate!financing!saved!taxpayer!money!and!provided!a!considerable!public! benefit!since!the!clinic!was!free.!!Still,!opponents!insisted!that!“the!park!was!no!place! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 364 Cyrus Edson, “The Microbe as a Social Leveller” in North American Review 161 (1895): 421-426, quoted in Tomes, Gospel of Germs, 128. 365 Tomes, Gospel of Germs,127-129. for!such!a!building,”!and!their!attacks!were!vehement!enough!to!delay!construction! until!1920.366!! Despite!such!protests,!Perkins’s!sanitarium!was!only!the!latest!installment!in! a!long!succession!of!hospitals!and!treatment!facilities!that!had!punctuated!the! northern!reaches!of!Lincoln!Park!since!the!midPnineteenth!century,!even!before!the! park!was!officially!created.!!An!intractable!cholera!epidemic!in!1852!prompted!the! Chicago!Common!Council!to!purchase!three!large!parcels!of!land!outside!the!city!to! be!used!for!hospital!grounds!and!quarantine!stations,!which!subsequently!became! Lincoln!Park!in!1869.367!!A!“deadPhouse,”!or!morgue,!originally!performed!its!grim! duties!adjacent!to!the!old!Lincoln!Park!cemetery,!and!a!smallpox!hospital! administered!to!its!victims!only!four!hundred!yards!away.368!!Locating!such!dreaded! structures!outside!the!city!in!parklands!was!common!practice!since!the!refreshing! natural!environment!was!believed!to!promote!wellness!and,!more!sinisterly,!the! isolated!site!effectively!quarantined!the!dead!and!dying!from!the!majority! population.!!Read!in!succession,!the!trio!of!sites!–!smallpox!hospital,!morgue,!and! burial!ground!–!must!have!functioned!as!a!somewhat!morbid!demonstration!of!the! possible!progression!from!disease!to!death!should!one!contract!an!infection!like! smallpox,!cholera,!or!any!of!the!other!communicable!diseases!that!plagued! nineteenthPcentury!society.!!In!1878!the!Floating!Hospital!Association!erected!a! treatment!pavilion!on!a!pier!that!had!been!constructed!off!North!Avenue,!where! they!administered!to!sick!babies!and!their!mothers,!likely!suffering!from!typhoid! fever,!diarrhea,!or!tuberculosis,!who!were!literally!shipped!from!the!“hot!and! crowded!city”!to!the!quarantinePcumPpier!on!a!steamboat!especially!chartered!by! the!association.!!A!successor!organization!called!the!Fresh!Air!Fund,!which! ultimately!joined!forces!with!the!Chicago!Daily!News,!constructed!yet!another! sanitarium!on!the!Fullerton!Avenue!pier!in!1889!(Figures!4.26P4.27).369 !!!!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 366 Official Proceedings of the Lincoln Park Commissioners, vol. 8, October 8, 1913, Special Collections, Chicago Park District. 367 Bray, History of Lincoln Park, 14. The Common Council paid $8,851.50 for the three parcels, which reportedly remained a “barren waste of sand and swamp” until incorporated into Lincoln Park. 368 Ibid., 24. 369 Ibid., 48.  Public!protests!that!centered!around!the!private!financing!of!the!Fresh!Air! Sanitarium!were!likely!a!smokescreen!concealing!other!fears!associated!with! communicable!diseases,!ethnic!and!racial!differences,!and!class!conflict,!all!of!which! were!gathered!together!and!physically!embodied!in!the!sanitarium!building.!!While! “germ!theory”!was!arguably!democratic!and!served!to!unite!disparate!socioP economic!groups!into!a!common!fight!against!disease,!the!incessant!warnings!about! ubiquitous!bacteria!simultaneously!reinforced!common!prejudices!that!stereotyped! immigrant,!poor,!and!black!“others”!as!dirty,!dangerous,!and!to!be!avoided!wherever! possible,!since!these!groups!were!the!most!common!victims!of!infectious!disease.370!! Administering!to!this!ethnic!and!economic!underclass!inside!Lincoln!Park,!however! philanthropic!an!act,!also!meant!their!infiltration!into!a!sylvan!refuge!mostly! patronized!by!the!well!to!do,!and!many!affluent!Chicagoans!probably!felt!conflicted! about!such!a!prospect.!!!!!!!!!!! Perkins!was!deeply!committed!to!issues!of!public!health,!and!he!worked!to! overcome!such!misconceptions!and!prejudices!by!harmonizing!the!sanitarium!with! other!park!structures!and!through!sensitive!site!planning,!helping!to!legitimize!the! presence!of!a!public!health!clinic!on!park!grounds.!!The!sanitarium!recalled!the! South!Pond!Refectory,!the!Skating!Shelter,!and!the!Lion!House!in!its!simple,! geometric,!brick!patterns!and!French!pan!tiles.!!Its!horizontal!orientation!and! overhanging,!hipped!roof!minimized!its!disruption!of!the!landscape.!!The!completely! porous!architecture!of!the!openPair!pavilion!mediated!between!indoors!and! outdoors,!facilitating!intimate!connections!with!nature.!!These!efforts!personalized!a! potentially!intimidating!facility,!especially!for!young!patients,!and!helped!defang!a! contentious!institution.!!With!the!Fresh!Air!Sanitarium,!Perkins!announced!that! public!health!was!a!concern!for!rich!and!poor,!immigrant!and!nativePborn,!young! and!old!alike,!and!that!it!deserved!the!same,!if!not!more,!respect!and!consideration! as!other!cultural!institutions!like!zoos,!boating!clubs,!and!even!the!city!parks! themselves.!!! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 370 Tomes, Gospel of Germs, 129-31. The!Politics!of!Pleasure! Most!readers!today!so!strongly!associate!progressive!social!reform!with! poverty,!immigration,!disease,!and!overcrowded!urban!conditions!that!its!broader! facets!are!sometimes!marginalized.!!In!Lincoln!Park,!Perkins!was!able!to!express!his! commitment!to!an!inclusive!vision!of!social!democracy,!one!that!included!the!upper! and!middle!classes!and!embraced!leisure,!playfulness,!modern!entertainments,!and! pleasures!–!social!outlets!that,!in!short,!were!fun.!!Partly!for!these!reasons,!he!was! able!to!explore!creative!and!innovative!approaches!to!architecture!and!landscapes.!! Unlike!the!standardized!buildings!Perkins!would!design!for!the!School!Board,!his! structures!inside!Lincoln!Park!are!unique!and!singular,!though!he!also!respected! design!precedents.!!He!elevated!everyday!materials!like!brick,!terracotta,!and!wood! into!artful,!civic!gestures!that!celebrated!local!craftsmanship!through!subtle! geometric!brick!patterns!and!contrasting!textures,!even!as!they!seemed!familiar!and! welcoming!to!park!goers.!!Perhaps!most!significantly,!Perkins!demonstrated!his! willingness!to!accept!and!work!with!broad!cultural!expectations!at!Lincoln!Park,! even!if!these!sometimes!contradicted!his!personal!beliefs.!The!mainly!commercial! buildings!he!designed!there!arguably!contradicted!his!environmentalism!and! dedication!to!nature!conservation!since!they!introduced!marketPbased!operations! into!a!once!spiritual!realm!and!also!physically!marred!the!landscape.!!But!Perkins! respected!evolving!public!attitudes!towards!nature,!parks,!and!recreation!and! attempted!to!fulfill!these!new!aspirations!in!sensitive!and!respectful!ways!rather! than!dogmatically!insist!upon!his!personal!positions.!!! Even!as!the!buildings!inside!Lincoln!Park!acknowledged!the!desires!of! affluent!Chicagoans!and!artfully!showcased!many!of!Perkins’s!flexible!principles,! they!seem,!with!the!exception!of!the!sanitarium,!mainly!adjuncts!to!his!progressive! social!mission.!!Casinos,!restaurants,!and!cafés!attracted!people!to!the!park,!but!their! intentions!were!mainly!commercial!and!their!expense!deterred!lowerPincome! patrons.!!Various!private!operators,!such!as!the!concessionaire!Paul!Brauer,!the! Daily!News!Corporation,!and!the!Chicago!Boat!Club,!controlled!the!dayPtoPday! functions!of!almost!all!these!enterprises.!!These!consortiums!were!evidence!of!the! fluid!relationship!between!the!public!and!private!sectors!at!this!time,!but! progressive!reformers!could!only!exert!tangential!influence!over!private!vendors.!! Lastly,!since!Lincoln!Park!was!mostly!inaccessible!by!public!transportation,!many! visitors!were!upperP!and!middlePclass!residents!of!the!surrounding!neighborhoods.!! Perkins!recognized!that!Lincoln!Park,!for!all!its!benefits,!could!never!quite!operate! as!a!neighborhood!center!that!encouraged!democratic!exchange!across!economic! and!class!lines.!!And!so,!even!as!he!continued!his!work!inside!Lincoln!Park,!Perkins! turned!his!attention!to!building!local!playgrounds!and!recreation!centers!in! workingPclass!neighborhoods,!where!he!could!better!advance!his!social!and!political! agendas.!!! !!  Chapter!Five! Progressive!Playgrounds:!Bodies!at!Play,!the!Body!Politic! ! “We!are!welding!the!people!together!as!in!a!great!melting!pot!on!the!playgrounds!of!Chicago!”!! !!!PPCharles!Zueblin,!1912! ! Perkins!designed!three!neighborhood!playgrounds!concurrently!with!his! building!campaign!in!Lincoln!Park,!in!part!because!he!recognized!that!local! recreation!centers!were!more!effective!instruments!for!managing!class!relations!and! revitalizing!democratic!society.!!Playgrounds!were!smaller!and!more!affordable,! which!meant!that!park!boards!could!construct!them!in!congested,!urban!areas!in! closer!proximity!to!workingPclass!families,!most!of!whom!rarely!had!sufficient! leisure!time!to!visit!outlying!pleasure!grounds!or!nature!preserves.!!Ideally,!Perkins! hoped!to!construct!enough!playgrounds!that!all!Chicagoans!would!live!within!a!halfP mile!of!one,!because!accessibility!would!encourage!families!to!visit!frequently.371!! Park!boards!could!also!control!these!small!municipal!organizations!more!tightly! than!the!panoply!of!public,!private,!and!philanthropic!organizations!that!occupied! large!parks!like!Lincoln!Park.!!Nearly!all!playground!supporters!advocated! organizing!and!administering!playgrounds!in!a!bureaucratic!manner!to!maximize! their!efficiency.!!Perkins!thought!that!providing!supervised!recreational!facilities!to! underprivileged!people!would!reduce!crime,!improve!public!health,!and!most! importantly,!he!believed!that!trained!playground!employees!could!direct!the!“play! experience”!so!as!to!teach!children!desirable!social!attitudes!like!a!respect!for!order,! cooperation,!and!social!unity.!!With!these!ideas!in!mind,!Perkins!designed!three! playgrounds!between!1908!and!1913!for!neighborhoods!on!the!northwest!side!of! Chicago!!–!Seward!Park,!Hamlin!Park,!and!Stanton!Park!–!and!facilitated!the! establishment!of!dozens!more!through!his!involvement!with!the!Special!Park! Commission.372!!He!envisioned!these!supervised!neighborhood!playgrounds!as!new! types!of!local!institutions!capable!of!encouraging!democratic!social!exchange.! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 371 Perkins, Metropolitan Park System, 59-60. 372 There is some discrepancy about the status of Stanton Playground. According to the Official Proceedings of Lincoln Park, Perkins and Hamilton were involved in the initial planning stages of Stanton Park. A rendering of the field house and photographs depicting the site before construction were published. However, in 1925 Perkins wrote in Educational Buildings that the three parks he designed for the Lincoln Town!Hall!Transformed:!Democracy!and!the!Playground!Movement! Perkins!finally!synthesized!his!longstanding!concerns!about!public!health,! education,!immigration,!and!social!democracy!in!three!playgrounds!he!designed!at! Seward!Park,!Hamlin!Park,!and!Stanton!Park,!veritable!neighborhood!centers!which,! more!than!settlements,!zoos,!or!sanitariums,!were!able!to!function!as!updated!town! halls!for!modern!society.!!These!playgrounds!were,!in!fact,!elaborate!civic!complexes! that!provided!for!the!physical!and!social!needs!of!their!communities.!!Their! generously!apportioned!athletic!fields,!gymnastic!apparatus,!swings,!sandboxes,!and! swimming!pools!provided!safe,!supervised!outdoor!spaces!for!families!to!play!and! exercise.!!Substantial!field!houses!contained!public!libraries,!assembly!spaces,!and! meeting!rooms!where!people!could!read!newspapers!and!books,!attend!lectures!and! debates,!and!convene!community!associations!(Figures!5.1P5.10,!5.11P5.13,!and! 5.16).!!They!also!provided!affordable!lunchrooms!and!public!showers!with!changing! rooms,!sometimes!the!only!bathing!facilities!available!to!poor!families.!!City!officials! established!employment!bureaus,!day!nurseries,!clean!milk!stations,!dispensaries,! and!headquarters!for!district!nurses!at!playgrounds.373 !!As!architecture!critic!Fiske! Kimball!wrote,!their!updated!and!expanded!functions!filled!“the!broader!social! responsibilities!of!government!of!the!present,”!revitalizing!democratic!ideals! originally!embodied!in!the!village!halls!of!New!England.374!!Perkins!himself!aptly! captured!the!pragmatic!evolution!of!playgrounds!into!civic!centers.!“Park!boards,”! he!wrote!matterPofPfactly,!“as!taxing!agencies,!as!custodians!of!public!property!and! as!administrators!in!the!interests!of!public!education!and!recreation,!gradually!came! to!realize!that!their!duties!had!increased.”375!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Park District were Seward, Hamlin, and Welles Park. He makes no mention of Stanton Park, and the author has not found photographs of the finished field house, suggesting perhaps that Perkins did not, in the end, complete the commission. What is certain is that Stanton Park was constructed. According to the Annual Report of the Lincoln Park Commission for 1913-15, the playground had a field house, outdoor swimming pool, baseball diamonds, tennis courts, a running track, and outdoor gymnasiums with apparatus. No known photographs or renderings of Welles playground exist, though it was constructed. The Annual Report of the Lincoln Park Commission for 1913-15 reports that this playground was entirely different from most in that a large portion of its grounds was a picturesque meadow. 373 Fiske Kimball, “The Social Center, Part III: Civic Enterprises,” The Architectural Record (July 1919): 43. 374 Ibid., 43. 375 Perkins and Howell, “Functions and Plan-Types of Community Buildings,” 290.  The!importance!of!public!funding!from!tax!revenues!cannot!be! underestimated!here.!!Municipal!playgrounds!duplicated!many!of!the!social!services! already!offered!through!privately!financed!settlement!houses,!but!government! funding!transformed!them!from!charities!into!civic!institutions.!!As!Perkins! explained,!“the!park!and!school!boards!have!the!advantage!of!deriving!their!support! and!the!authority!which!they!exercise!in!the!administration!of!these!centers!from! the!people!themselves.!!There!is!no!element!of!charity!in!the!park!recreation! center.”376!Public!funding!also!stabilized!their!budgets,!making!playground! programs!seem!relatively!permanent!and!dependable.!!Constant!fiscal!insecurity! was!a!resounding!problem!for!private!philanthropies!and!undermined!their!ability! to!administer!social!services!on!a!consistent!basis.!!Large!city!parks!like!Lincoln!Park! arguably!took!the!first!steps!in!democratizing!recreation!facilities!since!they!were,! by!definition!at!least,!public!spaces.!!But!their!zoos,!boating!clubs,!and!skating! rentals!were!profit!seeking,!commercial!ventures,!too!expensive!for!workingPclass! families!to!patronize!regularly.!!Municipal!playgrounds!provided!free!or!subsidized! programs.!!Since!taxpayers!funded!them,!users!felt!empowered!and!entitled!to!their! services.!!As!Kimball!pointed!out,!“there!is!no!financial!barrier,!however!low,!to!their! enjoyment;!there!is!no!mistrust!of!being!patronized,!but!instead,!a!sense!of! proprietorship.”377!!Playgrounds,!more!than!settlements!and!large!parks,! encouraged!broad!community!use.!!!!!! Playgrounds!were!not!just!convenient!locations!from!which!to!dispense! public!services,!however.!!Perkins!was!part!of!a!widespread!local!and!national!“play! movement”!comprised!of!settlement!workers,!social!scientists,!and!progressive! educators!who!contended!that!play!itself!could!be!harnessed!to!socialize!people,! particularly!immigrant!children,!in!democratic!practices.!!Perkins!wrote!that! organized!games!directed!the!“animal!instincts”!of!children!toward!socially!accepted! behaviors.378!!Jane!Addams!opened!Chicago’s!very!first!playground!in!1895!in!a! vacant!lot!adjacent!to!Hull!House,!where!she!hoped!that!the!“play!instinct”!of!foreign! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 376 Ibid., 290. 377 Kimball, “Civic Enterprises,” 35. 378 Perkins, Metropolitan Park System, 28. children!who!“bring!over!with!every!ship!a!new!cargo!of!democratic!aspirations”! could!be!properly!channeled!towards!social!justice.379!!Charles!Zueblin!lectured!and! published!widely!on!playgrounds,!everywhere!extolling!their!democratic! potential.380!!For!him,!recreation!was!more!than!“mere!play,”!it!was!“a!necessity!for! the!democracy!of!the!future.”!!He!chastised!the!audience!of!the!Chicago!Child! Welfare!Conference!in!1912!for!failing!to!understand!the!relationship!between!play! and!politics.!!Playgrounds,!he!argued,!facilitated!“true!democracy”!because!their! operation!relied!on!the!cooperation!of!the!entire!neighborhood!and!thus!overcame! class!prejudices.!!“We!are!welding!the!people!together!as!in!a!great!melting!pot!on! the!playgrounds!of!Chicago!”!he!enthusiastically!declared.381!!Sadie!American,! another!early!pioneer!of!playgrounds!in!Chicago!who!published!frequently!in!the+ American+Journal+of+Sociology,!expressly!outlined!the!developmental!trajectory!from! playground!to!citizen!when!she!argued!that!moral!habits!instilled!in!children!during! play!“build!up!men!who!make!good!citizens,!carrying!the!same!principles!into!adult! life.”382!!Henry!Curtis,!the!first!Secretary!and!Treasurer!of!the!Playground! Association!of!America,!idealistically,!if!naively,!summarized!the!democratic! function!of!recreation:!“On!the!playground!there!is!no!rich!or!poor,!high!or!low.!!You! have!to!deliver!the!goods!if!you!stay!on!the!baseball!team,!though!your!father!is!a! millionaire.!!There!is!almost!always!complete!equality!between!those!who!play! together…![It]!is!the!most!democratic!activity!we!know.”383! Emerging!child!psychology!theories!informed!the!entire!playground! movement,!especially!in!their!belief!that!physical!conditioning!could!shape!the! social!values!of!children.!!Granville!Stanley!Hall,!a!professor!at!Johns!Hopkins! University!before!becoming!president!of!Clarke!University!and!founding!editor!of! the!American+Journal+of+Psychology,!was!the!principal!influence.!!Hall!reasoned!that! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 379 Jane Addams, The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1912), 146. 380 Zueblin, “Municipal Playgrounds in Chicago,” 145-158. 381 Charles!Zueblin,!“The!City!Child!at!Play,”!in!The+Child+in+the+City,!445P450.! 382 Sadie American, “The Movement for Small Playgrounds,” in The American Journal of Sociology (September 1898): 159. 383!Henry!Curtis,!The+Play+Movement+and+Its+Significance!(Washington!DC:!McGrath!Publishing! Company!&!National!Recreation!and!Park!Association,!1917),!337.! the!physiological!and!psychological!development!of!children!“recapitulated”!the! “racial!history”!of!mankind,!meaning!that!each!ontogenetic!stage!of!child! development!essentially!rehearsed!evolutionary!stages!of!human!society.!!For! example,!the!restlessness!of!ten!year!olds!corresponded!to!the!nomadic!period!of! social!organization,!and!the!intense!peerPgroup!loyalty!and!clannish!behavior!of! adolescence!recapitulated!tribal!social!organization.!!Since!children!were!effectively! primitive!precursors!to!modern!man,!Hall!argued!that!they,!like!their!primitive! ancestors,!relied!on!instinct!and!muscle!power!to!navigate!their!environments! rather!than!the!reasoning!abilities,!scientific!knowledge,!and!technological!prowess! that!governed!modern!men.!!It!stood!to!reason!then,!that!active!learning!techniques! had!a!bigger!impact!on!children!than!conventional!classroom!settings.!Supervised! playgrounds!provided!opportunities!for!reformers!to!literally!“drill”!social!morality! into!children!through!repeated!physical!conditioning!until!desirable!values!became! lifelong!habits.384!!Recapitulation!theory!ultimately!impacted!progressive! pedagogical!strategies,!both!inside!and!outside!the!classroom,!which!increasingly! incorporated!activePlearning!techniques!such!as!laboratory!experiments!and! manual!training!into!public!school!curricula,!to!be!discussed!in!the!next!chapter.!! The!language!and!rhetoric!of!recapitulation!theory!reverberates!throughout! the!play!movement!literature,!even!if!reformers!only!appropriated!its!pseudoP scientific!theories!in!a!loose!way.!!Telling!terms!like!“animal!instincts”!or!“play! instincts”!reveal!that!Perkins!and!Addams!were!at!least!generally!aware!of!Hall’s! developmental!theory.!!Addams!published!an!entire!book!in!1912!called!The+Spirit+of+ Youth+and+the+City+Streets!that!addressed!the!constructive!management!of!these! “play!instincts,”!which!she!described!as!replicating!the!“primitive!spirit!of!adventure! corresponding!to!the!old!activity!of!the!hunt,!of!warfare,!and!of!discovery.”385!!Henry! Curtis!knew!Hall!directly,!earning!his!doctorate!at!Clarke!University!under!the! famed!psychologist.!!Curtis!expressly!referenced!Hall!and!recapitulation!theory!in! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 384 G. Stanley Hall, Youth: Its Education, Regimen, and Hygiene (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1912), 74; Dominick Cavallo, Muscles and Morals: Organized Playgrounds and Urban Reform, 1880-1920 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 55-60. 385 Addams, Spirit of Youth, 53. See also Jane Addams, “The Play Instinct and the Arts,” in The Second Twenty Years of Hull House, September 1909 to September 1929, with a record of growing world consciousness (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1930), 343-379. his!book!The+Play+Movement+and+Its+Significance!and!even!linked!it!to!experimental! pedagogies!being!practiced!by!John!Dewey!and!others!progressive!educators!in! Chicago:! Every!boy!should!have!an!opportunity!to!live!through!the!race!life,!pursue! the!primitive!industries!and!occupations,!and!finally!come!to!the!civilization! of!the!twentieth!century!by!much!the!same!stages!that!the!race!has!followed.!! Certain!schools,!as!the!Dewey!School!in!Chicago,!have!tried!to!follow!more!or! less!closely!the!stages!and!processes!of!racial!evolution!in!their! teaching….[and]!the!Boy!Scouts!is!almost!exactly!what!the!genetic! psychologists!like!G.!Stanley!Hall!have!been!preaching!for!years!as!the!great! need!of!boys.!!The!boy!should!repeat!the!racial!history.386! The!idea!that!play!could!function!as!a!behavior!modification!tool!also!trickled!into! popular!presses!to!which!Perkins!subscribed,!such!as!the!RecordJHerald,!and! professional!organs!of!the!playground!movement,!such!as!the!magazine!The+ Playground!and!annual!reports!published!by!the!Playground+Association+of+America! and!the!American+Park+and+Outdoor+Art+Association.387!! Like!most!progressives,!Perkins!absorbed!the!meanings!of!recapitulation! theory!in!a!broad,!practical!way.!!He!understood!that!play!could!be!used!as!an! instrument!of!socialization,!and,!as!any!casual!observer!of!children!knows,!vigorous! physical!activity!burns!off!some!of!their!youthful,!anarchic!energy,!a!blessing!for! overworked!parents.!!Even!as!Perkins!saw!playgrounds!as!a!way!to!acculturate! children!and!improve!their!physical!health,!other!reformers!viewed!them!more! instrumentally!as!a!form!of!social!insurance.!!Curtis!keenly!worried!about! disgruntled,!laboring!adult!males!because!they!were!more!likely!than!women!or! children!to!organize!unions,!participate!in!strikes,!and!generally!threaten!social! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 386!Curtis,!Play+Movement,!245!and!251.! 387 !Perkins!retained!copies!of!these!and!other!articles!and!journals!related!to!the!play!movement!in! his!personal!papers,!so!he!was!clearly!informed!about!its!theoretical!underpinnings.!!See!Perkins+ Papers,!Chicago!Historical!Society.!!Examples!include:!“The!Boy,!School!and!Play,”!RecordJHerald! (Sunday,!October!18,!1909)!Series!I:!Manuscript,!Box!4;!H.S.!Braucher,!Secretary!Playground!and! Recreation!Association!of!America,!Tendencies+and+Developments+in+the+Field+of+Public+Recreation,! 1910P11,!The+Playground!(April!1908),!and!American!Park!and!Outdoor!Art!Association,!Sixth+Annual+ Meetings!(Boston,!1902),!Series!IV,!Box!1.!!! stability.!!He!hoped!that!diverting!their!potentially!restless!energies!into!harmless! gaming!at!neighborhood!playgrounds!would!avert!revolution:! The!maintenance!of!playgrounds!may!properly!be!put!down!as!social! insurance.!!There!is!a!growing!feeling!of!discontent!among!the!workers…a! feeling!that!the!worker!has!not!had!his!just!share!of!the!product,!that!present! conditions!of!poverty,!low!standards!of!living,!and!long!hours!of!labor!are! unjust.!!The!worker!not!only!feels!that!he!has!not!had!his!share,!but!he!is! enlisting!leaders!for!his!cause!and!he!is!feeling!a!new!sense!of!power.!!We!are! sitting!on!the!lid!of!an!industrial!volcano,!that!might...rend!our!commercial! world!in!sunder!and!bring!forth!destructive!strikes,!anarchy,!or!French! revolutions.!!Doubtless!a!playground!that!can!furnish!safety!and!exercise!and! health!and!fun…can!do!much!to!improve!conditions!and!to!quiet!discontent.!! Perhaps!the!capitalists!could!afford!to!maintain!the!playgrounds!for!this! reason!alone.388 ! ! Few!playground!advocates!were!motivated!by!such!pernicious!attempts!at! social!control.!!Perkins,!for!one,!genuinely!hoped!to!improve!public!health,!provide! children!with!safe!and!supervised!places!to!play,!socialize!immigrants!and!children! so!as!to!facilitate!their!social!advancement,!and!generally!enhance!quality!of!life!for! workingPclass!families.!!Nonetheless,!distinctions!about!how!and!why!to!plan! neighborhood!playgrounds!suggests!that!competing!interest!groups,!such!as! business,!organized!labor,!and!progressive!educators,!struggled!to!direct!these!new! social!centers!towards!their!own!ends.!!Even!as!playgrounds!emerged!as! quintessentially!civic!institutions!capable!of!advancing,!at!least!to!some!extent,! social!democracy,!they!were!also!political!arenas!where!the!contentious,!contingent! process!of!such!democratic!negotiations!and!power!struggles!took!place.!! ! Progressive!Terrains:!Playgrounds,!Pleasure!Grounds,!and!Political!Landscapes! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 388!Curtis,!Play+Movement,!316P17.!  Playgrounds!differed!considerably!from!pleasure!grounds,!even!if!their!broad! intentions!to!improve!health!and!provide!public!space!for!outdoor!recreation! overlapped.!!If!landscape!architects!debated!the!relative!merits!of!different! playground!designs,!nearly!all!of!them!insisted!that!playgrounds!were!not!parks.!! The!bedlam!that!accompanied!the!play!of!young!children!disturbed!the! contemplative!tranquility!that!many!designers!still!considered!the!special!purview! of!the!park,!despite!the!fact!that!pleasure!ground!activities!were!increasingly!giving! way!to!active!sports!and!commercial!amusements.!!Children!also!quite!literally! destroyed!the!integrity!of!picturesque!landscapes!with!their!heavy!romping!and! running.!!The!landscape!designer!George!Burnap!mourned!the!effect!of!frolicking! children:!“The!grass!disappeared,!and!the!walk!lines!multiplied,!and!the!flowering! shrubs!acquired!queer!mutilated!shapes.”389!!Hoping!to!protect!their!artful!natural! compositions,!many!landscapists!called!for!complete!separation!of!pleasure!grounds! and!playgrounds.!!According!to!Charles!Downing!Lay,!“The!playground!is!not!a!park;! it!should!not!be!in!a!park!nor!part!of!a!park.”390!!Another!designer!likened!the! separation!of!parks!and!playgrounds!to!the!social!protocol!used!on!steamships,! where!regulations!confined!children!to!certain!decks.391!!Despite!such!misgivings,! most!designers!conceded!that!the!little!“barbarians”!needed!playgrounds,!and!they! proposed!that!an!architectural!treatment!of!its!landscape!was!more!appropriate!to! the!utilitarian!character!of!neighborhood!recreation!centers! Perkins!designed!the!landscapes!at!Hamlin!and!Seward!Parks!in!a!formal!and! axial!manner,!befitting!their!functional!programs!and!urban!environs.392 !!Most! playgrounds!in!Chicago!were!less!than!ten!acres!and!located!in!densely!populated! neighborhoods!where!they!were!accessible!to!workingPclass!families.!!He!zoned! specific!activities!into!discreet!sections!of!the!playgrounds,!which!were!loosely! divided!by!age!and!gender.!!Large!athletic!fields!provided!space!for!adolescents!and! young!men!to!play!baseball!and!football.!!Gym!apparatus!and!sandboxes!for!young! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 389 Burnap, Parks, their Design, Equipment, and Use, 150. 390 Charles Downing Lay, “Playground Design,” Landscape Architecture, v. 2 (1911-12): 63. 391 Burnap, Parks, their Design, Equipment, and Use, 150. 392 Stanton Park is demolished and its landscape altered. From the renderings and historic photographs, it is reasonable to assume it had a similarly formal layout as Seward and Hamlin playgrounds. children!occupied!separate!precincts!that,!in!nicer!playgrounds,!sometimes!included! pergolas!to!shade!attendant!mothers.!!Women!and!girls!used!the!smaller!athletic! fields.!!WellPdefined,!often!straight!walkways!connected!these!zones,!usually! culminating!in!a!substantial,!symmetrically!planned!field!house!(Figures!5.1P5.4,! 5.11;!compare!to!picturesque!site!plan!5.18).!!At!Seward!Park,!Perkins!simply! bisected!the!landscape!with!the!field!house,!strongly!reinforcing!its!demarcated,! zoned!appearance,!but!at!Hamlin!Park,!he!introduced!a!comparatively!nuanced! alternative!by!rotating!the!field!house!45Pdegrees!so!it!occupied!a!corner!and! surveyed!the!grounds!(Figures!5.2!and!5.11).!! Perkins!attempted!to!incorporate!natural!landscape!features!into!his! playgrounds!wherever!possible,!but!cultivating!vegetation!in!the!noxious! environments!of!many!industrial!neighborhoods!was!difficult!due!to!“smoke!in!the! atmosphere!and!gas!in!the!earth.”393!The!practical!circumstances!surrounding!innerP city!playgrounds!forced!Perkins!to!fall!back!on!minimal!and!formal!landscaping!in!a! striking!reversal!from!his!organic!site!planning!in!Lincoln!Park:!trees!in!rows,! narrow!strips!of!grass,!clipped!hedges,!and!potted!plants.!!At!Hamlin!Park,!the! largest!of!Perkins’s!playgrounds,!he!managed!to!retain!some!vestige,!however! remote,!of!naturalistic!park!landscapes!because!he!had!space!to!plant!a!reasonable! amount!of!grass,!hedges,!and!trees,!while!the!diagonally!placed!athletic!field! preserved!a!curvature!in!the!design!arguably!evocative!of!picturesque!vistas! (Figures!5.1!and!5.2).!!Seward!Park!occupied!a!smaller,!less!advantageous!site.!!Only! four!scrubby!trees!edged!its!western!fence!abutting!a!streetcar!line,!the!remaining! landscape!seemingly!devoid!of!any!plantings!whatsoever!(Figure!5.11).!!Despite!the! limitations!that!dense,!urban!sites!posed!for!landscaping!possibilities,!progressive! activists!pragmatically!argued!that!“what!can!be!done!should!be!done”!to!supply!a! modicum!of!nature!to!these!supremely!artificial!environments.!!Philanthropists,! including!Jens!Jensen,!frequently!donated!flower!boxes!to!enliven!playgrounds,! hoping!their!beauty!and!color,!however!spare,!would!gladden!visitors.394!!Still,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 393 Frank Foster, “An Article on Small Parks read before the Chicago Society for School Extension,” n.d. Copy at Chicago Historical Society, 10. 394 1906 Annual Report of the Special Park Commission, 27. Perkins!could!do!little!to!conceal!the!industrial,!commercial,!and!residential! surroundings!of!his!playgrounds.! Perkins!did!not!conceptualize!or!“design”!the!landscapes!at!Seward!and! Hamlin!Parks!so!much!as!he!implemented!accepted!practices!there.!!Playground! landscaping!was!a!fairly!standardized!formula!by!1905.!!Professional!journals! published!countless!examples!of!their!layouts!from!across!the!country,!most!of! which!shared!nearly!identical!features!and!components:!substantial!field!houses! that!either!bisected!playground!sites!or!occupied!a!corner;!one!large!athletic!field! complemented!by!one!or!two!smaller!“outdoor!gymnasiums”;!sandboxes!and! apparatus;!and!axial,!utilitarian!landscape!design!(Figure!5.19).!!There!were!some! acceptable!variations.!!Elaborate!playgrounds!had!pools,!for!instance,!but!simpler! ones!rarely!did.!!Some!field!houses!were!massive!buildings,!but!others!were! complexes!of!discreet!volumes!–!locker!rooms,!assembly!spaces,!and!so!forth!–! which!were!sometimes!connected!by!covered!walkways!(Figure!5.20).!!To!some! degree,!Perkins!mainly!coordinated,!rather!than!created,!the!landscaping!and! equipping!of!his!playgrounds.!!He!worked!closely!with!the!Supervisor!of!Physical! Culture!for!Lincoln!Park!to!select!the!best!playground!equipment,!and!he!consulted! with!the!landscape!architect!O.C.!Simonds,!his!Lincoln!Park!collaborator,!on!the!site! planning.395!!Perkins!was!clearly!willing!to!cooperate,!implement!accepted! standards,!and!even!cede!some!degree!of!creative!control!when!necessary!to!realize! his!goals.!!! ! If!landscaping!playgrounds!primarily!entailed!tweaking!routine!formulas,! designing!their!field!houses!presented!Perkins!with!a!more!complex!set!of! negotiations!that!ricocheted!between!competing!demands!for!civic!identity,! familiarity,!permanence,!economy,!and!hygienic!practices.!!Perkins!understood!that! field!houses!must!possess!a!recognizably!institutional!and!civic!identity!if!people! were!to!perceive!playgrounds!as!anything!more!than!collections!of!swings,!slides,! and!jungle!gyms!for!children.!!An!article!in!the!Architectural+Record!titled!“Chicago! Parks!and!their!Landscape!Architecture”!argued!they!must!be!permanent,!quality! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 395 Report of the Small Parks Committee, in Official Proceedings of the Lincoln Park Commissioners, vol. 7, August 1907-December 20, 1910. buildings!in!order!to!elevate!the!ethical!and!aesthetic!standards!of!the!public:!“It! cannot!be!too!often!repeated!that!good!architectural!design!is!of!quite!as!much! importance!as!in!our!parks!and!school!houses!as!it!is!in!our!public!squares.!!The! effect!of!a!good!building!in!which!an!untrained!boy!studies!or!plays,!is!far!more! insidious!than!is!that!of!some!imposing!but!remote!public!monument.”396!! Most!park!boards,!however,!were!saddled!with!perpetually!underfunded! budgets,!which!made!constructing!grand,!civic!gestures!uniquely!challenging.!! Temporary!wooden!shelters!often!substituted!for!field!houses,!as!was!the!case!at! Hamlin!Park,!while!commissioners!scrambled!to!come!up!with!additional!revenue!to! construct!more!permanent!centers.397 !!In!Chicago,!inadequate!finances!particularly! hobbled!the!Lincoln!Park!District,!where!Perkins!constructed!all!of!his!playgrounds.!! It!was!a!district!starkly!divided!along!class!and!therefore!taxpayer!lines,!with! affluent!residents!ringing!Lincoln!Park!and!the!lakefront!while!impoverished,! laboring!families!piled!into!the!overcrowded!industrial!neighborhoods!to!the!west.!! Low!debt!limits!compounded!the!problem.!!The!Chicago!City!Council!only! authorized!Lincoln!Park!to!issue!$500,000!in!bonds!to!generate!revenue,!while!it! granted!one!million!dollar!debt!ceilings!to!the!other!two!park!districts.398!!Economy! was!a!priority!for!all!park!boards,!but!particularly!the!Lincoln!Park!District.!!! Sanitation!and!hygienic!standards!complicated!the!picture,!since!field!houses! doubled!as!public!bathing!facilities!for!the!“unwashed!masses,”!as!one! unsympathetic!architect!described!playground!patrons.399!!Locker!rooms!and! showers!had!to!be!cleaned!by!highPpressure!hose,!which!necessitated!using! impervious!but!inexpensive!materials.!!Early!public!pools!often!functioned!as! enormous!outdoor!baths,!which!explains!their!uniformly!shallow!depths,!and! maintaining!clean!pool!water!certainly!presented!a!distinct!set!of!challenges.400!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 396 “Chicago Parks and their Landscape Architecture,” 26. 397 Official Proceedings of the Lincoln Park Commissioners, March 9, 1910, Special Collections, Chicago Park District. 398 Perkins, Metropolitan Park System, 32; 1901 Annual Report of the Special Park Commission, 15-18. 399 Horace W. Peaslee, “Park Architecture: Field Houses,” in The Park International (September 1920): 131-132. 400 Cranz, Politics of Parks, 71.  Perkins!developed!a!design!strategy!that!gave!him!the!flexibility!to!address! such!competing!demands.!!He!began!by!appropriating!standardized!field!house! plans!rather!than!creatively!redesigning!each!structure,!saving!time!and!money.!! Seward!and!Stanton!Park!field!houses!both!follow!conventional!formats:!sexP segregated!gymnasiums!and!locker!rooms!on!the!ground!floor,!assembly!spaces,! lunchrooms,!and!libraries!on!the!second!floor.!!They!were,!to!some!degree,!variants! of!the!same!building.!!The!Hamlin!Park!field!house!was!more!elaborate,!but!even! here!Perkins!reproduced!floor!plans!similar!to!those!designed!by!Chicago!architects! Daniel!Burnham!and!Edward!Bennett!for!the!South!Park!Commission!in!1904! (Figure!5.19).!!Perkins!sheathed!these!regularized!templates!in!everyday,!traditional! materials,!namely,!brick,!terracotta,!and!wood.!!Glazed!brick!on!the!interior!met! sanitation!standards,!helping!Perkins!meet!expectations!regarding!hygiene!and! economy.!!These!substances!were!all!affordable!and!durable,!while!still!giving!an! impression!of!solidity!and!permanence.!! Onto!this!uniform!system!of!materials!and!standardized!floor!plans,!Perkins! was!able!to!project!distinct!civic!identities!onto!playground!field!houses!by!using! various,!loosely!historical!architectural!languages.!!Since!community!buildings!were! inexplicably!rooted!in!the!public!sphere,!they!had!to!be!recognizable!as!civic! institutions!by!a!diverse,!diffuse!public.!!Perkins!understood!that!civic!legibility! required!familiarity!and!identification,!qualities!that!rarely!resulted!in!designs! divested!of!all!historical!associations!that!risked!public!incomprehension,!or!worse,! opprobrium.!!He!worked!between!standardization!and!common!materials!on!the! one!hand!and!civic!identity!on!the!other!by!taking!advantage!of!scale!and!familiar! architectural!symbols.!!! Seward!and!Stanton!Parks!field!houses!were!selfPcontained!volumes!that! contained!a!multiplicity!of!programs!behind!their!seemingly!regularized!exteriors,! which!lent!them!an!institutional!appearance!often!seen!in!public!schools!of!the!time.!! Inclined!vertical!piers!organized!the!exterior!of!Seward!Park!field!house!into!a! modular!grid!and!also!recalled!classical!columns.!!At!the!same!time,!abstract,! geometric!brick!ornament!moderated!these!historical!associations!(Figures!5.13P 5.15).!!At!Stanton!Park,!Perkins!used!repeating!bays!of!arches!and!lunette!windows! to!regularize!the!façade,!even!as!they!evoked!historical!symbols!(Figure!5.16).!! Hamlin!Park!looked!more!picturesque!than!institutional!with!its!variegated!balcony! railings,!projections,!and!generally!rustic!appearance,!perhaps!well!suited!for! recreation!buildings,!but!its!sheer!size!and!command!of!the!grounds!conveyed!its! civic!authority!(Figure!5.7).!!! Perkins,!in!essence,!created!plural!and!pliable!architectural!solutions!at! Seward,!Hamlin,!and!Stanton!Parks.!!These!playgrounds!rallied!neighborhood!pride! and!loyalty!by!presenting!distinct,!yet!familiar!architectural!personalities,!which! encouraged!locals!to!identify!with!their!community!centers,!their!updated!town! halls.!!The!recognizable!architectural!symbols,!though!different!for!each!building,! conveyed!a!broad!sense!of!civic!importance!perceptible!to!all!kinds!of!people.!!At!the! same!time,!standardized,!modular!compositions!and!geometric!ornament!appeared! current!and!fresh,!offsetting!and!updating!the!historical!references.!!The!ambiguity! and!fluidity!of!this!architecture!helped!Perkins!engage!diverse!members!of!these! communities,!a!significant!first!step!towards!advancing!his!social!politics.!!Nearly! ten!years!after!Perkins!built!these!playgrounds,!Kimball!acknowledged!the!flexibility! required!to!design!modern!public!institutions!capable!of!speaking!to!varied! audiences!in!different!ways:!“The!true!contribution!of!the!architect!to!the!creation!of! these!ideal!community!centers!of!the!future!will!not!lie!in!visionary!projects!for! temples!of!art!and!music!preceded!by!triumphal!arches,!but!in!penetrating!study!of! the!pressing!needs!of!the!given!community,!and!skillful!combination!of!vital!facilities! into!an!organic!whole.”401! One!of!the!most!important!contributions!Perkins!made!to!neighborhood! playgrounds!in!Chicago!had!as!much!to!do!with!the!political!and!financial! maneuvers!that!made!their!construction!possible!as!with!their!architectural!design! and!landscaping.!!As!a!delegate!to!the!Special!Park!Commission,!Perkins!helped!to! transform!the!playground!movement!in!Chicago!from!a!loosely!coordinated!set!of! private!initiatives!into!a!bureaucratic!organization!that!functioned!at!both!municipal! and!national!levels!of!government.!!Early!playgrounds!typically!occupied!vacant!lots,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 401 Kimball, “Civic Enterprises,” 46. usually!undesirable!real!estate!beneath!elevated!railroads!or!adjacent!to!factories,! so!wealthy!industrialists!and!philanthropists!did!not!mind!donating!the!land! (Figures!5.21P5.22).!!The!terms!of!these!charitable!endowments,!however,!often! jeopardized!the!longPterm!viability!of!the!playgrounds.!!Benefactors!commonly! supplied!the!land!leasePfree!for!a!period!of!only!three!years,!after!which!the! organization!running!the!playground!was!forced!to!rent!the!land.!!Social! settlements,!churches,!and!other!nonPprofit!establishments!usually!operated!these! early!recreation!spaces,!and!they!could!not!always!afford!to!maintain!them!after!the! initial!terms!expired.!!So!playgrounds!frequently!moved!or!closed,!which! discouraged!any!substantial!investment!in!them!and!undermined!their!ability!to! operate!as!stable!neighborhood!centers.402!!In!1901!Chicago!only!had!five! functioning!playgrounds.!! When!Perkins!successfully!lobbied!the!City!Council!to!establish!the!Special! Park!Commission!in!1901,!he!essentially!facilitated!a!transfer!of!responsibility!for! playgrounds!from!private!charities!to!the!municipal!government,!a!power!shift!he! hoped!would!stabilize!them!and!increase!their!number.!!The!SPC!took!over!the! management!of!Chicago’s!existing!playgrounds!and!also!constructed!new!ones,! among!other!responsibilities.!!The!city!financed!the!Commission!out!of!general! corporate!funds,!but!its!annual!budget!between!1901!and!1904!never!exceeded! $20,000,!which!seriously!limited!the!ability!of!the!SPC!to!fulfill!its!mandate.!!By!1904! the!Commission!had!only!built!four!additional!playgrounds,!bringing!the!grand!total! to!a!miserly!nine!recreation!centers,!hardly!enough!to!affect!the!kind!of!widespread! cultural!change!that!Perkins!envisioned.403!!! Since!the!SPC!could!not!afford!to!buy!land,!Perkins!and!other!members!of!the! Commission!changed!their!tactics.!!Rather!than!build!and!operate!playgrounds! themselves,!they!secured!legislation!that!empowered!the!original!three!park!boards! in!Chicago,!the!Lincoln,!West,!and!South!Park!Commissions,!to!use!eminent!domain! proceedings!to!acquire!small!parcels!of!land!in!their!districts,!under!ten!acres!in! most!cases,!for!the!development!of!playgrounds.!!The!SPC!then!persuaded!the!City! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 402 Perkins,!Metropolitan+Park+System,!5,!27P28. 403!Ibid.,!27P28.! Council!to!implement!tax!levies!on!property!owners!and!to!sell!municipal!bonds,! one!million!dollars!worth!for!the!South!and!West!Park!Commissions!and!$500,000! for!the!Lincoln!Park!Commission,!in!order!to!finance!the!construction!and! maintenance!of!these!new!recreation!centers.404!!Enlarging!the!powers!of!the! existing!parks!boards!through!legislation!and!bond!issues!was!a!way!for!the!SPC!to! avoid!becoming!an!additional!taxing!body!and,!at!the!same!time,!to!facilitate!the! creation!of!larger,!better!equipped,!conveniently!located!and!permanent! playgrounds.!!! The!SPC!effectively!evolved!into!a!consulting!body.!!In!1904!Perkins!became! chairman!of!a!newly!formed!Playground!Committee!within!the!SPC!responsible!for! investigating!conditions!in!Chicago’s!neighborhoods!and!recommending!potential! playground!sites!to!the!Lincoln,!South,!and!West!Park!Commissions.405!!They!usually! recommended!plots!in!congested,!workingPclass!neighborhoods!in!an!effort!to!bring! recreation!facilities!to!immigrants,!laborers,!and!underprivileged!families!living!in! these!lowerPincome!ghettos.!!The!benefits!came!at!a!price,!however,!since!park! boards!often!forcibly!razed!entire!city!blocks!through!condemnation!and!slum! clearance!procedures,!thinking!this!was!the!only!way!to!transform!developed!land! into!open!playground!space.!!For!example,!the!Lincoln!Park!Commission!condemned! and!demolished!eighty!pieces!of!property!to!construct!Stanton!Park!(Figure!5.17).406!! Unsurprisingly,!local!residents!and!business!owners!frequently!protested!slum! clearance!because!it!destroyed!their!homes!and!stores,!even!if!for!a!good!cause.!! Private!property!owners!around!Stanton!Park,!for!instance,!vigorously!opposed!the! playground!for!these!reasons.!!They!impeded!construction!to!such!an!extent!that!the! Lincoln!Park!Commission!was!forced!to!ask!the!City!Council!to!intervene!and!vacate! the!land.407!!! Public!protests,!labor!conflicts,!and!insufficient!funds!impeded!the! construction!of!all!of!Perkins’s!playgrounds,!in!fact.!!In!1908!Lincoln!Park! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 404!Perkins,!Metropolitan+Park+System,!31P2;!1908+Annual+Report+of+the+Lincoln+Park+Commissioners,!6.! 405!Perkins,!Metropolitan+Park+System,!32.! 406 1908 Annual Report of the Lincoln Park Commissioners, 10. 407 Official Proceedings of the Lincoln Park Commissioners, vol. 7, August 1907 – December 20, 1910, 94 and 114. Commissioners!asked!Perkins!to!shelve!designs!for!the!Stanton!Park!field!house!for! two!years!while!they!raised!more!money.!!In!1910!strikers!halted!the!construction! of!Stanton!and!Hamlin!Parks!when!workers!demanded!that!the!Lincoln!Park! Commission!employ!only!labor!union!members.!!At!Seward!Park,!Perkins!and!the! Lincoln!Park!Board!managed!to!secure!donated!land,!so!they!did!not!have!to!forcibly! displace!anyone.!!Still,!a!delegation!of!citizens!protested!against!building!recreation! facilities!at!Seward!Park!because!they!preferred!“a!park!pure!and!simple,!without! any!playground!features!whatever.”408!!! Neighborhood!playgrounds,!in!short,!were!contested!terrains,!where! reformers!sometimes!antagonized!and!divided!the!very!populations!they!aimed!to! uplift!and!unite.!!Perkins!and!other!members!of!the!Lincoln!Park!Commission!and! the!SPC!eventually!prevailed!in!most!of!these!disputes,!suggesting!that!progressive! reformers!had!gained!some!degree!of!power!in!municipal!government!by!1910.!! Nevertheless,!Seward,!Hamlin,!and!Stanton!Parks,!and!many!other!playgrounds!as! well,!circumscribed!a!factious!history!of!strikes,!dissent,!and!power!struggles.!!The! controversies!surrounding!their!construction!illustrate!the!often!protracted,! sometimes!contentious!manner!in!which!Perkins!and!other!progressives!worked!the! existing!political!system!in!order!to!realize!social!and!municipal!reform.!!And! gradually,!their!efforts!succeeded.!!In!the!1890s,!the!playground!movement!in! Chicago!had!been!a!grassroots!initiative!spearheaded!by!settlement!workers,! philanthropists,!and!private!civic!organizations!like!Perkins’s!Municipal!Science! Club.!!By!1910,!Perkins!and!his!colleagues!had!established!a!bureaucratic!structure! comprised!of!commissions!led!by!educated!experts,!who!used!public!funds!to! construct!and!administer!dozens!of!neighborhood!playgrounds!across!the! metropolis.!!In!fifteen!years,!they!had!transformed!playgrounds!into!a!public! responsibility!and!civic!amenity.!!! Progressive!reformers!did!not!stop!at!the!city!or!even!state!levels!of! government.!!In!1906!Jane!Addams,!Graham!Taylor,!Mary!McDowell!and!others!in! Perkins’s!circle!took!these!municipal!advancements!to!the!national!stage!when!they! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 408 Notes from Special Meeting held October 2, 1907, in Official Proceedings of the Lincoln Park Commissioners, vol. 7, August 1907 – December 20, 1910, 11. founded!the!Playground!Association!of!America.!!The!PAA!was!a!broad!coalition!of! reformers!across!the!country!dedicated!to!establishing!playgrounds.!!Luther!Gulick,! a!doctor!and!affiliate!of!the!Young!Men’s!Christian!Association,!was!its!first! president.!Jane!Addams!was!the!vicePpresident,!and!Henry!Curtis!was!the!Secretary! and!Treasurer.!!Theodore!Roosevelt!and!Jacob!Riis!signed!on!as!honorary!president! and!vicePpresident!respectively.409!!With!the!advent!of!the!PAA,!the!playground! movement!and!its!associated!reforms!became!a!nationally!recognized!progressive! agenda.!!Neighborhood!playgrounds!were!veritable!bureaucratic!mechanisms!for! managing!social!relations,!at!both!the!municipal!and!federal!levels.!!!! ! The!Rationalization!of!Leisure! Perkins!hoped!to!harness!recreation!as!a!tool!for!teaching!desirable!social! values,!and!the!formal,!zoned!layout!of!playground!landscapes!suggests!that!he! preferred!structured!activities!to!free!play.!!Nearly!all!members!of!the!playground! movement!distinguished!“directed!activity”!that!encouraged!cooperation,! compromise,!and!fairness!from!“scrub!play,”!where!children!invented!their!own! games!or!simply!loafed.!!As!Henry!Curtis!explained,!“Scrub!play!can!never!give!that! training!either!of!body!or!conduct,!which!organized!play!should!give;!for!in!order!to! develop!the!body,!it!must!be!vigorous,!to!train!the!intellect,!it!must!be!exciting,!to! train!the!social!conscience,!it!must!be!socially!organized.”410!!Following! recommendations!outlined!by!the!SPC!encouraging!structured!and!specialized! recreation,!Perkins!provided!for!a!host!of!organized!programs!at!Seward,!Hamlin,! and!Stanton!Parks,!which!included!swimming!pools,!tennis!courts,!baseball!fields,! handball!courts,!jumping!pits,!and!running!tracks.411!His!playground!field!houses! likewise!catered!to!a!variety!of!indoor!pursuits,!both!physical!and!intellectual:! lockers!rooms!and!showers,!a!branch!of!the!Chicago!Public!Library,!an!indoor! gymnasium,!and!classes!in!checkers,!stage!craft,!infant!welfare,!music,!painting,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 409!Curtis,+Play+Movement,+15;!Cavallo,!Muscles+and+Morals,+32P36.!!The!Playground!Association!of! America!was!originally!called!the!Playground!and!Recreation!Association!of!America.!!Perkins!was!a! delegate!to!the!1908!annual!meeting,!where!he!presented!a!slide!lecture!on!Chicago’s!playgrounds.! 410 Curtis, Play Movement, 81; 1901 Annual Report of the Special Park Commission, 8. 411 1901 Annual Report of the Special Park Commission, 8. drawing,!and!social!dancing.412!!Perkins!outfitted!playgrounds!in!such!a!way!as!he! hoped!would!encourage!children!to!participate!in!organized!games,!competitions,!or! classes!rather!than!mill!around!and!daydream.! Perkins!wanted!professional!“play!directors”!to!devise!and!supervise! recreational!activities,!thereby!ensuring!the!proper!socialization!of!children.413!! Much!in!the!same!way!he!had!restructured!municipal!park!governance!and!funding! along!bureaucratic!lines,!he!hoped!to!organize!the!dayPtoPday!operations!of! playgrounds!so!as!to!maximize!their!efficiency.!!This!meant!centralized!power!in!the! form!trained!leadership!and!specialization!of!leisure!pursuits!(Figure!5.23).!!He! hoped,!in!short,!to!organize!recreation!along!the!same!line!as!industry.!!Playground! advocates!across!the!country!endorsed!the!rationalization!of!leisure,!leading!the! historian!Dominick!Cavallo!to!dub!them!“play!organizers.”!!The!first!president!of!the! Playground!Association!of!America,!Luther!Gulick,!commented!that,!“the! organization!of!leisure!is!just!as!important!and!technical!a!matter!as!the! organization!of!industry.”414!!Another!activist!in!Ohio!claimed!that!the!playground! was!a!“play!factory”!that!must!run!on!“schedule!time”!and!“turn!out!the!maximum! product!of!happiness”415!!!!! The!responsibilities!and!personal!requirements!of!play!directors!were!vast,! in!part!because!reformers!of!all!stripes!reiterated!and!aggrandized!their!importance! to!the!extent!that!they!seemed!to!be!the!very!vanguard!of!democratic!civilization.!! The!General!Director!of!Playgrounds!for!the!Lincoln!Park!Board,!C.A.!Sartain,! outlined!their!obligations!and!qualifications!in!1911.!!Educating!children!in!“rational! play”!meant!devising!a!schedule!of!activities,!channeling!children!into!appropriate! exercises!and!games,!enforcing!rules,!and!ensuring!that!weaker!children!had!the! same!opportunities!to!play!as!robust!youngsters.!!Knowledgeable!in!sociology,! physiology,!psychology,!and!child!development,!play!directors!should!also!be! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 412 1913-1915 Annual Reports of the Lincoln Park Commissioners, 28; see also Chicago Park District, Handbook of Chicago Parks (Chicago, 1936), copy at Chicago Historical Society. 413 Perkins, Metropolitan Park System, 28. 414 Luther Gulick, M.D., Morals and Morale (New York, 1919), 83, quoted in Cavallo, Muscles and Morals, 38. See also Luther Gulick, M.D., “Direction and Control in Play – Playgrounds,” in A Philosophy of Play (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1920), 230-242. 415 Cavallo, Muscles and Morals, 41. accomplished!gymnasts!or!athletes,!or,!at!the!very!least,!appreciate!the!value!of!all! physical!education,!from!competitive!sports!to!folk!dancing.!!Parks!boards!expected! them!to!become!personally!acquainted!with!locals!in!the!neighborhood.!!Personal! contact!with!the!community!would!enable!supervisors!to!customize!playground! activities!to!the!interests!of!the!surrounding!population,!helping!playgrounds! compete!with!what!reformers!believed!were!disreputable!leisure!pursuits,!such!as! patronizing!saloons!or!joining!corner!gangs.!!The!ideal!personality!traits!of!play! directors!balanced!discipline!with!warmth!and!served!as!a!model!for!rational!social! behavior:!“sympathetic,!kind!and!gentle,!but!also!stern!without!being!disagreeable!–! a!good!disciplinarian.”!!They!should!exercise!diplomacy!and!fair!judgment!when! dealing!with!the!public,!and!generally!exude!a!personal!magnetism!that!would! attract!people!to!the!playground!and!cultivate!their!loyalty.!!In!short,!the!ideal!play! director!possessed!nearly!omniscient!powers.!!According!to!Sartain,!the!results! obtained!by!such!a!person!were!impressive!indeed:!“With!such!leadership!the! different!elements!and!nationalities!of!the!community!may!be!so!mixed!that!the! result!will!be!a!stronger!race!physically!and!morally!–!better!citizens!–!true! Americans.”416! Field!house!plans!reflected!the!hierarchical!structure!of!playground! administration.!!At!Hamlin!Park,!Perkins!located!the!play!director’s!office! immediately!adjacent!to!the!entrance,!not!unlike!where!a!student!might!find!the! principal’s!office!at!school!(Figure!5.8).!!From!this!vantage!point,!the!play!director! physically!commanded!views!of!the!entire!playground!and!metaphorically!directed! all!its!operations.!!In!addition!to!regulating!recreation,!play!supervisors!also!hosted! the!various!neighborhood!associations!that!convened!in!playground!offices!and! auditoriums,!instructing!them!on!appropriate!topics!for!discussion!and!behavior!at! such!gatherings.!!For!an!institution!ostensibly!dedicated!to!facilitating!democratic! exchange!and!compromise,!playground!regulations!paradoxically!prohibited! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 416 Statement from C.A. Sartain, General Director of Playgrounds, “Commissioners of Lincoln Park regarding function and management of playgrounds” (June 1, 1911), Lincoln Documents, Special Collections, Chicago Park District. religious!and!political!meetings.417!!If!there!were!ever!two!concepts!requiring! moderation!in!democratic!societies,!it!was!faith!and!power,!but!park!officials!hoped! to!avoid!inadvertently!supporting!radical!parties!or!spiritual!factions!that!might! exacerbate!cultural!divisions!and!social!stratification.!!In!any!case,!the!rules!were! somewhat!flexible.!!Perkins!pointed!out!that!educational!or!civic!debates,!which! were!permitted,!unavoidably!touched!on!pressing!political!questions,!and!labor! unions!frequently!borrowed!playground!assembly!halls!for!their!meetings,!despite! restrictions!on!political!discussions.418!!In!practice,!then,!progressives!regulated!the! type!and!intensity!of!public!disputes,!hoping!to!forestall!complete!social!breakdown! or!revolution,!but!they!did!not!entirely!suppress!political!and!social!contention.!!!! A!team!of!subordinates,!both!park!employees!and!volunteers,!assisted!the! play!director!in!administering!neighborhood!playgrounds.!!Professional!librarians,! in!an!effort!to!transform!immigrants!and!undereducated!folks!into!productive! citizens,!staffed!reading!rooms!and!public!libraries!inside!field!houses!and!guided! patrons!towards!reading!material!that!was!“of!the!highest!benefit!to!the!public! service!of!America,!to!the!best!development!of!democracy.”419!!TemperancePminded! reformers!sponsored!social!dances!free!of!charge!and!sold!nonPalcoholic!beverages! at!cost!in!order!to!lure!young!people!away!from!commercial!dance!halls!and!saloons.!!! Play!directors!chaperoned!such!events!and!enforced!a!strict!code!of!moral! conduct.420!!Subsidizing!and!tightly!controlling!alternative!educational!and!social! venues!was!a!political!strategy!as!much!as!a!moral!one.!!Saloons!already!functioned! as!unofficial!community!centers!in!most!immigrant!and!workingPclass! neighborhoods,!greasing!the!wheels!of!corrupt!machine!politics.!!Party!bosses! conducted!their!meetings!and!operated!unofficial!employment!bureaus!there;! barkeepers!dispensed!cheap!lunches!and!lowPinterest!loans!there;!and!local!men! retired!there!after!work!to!discuss!politics,!labor!affairs,!and!other!neighborhood! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 417 “Chicago Parks and their Landscape Architecture,” 22. 418 Perkins and Howell, “Functions and Plan-Types of Community Buildings,” 290; and Kimball, “Civic Enterprises,” 43. 419 Zueblin, “The Child at Play,” 448. 420 Curtis, Play Movement, 28, 108-109; Addams, Spirit of Youth, 97. matters.421!!Progressive!reformers!had!almost!no!influence!over!this!complex,! informal!saloon!culture,!so!they!tried!to!circumvent!it!by!enticing!impressionable! young!adults!with!promises!of!dancing,!socializing,!food,!drinks,!and!access!to! magazines,!newspapers,!and!books.!!Over!time,!reformers!believed,!their!efforts! would!result!in!a!new!generation!of!moral,!educated,!socially!cooperative!citizens.!!! ! From!the!standpoint!of!everyday!operations,!the!most!important!job!of!play! directors!was!comparatively!mundane!–!to!devise!and!administer!a!schedule!of! activities,!a!“play!curriculum,”!for!each!neighborhood!playground.!!Theories!of! physical!education!stressed!that,!ideally,!playmates!should!be!the!same!age,!same! sex,!and!play!together!consistently,!which!necessitated!registration!into!regularly! held!classes.!!Most!playgrounds!functioned!at!near!maximum!capacity!due!to!their! enormous!popularity,!so!they!required!finely!honed!schedules!for!purely!practical! reasons!as!well.!!In!order!to!keep!the!playground!mechanism!running!smoothly!and! efficiently,!supervisors!organized!itineraries.!!For!example,!rotating!classes!that! catered!to!all!age!levels!used!the!two!gymnasiums!Perkins!designed!at!Seward!Park! seven!days!a!week:!four!classes!of!boys!categorized!by!age!and!size!attended!two! callisthenic!classes!and!one!gaming!session!each!week!during!the!afternoons;! working!men!and!adolescent!boys!could!choose!to!attend!two!gymnastics!classes! and!one!sports!match!offered!weekly!in!the!evenings!(Figures!5.24P5.25).!!Physical! educators!systematically!programmed!the!gymnastic!classes,!and!a!typical!routine! at!Seward!Park!consisted!of!the!following!exercises!performed!in!sequence:! 1) Marching!tactics! 2) Calisthenics!(wands,!dumbbells,!clubs,!or!free!work!using!body!weight)! 3) Heavy!apparatus! 4) Recreation!(games!or!performing!plays)422! ! In!addition!to!classes!offered!through!Seward!Park’s!regular!program,!private! neighborhood!teams,!local!schools,!and!other!playgrounds!borrowed!its!facilities,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 421 See E.C. Moore, “The Social Value of the Saloon,” in The American Journal of Sociology 3, no. 1 (July 1897): 1-12; Addams, “Effort Toward Social Democracy,” 228. 422 1908 Annual Report of the Lincoln Park Commission, 42. adding!even!more!people,!sporting!events,!and!equipment!to!the!teeming!flux.!! Different!baseball!and!basketball!leagues!practiced!daily!in!twoPhour!increments;!an! Italian!association!reserved!the!gymnasium!twice!per!week!from!6:00P7:00!in!the! evenings;!and!Lake!Shore!Playground,!which!lacked!indoor!facilities,!borrowed!the! indoor!gyms!on!Saturday!mornings.423 !!Such!organized!activities!dominated!the! programs!at!most!Chicago!playgrounds!(Figures!5.26P5.27).! Parks!boards!proudly!recorded!and!published!this!kind!of!detailed!data.!!The! sheer!complexity!of!coordinating!so!many!people!and!programs!bolstered!their! reputations!as!efficient,!bureaucratically!run!institutions.!Hoping!to!extend!the! influence!of!organized!recreation,!park!officials!even!launched!publicity!campaigns! to!persuade!the!general!public!that!they!should!use!their!spare!time!constructively,! and,!of!course,!persuade!them!to!patronize!neighborhood!playgrounds!where! trained!experts!offered!this!direction.!!Play!directors!selected!their!best!gymnasts! and!athletes!to!perform!typical!“play!curriculums”!at!opening!ceremonies!for!new! playgrounds,!where!they!entertained!and!educated!spectators!with!a!pageant!of! speeches,!calisthenics,!tumbling!exercises,!acrobatics,!and!apparatus!routines,!often! set!to!band!music!to!augment!their!entertainment!value!(Figures!5.28P5.29).424!! The!paradox!of!applying!scientific!management!principles!used!in!factories!to! leisure!–!rendering!play!as!regimented!as!work!–!was!unproblematic!to!Perkins.!! Like!most!progressives,!he!praised!the!efficiency!of!bureaucratic!organization.!!But! Perkins!was!also!responding!to!sheer!necessity,!not!efficiency!per+se,!when!he! designed!the!structured!layouts!of!playgrounds!given!the!record!numbers!of!people! swarming!to!the!facilities.!!Photographs!published!in!the!SPC’s!annual!reports!show! playgrounds!nearly!overrun!with!curious!visitors!(Figure!5.30).!!At!Seward!Park,! enormous!crowds!interfered!with!track!athletics!because!masses!of!people!were! simply!milling!around!the!running!footpath,!having!no!other!place!to!stand.425!!One! assistant!supervisor!remarked!that!organizing!group!songs!was!her!method!of! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 423 Ibid., 42. 424 1904 Annual Report of the Special Park Commission, 4. 425 1908 Annual Report of the Lincoln Park Commissioners, 40. maintaining!order!over!several!hundred!children!at!a!time.426!!Clearly!many! neighborhood!playgrounds!were!understaffed,!overbooked,!or!both.!!It!would!have! been!impossible!for!reformers!to!supervise,!schedule,!and!direct!all!recreation! occurring!inside!and!around!them.!!Despite!reformers’!best!efforts,!most! neighborhood!playgrounds!were!spontaneous!institutions!that!offered!a!mixture!of! organized!classes!and!sporting!competitions,!which!people!could!choose!to!attend! or!not,!as!well!as!opportunities!to!simply!relax,!pursue!their!own!private!exercise! regimens,!watch!their!children!play!on!swings!or!in!sandboxes,!and!generally!pass! their!time!in!a!pleasurable!way.!! ! Even!if!reformers!could!not!completely!control!and!direct!every!playground! experience,!Perkins!recognized!that!park!employees!still!had!to!maintain!order!in! facilities!overrun!with!people.!!Many!of!his!design!features!helped!regulate!public! use!of!playgrounds.!!Axial!lines!of!trees!and!shrubbery!were!formal!landscaping! techniques,!but!they!also!demarcated!distinct!play!zones,!separating!the!rough! jostling!and!shouting!of!teenagers!playing!on!athletic!fields!from!toddlers!playing!in! sandboxes!and!swings.!!Zoning!helped!ensure!the!safety!of!visitors,!particularly! smaller!children!who!might!be!injured!by!fly!balls!or!inadvertent!shoving.!!Perkins! also!fenced!play!zones,!which!functioned!more!effectively!than!the!mainly! suggestive!powers!of!axial!vegetation!to!confine!and!direct!people’s!movements! (Figures!5.2P5.5).!!Fixed!furniture!discouraged!theft,!and!benches!with!arms! “discouraged!their!use!as!a!running!track”!by!children.427!!He!designed!lampposts! for!Seward!and!Stanton!Parks!after!the!Lincoln!Park!Commission!laid!an!electric! duct!system!in!1908!(Figure!5.31).428!!Artificially!lighting!playgrounds!extended! their!usable!hours!and!facilitated!surveillance!in!the!evenings.!!Supervisors!actively! screened!out!“undesirables.”!!Security!was!such!a!high!priority!that!many!reformers! recommended!that!police!officers!assist!park!employees!in!patrolling! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 426 American, “Small Playgrounds,” 161. 427 Lay, “Playground Design,” 72. 428 1908 Annual Report of the Commissioners of Lincoln Park, 18; and National Register Nomination for Lincoln Park, 11. Perkins’s lamppost was subsequently used throughout the Lincoln Park District until the 1930s, when they were replaced with more technologically advanced fixtures. They have now been retrofitted for modern electrical wiring and preserved examples still light Seward Park and Lincoln Park. playgrounds.429!!Children!of!working!parents!often!came!alone!to!playgrounds,!and! policing!helped!ensure!they!were!safe!environments.!!One!landscape!architect! underscored!the!point!when!he!remarked!that,!“the!whole!effectiveness!of!the! playground!depends!upon!the!ease!with!which!it!can!be!policed.”430!!! Fences!and!zoning!did!more!than!just!direct!people’s!movements!or!exclude! suspicious!interlopers.!!In!the!minds!of!many!reformers,!gates!and!boundaries! together!with!the!overall!ordered!aesthetic!of!playground!landscapes!would!instill! broad!values!of!social!organization!into!children.!!Joseph!Lee,!the!second!president! of!the!Playground!Association!of!America,!remarked!that!fenced,!formally!designed! playgrounds!made!“the!children!feel!that!the!playground!is!a!real!institution.”431!! Rationalized!playground!landscapes!were!not!just!an!aesthetic!of!order!and!control,! visual!references!to!the!direct!authority!wielded!by!directors,!class!schedules,!and! programming.!!In!the!minds!of!many!progressives,!playgrounds!dictated!cooperative! behavior!because!their!formal!design!and!safety!measures!literally!impressed!“the! idea!of!orderliness!in!the!mind!of!the!child.”432!!! ! Team!Spirit,!or!cultural!assimilation!! Of!the!manifold!fitness!programs!offered!at!playgrounds,!reformers!clearly! prioritized!organized!team!sports.!!Athletic!fields,!far!more!than!gardens,!sandboxes,! and!jungle!gyms,!dominated!playground!landscapes;!rotating!basketball!practices! seemed!to!continuously!occupy!gymnasiums;!and!little!leagues!of!every!sort!–! baseball,!volleyball,!track!associations!–!clamored!for!any!available!opening!in! building!schedules.!!In!the!minds!of!many!progressives,!vigorous!group! competitions!were!unparalleled!tools!for!socializing!children!in!cooperative,!lawP abiding,!democratic!values.!!According!to!Perkins,!competitive!athletics!would! transform!lawless!gangs!into!socially!responsible!teams,!with!sportsmanlike!bouts! replacing!juvenile!delinquency,!vandalism,!and!petty!theft.433!!Team!sports! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 429 Frank Foster, “Small Parks,” 11. 430 Lay, “Playground Design,” 67. 431 Joseph Lee, quoted in Lay, “Playground Design,” 64. 432 George Burnap, Parks, their Design, Equipment, and Use, 158. 433 Perkins, Metropolitan Park System, 28. reproduced!the!moderate!social!politics!of!most!progressives,!poised!between! laissezPfaire!and!socialism.!!They!required!cooperation!between!players!rather!than! unfettered!individual!competition,!but!they!were!not!entirely!collective!affairs.!! Individual!players!possessed!singular!talents!and!personal!liabilities!that!had!to!be! managed!in!light!of!team!goals.!Curtis!explained!the!trajectory!from!team!player!to! democratic!citizen:!“A!long!hit!or!a!daring!run!may!not!be!what!is!needed.!![The! player]!must!bat!out!in!order!that!the!man!on!third!may!run!in.!!Many!a!time!he! must!sacrifice!himself!to!the!team.!!This!type!of!loyalty!is!the!same!thing!we!call! good!citizenship!as!applied!to!the!city,!that!we!call!patriotism!as!applied!to!the! country.!!The!team!game!is!undoubtedly!the!best!training!school!for!these!civic! virtues.”434! Typical!of!their!bureaucratic,!rationalizing!dispositions,!progressives!looked! to!childPdevelopment!theories!to!determine!appropriate!games!for!youngsters!of! every!age!and!ability.!!Joseph!Lee,!a!pediatrician!in!addition!to!his!involvement!with! the!Playground!Association!of!America,!identified!four!ontogenetic!stages!of! childhood!based!on!Stanley!Hall’s!recapitulation!theory!and!their!correlative!“play! styles,”!which!became!a!leading!model!for!physical!education!programs.!!A!“grasping! instinct”!motivated!infants!to!manipulate!valued!objects!with!their!hands!or!through! oral!incorporation!and!expressed!itself!during!play!when!babies!manipulated!mud! and!sand,!e.g.!made!mud!pies!and!sand!castles!or!hoarded!sand!in!containers.!!Lee! claimed!that!these!grasping!activities!rehearsed!primitive!man’s!ability!to!use!tools! and!also!recalled!the!amphibious!origins!of!humans.!!Toddlers!possessed!a! “belonging!instinct”!that!recapitulated!mankind’s!earliest!social!communities,!and!so! young!children!should!play!“ring!games”!like!ringParoundPtheProsy!because!the! group!singing,!marching,!and!related!“teasing!rhymes”!compelled!rebellious! youngsters!to!abide!by!the!opinions!of!the!group!or!risk!social!ostracism!(Figure! 5.32).!!Preteens!possessed!“rampaging,!anarchistic!urges”!that!overwhelmed!the! precarious!social!solidarity!of!youngsters!and!caused!them!to!question!authority,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 434 Henry Curtis, The Practical Conduct of Play ((New York, 1915), 212, quoted in Cavallo, Muscles and Morals, 94. Curtis also argued that athletic sports also trained capable soldiers because they cultivated “initiative, courage, resourcefulness, and quickness of thought in time of danger.” See Henry Curtis, School Grounds and Play, Bulletin of the Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education 45 (1921), 5-6. ignore!rules,!and!disregard!the!welfare!of!their!peers.!!Their!play!style!involved! “games”!often!tantamount!to!law!breaking!such!as!railroad!riding,!running!away! from!home,!and!truancy,!vestiges!of!nomadic!social!organization.!!Such!rebellious! and!selfPassertive!behavior!intensified!during!adolescence,!except!that!teenagers! were!aggressively!loyal!to!their!peers,!rehearsing!tribal!social!organization!by! forming!cliques!and!gangs.435!!! Of!the!four!developmental!stages,!teenagers,!with!their!potential!for!violence! and!criminal!activity,!were!obviously!the!most!threatening!to!the!social!order.! Reformers!mobilized!competitive!team!sports!–!mostly!baseball,!basketball,!and! volleyball!–!to!channel!their!rebellious!attitudes!towards!socially!constructive! behavior.!!Teams!recapitulated!the!social!clique!or!gang;!competition!replayed!gang! rivalries;!and!the!vigorous!exercise!mollified!their!potentially!destructive!energies.!! At!the!same!time,!predetermined,!socially!accepted!limitations!–!the!rules!of!the! game!–!directed!seditious!instincts!and!compelled!children!and!young!adults!to! value!communal!team!goals!over!individual!desires.436!!Preteens!played!in!less! aggressive!“little!leagues”!and!teenagers!competed!at!higher!“varsity”!levels,!but!in! both!instances!young!athletes!learned!socially!cooperative!behavior.! Perkins!and!Jane!Addams!hoped!to!extend!team!participation!into!adulthood! through!spectator!sporting!events.!!Perkins!and!the!SPC!argued!that!watching! athletic!competitions!qualified!as!“public!entertainment,”!and!Perkins!usually! included!spectator!bleachers!in!his!playgrounds.!!Jane!Addams,!at!times,!seemed! positively!carried!away!by!her!faith!in!“team!spirit”!to!unify!otherwise!inchoate,! even!antagonistic,!groups!of!people:! On!a!Saturday!afternoon!the!entire!male!population!of!the!city!betakes!itself! to!the!baseball!field…the!enormous!crowds!of!cheering!men!and!boys!are! talkative!and!goodPnatured,!full!of!holiday!spirit,!and!absolutely!released! from!the!grind!of!life.!!They!are!lifted!out!of!their!individual!affairs!and!so! fused!together!that!a!man!cannot!tell!whether!it!is!his!own!shout!or!another’s! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 435 Cavallo, Muscles and Morals, 54, 88-91; Joseph Lee, Play in Education (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1923), 350-368. 436 Lee, Play in Education, 335-349; Cavallo, Muscles and Morals, 89-94.  that!fills!his!ears;!whether!it!is!his!own!coat!or!another’s!that!he!is!wildly! waving!to!celebrate!a!victory.!!He!does!not!call!the!stranger!who!sits!next!to! him!his!“brother”!but!he!unconsciously!embraces!him!in!an!overwhelming! outburst!of!kindly!feeling!when!the!favorite!player!makes!a!home!run.!!Does! this!not!contain!a!suggestion!of!the!undoubted!power!of!public!recreation!to! bring!together!all!classes!of!a!community!in!the!modern!city!unhappily!so!full! of!devices!for!keeping!men!apart?437! Critics,!however,!denounced!spectatorship!as!morally!hazardous!because!“rooting”! encouraged!players!and!enthusiasts!to!strive!for!victory!at!all!costs,!causing!rowdy! jeering!and!fighting,!which!undermined!the!lessons!of!teamwork,!sportsmanship,! unity,!and!selfPsacrifice!that!some!reformers!believed!was!the!whole!point!of!playing! team!games.438! ! Despite!all!the!rhetoric!glorifying!the!social!benefits!of!organized!team! sports,!Perkins!devoted!a!considerable!amount!of!attention!and!resources!to! seesaws,!swings,!slides,!and!other!playground!apparatus,!most!of!which!encouraged! individualistic!and!“unconstructive”!behavior!(Figures!5.3!and!5.25).!!He!consulted! with!the!Supervisor!of!Physical!Culture!for!Chicago!to!select!the!best!equipment.!!He! outfitted!Seward!Park!with!combination!frames!for!gymnastics,!four!“giant!strides,”! four!slides,!eight!seesaws,!three!lawn!swings,!and!three!rope!swings.!!After!seeing! how!popular!the!apparatus!was,!Perkins!designed!an!additional!outdoor!gymnasium! exclusively!for!girls.439 !!Most!playground!advocates!cautioned!against!equipment,! however,!because!it!did!almost!nothing!to!socialize!children.!!One!reformer!likened! swinging!to!debased!emotional!states:!“Psychologically!the!use!and!effect…is!similar! to!getting!drunk.”440!!Henry!Curtis!completely!derided!the!value!of!playground! apparatus!for!the!way!it!fostered!selfish,!asocial!behavior!and!offered!no! constructive!learning:! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 437!Addams,!Spirit+of+Youth,!96.! 438 Curtis, “School Grounds and Play,” 19; Cavallo, Muscles and Morals, 22. 439 1908 Annual Report of the Lincoln Park Commission, 40. When Seward Park only had one outdoor gymnasium, girls and boys played on the apparatus on separate days of the week, four days for boys and three for girls. 440 Curtis, Play+Movement,!229.  The!boy!who!is!swinging!is!in!an!unsocial!activity….he!is!seeking!his!own! pleasure!to!the!exclusion!of!some!other!child.!!It!creates!no!friendship!or! social!spirit.!!It!is!not!anywhere!regarded!as!an!accomplishment…it!is!in!no! sense!a!preparation!for!the!future.!!It!gives!very!little!training!to!the!eye!or! the!hand!or!the!judgment.!!On!the!other!hand,!the!boy!who!is!playing!baseball! is!training!at!the!same!time!his!eye!and!his!hand….quickness!and!accuracy!of! judgment,!determination!and!courage….and!a!spirit!of!friendliness!and! loyalty!toward!the!other!members!of!the!team.441! Equipment!also!attracted!loafers!and!vagrants!who!lounged!on!the!apparatus!at! night,!and!it!was!the!source!of!most!playground!injuries.442!!! These!debates!around!spectator!sports,!seesaws,!swings,!and!slides,!while! seemingly!trivial!even!if!amusing,!provide!perspective!on!the!flexible!way!Perkins! approached!reform!and!the!inclusive,!tolerant!nature!of!his!social!politics.!!He! recognized!that!people!enjoyed!cheering!for!sports!teams!and!that!playing!on! monkey!bars!and!jungle!gyms!was!simply!fun,!even!if!there!was!no!underlying!moral! lesson.!!Playground!equipment,!in!fact,!rivaled!team!sports!in!popularity.!! Attendance!figures!for!Seward!Park!show!that!32,!230!people!used!frames!and! apparatus!in!August!1908!compared!to!32,!456!people!who!played!on!athletic! fields.443 !Clearly!people!had!their!own!ideas!about!to!spend!their!leisure!time,! despite!the!heavyPhanded!moralizing!of!some!reformers.!!Perkins!was!willing!to! respect!the!preferences!of!ordinary!people!instead!of!condescending!to!them.!! Broadly!interested!in!making!people!happier!and!improving!their!lives,!even!in! small!ways,!he!was!willing!to!experiment!with!any!number!of!tactics!to!advance! social!progress.!!! ! Playgrounds!and!Identity!Politics! Even!as!playgrounds!sought!to!assimilate!members!of!a!diverse!public,!they! also!circumscribed!bitter!disputes!surrounding!ethnicity,!race,!class,!and!gender.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 441!Ibid.,!226P227.! 442 Ibid.,!227. 443 1908 Annual Report of the Lincoln Park Commission, 41. Organized!athletics!arguably!hastened!the!assimilation!of!immigrants,!since!teams! consisted!of!players!from!diverse!ethnic!backgrounds.!!Progressives!believed!that! the!threat!posed!by!selfPcontained,!immigrant!subPcommunities!could!be! neutralized!by!the!experience!of!“pulling!together”!that!characterized!organized! sports.!!According!to!Joseph!Lee,!Americans!and!immigrants!alike!became!fused! together!during!the!team!experience!in!a!way!that!“crosses!the!limits!of!race!and! caste!and!economic!class.”444!!Ethnically!diverse!children!united!into!“infant! commonwealths”!during!ring!games,!providing!“invaluable!training!in!what!it!meant! to!be!an!American.”445!!Charles!Zueblin!most!optimistically!described!the! assimilatory!potential!of!group!games!when!declared,!“We!are!welding!the!people! together!as!in!a!great!melting!pot!on!the!playgrounds!of!Chicago!”446!!Organized! team!sports!downplayed!the!values!of!individuals!or!minority!cultures!and!helped! immigrants!internalize!instead!the!values!held!by!most!progressives,!namely,!social! cooperation,!respect!for!rules!and!regulations,!and!meritPbased!social!hierarchies.!!! Paradoxically,!playgrounds!often!reproduced!ethnic!and!class!divisions,! despite!optimism!about!their!assimilatory!potential.!!Most!neighborhoods,!and!by! extension!their!local!parks,!were!already!socially,!economically,!and!racially! segregated.!!A!study!conducted!in!1910!reported!that!82%!of!children!who!attended! a!specific!playground!lived!within!onePquarter!mile.447!!So!playgrounds!rehearsed! the!ethnical!exclusivity!of!immigrant!ghettoes,!rendering!reformers!claims!of! “overcoming!the!prejudices!of!nationalities!and!races”!more!rhetoric!than!reality.!! Reformers!often!blamed!immigrants!and!their!cultural!traits!for!the!segregation!that! persisted!on!many!municipal!playgrounds.!!Zueblin,!outspoken!playground! champion!and!melting!pot!enthusiast,!accused!Polish!children!of!being!“utterly! unused!to!organization”!and!therefore!impossible!to!engage!in!rational!or!team!play.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 444 Joseph Lee, “Assimilation and Nationality,” in Charities and the Commons 19 (1908): 43-48; and Lee, “Americanization and Recreation,” (Lee Papers, National Recreation and Playground Association), quoted in Cavallo, pp. 74 and 104. On Americanization and assimilatory potential of play see also Gulick, Philosophy of Play, 262-265. 445 Lee, Play in Education, 162-167; Cavallo, 79. 446 Zueblin, “The!City!Child!at!Play,”!445P450. 447 See Roy Rosenzweig, “Reforming Working Class Play: the Development of Parks and Playgrounds in Worcester, Massachusetts, 1870-1920,” paper presented at the Brockport Conference on the Social History of Sport, October 1978, cited in Cavallo, Muscles and Morals, 46 and 163. He!charged!Germans,!Scandinavians,!Bohemians,!Jews,!the!Irish,!and!Italians!with! similarly!unsystematic!behavior,!and!blamed!their!broad!cultural!dispositions!for! the!difficulty!playground!supervisors!were!having!in!assimilating!diverse!ethnic! groups.448!!! Reformers!rationalized!their!racism!with!a!similar!logic.!!Some!progressives! believed!playgrounds!could!overcome!racial!prejudice,!and!park!journals!praised!at! least!one!recreation!center!in!Chicago!for!its!integrated!program!(Figure!5.33).449!! But!segregation!and!inferior!facilities!were,!for!the!most!part,!standard!practice.!! Park!advocates!believed!that!vacant!lots!and!closedPoff!streets!were!acceptable! “playgrounds”!for!black!children.!!Others!called!for!completely!segregated!facilities! staffed!by!black!play!directors.450!!Racial!segregation!contradicted!the!democratic! rhetoric!espoused!by!most!progressives,!but!they!blamed!the!poor!behavior!of! blacks!for!the!inconsistency,!arguing!that!“colored!children!are!very!apt!to!form!a! clique!by!themselves!and!be!an!inassimilable!element!within!the! playground…[T]hey!tend!to!break!up!the!harmony!of!the!ground!and!cause!quarrels! and!friction.”451!!Reformers,!at!least!some!of!them,!apparently!believed!that! immigrant!children!could!be!assimilated!but!that!black!children!could!not,!an! attitude!that!obviously!perpetuated!racist!cultural!stereotypes.!!!!!!!! Playgrounds!also!registered!evolving!attitudes!with!regards!to!gender!roles! and,!at!the!same!time,!reinforced!prevailing!standards!of!inequality.!!Perkins! believed!that!females!needed!physical!exercise!as!much!as!males,!and!he! encouraged!women!to!use!recreation!centers!by!designating!locker!rooms,! gymnasiums,!and!athletic!fields!specifically!for!their!use!in!all!his!playgrounds.!He! was!following!standard!practice!for!the!time!when!he!sexPsegregated!these! amenities,!but!nonetheless,!physical!separation!marginalized!women!and! institutionalized!outmoded!cultural!biases!regarding!their!weaker!constitutions!and! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 448 Zueblin, “Municipal Playgrounds in Chicago,” 154; Cavallo, Muscles and Morals, 46. 449 1909 Annual Report of the Special Park Commission; Ernest T. Atwell, “Playgrounds for Colored America,” in The Park International (November 1920): 223. Humboldt Park had an integrated swimming pool, causing Atwell to write that Chicago “experiences no problem in the commingling of races,” clearly an exaggeration. Inter-playground athletic competitions between white and black neighborhoods also provided occasional opportunities for integrated recreation. 450 Atwell, “Playgrounds for Colored America,” 218-223; Curtis, Play Movement, 84-85. 451 Curtis, Play Movement, 85. dependence!on!men.!!Female!athletic!fields!and!gymnasiums!were!usually!smaller! than!those!provided!to!males,!and!when!both!sexes!had!to!share!facilities,!as!was!the! case!in!most!smaller!playgrounds,!regulations!granted!men!the!privilege!of!using! them!more!frequently!than!women.!!! Play!curriculums!for!girls!and!young!women!included!physical!exertions!not! unlike!those!offered!to!boys,!such!as!marching,!simple!gymnastics,!and!calisthenics,! but!most!park!officials!discouraged!competitive!games!that!cultivated!aggressive! behavior,!such!as!basketball!or!baseball,!because!they!worried!such!spirited! pursuits!might!“unsex”!women.!!Seward!Park!had!a!piano!and!professional!musician! on!staff,!in!part!so!that!women’s!gymnastics!classes!could!be!accompanied!by!music.!! Lincoln!Park!officials!insisted!that!physical!educators!pay!special!attention!to!the! “correction!of!faulty!figures”!and!to!the!development!of!“more!graceful!bearings”!in! girls.!!It!was!believed!that!athletics!also!delayed!sexual!curiosity!in!young!women,! both!preserving!their!virginity!until!marriage!and!protecting!them!against! unwanted!pregnancies!and!the!social!ostracism!that!usually!accompanied!single! motherhood.452!Park!boards,!reformers,!and!physical!educators!clearly!supported! female!athletic!programs,!but!their!compulsion!to!disguise!female!exercise!as! “dance”!and!prioritize!appearance!and!sexual!innocence!over!health!or!athletic! ability!spoke!to!widespread!cultural!assumptions!about!women!in!the!early! twentieth!century:!they!should!be!passive,!graceful,!beautiful,!and!even!naïve.!!! Perkins!and!the!SPC!recommended!additional!programming!at!municipal! playgrounds,!such!as!sewing!and!raffia!weaving,!that!would!train!girls,!and!perhaps! adult!women!as!well,!to!be!productive!housewives!and!mothers.453!!Domestic! science!classes!and!organizations!like!the!Camp!Fire!Girls!were!both!popular!ways! of!providing!girls!“training!that!is!essentially!womanly”!to!combat!formal!schooling! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 452 Harvey Green, Fit for America: Health, Fitness, Sport, and American Society (New York: Pantheon, 1986), 137-140. For a history on the relationship between gender politics and recreation from the nineteenth century to the present, see J.A. Mangan and Roberta J. Park, eds., From “Fair Sex” to Feminism: Sport and the Socialization of Women in the Industrial and Post-Industrial Eras (London: Frank Cass, 1987). 453 1906 Annual Report of the Special Park Commission, 10-11; 1904 Annual Report of the Special Park Commission, 10. that!“trained!the!heads!of!girls!for!the!work!of!men.”454!!These!programs!included! cooking!classes,!instruction!on!food!shopping!and!household!budgeting,!caring!for!a! baby,!and!housecleaning.!!Boy!Scouts,!by!contrast,!were!described!as!apprentice! citizens,!and!their!training!included!athletic!and!civic!lessons!that!prepared!them!to! politically!participate!in!democratic!society.!!The!Boy!Scouts!imbued!young!men! with!“courage”!that!prepared!them!to!“fight!graft!and!selfPinterest!and!organized! capital!that!would!oppress!the!weak!and!enslave!us!all.”455!!Playground! programming!encouraged!girls!to!assume!their!subordinate!social!positions!as! wives!and!mothers,!even!as!it!attempted!to!improve!their!physical!health!and!offer! practical!instruction!in!occupations!they!would!most!likely!pursue.!!! Perkins!believed!that!playgrounds!offered!professional!employment! opportunities!for!collegePeducated!women,!even!as!they!acculturated!others!to!be! mothers!and!housewives.!!He!wrote!that!playground!supervisors,!who!were!almost! universally!male,!should!be!aided!by!an!assistant!director!who!was!“always!a! woman!and!trained!kindergartner,”!and!many!women!likely!found!outlets!for!their! career!aspirations!at!municipal!playgrounds.456!!At!the!same!time,!such! assistantships!reinforced!traditional!gender!roles!repackaged!as!emancipation.!! Female!playground!assistants!essentially!still!nurtured!young!children!and! answered!to!male!authority!figures,!which!effectively!redirected!the!potential! activism!of!learned!women!back!into!motherhood.!!Women!clearly!gained!some! degree!of!strength!and!equality!from!municipal!playgrounds!that!provided!them! with!increased!physical!health,!occupational!training,!employment!opportunities,! and!even!safe!childcare!environments,!but!not!enough!to!entirely!break!patriarchal! bonds!that!still!circumscribed!them!as!mothers!and!wives!dependent!on!men.! Lastly,!progressives!roundly!believed!that!“team!spirit”!could!ameliorate! strained!industrial!relations.!!Perkins!and!the!SPC!recommended!competitive!team! sports!as!a!means!of!counteracting!the!monotonous,!regimented!conditions!of!most! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 454 Curtis, Play Movement, 270 and 276. 455 Ibid., 253-261. 456 Perkins, Metropolitan Park System, 28. factory!work.457!!Jane!Addams!marshaled!“team!spirit”!as!an!instrument!for! mollifying!the!alienation!and!boredom!of!divided!labor,!since!it!created!a!feeling!of! solidarity!among!workers:!“It!takes!thirtyPnine!people!to!make!a!coat!in!a!modern! tailoring!establishment,!yet!those!thirtyPnine!people!might!produce!a!coat!in!a!spirit! of!“team!work”!which!would!make!the!entire!process!as!much!more!exhilarating! than!the!work!of!the!old!solitary!tailor,!as!playing!in!a!baseball!nine!gives!more! pleasure!to!a!boy!than!that!afforded!by!a!solitary!game!of!handball.”458!!More!cynical! reformers!and!industrialists!realized!that!transferring!team!spirit!to!factories!was! also!an!effective!weapon!against!labor!strikes,!vandalism,!wage!demands,!and!other! expressions!of!discontent!and!helped!keep!workers!in!place!under!the!ruse!of!team! loyalty.!!As!Joseph!Lee!wrote:!“The!point!is!not!in!making!money!but!in!making!good,! in!holding!down!the!part!assigned!to!you!in!the!economy!of!the!social!whole!to! which!you!may!belong,!as!the!boy!in!the!school!team!holds!down!third!base.”459!! These!competing!attitudes!with!regard!to!ethnicity,!race,!gender,!and!class! reveal!that!many!progressives!still!harbored!prejudices!and!biases!against!the!very! groups!they!hoped!to!help!and!suggests!the!complexity!of!overcoming!statusPquo! social!hierarchies!and!enacting!widespread!reform.!!Perkins!generally!believed!that! all!children!could!reap!cultural,!physical,!and!psychological!benefits!at!municipal! playgrounds,!though!some!of!his!peers!evidently!felt!otherwise.!!His!cultural! pluralism!disposed!him!to!worrying!broadly!about!the!health,!happiness,!and! futures!of!“the!children,”!and!he!rarely!distinguished!between!ethnicities!or!races!in! his!writings.!!But!while!Perkins,!Addams,!and!most!progressives!genuinely!worried! about!the!human!cost!of!the!market!revolution,!which!“produced!shoes!and!fabrics! rather!than!human!happiness,”!they!did!not!radically!rethink!the!industrial!order.460!! They!recommended!recreation!as!a!salve!to!its!detrimental!effects.!!The!“team!spirit”! advocated!by!Perkins!and!his!fellow!play!organizers!was!not!the!solidarity!of!a! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 457 1904 Annual Report of the Special Parks Commission, 7. 458 Addams, Spirit of Youth and the City Streets, 127. 459 Joseph Lee, “Play as Medicine,” Playground 5 (December 1911): 294, quoted in Cavallo, Muscles and Morals, 101. 460 Addams, Spirit of Youth, 127. politically!empowered!working!class!so!much!as!it!was!a!benign!social!cooperation,! indicative!of!their!moderate!social!politics.!!! For!Perkins,!playgrounds!were!mainly!a!practical!way!to!address!a!host!of! interrelated!metropolitan!problems,!ranging!from!inadequate!recreation!outlets,! nonexistent!childcare!services,!and!public!health!crises,!to!challenges!surrounding! immigration!and!public!education.!!He!never!theorized!about!the!philosophical!or! cultural!ramifications!of!industrialization.!!He!accepted!modern,!industrial!realities! and!believed!that!playgrounds!could!help!laborers,!minorities,!women,!and!children! enjoy!a!higher!quality!of!life,!learn!something,!and!communicate!with!their! neighbors.!!Admittedly,!the!corporate!structure!of!these!new!civic!institutions,! particularly!their!stewardship!by!elite!experts,!undermined!his!populist!intentions! to!some!degree.!!Progressives!intended!that!bureaucratic!organization!would!free! these!neighborhood!centers!from!the!corruption!that!plagued!municipal! government.!!Fiske!Kimball,!for!example,!argued!that!communities!should!pay!their! civic!leaders!liberally!from!public!funds!and!insist!that!public!appointments!be!“kept! free!from!politics!and!a!high!standard!of!character!and!ability.”461!!But!such!high! standards!usually!demanded!candidates!with!an!advanced!education,!which! restricted!leadership!positions!mainly!to!upperP!or!middlePclass!professionals.!! Government!bureaucracies!were!not!“kept!free!from!politics”!but!reproduced,!to! some!degree,!the!politics!of!progressive!reformers.!!! Such!contradictions!and!ambiguities!make!it!difficult!not!to!interpret!the! playground!movement!as!a!veiled!attempt!to!force!the!working!class!to!comply!with! the!industrial!order,!immigrants!to!assimilate!to!the!majority!culture,!and!women!to! submit!to!sexist!social!standards.!!But!to!read!progressivism!purely!from!the! perspective!of!social!control!overstates!the!case,!and!nor!should!we!dismiss! progressive!efforts!for!being!insufficiently!radical.!!Playgrounds!never!functioned! perfectly!to!ameliorate!the!social!predicaments!of!modern!cities,!and!competing! interest!groups!such!as!industry,!public!health!advocates,!and!machine!politics! claimed!recreation!centers!for!their!own!ends.!!But!these!subsequent!appropriations! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 461 Kimball, “Civic Enterprises,” 46. should!not!obscure!Perkins’s!intentions,!which!were!to!construct!local!civic! institutions!that!encouraged!democratic!exchange!and!helped!equalize!some!of!the! social!and!economic!disparities!of!modern!urban!life.!!And!to!a!large!degree,!he!and! other!progressives!succeeded.!!Neighborhood!playgrounds!are!a!staple!social! institution!in!cities!and!suburbs!across!the!United!States!today.! Perkins!designed!these!municipal!playgrounds!concurrently!to!working!as! architect!for!the!Chicago!School!Board,!and!so!it!is!not!surprising!that!some!of!the! strategies!and!tactics!he!employed!at!recreation!centers!and!schools!overlapped.!! Public!schools!eventually!absorbed!many!of!the!functions!of!municipal!playgrounds,! including!the!provision!of!gymnasiums!and!recreational!facilities!for!the!entire! community.!!Zueblin!predicted!their!consolidation,!at!least!to!some!degree,!when!he! proposed!to!connect!neighborhood!playgrounds!with!public!schools!in!1898,!ten! years!before!Perkins!designed!his!first!playground.!!Schools!were!advantageous! playground!sites,!Zueblin!reasoned,!because!they!were!“always!accessible,!being! near!the!homes!of!the!children.”!!Parks!and!play!spaces!would!make!educational! institutions!more!attractive!to!youngsters!and!help!overcome!the!“prison!idea!of! school.”462!!Many!other!members!of!the!playground!movement!agreed!with!him.!! Sadie!American!argued!that!“school!yards!and!basements!offer!excellent!space!for! play”!and!substantiated!her!proposal!by!appealing!to!the!fiscal!efficiency!loved!by!so! many!municipal!reformers:!“It!would!seem!to!be!an!extremely!poor!financial!policy! which!had!millions!invested!in!buildings!that!are!idle!onePquarter!of!the!time;!yet! this!is!the!shortPsighted!policy!of!the!majority!of!our!school!boards.”463 !!In!this! context,!municipal!playgrounds!were!“trial!runs”!for!Perkins!and!his!progressive! social!politics,!at!least!in!part!–!a!chance!to!experiment!with!various!architectural! and!political!strategies!for!revitalizing!democratic!social!institutions,!tactics!which! he!ultimately!refined!and!expanded!in!countless!public!schools!across!the!Midwest! that!he!considered!to!be!the!“ultimate!community!centers.”464! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 462 Zueblin, “Municipal Playgrounds in Chicago,” 154 and 157-158. 463 American, “Small Playgrounds,” 159. By 1915, if not earlier, it was commonly believed that all schools should have playgrounds. See Curtis, Play Movement, 30-61; and Curtis, “School Grounds and Play.” 464 Perkins and Howell, “The Functions and Plan-Types of Community Buildings,” 294.  Chapter!Six! School!Building,!Nation!Building! ! “The!public!school!is!the!bulwark!of!democratic!social!organization!with!the!school!building!as!its! chief!instrument.”! !!!!!!!!!!!!!! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!PPDwight!Perkins,!“The!Purpose!of!School!Buildings,”!c.!1910! ! “Public!education!is!the!great!democratic!force!which!creates!the!understanding!which!unites! society.”!! !! ! ! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!PPDwight!Perkins,!“School!Buildings,”!c.!1909! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! The!public!school!almost!immediately!eclipsed!the!recreation!center!as!the! preferred!instrument!for!acculturation!and!transmitter!of!progressive!democratic! values.!!This!was!partly!due!to!compulsory!attendance!laws!and!a!rapidly!increasing! immigrant!population.!!These!forces!combined!to!create!a!dramatic!uptick!in!the! number!of!pupils!attending!school!and!therefore!an!equally!remarkable! proliferation!in!the!number!of!educational!buildings!needed!to!house!them.!!The! Chicago!Board!of!Education!hired!Perkins!in!1905,!and!during!the!next!five!years!he! constructed,!remodeled,!or!designed!additions!to!more!than!forty!school!buildings.!! In!addition,!he!maintained!a!private!practice!specializing!in!school!architecture,! designing!dozens!more!educational!facilities!across!the!Midwest.!!As!early!as!1910,! Perkins!could!describe!this!network!of!schools!as!a!widespread!system,!evenly! distributed!and!accessible!to!the!entire!public:!“The!school!in!any!large!city!is!a!unit! in!a!system!that!is!evenly!spread!or!distributed!over!its!entire!area.!!The!system! through!its!component!units!is!within!easy!access!of!all!citizens.”465!!Schools! outnumbered!recreation!centers!and!since!attendance!was!legally!mandated,!they! became!important!instruments!of!state!intervention!into!the!everyday!lives!of! citizens.!!For!these!reasons,!public!schools!became!the!penultimate!community! center!in!the!minds!of!progressive!reformers,!an!“embryonic!society”!as!John!Dewey! described!their!transformed!and!transformative!function.466! Public!schools!encompassed!a!range!of!cultural!phenomena!as!access!to!them! expanded!and!their!sphere!of!influence!broadened.!!These!included!sweeping! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 465 Dwight Perkins, “The Purpose of School Buildings,” draft of speech read before the National Education Association, probably January 24, 1910, Perkins Papers, Box 2, Folder 2, Chicago Historical Society. 466 Dewey, “The School and Social Progress,” in School and Society, 18. pedagogical!reforms,!new!understandings!of!child!development,!a!burgeoning! national!awareness!of!the!body,!public!health,!and!hygiene,!and!the!reorganization! of!school!administration!along!corporate,!bureaucratic!lines!that!resulted!in!a!near! obsession!with!efficiency,!standardization!and!centralization.!!This!chapter!explores! how!Perkins!responded!to!these!broad!cultural!shifts!in!his!school!designs.!!For! example,!he!incorporated!specialized!learning!spaces!into!his!schools,!improved! sanitation!and!safety!features,!introduced!the!“connected!group!plan”!to!facilitate! broad!community!use!of!the!educational!plant,!and!pioneered!a!new!type!of! expandable!school!that!could!be!built!in!successive!phases.!!He!attempted!to!signify! the!new!institutional!identity!of!public!schools!through!their!exterior!architectural! representation,!which!varied!from!building!to!building,!but!always!conveyed!a!sense! of!civic!importance!that!was!legible!to!the!public.!!Equal!attention!will!be!paid!to! schools!Perkins!designed!in!private!practice!and!as!the!official!architect!to!the! Chicago!School!Board,!and!will!include!elementary!and!high!schools.!!Distinctions! between!rural,!suburban,!and!urban!schools!will!also!be!discussed,!along!with!the! impact!bureaucratization!had!on!both!school!administration,!which!became! centralized,!and!the!school!plan,!which!became!standardized.!!! Finally,!this!chapter!probes!the!limits!of!public!schools!to!actually!operate!as! democratic!social!condensers.!!Like!most!progressive!neighborhood!centers,!schools! were!social!and!political!battlegrounds,!despite!their!democratic!and!equalitarian! ambitions.!!MiddlePclass!reformers!battled!against!local!ward!bosses!and!an! entrenched!patronage!system!for!control!of!schools.!!As!the!school!system!evolved! into!a!bureaucratic!machine,!administration!by!expert!technocrats!replaced!local,! more!popular!management.!!Paradoxically!then,!access!to!education!democratized! but!control!of!education!did!not.!!Nevertheless,!reformers!believed!that!universal,! progressive!education,!however!flawed,!was!still!one!of!the!most!effective!means!of! instilling!an!ethnically,!racially,!and!economically!diverse!populace!with!the!cultural! values!required!of!democratic!society!and!of!equipping!them!with!the!skills!needed! to!succeed!in!an!increasingly!complex!market!economy.! ! ! Education!and!the!Democratic!Ideal! In!a!speech!before!an!assembly!of!western!teachers,!Perkins!expressed!the! optimistic!political!and!social!aspirations!he!held!for!public!education,!calling!it!“the! greatest!democratic!force!which!creates!the!understanding!which!unites!society.”!!! He!distinguished!it!from!“religion!and!partisan!politics,!which!are!individualistic!and! tend!to!subdivide!society!into!sections,”!though!he!acknowledged!the!importance!of! those!institutions.467!!Public!education,!he!argued,!could!truly!advance!democracy! because!it!“recognizes!no!differences,!either!racial,!political,!religious,!or! social…separating!influences!are!nullified!by!the!school.”468!!As!an!architect,!Perkins! understood!the!school!building!to!be!an!extension!of!these!ideals:!“The!public!school! is!the!bulwark!of!democratic!social!organization!with!the!school!building!as!its!chief! instrument.”469!!He!envisioned!them!operating!as!broad!neighborhood!centers,! offering!up!its!libraries,!workshops,!auditoriums,!gymnasiums,!and!playgrounds!to! adults!and!children!alike.!!Schools!were!penultimate!democratic!condensers!in!his! mind,!because!they!united!communities!divided!along!class!and!economic!lines!by! cultivating!“fraternity!of!interests!among!all!the!citizens,!young!and!old,!all!the! workers!taking!part!in!the!construction!of!the!school!building,!and!all!of!the!taxP payers!paying!for!it.”470!!Beyond!a!doubt,!Perkins!clearly!had!faith!in!the!democratic! potentials!of!public!education.! The!association!between!public!education!and!democratic!practices!was!not! new!or!unique!to!Perkins,!though!it!was!possibly!his!most!passionate!principle.!! Antebellum!proponents!of!universal!education!such!as!Horace!Mann,!Henry! Barnard,!John!Pierce,!and!Samuel!Lewis!all!argued!that!selfPgovernment!required!a! universally!educated!public,!whereby!every!citizen!was!capable!of!participating!in! political!life.471!!Horace!Mann!wrote!in!1848!that!education!was!“the!great!equalizer! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 467 Dwight Perkins, “School Buildings,” paper read before the National Education Association [1909?], 88, in Perkins Papers, Chicago Historical Society. 468 Perkins, “The Purpose of School Buildings.” 469 Ibid. 470 Ibid. 471 Cremin, Transformation of the School, 8. of!the!conditions!of!men”!and!“the!balance!wheel!of!the!social!machinery.”472!! William!Torrey!Harris,!the!first!superintendent!of!the!St.!Louis!school!system!and! United!States!Commissioner!of!Education,!reiterated!the!codependent!relationship! between!universal!education!and!democratic!government!in!1872:!“An!ignorant! people!can!be!governed,!but!only!a!wise!people!can!govern+itself.”473!!! Perkins’s!suggestion!that!public!education!was!a!social!equalizer,!leveling! class,!religious,!ethnic,!and!economic!disparities,!also!dates!to!the!first!half!of!the! nineteenth!century.!!According!to!Mann,!if!education!could!be!extended!to!all! Americans,!“it!would!do!more!than!all!things!else!to!obliterate!factitious!distinctions! in!society.”474!!The!common!schools!of!the!1830s!and!1840s,!pioneered!by!Mann!in! Massachusetts,!provided!free,!nonsectarian!instruction!to!all!children,!rich!and!poor! alike,!in!an!attempt!to!meet!the!overlapping!goals!of!selfPgovernment!and!social! equality.475!!In!short,!Americans’!belief!in!the!democratizing!possibilities!of!public! education!were!theorized!and!put!into!practice!before!the!twentieth!century.! What!was!different!by!1900!was!an!awareness!of!the!failure!of!these!early! educational!reformers!to!overcome!the!social,!intellectual,!and!economic! inequalities!wrought!by!industrial!capitalism.!!If!anything,!the!situation!had! worsened!as!the!market!revolution!advanced.!!Class!disparities,!labor!disputes,! government!and!business!corruption,!and!unprecedented!immigration!seemed!to! continue!unabated,!so!progressives!marshaled!public!education!in!their!most! sweeping!attempt!to!modulate!these!challenges.!!Schools!thus!became!powerful! instruments!of!reform,!probably!the!most!powerful!social!institution!manipulated! by!progressives,!but!at!the!same!time,!they!were!disputed!territories!as!competing! interests,!including!business,!labor,!machine!politics,!and!educational!experts,! struggled!to!direct!education!towards!their!own!ends.! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 472 Horace Mann, Twelfth Annual Report to the Board of Education, Together with the Twelfth Annual Report of the Secretary of the Board (Boston, 1849), 84, quoted in Cremin, Transformation of the School, 9. 473 Seventeenth Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools (St. Louis, 1872), 58, quoted in Cremin, 16. 474 Mann, Twelfth Annual Report to the Board of Education, quoted in Hogan, Class and Reform, 51. 475 Cremin, 11; Hogan, 51. ! Progressives!saw!public!schooling!as!an!opportunity!to!provide!people!with! knowledge!and!skills!necessary!to!advance!in!a!complex!market!economy!and!also! as!a!vehicle!for!Americanizing!and!acculturating!immigrants.!!English,!German,! French,!and!other!“modern”!languages!gradually!replaced!classical!Latin!and!Greek! studies!because!they!were!more!useful!in!commercial!and!civic!life.!!Vocational! training!and!domestic!science!programs!furnished!children!with!marketable!talents,! advancing!their!employment!prospects.!!New!courses!in!civics!and!American!history! inducted!immigrants!into!their!responsibilities!as!citizens.476!!Enlarged!and! differentiated!school!plans!evolved!to!accommodate!this!expanded!curriculum,!and! school!exteriors!took!on!an!elevated!architectural!language!to!convey!the!civic! importance!of!education.! At!times,!some!progressives!were!almost!reactionary!in!their!emphasis!on! the!Americanizing!function!of!schools.!!Chicago!Board!of!Education!president,!Daniel! Cameron,!described!public!schools!as!“social!and!political!safeguards”!in!a!city!beset! by!a!vast!immigrant!population!“whose!habit!of!thought,!political!training,!and!belief! were!antagonistic!to!American!institutions.”477!!Perkins!himself!described!education! as!the!“study!of!Americanization!and!its!development!in!civic!and!social!life.”478!!But! most!progressives,!hoping!to!advance!social!democracy,!viewed!schools!as! instruments!for!teaching!all!children,!nativePborn!and!foreign,!about!their!rights!and! responsibilities!as!citizens.!!“Americanization”!in!this!context!often!had!positive! associations!with!upward!mobility.!!Chicago!Schools!Superintendent!Albert!Lane! argued!in!1892!that!public!schools!“should!be!regarded!as!a!department!of!the! government!to!properly!prepare!children!for!citizenship.”479!In!1914!Principal! William!Lewis!advised!Americans!to!commit!themselves!to!universal!education!as!a! means!of!preserving!democratic!institutions.480!!We!should!resist!reading! assimilatory!strategies!as!mere!attempts!by!progressives!to!eliminate!cultural! differences,!though!xenophobia!certainly!informed!the!views!of!some.!!The!attention! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 476 Hogan, 60; Cremin, 66-8. 477 Daniel Cameron, 40th Annual Report, 1894, 60 quoted in Hogan, Class and Reform, 60. 478 Dwight Perkins, William K. Fellows, and John L. Hamilton, Educational Buildings (Chicago: The Blakely Printing Company, 1925) 3. 479 Albert Lane, 38th Annual Report, 1892, 62, quoted in Hogan, Class and Reform, 60. 480 William Lewis, Democracy’s High School (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1914), 26. progressives!paid!to!the!challenges!and!needs!of!immigrants!demonstrates!that!they! took!foreign!settlers!seriously!and!were!willing!to!help!them!acquire!the!skills! necessary!to!advance!in!their!new!environment.! Successful!acculturation!required!an!expansion!of!state!power!over! individuals!in!the!form!of!compulsory!education!laws,!since!a!large!percentage!of! children!did!not!attend!school.!!Truancy!was!especially!common!for!immigrant! children,!who!often!worked!in!factories!or!at!home!because!their!families!needed! the!additional!income.481!!Between!1883!and!1893!the!Illinois!state!legislature! passed!various!compulsory!attendance!laws,!but!these!included!few!provisions!for! enforcement.!!The!Chicago!school!board!preferred!“moral!suasion”!of!recalcitrant! parents.!!In!1897!a!new!law!made!compulsion!through!legal!prosecution!easier,!and! the!school!board!began!retaining!a!corps!of!truant!officers!to!enforce!mandatory! school!attendance.482!!Compulsory!attendance!laws!had!merits:!a!reduction!in!child! labor,!better!preparation!for!the!workforce,!and!the!creation!of!socialized! communities!of!children.!!At!the!same!time,!such!legislation!replaced!parental!rights! with!a!tutelary!state!apparatus!designed!to!supervise!and!control!the!socialization!of! children.!!Bureaucratic!school!boards!administered!by!experts!according!to! standardized!regulations!increasingly!supplanted!individual!parental!authority.483!! The!expansion!of!the!corporate!state!also!enabled!progressive!reformers!to! combat!municipal!corruption.!!Ward!rule!had!important!consequences!for!all! branches!of!municipal!government!in!Chicago!but!especially!for!public!schools,!since! mayoralPappointed!representatives!constituted!the!school!board!and!had!decisionP making!power!over!staffing,!textbook!selection,!school!buildings,!maintenance,! curricula,!and!by!extension,!future!generations!of!Americans.484!Progressives! worked!to!reorganize!school!administration!along!bureaucratic!lines!of!expertise!in! an!effort!to!minimize!corruption.485!!They!founded!the!Chicago!Civil!Service! Commission!and!granted!it!the!power!to!classify!city!offices!under!merit!rules,!to! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 481 Sizer, Secondary Schools, 52. 482 Hogan, Class and Reform, 57-8. 483 Ibid., 58. 484 Nasaw, Schooled to Order, 106. 485 Spring, Education and Corporate State, 87. select!candidates!through!a!competitive!examination!system,!and!to!fire!civil! employees!for!incompetence.!!They!reduced!the!size!of!the!school!board!to!limit! politically!motivated!appointments;!opposed!popular!election!of!school!board! members!to!undermine!reflexive!party!loyalty;!centralized!the!authority!of!the! school!superintendent;!and!instituted!a!system!of!“merit!pay.”486!!! Such!measures,!progressives!hoped,!would!ensure!that!trained!professionals! governed!the!school!system.!!The!Pittsburgh!Voter’s!League!went!so!far!as!to! enumerate!the!types!of!people!it!believed!should!not!be!on!school!boards,!such!as! small!shopkeepers,!clerks,!and!workmen!at!any!trades!“who!by!lack!of!educational! advantages!and!business!training,!could!not,!no!matter!how!honest,!be!expected!to! administer!properly!the!affairs!of!an!educational!system.”487!!Proponents!of!school! board!reform!argued!that!the!bureaucratization!of!school!management!was! necessary!to!rationally!direct!increasingly!large,!complex!school!districts.!!However,! the!professionalization!of!educational!expertise!and!reorganization!of!urban!schools! along!corporate!lines!also!undermined!“community!control”!of!its!own!schools.488!! To!some!extent,!the!bureaucratization!of!education!contradicted!the!progressive! vision!of!public!schools!being!democratic!social!condensers,!or!“embryonic! communities”!as!Dewey!called!them.!!Nevertheless,!with!the!advent!of!universal,! compulsory!education,!the!institutional!retooling!of!American!society!that!began!in! settlement!houses!and!recreation!centers!reached!its!apotheosis!in!public!schools.! !! ! The!Bureaucratization!of!the!Public!School!System! When!Dwight!Perkins!assumed!the!position!of!Architect!to!the!Chicago! School!Board!in!June!1905,!he!was!one!of!the!first!designers!to!serve!under!the!city’s! newly!rationalized!educational!system.!!Ten!years!earlier,!municipal!reformers!and! businessmen!had!started!taking!steps!to!centralize!control!of!the!School!Board,! minimize!political!corruption,!and!increase!the!administrative!efficiency!of!the! educational!system!through!a!variety!of!procedural!changes.!!Perkins!was!the!first! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 486 Hogan, Class and Reform, 39. 487 Spring, Education and Corporate State, 86-7 488 Ibid. architect!required!to!take!a!competitive!civil!service!examination,!prevailing!over!six! other!candidates!to!secure!the!position.489!The!city!paid!Perkins!a!fixed!salary!rather! than!a!commission!and!limited!his!appointment!to!five!years,!with!the!possibility!of! additional!terms!pending!Board!nomination.490!!He!was!directly!accountable!to!the! Board!of!Education,!who!had!the!power!to!remove!him!for!incompetence,!rate!his! efficiency,!and!extend!his!contract.!!His!office!was!located!inside!City!Hall!to!be!in! closer!proximity!to!the!Board.!!At!the!beginning!of!his!tenure,!the!Board!did!not! require!Perkins!to!give!up!his!private!architectural!practice!since!his!annual!salary! was!capped!at!$8,000!per!year;!however,!they!did!require!that!he!spend!two!hours! each!day!at!the!School!Board!office!and!attend!all!Board!meetings.491!!Such!measures! increased!the!Board’s!control!over!the!architecture!department,!which,!at!least!in! theory,!would!help!them!lower!construction!costs!and!limit!politically!motivated! appointments.! As!Architect!to!the!School!Board,!Perkins!operated!as!an!administrator! within!a!vast!bureaucracy!more!than!as!an!individual!designer.!!The!School!Board! chose!sites,!sizes,!budgets,!and!types!of!schools!to!be!constructed,!and!transmitted! their!decisions!to!Perkins!in!the!form!of!“orders,”!which!Perkins!executed!with!the! help!of!a!large!architectural!department!consisting!of!250!draftsmen,! superintendents,!and!assistants,!all!subject!to!proficiency!ratings!and!directed!by! him.492!!This!architectural!mechanism!designed!and!constructed!six!or!seven!schools! at!a!time,!their!near!mass!production!made!possible!by!an!organizational!system! akin!to!an!assembly!line:!buildings!were!subdivided!into!various!stages!of! production,!from!preliminary!drawings,!to!completed!plans,!to!schools!in!the! contract!bidding!stage,!with!a!team!of!designers!working!at!various!positions!along! the!architectural!continuum.!!In!addition!to!new!construction,!Perkins!was!also! responsible!for!the!maintenance!of!over!300!large!buildings!and!100!small!buildings! and!branch!schools!spread!over!nearly!sixty!miles.!!To!keep!school!property!in!a! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 489 Dale Gyure, “The Transformation of the Schoolhouse: American Secondary School Architecture and Educational Reform, 1880-1920,” (PhD diss., University of Virginia, 2001), 95. 490 William Mundie, “The Architect and Chicago Schools,” in The Western Architect 4 (1905): 4, 6; Gyure, “Transformation of Schoolhouse,” 93. 491 Mundie, “Architect and Chicago Schools,” 4, 6. 492 Ibid. “systematic!state!of!good!repair,”!Perkins!oversaw!an!army!of!carpenters,!painters,! laborers,!and!teamsters;!the!department!manufactured,!stored,!and!installed!a!vast! stock!of!desks,!chairs,!tables,!bookcases,!and!other!apparatuses;!it!also!engineered! and!maintained!a!citywide!network!of!boilers,!plants,!engines,!blowers,!pumps,! machinery,!and!heating!and!ventilation!systems.493!!The!complexity!and!sheer!scope! of!these!job!responsibilities!demanded!what!William!Mundie,!Perkins’s!predecessor,! described!as!an!“organized!force,”!a!bureaucratic!structure!within!which!Perkins! acted!as!a!manager!and!followed!a!clear!chain!of!command.! The!corporate!organization!of!Chicago’s!School!Board!in!1905!was!a!dramatic! departure!from!earlier!“freelance”!practices.!!During!the!nineteenth!century,!school! boards!contracted!with!individual!architects!each!time!they!needed!to!construct!a! new!school!building.!!Oftentimes!these!freelance!designers!were!hired!for!political! reasons,!not!talent,!which!resulted!in!uneven!building!quality.!!As!skyrocketing! enrollments!triggered!the!need!for!more!facilities,!school!systems!slowly!entered! into!more!substantial!and!codified!business!arrangements!with!architects.!!Most! cities!began!by!regularly!using!one!or!two!architects!on!an!unofficial!basis!and!later! created!permanent!positions!for!them!within!the!educational!administration.!!For! example,!Augustus!Bauer!became!Chicago’s!first!unofficial!school!architect!in!1878! when!the!Board!authorized!him!to!construct!all!new!school!buildings!for!one! academic!year!at!a!fee!of!$400!per!job.!!By!the!early!1880s,!the!Chicago!School!Board! created!a!partPtime!position!for!school!architects,!which,!though!official,!was! somewhat!unstable.!!The!Board!had!no!control!over!the!architecture!staff!and!kept! no!records.!!The!architect!was!not!required!to!attend!Board!meetings!and!was!paid! on!commission.!!The!result!was!rapid!turnover!in!the!position,!payment!scandals,! and!increased!construction!costs.!!Fixed!salaries,!competitive!examinations,!and! centralization!were!all!ways!that!the!Board!of!Education!sought!to!achieve!“entire! control”!over!the!construction!process.494! Such!bureaucratic!restructuring!coupled!with!the!increasing!complexity!of! school!buildings!created!a!new!specialization!within!the!architecture!profession,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 493 Ibid., 6, 8. 494 Gyure, “Transformation of School House,” 87, 97. that!of!“school!architect.”!!By!1904!it!was!widely!accepted!that!School!Boards!should! only!hire!professional!engineers!or!architects!who!were!experts!in!school!design,! not!general!contractors.495!!As!architecture!critic!Peter!B.!Wight!of!Chicago!wrote,! “no!one!can!be!architect!for!the!Board!of!Education!unless!he!knows!how!to!plan,! design,!and!construct!schools!with!his!own!hands.”496!These!specialists!were! expected!to!have!experience!with!design!challenges!specific!to!schools,!such!as! fireproof!and!slowPburning!construction!and!the!heating!and!ventilation!of!large! buildings!divided!into!numerous!rooms!of!moderate!size.497!!Not!all!school! specialists!worked!for!school!boards.!!Entire!architectural!practices!dedicated! almost!exclusively!to!school!design!soon!evolved,!including!Perkins’s!own!private! practice!that!he!maintained!with!William!K.!Fellows!and!John!L.!Hamilton.!!These! private,!specialized!firms!catered!to!smaller!towns!not!large!enough!to!retain,!and! perhaps!not!wealthy!enough!to!afford,!an!official!school!board!architect.!! Specialization!meant!that!leaders!emerged!in!the!field!whose!work!was!widely! distributed!through!journals!and!conferences!and!imitated!across!the!country,! ultimately!contributing!to!the!standardization!of!school!design!by!the!1920s.498!! Though!reformers!had!succeeded!in!introducing!several!bureaucratizing! measures!into!educational!administration!by!the!time!Perkins!was!hired,!in!practice! Chicago’s!school!system!remained!fairly!fluid!in!the!early!twentieth!century!and!so! its!rationalization!was!uneven!and!contentious.!!The!Superintendent!shared!control! of!the!school!system!with!the!Board!of!Education!and!fourteen!district! superintendents,!who!operated!quite!autonomously.!!The!latter!had!full!authority! over!their!districts,!including!architectural!and!curricular!decisions.!!District! superintendents!never!rotated!wards,!enabling!them!to!build!substantial!local! loyalty!that!empowered!them!to!challenge!the!centralized!authority!of!the!head! Superintendent.499!!Members!of!the!Board!were!not!popularly!elected.!!Instead,!the! Mayor!appointed!board!members!and!their!selection!was!often!politically! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 495 Ibid., 86. 496 Peter B. Wight, “Public School Architecture at Chicago,“ The Architecture Record 27 (June 1910): 493. 497 Gyure, “Transformation of Schoolhouse,” 86. 498 Ibid., 98-101. 499 Julia Wrigley, Class Politics and Public Schools: Chicago 1900-1950 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1982), 111. motivated,!creating!an!atmosphere!of!graft!and!corruption!at!odds!with!the!interests! of!education.!!William!Mundie!remarked!in!1915!that!“political!parties!pay!off!their! political!debts!by!appointments;!and!questions!of!nationality,!sectional! denominations,!capital!and!labor,!in!fact!any!pact!or!organization!of!vote!getting! power!is!given!consideration!for!seats!upon!the!school!board!and!here!friction!and! faction!bother!the!heads!of!the!executive!department.”500!Indeed,!many!prominent! business!leaders!sat!on!the!School!Board!and!pressured!the!Board!Architect!to! patronize!favored!contractors,!even!though!such!practices!often!increased!school! construction!costs.!!This!patronage!system!remained!entrenched!for!decades.!!As! late!as!1928,!George!Counts!still!observed!that!“[mayoral!appointment]!has!bound! the!school!system!to!city!hall!and!has!subordinated!the!interests!of!education!to!the! vagaries!and!vicissitudes!of!partisan!politics.”501!!!! Public!school!systems!were!disputed!territories!then,!places!where!business,! labor,!and!progressive!reformers!vied!for!power,!an!institutional!site!for!new! conflicts!as!much!as!a!vehicle!for!a!solidifying!the!political!hegemony!of!the!upper! class!under!the!guise!of!reform.!!These!competing!interests!polarized!into!a!conflict! between!the!merits!of!centralization!and!popular!participation!within!the!school! system.!!Coalitions!between!business!and!civic!organizations,!such!as!the!Merchants! Club,!the!Commercial!Club,!and!the!Civic!Federation!of!Chicago,!drove!the!charge!for! centralization.!!Their!proposals!increased!the!power!of!the!superintendent!and!also! decreased!the!number!of!district!superintendents!and!rotated!their!domains.!! Centralists!also!argued!for!reducing!the!size!of!the!school!board!from!twentyPone!to! nine!members,!which!though!smaller!remained!appointed!positions!arguably!to! insulate!board!members!from!politics.!!The!Board!was!empowered!to!rate!teachers! according!to!“efficiency”!standards!and!recommend!promotions,!salaries,!or! discharge!based!on!these!reports,!which!were!held!in!secret.!!The!teachers!were! never!allowed!to!see!their!performance!reviews.!!Efficiency!ratings!were!useful!in! keeping!teacher!salaries!low,!and!one!commissioner!recommended!paying!male! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 500 Mundie, “Architect and Chicago’s Schools,” 6. 501 George Counts, School and Society in Chicago (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1928), 36. teachers!higher!wages!than!women,!arguing!men!held!more!authority!over!unruly! young!school!boys.502!!! Chicago’s!highly!politicized!and!wellPorganized!Teacher’s!Federation! mobilized!to!block!such!centralizing!measures!on!the!grounds!that!they!were! undemocratic.!!Concentrating!power!in!the!hands!of!the!Superintendent!and!a!small,! appointed!Board!prevented!teachers!and!parents!in!a!complex,!heterogeneous!city! from!contributing!to!school!policy.!!Merit!pay!based!on!secret!efficiency!ratings! perpetuated!discriminatory!wage!practices!and!encouraged!favoritism!in!a!school! system!already!riddled!with!patronage.503!!To!combat!the!centralists,!the!Teacher’s! Federation!proposed!direct!election!of!school!board!members!rather!than!mayoral! appointment.!!The!Chicago!Federation!of!Labor!and!the!Chicago!Women’s!Club! joined!forces!with!the!Teacher’s!Federation!to!create!a!formidable!lobby!against!the! centralists.!!This!coalition!successfully!defeated!centralizing!legislation!every!time! conservatives!submitted!such!bills!to!the!State!legislature,!in!1901,!1903,!1905,!and! 1909,!and!they!won!a!citywide!referendum!in!1904!allowing!for!direct!election!of! school!boards.!!Despite!such!clear!victories,!the!conservative!business!elite!still! wielded!enough!political!clout!to!mobilize!the!state!apparatus!in!their!favor.!!The! Illinois!legislature!killed!the!referendum!for!elected!school!boards,!and!the!mayor! retained!his!power!of!appointment.504 !!!!! Perkins,!like!most!progressive!reformers,!was!often!hamstrung!between!the! polarization!of!labor!and!business,!sympathetic!to!both!efficiency!in!government! and!popular!participation.!!In!running!the!architecture!department,!Perkins!resisted! the!graft!and!patronage!system!that!corrupted!the!School!Board.!!However,!his! refusal!to!cooperate!with!the!entrenched!political!structure!often!worked!against! him,!ultimately!costing!him!his!job.!!Within!months!of!his!appointment,!Perkins! struggled!with!politically!appointed!painting!contractors.!!Many!drank,!stole! hardware,!and!took!unauthorized,!paid!leave!from!work.!!The!School!Board! compensated!them!twice!as!much!as!reputable!outside!painting!firms,!1.80!per! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 502 Wrigley, Class Politics and Public Schools, 93-96, 114. 503 Ibid., 94-96. 504 Ibid., 97, 102-104. gallon!of!varnish!versus!.90!per!gallon,!and!also!paid!them!in!full!before!jobs!were! started,!further!incentivizing!such!opportunism.!!Similar!scenarios!characterized!the! lumber!contractors,!and!Perkins!and!his!colleagues!lobbied!to!buy!wood!direct!from! loggers!in!southern!Illinois!rather!than!go!through!the!Board.505!!Perkins!refused!to! use!cutPstone!ornamentation!on!new!school!buildings!because!it!was!more! expensive!than!terracotta,!which!angered!the!cutPstone!lobby.!!He!fired!a!politically! connected!building!superintendent,!drawing!further!ire!from!the!Board,!and!he! hired!several!English!draftsmen,!upsetting!other!interest!groups!lobbying!for!the! employment!of!Americans.506 !!As!The+Brickbuilder!put!it!in!1910,!the!vast!scope!of! Perkins’s!responsibilities!“laid!him!open!to!the!criticism!of!all!who!have!children,!of! all!who!teach,!of!all!who!take!care!of!the!buildings,!of!all!who!build,!and!of!all!who! make!repairs.”507!!Such!disputes!put!into!relief!the!contentious,!complex!relationship! between!democracy!and!efficiency!that!were!the!backdrop!to!Perkins’s!career!with! the!School!Board.! ! School!Types:!Standardization!and!Differentiation! ! When!Perkins!assumed!office,!he!inherited!a!system!of!school!design!based! on!standardized!building!types.!!Most!of!these!templates!were!for!elementary! schools,!and!they!differed!mainly!in!the!number!of!classrooms!and!the!location!and! kinds!of!specialized!learning!spaces,!such!as!libraries,!auditoriums,!gymnasiums,! and!so!forth.!!The!types!evolved!in!complexity!from!primary!to!secondary!schools,! reflecting!increasingly!sophisticated!curriculums.!!For!example,!elementary!schools! had!generalized!“manual!training”!rooms!–!large,!flexible!spaces!where!children! worked,!or!more!likely!played,!with!basic!hand!tools!and!materials.!!These! multipurpose!spaces!multiplied!and!diversified!in!high!school!plans,!encompassing! myriad!specialized!workshops!for!carpentry!and!forge!work,!laboratories!for! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 505 Perkins Papers, Chicago Historical Society, Box I, Folder 2. 506 Transcripts of Trial, Perkins Papers, Chicago Historical Society; “The Charges Brought Against Dwight H. Perkins,” in Union Labor Advocate [March-May 1910?]: 17-19, copy in Chicago Historical Society; “Dwight Perkins – Father of Today’s ‘New’ School Ideas,” in Architectural Forum (October 1952); reprinted by Perkins & Will Architects, n.d. Copy in Perkins Papers, unpaginated; Gyure, “Transformation of the Schoolhouse,” 96. 507 Editorial Comment and Miscellany, “Mr. Perkins and the Chicago Board of Education,” The Brickbuilder (May 1910): 128. physics!and!chemistry,!shops!for!printing,!and!studios!for!drafting,!each!furnished! with!its!particular!machinery!and!equipment.!!High!schools!were!additionally! categorized!according!to!curriculums,!such!as!college!preparatory,!manual!training,! and!commercial!high!schools.!!Standardized!and!differentiated!school!types!spoke!to! progressive!educational!goals.!!Reformers!believed!that!education!should!be! democratized,!made!available!to!children!of!all!ages,!abilities,!and!levels!of!affluence.!! This!vision!entailed!building!large!numbers!of!schools!inexpensively!and!modifying! school!buildings!according!the!ages!and!talents!of!their!student!bodies.!!! Standardized!building!types!helped!cities!meet!the!most!urgent!demand! placed!on!their!public!school!systems:!simply,!to!build!more!schools.!!At!the!most! basic!level,!additional!facilities!were!needed!if!education!was!to!be!universal.!! Template!plans!were!easily!replicated!and!more!affordable!than!custom!designs,! which!helped!cities!keep!pace!with!the!explosive!increase!in!the!number!and!age! range!of!children!attending!school!by!the!turn!of!the!century.!!Between!1890!and! 1900!the!high!school!population!in!the!United!States!more!than!doubled,!from! approximately!220,000!to!519,251!students,!as!did!the!number!of!high!school! buildings,!from!2,526!to!over!6,000!schools.508!!Chicago!opened!seventyPtwo!new! schools!between!1900!and!1910.!!Despite!these!impressive!gains,!most!schools!were! overcrowded!and!many!did!not!have!their!own!building.!!In!Illinois,!only!thirtyPeight! high!schools!out!of!258!had!separate!facilities!in!1893.509!!Grammar!schools!and! high!schools!often!coPexisted!in!the!same!building.!!Teachers!frequently!shared! classrooms,!conducting!different!courses!simultaneously!in!the!same!space.!!The! material!demands!on!schools!were,!in!a!word,!overwhelming.!!Chicago!Board!of! Education!president!Edward!Tilden!described!this!state!of!affairs!as!an!“emergency”! in!1906!and!proclaimed!that!the!“first!duty!of!the![architecture]!department!was!to! erect!buildings!without!delay.”!!Under!these!circumstances!Chicago’s!School!Board,! like!most!cities,!resorted!to!reproducing!a!handful!of!existing!school!plans.510 ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 508 Larry Cuban, How Teachers Taught: Constancy and Change in American Classrooms 1890-1980 (New York and London: Longman, 1984), 25. 509 Sizer, Secondary Schools, 39-40. 510 Nelson, “Dwight Perkins,” 51.  The!Chicago!Board!of!Education!also!mandated!numerous!construction! standards.!!In!July!1904,!before!Perkins!was!hired,!the!Board!ordered!all!school! assembly!halls!to!be!located!on!the!first!floor.!!One!month!later,!the!board!passed!a! resolution!requiring!elementary!schools!to!have!a!kindergarten,!manual!training! room,!and!a!“cooking”!or!domestic!science!room.!!In!March!1905,!the!Board! demanded!that!all!schools!over!two!stories!be!fireproof.!!Several!more! recommendations!passed!soon!after!Perkins!took!office:!the!inclusion!of! gymnasiums!in!all!schools!possessing!assembly!halls!(October!1905!and!July!1906);! regulations!regarding!individual!porcelain!plumbing!fixtures!(November!1905);!and! the!use!of!impervious!building!materials,!such!as!glazed!and!enameled!brick,!in! assembly!halls!and!corridors!(1907).511! Specialized!curriculums,!graded!schools,!and!codified!design!standards! represented!a!radical!departure!from!nineteenthPcentury!practices,!when!students! of!varying!ages!and!abilities!were!accommodated!in!undifferentiated!classrooms! inside!the!same!structure.!!Before!1880,!most!American!schools!were!square!or! rectangular!buildings!ranging!from!one!to!four!stories!high.!!Plans!published!by! nationally!known!school!architects!like!E.R.!Robson!show!than!many!followed!a! “stuffed!box”!formula!that!had!no!internal!corridors.!!Access!to!individual! classrooms!was!through!separate!staircases!and!landings,!an!arrangement!that! added!considerably!to!construction!costs!owing!to!the!number!of!stairwells.512 !! Sometimes!one!interior!corridor,!dimly!lit!by!transom!windows!above!classroom! doors,!ran!lengthwise!down!the!building!(Figures!6.1P6.2).!!A!few!schools!had! cruciform!or!TPshaped!corridors.!!Basements!contained!the!heating!apparatus,! lavatories,!and!occasionally!a!subterranean!“playground,”!basically!airless!rooms! where!children!could!play!indoors.!!Upper!floors!were!usually!identical!and! subdivided!into!equalPsized!and!undifferentiated!classrooms!where!nearly!all! learning!took!place.!!Narrow!curricula!and!low!enrollments!did!not!require! specialized!spaces!like!laboratories!or!workshops.!!Students!sat!in!fixed!seats! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 511 Perkins Papers, “Elementary School Building Expenditures in Chicago,” Box II, Folder 2. 512 E.R. Robson, School Architecture, 2nd ed. (1874; repr., Leicester, England: Leicester University Press, 1973), 33. arranged!in!rows,!which!usually!faced!a!raised!teachers!platform!(Figures!6.3P6.5).!! One!classroom!might!contain!laboratory!equipment!for!conducting!rudimentary! scientific!experiments,!but!recitations!rooms!where!students!repeated!memorized! texts!verbatim!far!outnumbered!activePlearning!spaces.!!Assembly!halls,!if!they! existed,!were!on!the!uppermost!floor,!but!moveable!partitions!between!classrooms! commonly!sufficed!for!group!assembly.!!Partitions!offered!spatial!flexibility!but!at!a! cost:!subdivided!classrooms!were!noisier!and!had!fewer!windows,!a!considerable! handicap!before!electric!lighting!became!standard!in!the!1920s.! The!first!schools!Perkins!designed!for!the!Chicago!School!Board!illustrate! how!he!gradually!incorporated!higher!construction!standards!and!responded!to! curricular!reforms!in!these!standardized!templates,!effectively!transforming! piecemeal!changes!into!codified!norms.!!One!of!his!earliest!projects!was!the!Stephen! K.!Hayt!Elementary!School!(1906),!one!of!six!“Key”!types!he!constructed.!!Type! names!usually!referred!to!the!first!or!most!notable!example!of!a!template.513!!Hayt! Elementary!had!twentyPfour!classrooms,!spaces!for!manual!training!and!domestic! science!programs,!and!two!playrooms!housed!inside!three!stories!over!a!high! basement!(Figures!6.6P6.8).!!These!spaces!were!separated!by!gender!and!accessed! by!sexPsegregated!entrances,!both!prevailing!customs!at!the!time.!!The!specialized! learning!spaces!as!well!as!the!lavatories!were!in!the!basement,!also!standard! operating!procedure,!but!this!meant!they!were!dangerously!nestled!among!the!blast! chambers,!coal!storage,!and!engine!room!required!for!the!heating!and!ventilation! system.!!Perkins!augmented!the!plan!with!a!large,!groundPlevel!assembly!hall!where! students!and!teachers!could!congregate!for!lectures,!events,!and!other!types!of! group!learning.!!Perkins!envisioned!civic!associations!and!neighborhood!groups! borrowing!the!auditorium!for!meetings,!speeches,!public!health!drives,!and,!on! election!days,!for!voting.!!Manual!training!rooms!and!domestic!science!labs!doubled! as!spaces!for!adult!evening!classes.!!Hoping!to!give!the!impression!that!public! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 513 Donna Nelson compiled a list of Chicago Board of Education types, including those designed by Perkins and also other school board architects. The list identifies the number of rooms in each type, occasional variations, such as treatment of boiler rooms or offices, and additions. It is not entirely complete. High schools seem largely excluded from the type system, suggesting their designs were sufficiently complex to warrant original design consideration each time. See Nelson, “Dwight Perkins,” Appendix. schools!were!civic!centers!for!the!entire!community,!he!located!the!assembly!hall! directly!across!from!the!main!entrance,!facilitating!easy,!immediate!access!during! and!after!school!hours.514! Perkins!made!some!significant!improvements!over!the!Hayt!template!in!his! design!for!Bernhard!Moos!Elementary!School!in!1907,!a!“Kociuszko”!type.!!He! duplicated!the!basic!container!of!Hayt!Elementary:!three!stories!of!classrooms!over! a!high!basement!that!contained!the!BoardPmandated!spaces!for!manual!training,! domestic!science,!and!playrooms.!!Then!he!grouped!the!subterranean!heating! apparatuses!–!engine!room,!tank!room,!coal!room,!and!boiler!–!under!the! auditorium!rather!than!comingling!them!amongst!various!play!spaces!where!they! posed!an!obvious!hazard!to!curious!children.!!He!also!incorporated!new!kinds!of! specialized!learning!spaces,!such!as!a!library!and!kindergarten,!into!the!first!floor.!! Locating!the!library!adjacent!to!the!main!entrance,!not!far!from!the!auditorium,! facilitated!community!access!to!both!(Figures!6.9P6.12).!! !Ever!alert!to!issues!of!public!health,!Perkins!paid!particular!attention!to!the! lavatories!at!Moos!Elementary.!!He!integrated!a!system!of!“tower!toilets”!into!the! plan,!a!vertical!stack!of!lavatories!on!every!floor,!to!expedite!access!and!facilitate! supervision.!!The!only!bathrooms!at!Hayt!Elementary!were!in!the!basement,!where! they!occupied!distinct,!outhousePlike!buildings!that!were!connected!to!the!main! structure!by!passageways,!an!arrangement!that!resulted!in!frequent!overcrowding! since!hundreds!of!children!shared!them!(Figure!6.7).!!Being!so!remote!from!the! classrooms!was!an!obvious!physical!inconvenience!that!discouraged!frequent!use.!! Partly!for!this!reason,!they!sometimes!went!unsupervised!and!became!havens!for! bullies!and!rebellious!older!children!who!teased!and!taunted!their!less!intrepid! peers.515!Or!conversely,!teachers!herded!children!into!them!at!predetermined!times,! and!the!lavatories!were!locked!the!rest!of!the!day.516!!Tower!toilets!separated! children!by!age,!since!school!floors!were!so!divided,!were!infinitely!more! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 514 Dwight Perkins, “School Buildings,” speech read before National Education Association [1909?]; also “School Buildings,” Typescript [draft?], both in Perkins Papers, Chicago Historical Society; Dwight Perkins, “The School Building as a Social Center,” The Brickbuilder 24, no. 12 (December 1915): 293. 515 “The Charges Brought Against Dwight H. Perkins,” 18. 516 “Dwight Perkins – Father of Today’s ‘New’ School Ideas.” convenient,!especially!for!children!on!the!upper!levels,!and!stacking!the!plumbing! was!cheaper.517!!They!were!such!a!significant!improvement!that!Perkins!was!able!to! convince!the!School!Board!to!make!them!standard!in!all!new!schools!the!following! year.518! His!overriding!interest!in!the!natural!environment!and!involvement!with!the! playground!movement!led!Perkins!to!design!expansive!outdoor!recreation!spaces! for!Moos!Elementary.!!Four!playgrounds!surrounded!the!school,!divided!into!age! groups!for!reasons!of!safety!and!supervision:!two!playgrounds!in!the!front!for!older! students!and!two!in!the!back!for!younger!children.!!Vegetable!gardens!adjoined! them,!providing!spaces!for!nature!study!and!botanical!experimentation.!!Rows!of! trees!and!shrubbery!encircled!the!ensemble,!enclosing!and!shading!the!grounds.!! Such!wellPequipped!playgrounds!were!hardly!standard!for!public!schools!at!this! time,!as!Perkins!had!demonstrated!in!his!1904!Metropolitan+Park+System.!!One!of!his! dataPmaps!compiled!statistical!data!on!all!of!Chicago’s!school!playgrounds!and! ranked!them!in!three!categories:!lacking,!insufficient,!or!sufficient.!!Unsurprisingly,! he!found!most!city!schools!entirely!without!playgrounds!or!with!recreation!spaces! so!paltry!they!hardly!qualified.519!!Perkins!thought!playgrounds!should!be!standard! for!all!schools,!an!extension!of!his!work!for!the!park!department.520!!School!athletic! facilities,!indoor!gymnasiums,!and!outdoors!playgrounds!encouraged!healthy! activity!and!socialized!students!much!like!neighborhood!recreation!centers!did.!!He! advised!allocating!a!minimum!of!three!acres!for!elementary!school!playgrounds!and! six!acres!for!high!schools.!!He!had!two!opportunities!to!construct!schools! immediately!adjacent!to!existing!municipal!playgrounds,!and!in!1915!he! recommended!combining!the!park!and!school!boards!since!their!educational! programs!overlapped!to!a!large!extent.521!!The!following!year,!the!South!Park! Commission!headed!his!advice!and!established!forty!playgrounds!in!public!school! yards,!and!in!1921!the!Board!of!Education!assumed!administrative!control!of! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 517 “Charges Brought Against Perkins,” 18; “Father of Today’s ‘New’ School Ideas.” 518 Perkins Papers, “Elementary School Building Expenditures in Chicago,” Box II, Folder 2. 519 Perkins, Metropolitan Park System, map 4. 520 Perkins, “School Building as Social Center,” 293. 521 Ibid., 294. The two schools were Washburne and Kociuszko Elementary Schools. them.522!!Perkins!was!beginning!to!see!his!vision!of!a!metropolis!organized!by!a! network!of!overlapping!neighborhood!centers!grounded!in!park!spaces!become! reality.!!! ! Perkins!took!up!medical!issues!related!to!ophthalmology!when!he!reoriented! standard!classroom!placements!at!Grover!Cleveland!Elementary!School!in!1910,!a! “Nobel”!type.!!He!moved!the!staircases!and!tower!toilets!to!either!end!of!the!double! loaded!corridor,!where!they!occupied!the!four!corners!of!the!plan.!!The!classrooms,! therefore,!received!unilateral!light!(Figures!6.13P6.15).!!Window!placement!was!a! pressing!concern!for!school!architects,!significantly!affecting!school!designs.!!Scores! of!international!experts!argued!that!the!leading!cause!of!myopia!and!other! ophthalmological!disorders!in!children!was!studying!in!poorly!lit!classrooms,!not! heredity.!One!study!of!4,765!Chicago!students!found!that!35%!of!them!had!defective! eyesight.!!Before!widespread!electric!lighting,!architects!had!solved!the!problem!of! perpetually!dark!classrooms!by!punching!windows!into!every!exterior!wall.!! Classrooms!might!be!naturally!illuminated!from!two!or!even!three!directions,! creating!dizzying!crossPlights!and!competing!glares!that!made!it!difficult!for! students!to!see!blackboards!and!teachers.523!!By!1900!professional!standards!called! for!unilateral!lighting!of!classrooms,!preferably!from!a!light!source!located!over!the! left!shoulders!of!the!students.524 !!! Perkins!evolved!a!system!to!address!these!concerns,!in!which!classrooms!had! five!equal!“ribbon!windows”!in!a!row,!divided!by!narrow!vertical!piers.!Corner! rooms!had!blank!end!walls,!or!in!some!cases!like!Cleveland!Elementary,!Perkins! located!lavatories!and!circulation!spaces!there.!He!repeatedly!used!this!solution,! which!he!called!“factoryPlike!windows,”!and!to!a!large!extent,!the!fenestration! pattern!gives!his!schools!their!institutional,!rectilinear!appearance.525!!Historians! have!hailed!Cleveland!Elementary,!especially,!as!indicative!of!a!nascent!modern! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 522 Hogan, Class and Reform, 70. 523 “Dwight Perkins – Father of Today’s ‘New’ School Ideas;” Gyure, “Transformation of Schoolhouse, 115-117; Warren Richard Briggs, Modern American School Buildings, being a treatise upon, and designs for, the construction of school buildings (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1899), 119-121. 524 Gyure, “Transformation of Schoolhouse,” 115-117; Briggs, Modern American School Buildings, 119- 121. See especially Bridgeport High School renovation plans in Briggs. 525 “Dwight Perkins – Father of Today’s ‘New’ School Ideas.” architectural!style!due!to!its!regular,!geometric!composition!and!restrained!use!of! brick!patterning!in!place!of!applied!ornament.526!!But!Perkins!was!struggling!against! considerable!budget!constraints!when!he!designed!Cleveland!Elementary,!due!to! escalating!costs!related!to!fireproofing.!!He!eliminated!exterior!embellishments!as!a! costPsaving!measure,!hoping!to!placate!the!School!Board,!particularly!its!president! Alfred!R.!Urion,!and!attempted!instead!to!provide!decoration!through!masonry! patterns.527!!Cleveland!Elementary!is!one!of!Perkins’s!more!striking!school!designs,! but!it!owes!its!appearance!to!a!process!of!compromise!and!pragmatic!problem! solving!as!much!as!romantic!aspirations!for!a!new!architectural!language.! Perkins!amassed!a!substantial!amount!of!materials!dedicated!to!emerging! health!and!safety!concerns!in!schools,!from!lighting!procedures!and!hygienic!design! practices!to!school!construction!standards,!all!of!which!espoused!the!latest!expert! opinions!on!caring!for!the!wellbeing!of!students.528!!Such!criteria!eventually!became! benchmarks!of!modern!school!plants!across!the!country.!!Nationally!recognized! experts!on!school!design!such!as!E.R.!Robson!and!Warren!Richard!Briggs!published! lengthy!tomes!comparing!European!and!American!schoolhouses!with!regards!to! safety,!convenience,!and!health.529 !!Ultimately,!the!School!House!Planning! Committee!of!the!National!Education!Association,!chaired!by!Frank!Irving!Cooper,! collected!and!codified!many!of!these!widespread!principles.!!Their!report!published! in!1925!touched!upon!nearly!all!aspects!of!“efficient”!school!design,!including! administration,!curricula,!staircase!design,!corridors,!ventilation!flues,!partitions,! illumination,!doorways,!gymnasiums,!and!fireproofing.530!!! Of!these!multitudinous!concerns!that!coalesced!around!the!physical! caretaking!of!children,!fire!prevention!stood!out!for!progressives!in!Chicago,! perhaps!for!good!reason.!!Modern!Chicago!had!practically!been!born!from!the!ashes! of!a!cataclysmic!conflagration!in!1871,!which!consumed!almost!the!entire!city!save! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 526 See Brooks, Prairie School, 112; and Condit, Chicago School, 201-202. 527 Dwight Perkins – Father of Today’s ‘New’ School Ideas.” 528 See “Standards of Artificial Illumination,” “The Hygiene of Schools,” and Suggestive Standards for School Building Construction,” in Perkins Papers, Box III, Folders 2 and 5. 529 Robson, School Architecture; Briggs, Modern American School Building. 530 National Education Association, Report of Committee on School House Planning (Washington DC, 1925). for!its!water!towers!and!catalyzed!an!unprecedented!building!boom.!!Architects,! construction!workers,!masons,!and!laborers,!attracted!by!the!prospect!of!seemingly! endless!employment,!flocked!to!the!cinders!and!set!about!rebuilding!the!metropolis,! a!makeover!so!striking!that!historians!of!modern!architecture!routinely!single!out! the!“Great!Fire”!as!the!watershed!moment!of!the!city’s!history.!!A!series!of!smaller,! but!highly!publicized!and!devastating!fires,!including!the!infamous!Iroquois!Theater! Fire!that!killed!602!people!in!1903!when!they!became!trapped!at!locked!exits,! prompted!the!Chicago!Board!of!Education!to!mandate!fireproof!construction!for!all! schools!over!two!stories.531!!Perkins!built!schools!using!firePresistant!materials!like! iron!railings!and!asphalt!floors!in!corridors!and!stairwells.!!He!increased!the!width! of!stairwells!and!the!number!of!exits!to!expedite!emergency!evacuations.!!He! replaced!the!central,!open!staircases!common!in!early!school!designs,!which!acted! like!a!giant!flue!during!fires,!with!enclosed!stairwells,!separated!from!corridors!to! operate!as!a!firebreak,!as!at!Moos!Elementary!(Figure!6.12).!!Compulsory!fire!drills,! fire!alarm!boxes,!and!fire!exits!all!made!their!appearance.532!!Eliminating!basement! classrooms!at!Cleveland!Elementary!School!separated!children!from!furnaces,! boilers,!and!other!potential!fire!hazards!associated!with!the!heating!equipment.!! GroundPfloor!auditoriums!with!independent!entrances!facilitated!rapid! decampment.!!Perkins’s!efforts!were!so!successful!that!the!architecture!critic!Peter! B.!Wight,!writing!on!public!schools!in!1910,!could!proudly!boast!that!all!new!schools! in!Chicago!were!“entirely!fireproof.”533! High!schools!were!the!most!complex!buildings!Perkins!designed!for!the! Chicago!School!Board,!and!he!relied!primarily!on!open!planPtypes,!mainly!EPshaped! plans,!to!organize!their!multifarious!programs.!!Albert!Lane!Technical!High!School! and!Carl!Schurz!College!Preparatory!School!were!variants!of!the!EPshaped!plan!and! had!somewhat!overlapping!programs,!despite!their!different!curriculums.!!An! impressive!fivePstory!volume!served!as!the!main!entrance!to!both!and!contained!the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 531 Perkins Papers, “Elementary School Building Expenditures in Chicago,” Box II, Folder 2; Gyure, “Transformation of the School House,” 149. 532 Dwight Perkins, “Three New Schoolhouses, Chicago,” The Brickbuilder 18 (November 1909): 225; Wight “Public School Architecture at Chicago,” 493, 502. 533 Wight, “Public School Architecture at Chicago,” 493. auditoriums!and!lunchrooms.!!Elaborate!machinery!and!carpentry!shops,!forges,! and!foundries,!all!outfitted!with!heavy!industrial!equipment,!occupied!the!courtyard! spaces!at!ground!level.!!The!wings!of!the!EPplans!contained!various!science! laboratories!for!chemistry,!physics,!and!biology,!mechanical!drawing!studios,! printing!facilities,!fine!art!studios,!regular!classrooms,!and!other!spaces!with!less! involved!equipment!and!furnishing!requirements!(Figures!6.16P6.21!and!6.22P6.28).!! Perkins!filled!the!corners!of!both!plans!with!activePlearning!spaces,!such!as! laboratories,!drawing!studios,!and!vocational!spaces,!so!that!most!of!the!regular! classrooms!received!unilateral!light.!!It!was!believed!that!dynamic!pursuits!posed! less!ocular!strain!than!sitting!and!reading,!and!so!crossPlighting!was!acceptable!in! these!rooms.534!!The!enormous!machine!shops!posed!a!greater!challenge!from!the! standpoint!of!illumination,!requiring!ample!light!on!the!one!hand!but!so!large!and! cavernous!on!the!other!that!conventional!windows!could!hardly!suffice.!!So!Perkins! used!skylights!throughout!the!vocational!annexes,!made!possible!because!they! occupied!the!voids!or!courtyards!of!the!EPplan.!!! The!overlapping!programs!at!college!preparatory!and!vocational!high! schools!suggest!that,!despite!distinct!courses!of!official!study,!their!curriculums! coincided!significantly,!and!to!some!extent!this!was!true.!!Certain!classes,!such!as! modern!languages!and!American!history,!were!common!in!all!high!schools,!and! most!students,!even!those!bound!for!university,!took!some!kind!of!manual!training,! domestic!science,!or!shop!classes.!!But!the!amount!of!space!dedicated!to!vocational! occupations!at!Lane!Technical!High!School!is!much!larger!than!at!Carl!Schurz! College!Prep,!making!it!clear!that!the!one!focused!primarily!on!training!students!for! skilled!manual!labor,!while!the!other!groomed!students!for!university!and!whiteP collar!professions.!!CollegePbound!pupils!at!Carl!Schurz!also!enjoyed!a!spacious! ground!floor!gymnasium,!locker!rooms,!and!an!eightPacre!landscaped!campus.!! Vocationally!tracked!teenagers!at!Lane!Technical!trekked!up!five!flights!of!stairs!to! take!their!showers!and!run!around!an!indoor!track!stashed!above!the!smells!and! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 534 Locating laboratories and shops in corner spaces was a common solution to the problem of cross- lighting. See Gyure, “Transformation of Schoolhouse,” 119. noises!of!the!lunchroom,!having!no!alternative!since!their!school!was!hemmed!in!on! all!sides!by!abutting!buildings,!sidewalks,!roadways,!and!streetcar!lines.!!!!! Faced!with!the!dilemma!of!preset!building!types!and!economic!constraints!on! the!one!hand,!and!a!desire!to!imbue!these!newfound!community!centers!with!a!civic! identity!on!the!other,!Perkins!adapted!variable!but!usually!historic!architectural! languages!to!the!exteriors!of!these!otherwise!fairly!standardized!templates.!!They!all! relied!on!brick!and!terracotta!rather!than!cut!stone.!!A!comparison!of!Hayt! Elementary!and!Moos!Elementary!(Figures!6.6!and!6.9),!or!Penn!Elementary!with! Jahn!Elementary!(Figures!6.29P6.30),!demonstrates!the!flexibility!of!this!system.!! Even!Cleveland!Elementary,!with!its!forwardPlooking!brick!patterning!on!the! exterior,!is!a!variant!on!the!Moos!type!in!its!plan!(Figures!6.8!and!6.13P6.15).! Perkins!was!attempting!to!impart!somewhat!distinct!identities!to!his!replicable! elementary!school!types!by!varying!ornamentation!and!making!minor!adjustments! to!their!plans.!!Tweaking!a!few!stock!templates!was!cost!effective!and!allowed!him! to!offer!a!degree!of!customization!and!individuality!within!a!consistent!format.!!This! flexible!system!would!become!a!cornerstone!of!Perkin’s!private!school!architecture.! High!schools,!to!some!extent,!defied!the!simple!planPtypes!of!the!elementary! schools!since!they!were!infinitely!more!complex!and!specialized.!!But!even!here,! Perkins!recycled!workable!solutions.!!Both!Lane!Technical!and!Carl!Schurz!College! Preparatory!High!Schools!were!variants!on!the!EPplan!and!most!of!their!interior! layouts!were!similar:!centrally!located!auditoriums,!ground!floor!workshops,!with! laboratories,!studios,!and!lunchrooms!above.!!Their!exteriors,!however,!were! remarkably!different.!!Like!Grover!Cleveland!Elementary,!the!architecture!of!Carl! Schurz!College!Preparatory!is!unique!amid!Perkins’s!otherwise!fairly!predictable! and!standardized!school!solutions!for!Chicago.!!Its!design!is!strong,!almost! expressionist!in!its!angular!forms!and!repeating!vertical!piers,!drawing!comparison! to!Louis!Sullivan!and!German!architecture.!!Perkins!relied!on!brick!and!geometric! patterning!for!exterior!embellishment,!and!the!steeply!pitched!roofline!evokes! residential!associations!perhaps!appropriate!for!the!eightPacre!greensward!the! school!occupied.!  Lane!Technical,!on!the!other!hand,!freely!used!the!same!strategy!that!Perkins! used!in!elementary!schools,!just!writ!large!across!a!larger!volume!–!namely,!loose! historical!references!constructed!from!brick!and!terracotta,!in!this!case!vaguely! Renaissance.!!Certainly!for!a!vocational!training!school,!the!recognizable,!symbolic! properties!of!Lane!Technical!helped!to!dignify!manual!labor!and!elevate!the! perceived!cultural!status!of!the!skilled!trades.!!In!treating!the!mostly!workingPclass! student!body!at!Lane!Technical!in!a!respectful!manner!and!acknowledging!their! needs!for!wellPdesigned,!sanitary,!fireproof!learning!spaces,!Perkins!expressed!his! cultural!pluralism!and!liberal!social!politics.!!! Perkins!would!ultimately!come!under!fire!for!“extravagance”!with!regards!to! these!technical!schools!and!elementary!schools!in!underprivileged!neighborhoods.!! With!the!exception!of!a!few!progressive!appointees,!such!as!Jane!Addams,!many! School!Board!members!at!this!time!were!part!of!a!corrupt!business!elite.!!With! tightening!budgets!and!rising!costs!for!building!materials!bearing!down!on!the!city,! the!Board!president!pressured!Perkins!to!reduce!stairway!widths!and!the!number!of! windows,!combine!gymnasiums!with!auditoriums,!use!cheaper!materials,!and! various!other!costPcutting!measures,!many!of!which!seriously!undermined!building! quality!and!safety!standards.535!!The!press!referred!to!them!as!“packing!house”! schools,!in!reference!to!the!meatpacking!industries!in!which!so!many!of!Chicago’s! poor!and!immigrant!classes!labored.!!Even!a!school!as!simple!and!standardized!as! William!Penn!Elementary!was!criticized!by!the!Board!for!being!“too!ornamental,”! since!it!“only”!served!an!underprivileged!community!(Figure!6.29).536!!! To!give!one!such!example,!Perkins!used!tile!finish!in!the!workshops!at!Lane! Technical!because,!despite!being!moderately!more!expensive!than!regular!wall! materials,!it!was!much!easier!to!clean!the!grime,!soot,!and!machine!dust!off! nonporous!materials.537!!Despite!the!obvious!health!and!sanitation!benefits! conferred!by!tiling,!the!School!Board!accused!Perkins!of!“building!monuments!to! himself”!and!otherwise!misallocating!their!financial!resources.!!Rationalizing!the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 535 “Charges Against Dwight H. Perkins,” 17-19; “Dwight Perkins – Father of Today’s ‘New’ School Ideas.” 536 “Charges Against Dwight H. Perkins,” 19, 16. 537 “Dwight Perkins – Father of Today’s ‘New’ School Ideas.” construction!of!poorly!designed!schools!for!underprivileged!children,!one!Board! member!remarked!that!there!was!“no!use!making!these!school!buildings!better!than! the!children’s!homes.”538!!This!singular!comment,!striking!for!its!callousness,! demonstrates!some!of!the!real,!entrenched!prejudices!and!social!obstacles!that! Perkins!faced!as!he!attempted!to!provide!social!and!educational!centers!to!all! classes.!!The!Union+Labor+Advocate!summarized!the!absurdity!of!the!situation:!“Why! should!the!Beef!Trust,!the!Steel!Trust,!the!Railroad!Trust,!the!Book!Trust,!and!other! trust!and!‘interests’!represented!on!the!Board!of!Education!want!an!architect!to! build!schools!which!are!fireproof,!sanitary,!well!lighted,!with!modern!educational! features,!and!moreover!convertible!to!pubic!use!as!social!centers!without!extra!or! special!expense?”539!!Carl!Schurz!seems!to!have!avoided!specific!criticism,!perhaps! because!the!demographic!makePup!of!its!student!body!reflected!that!of!School!Board! members.! There!were,!of!course,!exceptions!to!the!standardized!school!types.!!In!1905,! shortly!after!being!hired,!Perkins!designed!a!seventeenPstory,!commercial! “skyscraper!school.”!!The!proposal!practically!embodied!the!trend!towards! centralization!and!consolidation!that!gripped!the!educational!bureaucracy!at!this! time.!!Perkins!planned!for!the!building!to!house!all!the!administrative!departments! of!Chicago’s!school!system,!the!supply!department,!an!auditorium,!several!school! museums,!as!well!as!a!functioning!commercial!high!school!–!effectively!combining! the!management,!equipment,!education,!and!even!historicizing!functions!of!the! school!system!into!one!structure!(Figure!6.31).!!Critics!registered!their!surprise!at! Perkins’s!proposal,!even!calling!the!scheme!“a!bit!revolutionary.”!!According!to!the! Architectural+Record,!the!lack!of!outdoor!recreation!space!was!particularly! undesirable.!!Supporters!rationalized!the!proposal!by!arguing!that!since!it!was!a! commercial!high!school!where!students!learned!business!skills,!the!skyscraper! building!type!was!an!appropriate!environment,!a!harbinger!of!their!future!office! surroundings:!!“The!pupils!are!preparing!for!a!business!career,!which!in!the! majority!of!cases!will!be!pursued!in!surroundings!not!very!dissimilar!to!those!to! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 538 “Charges Against Dwight H. Perkins,”16. 539 Ibid. which!they!would!thus!become!accustomed…disadvantages!had!as!well!be! impressed!upon!those!preparing!for!the!exacting!life!of!confinement!which!is! inevitable!in!present!day!business.”540!!The!Chicago!City!Council!appropriated! $500,000!towards!the!design,!but!ultimately,!Perkins!was!unable!to!realize!his! didactic!tower!due!to!disagreement!among!board!members!with!regards!to!site! selection,!expense,!and!the!necessity!of!such!an!ambitious!program.541! Shortly!after!designing!his!skyscraper!school,!Perkins!gave!consideration!to! children!with!special!needs!when!he!constructed!the!Jesse!Spalding!School!for! Crippled!Children!in!1906,!indicative!of!progressive!attempts!to!extend!education!to! all!children.!!From!the!exterior,!Spalding!resembled!a!house!with!a!gabled!roof!and! front!drive,!a!residential!counterpoint!to!his!highPrise!aspirations!(Figures!6.32P 6.33).!!Only!onePstory!tall,!the!building!provided!easy!access!by!omnibuses!and! private!vehicles,!which!delivered!children!directly!to!a!large!coPed!playroom!under! the!shelter!of!a!carriage!porch!at!the!main!entrance.!!The!porte+cochere!provided! youngsters!and!their!caretakers!some!protection!from!weather!during!their! comparatively!complex!dropPoff!routines.!!Classrooms!were!immediately!adjacent!to! the!playroom,!and!a!runway!ramp!allowed!children!using!wheelchairs!to!access!the! storage!area.!!The!relatively!few!specialized!learning!spaces!included!in!the!plan! suggest!that!special!needs!curriculums!were!not!so!well!advanced!at!this!time,! though!Perkins!did!include!a!manual!training!room.!!The!most!significant!addition!at! Spalding!was!the!elaborate!restroom!and!nursing!station.!!Perkins!combined!group! and!isolated!toilets,!bathtubs,!and!an!infirmary!into!a!health!and!hygiene!annex!that! provided!facilities!for!the!special!physical!care!needed!by!some!students.!!While! such!curricular!and!architectural!provisions!for!handicapped!children!might!seem! limited!by!today’s!standards,!Perkins!made!commendable!strides!in!trying!to! accommodate!a!group!of!children!who!had!been!utterly!overlooked!by!nineteenthP century!educational!systems.! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 540 “A Novel Use for the Skyscraper,” Architectural Record, v. 25 (March 1909): 214. 541 Nelson, “Dwight Perkins,” 57-58. The school, though not the other departments, was finally built in 1964 and is called Jones Commercial High School.  Taken!together,!the!development!of!standardized!school!templates!allowed! Perkins!to!build!large!numbers!of!schools!rapidly!and!economically!so!as!to! accommodate!children!of!all!ages!and!abilities!and!to!ensure!that!minimum! requirements!with!regards!to!physical!health!and!safety!were!met.!!Such! improvements!signaled!a!new!respect!for!the!mental!and!physical!wellbeing!of! children,!regardless!of!economics!and!class,!and!the!significance!most!progressive! reformers!placed!on!education.!!However,!the!proliferation!of!standardized!school! buildings,!while!arguably!democratizing!access!to!education!by!providing!physical! facilities,!was!incomplete!without!widespread!pedagogical!and!curricular!reforms,! the!theoretical!engine!driving!progressive!attempts!to!revitalize!democratic!society.! ! The!New!Education:!From!TeacherPCentered!to!ChildPCentered!Pedagogy! The!complex!schools!that!Perkins!designed!differed!dramatically!from!lateP nineteenthPcentury!undifferentiated!schoolhouses.!!He!replaced!recitation!rooms! with!experimental!learning!spaces,!such!as!science!labs,!machine!shops,!and!test! kitchens,!where!children!practiced!working!with!chemicals,!natural!forces,! materials,!and!tools.!!Playgrounds,!gardens,!and!gymnasiums!encouraged!physical! activity,!mental!release,!and!enjoyment!of!nature.!!Moveable!furniture!allowed! children!and!teachers!to!reorganize!classrooms!to!accommodate!spontaneous! activities!and!group!work.!!His!distinctions!between!elementary!and!comparatively! complex!highPschool!programs!indicate!that!he!was!well!aware!of!emerging!childP development!theories!that!attempted!to!correlate!school!curriculums!and! instruction!methods!to!the!ages!and!ability!levels!of!children.!!Recognizing!that! children!in!the!seventh,!eighth,!and!ninth!grades!represented!a!distinct!stage!of! development!–!the!preteen!–!Perkins!even!modified!some!of!his!secondary!school! plans!in!1915!to!create!a!new!school!type!called!the!“junior!high!school.”542!!Taken! together,!these!advancements!make!clear!that!Perkins!was!highly!engaged!with! progressive!pedagogical!and!curriculum!reforms,!a!significant!cultural!shift!called,!at! the!time,!the!“New!Education.”!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 542 Perkins, Fellows, and Hamilton, Educational Buildings, 48-49.  Even!before!the!Chicago!School!Board!hired!him!in!1905,!Perkins!was! already!knowledgeable!about!progressive!educational!concepts!through!his! relationships!with!the!settlement!movement!and!the!University!of!Chicago.!!Jane! Addams!had!been!experimenting!with!practical!and!vocational!pedagogical! techniques!at!Hull!House!since!the!1890s,!tinkering!with!English!classes,!sewing! classes,!debate!clubs,!theater!troupes,!anything,!in!short,!that!might!engage!the!local! immigrant!population!and!impart!usable!skills.!!In!1896!John!Dewey!opened!an! experimental!school!near!the!University!of!Chicago!called,!appropriately,!the! Laboratory!School.!!He!organized!the!curriculum!around!what!he!called! “occupations,”!areas!of!study!that!reproduced!the!basic!social!activities!of!life,!such! as!cooking,!growing!food,!working!with!tools,!making!textiles,!and!so!on.!!As!a!father! living!on!the!south!side!of!Chicago,!Perkins!may!well!have!visited!Dewey’s! Laboratory!School!or!attended!any!number!of!lectures!Dewey!gave!explaining!his! experimental!pedagogy.!!He!certainly!would!have!known!of!the!Laboratory!school! indirectly!through!Addams,!Zueblin,!and!other!social!scientists!and!settlement! leaders!in!his!circle.!!! These!practical,!dynamic!learning!techniques!capitalized!on!the!natural! predilections!of!children.!Psychologists!and!pedagogues!such!as!Granville!Stanley! Hall!and!Colonel!Francis!Parker!had!observed!as!early!as!the!1880s!that!children! preferred!practical!activities,!play,!and!experimentation!to!passive!memorization! and!rote!leaning!methods.543!!ActivePlearning!techniques!welded!to!childP development!theories!produced!entirely!new!types!of!curriculums!alternatively! called!“object!based”!or!“childPcentered”!learning.!!Perkins!responded!to!these! emerging!theories!when!he!incorporated!specialized!learning!spaces!into!his!school! plans.!!Geography!lessons!began!with!excursions!outside!to!the!school!grounds;! botany!and!biology!courses!utilized!school!gardens!for!realPlife!nature!study.!! Drawing!classes!held!in!art!studios!taught!children!manual!dexterity!and!individual! expression.!!Carpentry!shops!imparted!an!understanding!of!materials,! measurements,!and!physics!while!pupils!tried!to!build!things.! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 543 Cremin, Transformation of the School, 129-131  The!undifferentiated!classrooms!and!fixed!furniture!of!latePnineteenthP century!schools!suggest!how!radically!“childPcentered”!educational!theories! departed!from!earlier!practices.!!A!widely!held!“doctrine!of!mental!discipline,”!which! divided!the!mind!into!distinct!faculties!such!as!memory,!reasoning,!will,!and! imagination,!fueled!finePdePsiècle!curriculums!and!teaching!strategies.!!Most!high! schools!taught!a!classical!curriculum!centered!on!Greek!and!Latin!study!as!well!as! mathematics,!in!part!because!mental!disciplinarians!believed!the!willpower!and! practice!required!to!learn!these!subjects!strengthened!the!mental!faculties.544! Vernacular!tongues!had!long!replaced!Latin!as!the!lingua+franca!of!professions!like! law!and!medicine,!but!colleges!still!required!it!for!admission!and!most!people!still! considered!classics!the!mark!of!an!educated!person.545!!Memorization,!drills,!and! recitations!were!the!most!effective!means!of!training!the!“mind!muscle,”!according! to!these!mental!disciplinarians,!an!intellectual!approximation!of!physical! calisthenics.!! !In!their!efforts!to!exercise!young!minds,!most!teachers!resembled!drill! sergeants!in!the!way!they!dictated!solitary!seat!assignments,!ordered!students!to! repeat!en+masse!memorized!textbook!content,!swiftly!punished!errors,!and! peppered!students!with!questions.546 !!One!reformer,!armed!with!a!stopwatch!and!a! stenographer,!conducted!a!veritable!scientific!management!study!of!teaching! methods!in!1911!and!reported!that!teachers!averaged!between!100P200!questions! per!class.!!This!crushing!pace!limited!student!responses!to!brief,!often!one!word,! reflexive!regurgitations.547!Such!“teacherPcentered”!instruction!methods,!as!they! came!to!be!called,!meant!that!pupils!rarely!had!the!opportunity!to!experiment,! challenge,!discuss,!or!work!together!in!groups.!!Similar!drill!techniques!made!their! way!into!primary!schools,!even!though!youngsters!were!just!learning!basic!reading,! writing,!and!arithmetic,!not!Latin,!Greek,!or!Algebra.!!So!mechanical!was!the! atmosphere!at!times!that!one!student,!when!asked!in!1892!why!she!attended!school,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 544 Herbert M. Kliebard, The Struggle for the American Curriculum, 1893-1958 (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986), 4-5. 545 Sizer, Secondary Schools, 1-2. 546 Cuban, How Teachers Taught, 19. 547 Ibid., 28-29. answered,!“to!sit!in!position.”548!Compounding!this!problem!was!the!fact!that!most! teachers!lacked!adequate!training,!so!they!relied!heavily!on!standardized!textbooks,! which!only!reinforced!the!boot!camp!approach.549!!To!progressive!educators,!such! unthinking,!motorized!movements!could!hardly!inspire!young!minds,!let!alone! develop!their!reasoning!powers.! Tightly!controlled!and!standardized!activities!required!few!specialized! learning!spaces!beyond!recitation!rooms!to!minimize!noise!disturbance.!!The!typical! school!consisted!of!identical!classrooms!furnished!with!rows!of!boltedPdown!desks! facing!a!raised!teachers!podium,!the!quintessential!image!of!teacherPcentered! instruction!(Figures!6.3P6.5).!!John!Dewey!articulated!the!relationship!between! classroom!design!and!mental!discipline!in!1899!when!he!recounted!the!difficulty!he! encountered!in!furnishing!his!Laboratory!School.!!After!searching!unsuccessfully!for! desks!and!chairs!suitable!to!the!needs!of!children,!one!dealer!remarked!that!school! desks!were!made!for!listening,!not!for!working.!!“That!tells!the!story!of!the! traditional!education,”!Dewey!lamented:! If!we!put!before!the!mind’s!eye!the!ordinary!schoolroom,!with!its!rows!of! ugly!desks!placed!in!geometrical!order,!crowded!together!so!that!there!shall! be!as!little!moving!room!as!possible,!desks!almost!all!of!the!same!size,!with! just!space!enough!to!hold!books,!pencils,!and!paper,!and!add!a!table,!some! chairs,!the!bare!walls,!and!possibly!a!few!pictures,!we!can!reconstruct!the! only!educational!activity!that!can!possibly!go!on!in!such!a!place.!!It!is!all!made! “for!listening”!–!because!simply!studying!lessons!out!of!a!book!is!only! another!kind!of!listening.550! ! There!were!countless!educational!reformers!who!claimed!to!prioritize!the! needs!and!experiences!of!children!over!outmoded,!classical!curriculums,!but!the! most!important!of!these!for!Perkins!and!most!Chicago!progressives!was!John! Dewey.!!Like!Perkins,!Dewey!hoped!to!transform!schools!into!updated! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 548 Charles Eliot, “Undesirable and Desirable Uniformity in Elementary Schools,” NEA Proceedings (1892), 88; quoted in Sizer, Secondary Schools, 47. 549 Cuban, How Teachers Taught, 24. 550 Dewey, “The School and the Life of the Child,” in The School and Society, 31. neighborhood!centers!that!could!revitalize!democratic!social!exchange!among! diverse,!diffuse!members!of!a!modern,!industrialized!society.!!In!an!influential! lecture!that!was!published!afterwards!in!1899!called!The+School+and+Society,!Dewey! blamed!the!market!revolution!for!the!current!crises!in!democracy!and!education.!! Unskilled,!divided,!factory!labor!undermined!the!educational!roles!previously! ascribed!to!the!home,!the!workshop,!and!the!farm,!and!with!them,!the!socially! cooperative!action!required!of!democratic!communities.!!Dewey!argued!that!the! immediacy!and!transparency!of!preindustrial!production!processes!had!served!to! educate!and!socialize!children.!!When!youngsters!helped!their!families!at!home,! apprenticed!in!workshops,!and!helped!harvest!the!fields,!they!learned!about! agriculture,!metallurgy,!chemistry,!bookkeeping,!arithmetic,!and!so!forth,!and!they! also!learned!how!to!work!collaboratively.551!!The!social!and!historical!values!of! preindustrial!labor!were!clear!in!a!way!that!industrial!manufacturing!simply!could! not!convey!in!its!impersonal,!fragmented!organization.!!!!! ! Dewey!recognized!the!impossibility!of!recapturing!preindustrial!social! patterns,!so!he!hoped!to!ameliorate!modern!social!splintering!by!restructuring! schools!as!embryonic!communities!–!a!sort!of!surrogate!institution!for!the! traditional!household,!farm,!and!workshop!–!in!order!to!recuperate!both!education! and!democracy!for!modern!society.!!At!his!Laboratory!School,!children!actively! participated!in!various!realPlife!“occupations”!such!as!planting!corn,!boiling!eggs,! and!building!model!farms!together.!!Practical!activities!appealed!to!children!because! they!were!concrete!and!tapped!their!natural!instincts!for!play!and!imagination.!! Specific!occupations!presented!opportunities!for!children!to!engage!in!a!meaningful! way!with!the!abstractions!represented!by!conventional!bodies!of!knowledge.!! Youngsters!readily!learned!physics!when!their!first!model!barn!collapsed,!forcing! them!to!redesign!it.!!Cooking!naturally!introduced!questions!relating!to!fundamental! chemical!principles!and!sparked!an!interest!in!climate,!geography,!and!agricultural! knowledge!needed!to!grow!food.!!Even!reading,!writing,!and!arithmetic!could!be! learned!through!the!practice!of!raising!sheep,!printing!school!journals,!or!planting! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 551 Dewey, “The School and Social Progress,” in The School and Society, 10-11. gardens.!!Most!importantly,!the!experimental!and!cooperative!nature!of! occupational!instruction!reproduced!the!pragmatic!way!that!Dewey!argued! knowledge!was!actually!constructed!–!by!practically!testing!ideas!in!the!social! arena.552!!In!these!ways,!Dewey!believed,!the!school!“has!a!chance!to!affiliate!itself! with!life…gets!a!chance!to!be!a!miniature!community,!an!embryonic!society.”553! Dewey!illustrated!his!ideas!in!1899!with!a!series!of!diagrams!that!underwent! a!process!of!evolutionary!metamorphosis,!becoming!increasingly!complex!and! interconnected,!a!parallel!tactic!to!the!graphing!and!mapping!tendencies!of!Perkins,! Addams,!and!Zueblin.!!In!the!first!chart,!the!school!is!an!undifferentiated!unit! related,!though!in!unclear!ways,!to!the!social!institutions!of!home,!business,!and! farming,!the!sites!of!preindustrial!education!(Figure!6.34).!!Arrows!indicate!the! relationships!between!these!institutions!are!reciprocal,!mutually!informing!each! other.!!Dewey!additionally!included!the!university!and!its!affiliated!libraries,! museums,!professional!schools,!and!research!facilities.!!At!a!time!when!only!a!tiny! percentage!of!children!attended!college,!or!even!high!school!for!that!matter,!because! their!classical!curriculums!seemed!hopelessly!immaterial!for!ordinary!people,! Dewey!hoped!to!demonstrate!the!relevance!of!higher!education!for!society.!! Universities,!he!argued,!were!where!the!best!resources!of!society!are!gathered,! maintained,!and!organized.!!He!hoped!to!connect!them!in!a!seamless!didactic! trajectory!to!elementary!and!secondary!school!systems,!thereby!instilling!an! attitude!of!inquiry!and!aspiration!into!all!children.554!!! In!the!second!diagram,!the!school!subdivides!and!differentiates!like!a! replicating!cell!into!specialized!occupational!activities:!a!kitchen,!textile!industries,! shop,!dining!room,!and!library!(Figure!6.35).!!These!occupations!clarify!how!the! school!is!related!to!its!surrounding!social!institutions.!!Scientific!knowledge!about! plants,!soils,!and!climates!gained!in!the!garden!inform!cooking!activities!in!the! kitchen,!which!in!turn!introduce!children!to!chemistry,!all!of!which!is!utilized!and! reinforced!in!the!home!environment.!!As!Dewey!described,!the!carpentry!and!textile! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 552 Dewey, “The School and Society,” in The School and Society, 15-23. 553 Ibid., 18. 554 Dewey, “Waste in Education,” in The School and Society, 78. shops!“connect!with!the!country,!as!the!source!of!their!materials,!with!physics,!as! the!science!of!applying!energy,!with!commerce!and!distribution,!with!art!in!the! development!of!architecture!and!decoration.!!They!also!have!an!intimate!connection! with!the!university!on!the!side!of!its!technological!and!engineering!schools,!with!the! laboratory!and!its!scientific!methods!and!results.”555!!A!centrally!placed!library! gathers!together!and!connects!the!practical!occupations!on!the!periphery,!uniting! theory!and!practice!in!a!way!that!symbolized!Dewey’s!epistemological!attempts!to! do!the!same.!!! The!last!diagram,!which!Dewey!described!as!the!“symbolic!upper!story!of!this! ideal!school,”!demonstrates!how!abstract!knowledge!in!science,!mathematics,!and! music!could!be!extrapolated!from!the!concrete!occupations!practiced!on!the!ground! floor!(Figure!6.36).!!Theoretical!questions!arising!in!the!kitchens!and!shops!could!be! worked!out!in!the!laboratories!for!biology,!physics,!and!chemistry!or!in!the!art!and! music!studios!above.!!Dewey!recounted!one!of!these!mutually!reinforcing! experiences:!! This!past!week!one!of!the!older!groups!of!children!was!doing!practical!work! in!weaving,!which!involved!the!use!of!the!spinning!wheel,!worked!out!the! diagrams!of!the!direction!of!forces!concerned!in!treadle!and!wheel,!and!the! ratio!of!velocities!between!wheel!and!spindle.!!In!the!same!manner,!the! plants!with!which!the!child!has!to!do!in!cooking!afford!the!basis!for!a! concrete!interest!in!botany!and!may!be!taken!and!studied!by!themselves.556! A!central!museum!operates!as!another!repository!of!intellectual!resources,!not! unlike!the!library!below.!!It!preserves!and!exhibits!the!highest!cultural!productions! of!society,!here!represented!by!art!and!music,!which!originated!in!manual,!artisanal! practices,!dexterity!of!eye!and!hand,!ear!and!voice.!!Dewey!explained,!“In!the!ideal! school!the!art!work!might!be!considered!to!be!that!of!the!shops,!passed!through!the! alembic!of!library!and!museum!into!action!again.”557! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 555 Ibid., 84. 556 Dewey, “The School and Social Progress,” in The School and Society, 85-86. 557 Ibid., 89.  Dewey’s!diagrams!bear!a!loose,!but!striking!resemblance!to!Perkins’s!high! school!plans.!!Occupational!workshops!related!to!the!institutions!of!home,!country,! and!business,!such!as!woodworking,!machine!rooms,!and!domestic!science,!take!up! the!ground!floors!of!Albert!Lane!and!Carl!Schurz!high!schools!(Figures!6.18!and! 6.24).!Scientific!laboratories!for!experimentation!in!physics,!chemistry,!zoology,! botany,!and!geology!occupy!their!second!and!third!levels!(Figures!6.19P6.20!and! 6.25P6.26).!!The!upper!stories!of!Carl!Schurz!contain!artistic!studios!for!mechanical! drawing,!printing!and!bookbinding,!free!hand!drawing,!and!clay!modeling!(Figure! 6.27).!!Whenever!possible,!Perkins!situated!high!schools!on!expansive!grounds!that! contained!playgrounds!and!gardens,!recalling!the!way!Dewey!imagined!that!the! “school!building!has!about!it!a!natural!environment…it!ought!to!be!in!a!garden,!and! the!children!from!the!garden!would!be!led!on!to!surrounding!fields,!and!then!into! the!wider!country!with!all!its!facts!and!forces.”558!!Dewey!even!subdivided!nature!in! his!first!diagram!into!constituent!scales!of!garden,!park,!and!country!(Figure!6.34),! seemingly!anticipating!the!concentric!outdoors!civic!spaces!that!Perkins!envisioned! ordering!Chicago!in!his!Metropolitan+Park+System,!which!expanded!from!small! playgrounds,!to!larger!pleasure!grounds,!to!expansive!forest!preserves.!! !!Despite!these!seemingly!spatial!similarities,!we!should!not!read!Dewey’s! diagrams!as!blueprints!for!modern!schoolhouses,!but!rather,!as!abstract!schematics! representing!the!ideal!relationship!between!schools!and!society.!!Dewey!expressly! distinguished!his!diagrams!from!actual!architectural!representations:!“It!is!not!our! architect’s!plan!for!the!school!building!that!we!hope!to!have;!but!it!is!a!diagrammatic! representation!of!the!idea!which!we!want!embodied!in!the!school!building.”559!Their! significance!for!Perkins!was!in!visualizing!how!schools!could!unify!communities.!! Perkins!never!drafted!a!curriculum!or!espoused!specific!pedagogical!theories.!!But! he!did!mediate!these!ideas!through!his!architectural!practice.!!He!concentrated!on! building!schools!with!specialized!learning!spaces!where!curricular!innovations! could!be!implemented.!!He!organized!school!plans!so!that!their!auditoriums,! libraries,!and!playgrounds!could!be!easily!used!by!the!entire!neighborhood.!!If! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 558 Dewey, “Waste in Education,” in The School and Society, 75. 559 Ibid., 79. Dewey’s!diagrams!represented!metaphorical!spaces!and!ideal!abstractions,!Perkins! wrote!about!actual!gymnasiums,!playgrounds,!public!libraries,!catering!kitchens,! polling!places!with!voting!booths,!and!clubrooms!for!night!classes!and! neighborhood!meetings.560!Perkins!transformed!schools!into!democratic!social! centers!by!providing!physical!spaces!for!communities!to!gather.!!! The!auditorium!was!the!symbolic!and!literal!centerpiece!of!Perkins’s!schools,! a!space!large!enough!to!accommodate!nearly!the!whole!community!where!the! contingent,!pragmatic!process!of!democratic!comprise!occurred!–!a!revitalized!town! hall.!!If!libraries!and!museums!were!the!allegorical!glue!binding!together!the! components!of!Dewey’s!ideal!school,!Perkins!gave!this!role!to!the!assembly!hall.!!He! conveyed!its!significance!by!locating!auditoriums!at!the!center!of!school!plans,!the! fulcrum!around!which!the!entire!school!turned.!!He!expedited!public!access!by! placing!them!on!the!ground!floor,!usually!on!axis!with!the!main!entrance.!!Many! were!quite!elaborate,!such!as!the!enormous!domed!auditorium!at!Tilton!Elementary! School!that!included!skylights!and!balconies,!thus!further!communicating!the! importance!of!their!civic!function.!!! From!these!relationships!and!architectural!strategies,!we!can!glean!an! understanding!of!how!Perkins!understood!education!and!the!role!schools!should! play!in!modern!society.!!He!viewed!education!in!“distinctly!social”!terms,!specifically! its!capacity!to!function!as!a!lever!for!democratic!social!progress.561!!His!consistent! emphasis!on!the!communal!spaces!of!schools,!their!auditoriums,!playgrounds,! gymnasiums,!and!so!forth,!reveal!that!he!saw!schools!as!local!centers!of!applied! democracy.!!He!wrote!of!“throwing!away!the!key!to!the!front!door”!to!encourage!the! entire!neighborhood!to!use!schools!as!community!gathering!points.562!!It!was! because!public!schools!had!a!“relation!to!all!of!the!people,!regardless!of!divisions!in! politics,!religion,!or!wealth,”!that!Perkins!believed!they!could!function!as! quintessential!neighborhood!centers.563!!In!practice,!of!course,!public!schools,!or!any! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 560 See Perkins, “The School Building as a Social Center” and Perkins and Taylor, “The Functions and Plan-Types of Community Buildings.” 561 Perkins, “School Buildings,” 88. 562 Perkins, “School Building as Social Center,” 293. 563 Perkins, “The Purpose of School Buildings.” neighborhood!center!for!that!matter,!rarely!functioned!so!perfectly.!!But!Perkins! saw!past!these!shortcomings!to!their!ideal!potential,!as!places!where!“separating! influences!are!nullified.”564!!! Despite!the!promise!Perkins!and!Dewey!saw!in!schools!to!operate!as! democratic!community!centers,!other!interest!groups!attempted!to!appropriate! public!education!for!more!instrumental!ends,!arguably!transforming!schools!into! “embryonic!communities,”!but!ones!that!rehearsed!the!economic!disparities,!class! tensions,!racism,!and!sexism!of!modern!society!rather!than!ameliorating!them.!! These!struggles!crystallized!around!vocational!education!and!the!concept!of!“social! efficiency.”!!For!the!most!part,!public!school!administrators,!teachers,!industrialists,! and!the!general!public!alike!misinterpreted!Dewey’s!pedagogical!theories,!reducing! their!complexity!into!slogans!like!“learn!by!doing”!that!fueled!widespread!support! for!vocational!training!programs.565!!Recognizing!that!most!children!would!become! wage!workers!who!rarely!rose!above!their!stations!to!found!businesses!or!shops,! much!less!professional!practices,!advocates!of!vocational!training!argued!that!school! curriculums!should!focus!on!providing!them!with!marketable!skills.!!They!argued! the!new!productive!reality!was!one!in!which!people!were!merely!human!parts!in!an! automated!instrument,!each!worker!repeatedly!performing!his!task!within!a!vast! coordinate!mechanism.!!In!their!eyes,!the!best!route!to!social!stability!involved! adjusting!people!to!this!new!productive!order,!not!reforming!industrial!relations!or! devising!curriculums!that!encouraged!selfPdiscovery!and!initiative.! Business!interests!added!to!the!enthusiasm!over!vocational!education.!! Cyclical!recessions!throughout!the!1890s!had!destabilized!the!economy,!and! industrialists!argued!that!the!only!way!to!maintain!an!everPexpanding!American! prosperity!was!by!increasing!export!markets!for!manufactured!goods.!!Opening!new! markets!overseas!often!entailed!military!force,!a!financial!strategy!that!paralleled! American!imperialism.!!And!increasing!productivity!to!supply!those!markets,!and! compete!with!rival!leading!exporters!like!Germany,!entailed!training!efficient,! skilled!workers.!!American!industrialists!frequently!credited!Germany’s!system!of! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 564 Ibid. 565 Kliebard, Struggle for the American Curriculum, 73. separate!and!specialized!technical!schools!for!its!domination!of!world!exports.!They! hoped!to!established!similar!institutions!in!the!United!States!that!could!“give!us! skilled!hands!and!trained!minds!for!the!conduct!of!our!industries!and!our! commerce.”566! When!Perkins!designed!separate!high!schools!for!manual!training,!college! preparation,!and!commercial!instruction,!he!unwittingly!facilitated!educational! reforms!that!contradicted!his!own.!!Proponents!of!vocational!education,!hoping!to! increase!educational!efficiency,!argued!that!school!administrators!and!teachers! should!categorize!and!sort!children!into!different!curriculums!according!to!their! “known!future!vocations,”!what!we!call!“tracking”!today.!!Deploring!waste!of!any! kind,!these!“social!efficiency”!experts!argued!it!was!a!mismanagement!of!resources! to!educate!children!in!knowledge!they!would!never!use.!!So!they!established!various! mechanisms,!some!ostensibly!scientific,!others!informal,!to!measure!aptitude!and! determine!the!future!roles!of!children.!By!the!1920s,!efficiency!educators!relied!on! purportedly!objective!“mental!measurements,”!such!as!standardized!aptitude!tests! and!intelligence!quotients,!I.Q.!points,!to!categorize!students.!!But!sorting!techniques! at!the!turn!of!the!century!were!mainly!subjective,!often!reflecting!prevailing!social! and!economic!hierarchies.!!Administrators!tended!to!channel!workingPclass!children! into!vocational!tracks!because!they!presumed!their!“natural”!interests!trended! towards!manual!labor.!!Affluent!children!were!more!likely!to!be!tracked!into!college! preparatory!tracks.!!Dewey!immediately!attacked!social!sorting!for!the!way!it! institutionalized!class!divisions!rather!than!promoted!social!democracy:!! Any!scheme!for!vocational!education!which!takes!its!point!of!departure!from! the!industrial!regime!that!now!exists,!is!likely!to!assume!and!to!perpetuate!its! divisions!and!weaknesses…education!would!then!become!an!instrument!of! perpetuating!unchanged!the!existing!industrial!order!of!society,!instead!of! operating!as!a!means!of!its!transformation.567! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 566 Theodore C. Search, President of the National Association of Manufacturers, addressing NAM in 1898, quoted in Kliebard, Struggle for the American Curriculum, 136. 567 John Dewey, Democracy and Education, (1916; repr. New York: The MacMillan Company, 1961), 316, 318. Social!sorting!according!to!predicted!vocation!became!one!of!the!most!influential! curricular!reforms,!even!as!it!transformed,!if!only!temporarily,!Perkins’s!ideal! school,!“which!recognizes!no!differences,!either!racial,!political,!religious,!or!social,”! into!an!instrument!precisely!for!dividing!children!along!such!lines.568!!!!!!!!! Even!as!debates!raged!between!industrialists,!social!efficiency!advocates,! child!psychologists,!traditionalists,!public!officials,!and!progressives!over!the!role!of! public!schools!in!society,!Perkins!faced!his!own!personal!battle!with!the!Chicago! School!Board.!!He!had!been!hired!during!a!shortPlived!window!when!progressive! reformers!and!politicians!briefly!wielded!political!power.!!In!1905,!the!relatively! liberal!Judge!Edward!Dunne!had!defeated!conservative!incumbent!Carter!Harrison! for!mayor.!!Dunne!appointed!several!progressives!to!the!School!Board,!including! Jane!Addams,!who!made!important!reforms!to!the!notoriously!corrupt! organization.569!!They!eliminated!secret!efficiency!ratings,!and!they!established! teacher!councils!to!advise!on!curricular!and!pedagogical!matters,!which!curbed!the! superintendent’s!unilateral!authority.!!These!progressive!gains!amounted!to!little! when!Dunne!lost!reelection!in!1907!to!a!conservative!who!was!sympathetic!to! business!interests.!!New!mayor!Fred!Busse!took!immediate!control!of!the!Board!of! Education,!terminated!twelve!members,!and!installed!a!new!regime!sympathetic!to! industry,!especially!to!the!Chicago!Commercial!Club.!!These!officials!reversed!many! of!the!progressive!reforms!of!the!previous!two!years.570! Perkins!survived!the!Busse!takeover!in!the!short!term,!but!ultimately,!he!fell! victim!to!the!problematic,!often!unscrupulous!relationship!between!business! interests,!politicians,!and!school!administration.!!The!President!of!the!School!Board! at!this!time!was!Alfred!R.!Urion,!corporate!counsel!for!a!powerful!company!called! Armour!Industries.!!Urion!believed!in!running!the!school!system!along!“economical! corporate!lines,”!but!he!also!pressured!Perkins!and!others!to!patronize!businesses! in!which!he!held!an!interest.!!When!Perkins!rejected!overpriced!flooring!materials! manufactured!by!a!company!in!which!Urion!was!heavily!invested,!a!bitter!conflict! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 568 Kliebard, American Curriculum, 127. 569 Wrigley, Class Politics and Public Schools, 113-114. 570 Ibid., 118-119. between!the!board!and!the!architect!ensued!that!culminated!in!a!lengthy!public!trial.!! Urion!charged!Perkins!with!“insubordination,!extravagance!and!incompetence.”!! Respected!architects!such!as!Irving!Pond!and!William!B.!Ittner,!a!nationally!known! specialist!in!school!design,!testified!on!Perkins’s!behalf,!as!did!the!esteemed!district! Superintendent!Ella!Flagg!Young,!a!progressive!leader!sympathetic!to!the!Chicago! Teacher’s!Federation.!!Nevertheless,!the!board!found!Perkins!guilty!of!extravagance! and!fired!him!on!May!1,!1910.571!! His!termination!meant!that!Perkins!was!unable!to!construct!public!schools! inside!city!limits,!which!were!all!handled!through!the!Board!of!Education,!but!he! continued!to!develop!and!refine!his!architectural!strategies!in!his!private!practice,! constructing!dozens!more!schools!in!suburbs!and!small!towns!across!the!Midwest.!! Despite!the!acrimonious!end!to!his!relationship!with!the!School!Board,!his! experiences!there!taught!him!several!powerful!lessons!that!ultimately!enabled!him! to!realize!his!ambitions!and!truly!transform!schools!into!democratic!neighborhood! centers.!!Having!to!collaborate!with!a!vast!bureaucratic!organization!staffed!with! public!officials,!private!contractors,!civil!servants,!engineers,!and!teams!of! draftsmen,!not!to!mention!the!diffuse!public!that!schools!targeted,!Perkins!learned! how!to!work!better!with!different!kinds!of!communities.!!Building!codes!mandated! by!the!School!Board!meant!that!his!design!energies!were!often!spent!on!firstPline! defenses!to!improve!substandard!buildings,!such!as!fireproofing,!lighting!provisions,! and!modern!plumbing!systems,!rather!than!on!creative!experimentation.!! Standardized!planPtypes!presented!additional!limitations.!!Though!somewhat! flexible,!they!prevented!Perkins!from!being!able!to!make!too!many!changes.!!But!the! restraints!imposed!on!him!by!the!School!Board!also!taught!Perkins!the!benefits!of! standardization,!how!to!work!within!predefined!limits,!and!how!to!produce! affordable,!replicable!designs.!!Witnessing!revolutionary!changes!in!pedagogical! techniques!and!curriculums!gave!him!an!appreciation!of!changing!circumstances! and!an!awareness!that!schools!needed!to!be!adaptable.!!After!1910!Perkins!was!able! to!fully!embrace!these!insights!and!develop!a!system,!both!standardized!and!flexible,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 571 Transcript of Trial, Perkins Papers; “Charges Against Dwight H. Perkins,” 16-19; “Dwight Perkins – Father of Today’s ‘New’ School Ideas;” Gyure, “Transformation of Schoolhouse,” 96. that!allowed!him!to!bring!statePofPthePart!educational!facilities!to!all!types!of! communities,!small!and!large,!wealthy!and!wanting,!and!to!accommodate!current! student!populations,!as!well!as!future!growth!and!change.!! !! Planning!for!Change:!Expandable!Schools!and!the!“Connected!Group!Plan”! Being!relegated!mainly!to!suburban!and!rural!locations!opened!up! tremendous!architectural!possibilities!for!Perkins!because!land!was!cheaper!and! space!more!readily!available.!!He!began!experimenting!with!larger,!lowPrise!formats! and!developed!an!“expandable”!school!template!that!could!be!built!in!successive! phases.!!Hubbard!Woods!Elementary!School!in!Winnetka,!Illinois!is!a!typical! example!(Figures!6.37P6.38).!!Perkins!designed!the!structure!to!be!built!in!four! successive!stages!between!1915!and!1925.!!A!“core”!consisting!of!a!kindergarten,! assembly!hall,!and!regular!classrooms!came!first,!becoming!the!nucleus!of!the!future! additions.!!In!1919!Perkins!appended!additional!classrooms,!larger!restroom! facilities,!and!space!for!a!future!manual!training!and!domestic!science!annex!onto! the!north!side!of!the!building.!!To!this!he!added!more!classrooms,!an!office,!a! teacher’s!lounge,!a!small!kitchen,!and!an!additional!entrance!four!years!later.!!This! third!building!phase!was!oriented!perpendicularly!from!the!original!building,! creating!the!beginnings!of!a!second!“wing”!that!was!completed!in!1925!when! additional!classrooms!were!added!to!the!east!and!west,!ultimately!resulting!in!a!TP shaped!plan.!!He!finished!and!equipped!the!vocational!annex,!manual!training! workshops,!and!domestic!science!lab!during!the!final!building!phase.! Hubbard!Elementary!was!only!onePstory!to!facilitate!easy!expansion!and! allowed!Perkins!to!use!overhead!skylights!in!every!room,!a!significant!improvement! from!the!perspective!of!lighting!considerations.!!Revolving!metal!sunshades,!which! could!be!adjusted!to!exclude!the!direct!rays!of!the!sun,!regulated!light!levels.!! Portable!furniture!allowed!spontaneous!and!flexible!rearrangement!of!classroom! environments,!an!elasticity!made!possible!by!the!skylights!since!desks!and!chairs! were!essentially!emancipated!from!the!side!windows!for!their!lighting!needs!(Figure! 6.39).572!!GroundPlevel!classrooms!connected!to!interior!corridors,!but!they!also! opened!directly!to!the!outside!through!private!entrances,!greatly!expediting! evacuation!in!case!of!fire!or!other!emergency.573!!! Expandable!schools!became!a!staple!in!small!towns!and!rural!areas!because! their!flexibility!allowed!these!often!underPfunded!school!districts!to!defray! construction!costs!over!time.!!Phased!construction!also!enabled!school!boards!to! plan!for!future!growth,!enlarging!incrementally!as!student!populations!swelled!or! postponing!additions!if!they!became!unnecessary.!!Perkins!usually!constructed!basic! classrooms!first!and!built!out!the!specialized!learning!spaces!–!manual!training,! domestic!science,!and!so!forth!–!during!successive!building!phases,!as!he!did!at! Hubbard!Woods!Elementary.!!Rural!school!curriculums!at!this!time!usually!lagged! behind!their!urban!counterparts.574!!While!undifferentiated!classrooms!were!not! equipped!for!progressive!pedagogical!techniques,!they!were!still!the!breadPandP butter!learning!spaces!for!most!small!schools.!!But!expandable!plans!encouraged! smaller,!less!affluent!districts!to!envision,!and!hopefully!eventually!construct,!more! ambitiously!programmed!schools!since!their!costs!could!be!spread!out!over!time.!!At! Arthur!H.!Howard!Elementary!School,!for!example,!Perkins!imagined!adding!future! gymnasiums,!domestic!science!labs,!manual!training!shops,!an!auditorium,!and!even! a!music!hall!onto!a!very!basic,!firstPphase!template!(Figure!6.40).!!Expandable! schools!had!the!potential!to!gradually!bring!the!highest!educational!standards!to! large!numbers!of!people.!!They!went!beyond!the!basic!planPtypes!Perkins!had!used! at!the!Board!of!Education!and!maximized!possibilities!for!all!kinds!of!communities.! Suburban!high!schools!accelerated!the!trend!begun!by!expandable! elementary!schools!away!from!centralized,!compact!school!buildings!and!toward! sprawling,!complex!school!plants.!!EverPlarger!enrollments,!demand!for!copious! specialized!learning!spaces,!and!the!expansive,!outlying!sites!characteristic!of!many! suburban!secondary!schools!led!Perkins!to!create!what!he!termed!the!“connected! group!plan.”!!At!Mishawaka,!Indiana,!High!School,!Perkins!originally!designed!a! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 572 Perkins, Fellows, and Hamilton, Educational Buildings, 26. 573 Ibid., 15-16. 574 Cremin, Transformation of the School, 20. relatively!contained,!courtyard!building!that!allowed!for!two!future!wings!along!the! same!lines!as!his!expandable!school!model!(Figure!6.41).!!The!final!plan!represents!a! process!of!deconstruction,!where!Perkins!separated!the!constituent!parts!of!the! school!into!discreet!sections!(Figures!6.42P6.45).!!Essentially,!he!unpacked!the! various!functions!of!the!compact,!vertical,!urban!high!school!and!spread!them! horizontally!into!distinct!annexes.!!He!zoned!and!concentrated!similar!programs! together,!which!minimized!confusion!during!class!changes.!!Academic!departments,! administrative!offices,!classrooms,!and!science!laboratories!occupied!the!central! precinct,!while!the!auditorium,!gymnasium,!future!natatorium,!lunchroom,!and! vocational!workshops!occupied!outlying!volumes!that!pinwheel!out!from!the! academic!core.!!! Connected!group!plans!had!several!advantages,!the!most!important!being! their!flexibility.!!Since!they!consisted!of!loosely!grouped,!but!somewhat!distinct! annexes!that!occupied!large!tracts!of!open!land,!they!readily!accommodated!future! expansions!–!new!annexes!could!always!be!appended,!covered!walkways!or!long! corridors!acting!as!connective!tissue.!!Perkins!almost!always!supplemented!his! connected!group!plans!with!proposals!for!future!expansion!annexes.!!Their!accretive! character!allowed!schools!to!more!readily!adjust!to!new!or!unforeseen!curricular! changes.!!It!was!also!easier!for!members!of!the!community!to!take!advantage!of! school!gymnasiums,!locker!rooms,!pools,!assembly!spaces,!and!lunchrooms!after! school!hours!because!these!spaces!occupied!their!own!wings.575!!They!could!be! effectively!“sealed!off”!from!the!main!institution!by!locking!the!connective!corridors,! leading!Perkins!to!write!about!“throwing!away!the!key!to!the!front!door”!and!truly! transforming!public!schools!into!accessible,!welcoming!community!centers.576!!! Abundant!sites!not!only!facilitated!expansions!and!flexible,!annexed!layouts,! they!also!provided!Perkins!an!opportunity!to!engage!his!passion!for!landscapes!and! nature.!!Manitowoc,!Wisconsin,!High!School!was!situated!on!an!elevated,!twentyPtwo! acre!campus!overlooking!Lake!Michigan!and!the!town,!commanding!impressive! views!of!both!(Figures!6.46P6.47).!!Perkins!described!the!site!as!“practically!ideal”!in! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 575 Perkins, Fellows, and Hamilton, Educational Buildings, 74. 576 Ibid., 73-74; and Perkins, “School Building as Social Center,” 293. every!respect,!its!“pleasing!and!adaptable!topography”!making!for!an!“almost! perfect!architectural!setting.”577!!To!play!up!the!dramatic!environs,!Perkins!placed! the!athletic!field!and!six!tennis!courts!in!a!natural!depression!on!the!western!edge!of! the!site,!where!spectators!and!players!could!gaze!out!over!the!waters!of!the!lake.!!On! the!southern!portion!of!the!site,!he!incorporated!playgrounds!and!expansive! gardens,!which!were!adjacent!to!an!outlying!department!of!agriculture.!!An!outdoor! amphitheater!tucked!into!a!wooded!area!on!the!northeast!corner!rounded!out!his! ambitious!landscape!design.!!Automobiles!and!buses!approached!the!school!via! lengthy!drives!and!circumambulated!the!entrance!in!a!vehicular!roundabout!that! lent!an!almost!ceremonial!feel!to!the!complex.!!! The!attention!Perkins!paid!to!vehicular!circulation!patterns!suggests!how! motorized!transportation!was!transforming!public!schools,!most!obviously!in!their! site!planning!but!also!in!the!demographic!profiles!of!their!student!bodies.!!School! districts!increasingly!relied!on!buses!to!transport!farPflung,!distant!children!to!large,! centralized!school!campuses.578!!Bussing!brought!together!wider,!more!diverse!sets! of!people!and!greatly!expanded!the!school’s!range!of!influence.!!It!was!also!more! economical.!!Larger!schools!were!more!cost!effective!because!they!dispersed!the! high!price!of!increasingly!complex!mechanical!plants!and!specialized!learning! spaces!across!a!larger!student!body.!!Perkins!enthusiastically!tabulated!the!“cost!per! pupil”!of!almost!every!school!he!designed,!even!calculating!estimated!cost!savings! after!planned!expansions!were!constructed.!!He!ran!a!cost!analysis!in!1909! demonstrating!that!wellPappointed!schools!with!large!libraries,!assembly!halls,! gymnasiums,!shops,!labs,!and!artistic!studios!were!only!marginally!more!expensive! than!traditional,!undifferentiated!schools.!!He!suggested!that!school!capacities! should!be!between!1,500!and!2,000!students,!nearly!double!the!national!average,!to! maximize!efficient!use!of!school!facilities.579!!High!school!sites!should!be!a!minimum! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 577 Perkins, Fellows, and Hamilton, Educational Buildings, 103. 578 Ibid., 72-73. 579 Perkins Papers, “Elementary School Building Expenditures in Chicago,” Box II, Folder 2. of!fifteen!acres,!Perkins!argued,!their!expansive!scales!being!a!higher!priority!than!a! central!location.580! The!expanding!sphere!of!influence!and!impressive!physical!size!of!these! suburban!school!complexes!fueled!expectations!that!they!were,!indeed,!legitimate! institutions.!!Many!communities!hoped!to!symbolize!their!civic!aspirations!and! achievements!through!the!architecture!and!ornament!of!their!schools,!even!on! modest!budgets.581!!Perkins!built!Manitowoc!High!School!of!variegated!shades!of! darkPred!brick!and!trimmed!it!with!lightPbuff!terracotta!ornament,!relatively! inexpensive!materials!compared!to!cut!stone!but!still!solid!and!dignified.!!Most! people!could!recognize!its!loosely!Gothic!ornamental!program,!which!conveyed!a! sense!of!authority!and!was!also!familiar!and!readily!associated!with!educational! buildings!(Figures!6.46!and!6.48P6.50).!!Perkins!called!special!attention!to!the! auditorium!and!gymnasium!entrances!through!elaborate!ornamental!details!and! arched!doorways.!!These!were!the!spaces!he!expected!community!members!would! use!most!frequently!for!gatherings!and!events,!so!he!hoped!to!welcome!them! through!inviting!visual!displays!(Figures!6.51P6.52).!!A!conspicuous,!ornate!tower! that!Perkins!described!as!“largely!a!thing!of!beauty”!demarcated!the!main!entrance,! its!purpose!simply!to!elevate!the!overall!architectural!and!civic!impression!of!the! school!(Figure!6.50).!!The!school!board!was!willing!to!spend!an!extra!$30,000!in! excess!of!their!budget!to!build!it,!evidence!of!how!important!outward!architectural! symbols!of!pride!and!community!spirit!were!to!many!neighborhoods!and!towns.582!! Even!as!Perkins!appropriated!various!historical!languages!to!decorate!most!of!his! public!schools,!their!underlying!compositions!and!construction!materials!were!fairly! standardized.!!Most!of!them!were!variants!on!similar!institutional!blocks!organized! by!a!regular,!modular!grid!of!windows!and!sheathed!in!brick!with!terracotta!trim,!as! at!Mishawaka,!Indiana!High!School!and!Manitowoc,!Wisconsin!High!School!(Figures! 6.44!and!6.46).!!! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 580 Perkins, Fellows, and Hamilton, Educational Buildings, 72. 581 Ibid., 96. 582 Ibid., 106. The!Comprehensive!High!School! This!system!–!“connected!group”!plans!that!balanced!symbolism!and! economy,!standardization!as!well!as!flexibility!–!allowed!Perkins!to!design! institutions!that!truly!seemed!to!embody!the!ideal!relationship!between!schools!and! society!that!Dewey!had!envisioned!in!his!diagrams!decades!earlier.!!Manitowoc!and! Mishawaka!High!Schools!were!both!examples!of!the!“comprehensive!high!school,”! an!amalgamation!of!the!most!influential!pedagogical,!curricular,!and!architectural! aspects!of!earlier!school!models.!!Perkins!enumerated!their!physical!requirements,! which!provided!nearly!every!facility!imaginable:!auditoriums,!gymnasiums,! natatoriums,!outdoor!playgrounds,!gardens,!lunchrooms!or!banquet!halls,! committee!rooms,!a!public!library,!regular!classrooms,!laboratories,!art!studios,! music!halls,!test!kitchens,!and!vocational!workshops.583!!The!way!in!which!these! differentiated!programs!radiated!outward!from!a!central!academic!core!to!occupy! discreet!annexes!on!the!periphery!of!the!school!approximated!Dewey’s!ideal! diagrammatic!school!even!more!closely!than!Perkins’s!earlier!high!school!plans! (Figures!6.35P6.36).!!Comprehensive,!“connected!group!plans”!allowed!for! specialization!and!replication!of!various!“occupations”!while!still!preserving!their! connections!to!the!school!as!a!whole!and!to!the!surrounding!community,!with!its! industries,!farms,!and!houses.!!They!made!manifest!Dewey’s!conceptualization!of!the! school!as!an!“embryonic!society.”! The!ambitious!programming!of!comprehensive!high!schools!reveals!how!the! debates!between!progressives,!labor,!business,!and!political!officials!that! crystallized!around!vocational!education!in!the!1910s!had!resulted!in!a!compromise! of!sorts!by!1920.!!Direct!trade!training!along!social!efficiency!lines!appealed!to!many! administrators,!politicians,!and!business!interests!for!its!apparent!usefulness!and! applicability!to!real!life,!and!vocational!training!did!seem,!on!the!surface,!to!be!a! viable!substitute!for!waning!systems!of!apprenticeship!that!had!once!trained! children!to!be!productive!workers!and!members!of!the!community.584!!For!a!period! of!time,!these!beliefs!manifested!themselves!in!entirely!separate!manual!training,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 583 Perkins and Howell, “Functions and Plan-Types of Community Buildings,” 293. 584 Kliebard, American Curriculum, 127-129. commercial,!and!college!preparatory!high!schools!like!those!Perkins!built!for!the! Chicago!School!Board.!!! Perkins,!Dewey,!and!countless!other!progressive!reformers!opposed!strictly! vocational!education!because!it!reinforced!socioPeconomic!inequalities!and!did!little! to!“provide!inspiration!and!opportunities!for!the!development!of!the!higher!life!of! the!people,”!as!Perkins!wrote!in!1924.!!Dewey!considered!“education!according!to! need”!absurdly!inefficient!precisely!because!it!was!so!narrow.!!“The!dominant! vocation!of!all!human!beings!at!all!times!is!living,!intellectual!and!moral!growth,”!he! wrote,!“no!one!is!just!an!artist!and!nothing!else,!and!in!so!far!as!one!approximates! that!condition,!he!is!so!much!less!the!developed!human!being;!he!is!a!kind!of! monstrosity.”585!!WorkingPclass!children!and!parents!also!resisted!vocational! sorting.!!An!expanding!economy!had!created!a!variety!of!clerical!and!serviceP oriented!occupations,!such!as!bookkeeping!and!retail!sales,!which!increased!the! value!of!highPschool!diplomas.!!Poor!families!who!struggled!financially!to!keep!their! children!in!school!demanded!traditional!curriculums!because!they!believed,!not! unreasonably,!they!were!portals!to!higherPpaid!professional!and!whitePcollar!jobs.!! As!historian!David!Nasaw!described,!“high!schools!to!them!meant!Latin!and!algebra,! not!metalworking!and!sewing,”!and!so!workingPclass!families!were!understandably! hostile!toward!any!detour!through!industrial!schools!back!into!the!factories.586! Comprehensive!high!schools!mediated!these!competing!interests!by! marrying!vocational!training,!college!preparatory,!and!even!remedial!courses!of! study!into!a!single!institution.!!Curricular!tracking,!both!formal!and!informal,! channeled!children!into!appropriate!courses!of!study.!!On!some!level,!tracking! mechanisms!were!thinly!veiled!surrogates!for!the!“social!sorting”!demanded!by! efficiency!advocates,!but!at!the!same!time,!all!children,!at!least!in!principle,!shared!a! common!setting!for!their!educations!in!these!new!institutions.!!Comprehensive!high! schools!preserved,!at!least!to!some!degree,!the!ideal!of!a!common!curriculum!and! the!possibility!that!mobility!between!tracks!was!possible.587!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 585 Dewey, Democracy and Education, 310 and 307. 586 Nasaw, Schooled to Order, 118, 148. 587 Kliebard, American Curriculum, 129.  Perkins!envisioned!comprehensive!public!high!schools!operating!as!broad! neighborhood!centers,!rallying!adults!as!well!as!children!to!its!communal!and! recreation!spaces.!!“Democratic!in!support!and!management,”!Perkins!wrote,!“the! high!school!has!come!to!be!the!model!community!center,!and!as!the!functions!of! boards!of!education!are!gradually!increased!to!take!over!those!duties!now! performed!by!park!boards!and!voluntary!community!center!organizations,!the!use! of!them!appears!to!be!general.”588!!But!these!ideals!did!not!necessarily!carry!through! in!people’s!lives!and!their!emotions.!!In!1919!Fiske!Kimball!pinpointed!the! psychological!drawbacks!of!typical!“socialized!schools,”!recognizing!that!the! combination!of!gyms!and!assembly!spaces!in!one!volume!gave!adults!an!undesirable! feeling!of!“going!back!to!school”!that!discouraged!them!from!using!school!facilities.!! “Until!the!school!building!is!modified!much!more!radically!than!has!yet!been!the! case,”!he!wrote,!“it!will!be!difficult!for!the!school!to!become!the!ideal!community! center!for!adults.”589 ! ! Perkins!came!closest!to!realizing!the!democratic!aspirations!of!the! comprehensive!high!school!in!his!designs!for!New!Trier!Township!High!School!in! Kenilworth,!Illinois!and!Evanston,!Illinois,!High!School.!!In!both!instances,!Perkins! extruded!the!“connected!group”!plan!until!the!various!annexes!functioned!nearly!as! independent!buildings!(Figures!6.53P6.56!and!6.57P6.59).!!He!had!facilitated!public! access!to!gyms,!auditoriums,!and!sports!facilities!in!his!designs!for!Manitowoc,! Mishawaka,!and!other!comprehensive!high!schools!by!separating!these!programs! into!distinct!annexes!with!independent!entrances,!but!these!were!still!closely! related!to!the!academic!core!of!the!school.!!Further!atomizing!the!departments!at! Kenilworth!and!Evanston,!effectively!distilling!them!into!quasiPautonomous! institutions,!allowed!Perkins!to!visually!and!psychological!distinguish!recreation! facilities,!auditoriums,!banquet!halls,!and!other!potentially!communal!programs! from!the!school!proper.!!Grouping!these!public!services!in!and!around!expansive,! parkPlike!settings!reinforced!the!“town!center”!feeling!of!the!ensembles.!!Lengthy! corridors!and!outdoor!covered!passages!connected!most,!though!not!all,!of!these! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 588 Perkins and Howell, “Functions and Plan-Types of Community Buildings,” 302. 589 Kimball, “Civic Enterprises,” 31. spaces!to!their!main!academic!wings.!!Still,!the!overall!impression!was!that!the! school!campus!was,!in!effect,!a!complex!of!related!but!distinct!public!buildings! organized!around!a!village!green.!!This!maneuver,!Perkins!hoped,!would!broaden! their!appeal.!!!!!! Perkins!seems!to!have!considered!Evanston!High!School!as!his!“ultimate! community!center”!because!he!devoted!an!entire!chapter!to!it!in!his!last!publication! and!only!book!called!Educational+Buildings,!which!he!published!in!1924.!!The!School! Board!had!originally!wanted!to!build!two!separate!high!schools!in!the!district,!but! ultimately,!they!decided!to!purchase!a!site!of!unprecedented!size!and!construct!one! comprehensive!high!school.!!The!fiftyPfive!acre!campus!would!have!an!ultimate! capacity!of!four!thousand!students,!its!expansive!physical!and!social!sphere!of! influence!affording!Perkins!countless!possibilities!for!expanding!its!programs!in! every!direction!and!engaging!the!entire!community.590!!Perkins!incorporated!all!the! recreation!facilities!offered!at!municipal!playgrounds,!and!even!more,!into!the! Evanston!campus.!!A!baseball!diamond!and!football!field,!both!with!bleacher!seating,! a!running!track,!tennis!courts,!practice!fields,!and!outdoor!playgrounds!surround! the!school,!which!Perkins!envisioned!landscaped!with!copious!rows!of!trees!and!a! formal!garden!near!the!main!entrance.!!Ample!open!ground!remained!behind!the! school,!which!Perkins!proposed!transforming!into!a!large!garden!for!agricultural! experimentation!(Figure!6.58).!!! Using!his!standardized!yet!flexible!“connected!group”!system!allowed! Perkins!to!present!the!school!board!with!a!phased!construction!plan,!spreading! costs!out!over!time,!and!also!to!accommodate!both!planned!and!unforeseen! expansions.!!He!built!the!main!gymnasium,!manual!training!shops,!a!temporary! mess!hall,!and!most!of!the!academic!core!first!(Figures!6.58P6.59).!!Perkins!clearly! designed!the!academic!wing!with!an!eye!toward!progressive!curriculums!and!the! physical!health!and!safety!of!the!pupils.!!It!contained!laboratories!for!chemistry,! physics,!and!domestic!science,!free!hand!drawing!studios,!stenography!and! typewriting!rooms,!as!well!as!numerous!regular!classrooms,!all!illuminated!from!a! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 590 Perkins, Fellows, and Hamilton, Educational Buildings, 121. unilateral!direction.!!Two!main!entrances!open!onto!spacious!“social!halls”!inside,! encouraging!informal!meetings,!conversations,!and!even!events.!!Between!them!is! an!administrative!suite,!crowned!by!an!elaborate!twoPstory!library!containing! 15,000!volumes,!a!grand!reading!room,!and!offices!for!the!librarian!and!assistants! (Figure!6.61).!!An!isolated!boiler!plant!800!feet!away!from!the!school!heats!all!its! buildings!from!a!safe!distance,!minimizing!fire!hazards.591 !!! Planned!future!expansions!in!the!second!stage!of!construction!appended!a! massive!auditorium!and!lunchroom!annex!to!the!south!of!the!academic!core.!!On!the! north!side,!Perkins!added!two!swimming!pools!and!a!girl’s!gymnasium!to!the!main! gym!facility!that!was!built!during!the!first!phase!of!construction,!creating!an! impressive!physical!fitness!facility.!!The!original!gym,!in!fact,!was!already!quite! lavish.!!Perkins!accommodated!sizable!crowds!of!spectators!by!building!fixed! bleachers!into!the!structure,!which!were!capable!of!seating!so!many!people!that!the! gym!required!entrances!and!stair!capacities!similar!to!that!of!an!auditorium.592!Both! the!auditorium!and!the!recreation!annexes!occupy!almost!entirely!independent! buildings!that!are!linked!to!the!academic!core!by!only!a!single!corridor,!helping!to! convey!a!sense!of!autonomy!that!might!encourage!adults!in!the!community!to!view! the!school!as!a!neighborhood!center,!open!for!their!use!as!well!as!their!children’s.!! Perkins!left!open!possibilities!for!still!further!expansion!at!a!later!date!when!he! envisioned!another!“future!addition,”!its!program!still!to!be!determined,!located!on! the!western!portion!of!the!site.!!! Especial!consideration!was!given!to!the!architectural!and!ornamental! features!of!Evanston!High!School.!!Like!most!of!his!other!comprehensive!high! schools,!Perkins!used!everyday,!affordable!materials!of!brick!and!terracotta!to! construct!the!building.!!The!underlying!structure!is!similarly!modular!and! institutional!in!character,!a!regular!grid!organized!by!the!windows!perforating!the! walls.!!Onto!this!neutral!screen,!Perkins!projected!what!he!termed!a!“modern! adaptation!of!Gothic!style”!to!amplify!the!symbolic!impressions!projected!by!the! school,!a!style!at!once!familiar!and!readily!identifiable!by!different!people!as! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 591 Perkins, Fellows, and Hamilton, Educational Buildings, 119. 592 Ibid., 125. representing!civic!importance.593!!The!terracotta!ornament!is!particularly!lavish!in! places.!!Complex!decorative!programs!embellish!the!two!main!entrances,! additionally!demarcated!by!towers,!as!well!as!the!entrances!to!the!gymnasium!and! auditorium,!spotlighting!public!access!points!and!also!celebrating!the!value!of!these! community!spaces!(Figures!6.57!and!6.60P6.61).!!! The!ambitious!scope!of!architectural!projects!as!large!as!comprehensive!high! schools!required!Perkins!to!collaborate!with!countless!other!people,!of!course.!!The! final!buildings!represented!any!number!of!mediations!between!school!boards,! students,!parents,!contractors,!and!public!officials.!!Perkins!was!sure!to!respect!the! skilled!craftsmanship!of!local!artisans!responsible!for!Evanston’s!elegant!brickwork! and!terracotta!modeling!by!crediting!the!head!sculptor!and!director,!Emil!Zettler,!in! his!text!Educational+Buildings.594!!The!entire!preface!of!the!book,!in!fact,!is!dedicated! to!the!educators,!public!officials,!and!contractors!with!whom!Perkins!collaborated!to! design!public!schools,!as!if!to!literally!demonstrate!his!faith!in!social!cooperation! and!mutual!responsibility.!!After!twenty!years!of!enjoying!“exceptional! opportunities!for!service,”!Perkins!and!his!partners,!William!Fellows!and!John! Hamilton,!felt!it!was!appropriate!to!“render!an!account!of!their!labors!to!the!public,! whose!funds!they!have!expended,!and!to!the!educators!whose!activities!they!have! been!called!upon!to!interpret!and!house!in!brick!and!stone.”595!An!exhaustive!list! acknowledging!and!thanking!various!school!principals,!superintendents,!and!board! members!follows.!!The!authors!concluded!by!expressly!thanking!the!construction! workers,!laborers,!bricklayers,!and!modelers!who!“as!contractors!undertook!the! construction!of!these!buildings!and!faithfully!carried!on!the!work”!and!by!extending! special!recognition!to!the!“earnest!cooperation!of!the!many!craftsmen!who!caught! the!spirit!of!the!designers!and!contributed!their!thought!and!skill!to!the!final! result.”596!!! From!such!statements!we!can!see!that!Perkins,!even!when!working!as!a! “trained!expert”!amid!impersonal!bureaucracies,!believed!in!and!practiced!his!own! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 593 Ibid., 122. 594 Ibid., 125. 595 Ibid., 3. 596 Ibid., 6. democratic!social!politics,!respecting!the!contributions,!opinions,!and!roles!of! different!members!of!his!community.!!In!many!ways,!these!ambitions!are!brought! together!and!represented!in!his!public!school!designs.!!As!neighborhood!centers,! they!provided!Perkins!with!opportunities!to!engage!and!work!through,!in!various! ways,!nearly!all!of!his!flexible!principles,!most!obviously!education,!but!also!his! interests!in!public!health,!the!social!sciences,!landscapes!and!the!environment,!civic! legibility,!collaboration!and!pragmatic!experimentation,!and!above!all!the!practice!of! social!democracy.!!! The!comprehensive!high!school,!in!fact,!emerged!as!the!quintessential! American!educational!institution.597!!They!still!function!as!democratic!neighborhood! centers!in!many!communities!today,!organizing!and!pulling!together!parents,! children,!educators,!public!officials,!and!countless!other!groups.!!Of!course,!schools! rarely!functioned!perfectly,!then!or!now,!as!democratic!social!condensers!that! recognized!“no!differences,!either!racial,!political,!religious,!or!social,”!as!Perkins! imagined!them!in!1910.!!Like!any!social!institution,!schools!are!territories!marked! by!ongoing!cultural!struggle!and!compromise!as!architects,!administrators,! politicians,!as!well!as!ordinary!people!adapt!and!evolve.!!But!these!conflicts!and! mediations!suggest!an!optimistic!outcome.!!The!advent!of!progressive!neighborhood! centers!–!settlement!houses!and!playgrounds,!but!especially!comprehensive!public! high!schools!–!reveal!that!Americans!were!not!willing!to!concede,!at!least!not! entirely,!the!democratic!ideal!when!faced!with!unprecedented!cultural!upheaval.!!So! while!none!of!Perkins’s!social!centers!succeeded!in!entirely!erasing!class!divisions,! economic!disparities,!or!industrial!exploitation,!they!did!evolve!into!laudable!sites! for!the!slow,!contingent,!sometimes!frustrating!practice!of!democracy.! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 597 Kliebard, American Curriculum, 129.  Coda:!Modern!Democracy! If!one!World’s!Fair!opened!Perkins’s!career,!another!bracketed!its!conclusion.!! In!1930!the!planners!of!the!1933!Century!of!Progress!Exposition!asked!Perkins!to! consult!on!a!housing!exhibit!planned!for!the!Fair,!which!they!envisioned!occupying!a! townPlike!setting!containing!a!park,!a!playground,!and!a!school.598!!The!concept,!in! effect,!put!Perkins’s!neighborhood!center,!urbanPplanning!paradigm!on!display,! reproducing!the!multifarious!social!and!architectural!concerns!that!had!motivated! him!for!three!decades.!!Its!appropriation!into!a!cultural!event!of!this!magnitude! signified!the!farPranging!success!that!Perkins!and!other!progressives!had!achieved! in!conceptualizing!new!forms!of!social!institutions!capable!of!dealing!with!modern! life.!!! Perkins!was,!it!could!be!argued,!the!quintessential!progressive.!!The!myriad! reforms!embodied!in!these!now!familiar!and!indispensable!institutions!–!parks,! playgrounds,!and!schools!–!demonstrate!how!he!pursued!multiple,!overlapping,!and! sometimes!competing!reforms!in!an!attempt!to!engage!with!diverse!types!of! communities!and!interest!groups.!!His!concern!for!public!health,!safety,!and! awareness!of!the!body!arced!across!countless!progressive!fronts.!!Playgrounds!with! pools!and!athletic!fields,!sanitariums!with!public!health!programs!and!milk! dispensaries,!and!fireproof!schools!that!incorporated!advanced!lighting!techniques! were!all!physical!manifestations!of!broader!changes!that!included!the!establishment! of!regulatory!commissions!to!ensure!safe!work!environments,!clean!municipal! drinking!water,!and!new!hygienic!standards!for!food!and!drugs.!!! He!expressed!his!faith!in!education!by!designing!public!schools!for!all!kinds! of!districts,!urban!and!suburban,!wealthy!and!needy,!but!these!too!indexed!large! cultural!shifts:!an!expansion!of!the!state!apparatus!through!compulsory!attendance! laws;!emerging!pedagogical!theories!that!sought!to!connect!learning!to!life;!and!the! realization!that!education!must!be!made!universal.!!This!last!attitude!in!particular! had!far!reaching!consequences!for!workingPclass!and!immigrant!children.!!By! insisting!that!all!children!had!the!right!to!the!same!education,!Perkins!and!other! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 598 Davis, Social Consciousness, 15. The planned neighborhood center never materialized due to budget cuts, but the Houses of Tomorrow exhibit was erected. progressives!were!trying!to!give!minorities!and!other!marginalized!groups!political! and!economic!agency,!provide!them!with!the!tools!and!knowledge!to!advance!in! society.!!They!prefigured!today’s!multiculturalism.!!! Perkins’s!environmentalism!and!sympathy!with!nature!came!across!in!large! projects,!such!as!conserving!Chicago’s!forest!preserves,!and!small!ones,!such!as!his! sitePsensitive!park!architecture.!!But!of!course!these!also!broadly!relate!to!national! conservation!movements,!the!creation!of!national!parks,!and!the!advent!of!regional! planning.!!Tellingly,!he!was!a!founder!of!the!Chicago!Regional!Planning!Association! and!honorary!life!president.599!!It!is!almost!impossible!to!enumerate!the!many!ways! in!which!Dwight!Perkins!engaged!progressive!social!politics,!both!directly!and! tangentially.!!! Reflecting!on!this!network!of!achievements!makes!it!clear!that!progressive! reformers!established!the!political!and!social!apparatuses!of!modern!democracy,! institutional!and!legal!frameworks!that!we!still!use!today.!!But!as!Daniel!Rodgers! points!out,!progressive!social!politics!did!not!prefigure!the!welfare!state!regimes! that!emerged!in!the!secondPhalf!of!the!century,!as!many!historians!have!suggested.!!! Contemporary!usage!of!the!term!“welfare!state”!means!a!social!insurance!state,! security!against!old!age!and!sickness!for!its!citizens,!and!also!a!poor!relief!state,! welfare!for!those!who!have!fallen!through!the!cracks.!!Social!insurance!constituted! only!a!small!fraction!of!the!widePranging,!open!choices!of!progressive!social!politics.!! In!the!United!States,!progressivism!touched!upon!everything!from!municipal! ownership,!city!planning,!labor!politics,!to!tenement!reform,!universal!education,! and!city!administration.!!Moreover,!the!vast!expansion!of!state!power!demanded!by! the!welfare!state!was!not!the!end!goal!of!reformers.!!Though!progressives!worked! within!existing!state!apparatuses,!they!often!imagined!government!assisting! voluntary!social!institutions,!such!as!labor!unions.!!And!when!they!did!involve! themselves!with!direct!government!action,!progressives!viewed!local!governments! as!the!principal!agents!of!reform!as!much!as!the!nationPstate.600! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 599 “Dwight H. Perkins – Father of Today’s ‘New’ School Ideas,” reprinted from Architectural Forum (October 1952) by Perkins & Will, Architects, n.d. Copy in Chicago Historical Society. 600 Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings, 28-29.  When!Perkins!conceived!of!his!neighborhood!centers,!he!envisioned!them!as! updated!“town!halls,”!rehabilitated!cultural!institutions!capable!of!addressing! modern!problems,!of!facilitating!local,!democratic!exchange!for!a!diverse,!industrial! society.!!These!reworked!the!outward!forms!of!preindustrial!democratic! institutions,!renovating!rather!than!entirely!remaking!them.!!In!this!context,!the! term!“modern!democracy”!might!be!a!more!useful!description!than!social! democracy,!with!all!its!connotations!on!the!left!and!right!hand!of!the!political! spectrum.!!The!international!socialist!movement!at!the!turn!of!the!century!was! ambivalent!about!how!to!advance!their!agendas.!!More!often!than!not,!most! embraced!a!“reform!socialism”!that!was!willing!to!enter!local!and!parliamentary! politics!to!advance!socioPpolitical!reforms,!a!position!difficult!to!distinguish!from!the! “radical!democracy”!promoted!by!Perkins,!Charles!Zueblin,!Jane!Addams,!and!John! Dewey.!!Revolutionary!socialism,!for!all!its!importance,!was!largely!irrelevant!for! American!and!European!progressives!alike.!!There!were!tendencies!but!not!yet!any! agreement!on!how!to!mount!an!effective!counterforce!to!the!“social!question”! during!their!time.601!! Yet!the!concept!of!revolutionary!socialism!has!attached!itself!to!modern! architecture,!which!might!explain!the!difficulty!in!making!sense!of!an!architect!like! Perkins.!!He!was!modern!because!he!grappled!with!the!challenges!of!modern! society,!but!not!in!the!sense!that!he!represented!modernity.!!His!architecture! resulted!from!his!flexible!and!pragmatic!approach!to!these!challenges,!the! contingencies!of!which!resulted!in!plural!design!solutions!rather!than!“pure”!ones,! their!ambiguity!resisting!easy!categorization.!!Almost!all!architecture,!of!course,!is! the!result!of!mediation!and!compromise,!but!Perkins!perhaps!more!than!others! embraced!and!gave!form!to!these!negotiations.!!His!focus!was!on!processes!and! genesis!rather!than!identities!and!essences,!what!Rodgers!calls!an!“arc!of! transformation”!that!was!central!to!progressive!social!politics.602! His!flexible,!pragmatic,!and!collaborative!strategies!did!not!preclude! innovation.!!When!Perkins!conceptualized!the!metropolis!as!a!network!of! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 601 Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings, 17-19. 602 Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings, 31. overlapping!yet!discreet!neighborhoods,!each!organized!by!local!democratic!centers,! he!prefigured!by!decades!planners!of!the!lateP1920s!and!1930s,!such!as!Clarence! Perry,!Henry!Wright,!and!Clarence!Stein.!!Perry!advanced!the!concept!of! “neighborhood!organization”!when!he!proposed!to!delimit!districts!within!the!city! that!were!served!by!schools,!playgrounds,!and!markets!within!walking!distance!of! residents.!!Greenbelts!or!major!roadways!contained!these!neighborhoods!and! prevented!their!peripheral!spread,!but!the!boundaries!were!porous.!!Perry! envisioned!these!neighborhood!units!participating!in!the!larger!urban!program!of! the!city!even!as!they!circumscribed!a!more!manageable!population!that!could!share! a!common!life!as!equals.!!Communities!like!Radburn,!New!Jersey!and!the!English! New!Towns!would!give!form!to!these!ideas.603! Perkins!arguably!anticipated!this!“cellular”!model!of!growth,!as!Lewis! Mumford!called!it,!first!in!Chicago!with!his!Metropolitan+Park+System!and!then! throughout!the!Midwest!when!he!constructed!public!schools!that!fused!together! playgrounds,!auditoriums,!gymnasiums,!parks,!and!libraries!–!all!open!to!the!general! public!–!into!veritable!town!centers!that!united!suburban!communities.!!As!we!have! seen,!neighborhood!centers!took!many!forms,!but!their!common!purpose!was!to! restore!initiative,!purpose,!and!cooperative!action!for!their!localities,!transforming! society!in!ways!that!Perkins!hoped!would!spread!the!best!ideals!of!social! democracy.!!Many!Americans!today!are!both!heirs!to!and!products!of!this!vision,! even!as!current!global!and!national!events!seem!to!polarize!communities!along! increasingly!aberrant!lines.!!Stalemates!over!public!health!care,!social!security,!and! immigration!policies,!together!with!renewed!xenophobia,!have!once!again!become! challenges.!!The!possibilities!that!Perkins!saw!in!local,!democratic!exchange!to! transform!society!and!transcend!seemingly!impassable!differences!might!offer!some! useful!models!for!answering!our!own!“social!questions.”! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 603 Lewis Mumford, The City in History: Its Origins, Its Transformations, and Its Prospects (New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1967), 500-502.  Bibliography! ! 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Deegan,!Mary!Jo.!Jane+Addams+and+the+Men+of+Chicago+School,+1892J1918.!New! Brunswick,!New!Jersey:!Transaction!Books,!1988.! ! Dewey,!John.!“The!School!and!Society,”!Combined!Edition.!Chicago:!John!Dewey,! 1900;!rev.!ed.!1915,!1943;!reprinted!as!combined!edition!with!“The!Child!and! the!Curriculum”!with!introduction!by!Leonard!Carmichael.!Chicago:! University!of!Chicago!Press,!1956.! ! Dewey,!John.!Democracy+and+Education.!1916.!Reprinted!New!York:!The!MacMillan! Company,!1961.! ! Drinka,!George!Frederick,!M.D.!The+Birth+of+Neurosis:+Myth,+Malady,+and+the+ Victorians.!New!York:!Simon!and!Schuster,!1984.! ! “Dwight!Perkins!–!Father!of!Today’s!‘New’!School!Ideas.”!Architectural+Forum! (October!1952).!Reprinted!by!Perkins!&!Will,!Architects.!N.d.!Copy!in!Dwight! H.!Perkins:!Architectural!and!Personal!Papers.!Chicago!Historical!Society.! ! Fishman,!Robert.!Urban+Utopias+in+the+Twentieth+Century:+Ebenezer+Howard,+Frank+ Lloyd+Wright,+and+Le+Corbusier.!Cambridge,!Massachusetts:!MIT!Press,!1994.! ! Foster,!Frank.!“An!Article!on!Small!Parks!read!before!the!Chicago!Society!for!School! Extension.”!N.d.![1905?].!Copy!at!Chicago!Historical!Society.! ! Gebhard,!David.!!“William!Gray!Purcell!and!George!Grant!Elmslie!and!the!Early! Progressive!Movement!in!American!Architecture,!1900P1920.”!PhD!diss.,! University!of!Minnesota,!1957;!published!posthumously!by!Patricia!Gebhard! as!Purcell+&+Elmslie:+Prairie+Progressive+Architects.!!Salt!Lake!City:!Gibbs! Smith,!Publisher,!2006.! ! Green,!Harvey.!Fit+for+America:+Fitness,+Sport,+and+American+Society.!New!York:! Pantheon,!1986.! ! Grese,!Robert!E.!!Jens+Jensen:+Maker+of+Natural+Parks+and+Gardens.!Baltimore!and! London:!Johns!Hopkins!University!Press,!1992.! ! Gulick,!Luther!Halsey,!M.D.!A+Philosophy+of+Play.!New!York:!Charles!Scribner’s!Sons,! 1920.! ! 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Sons,!1905.!Reprinted!with!introduction!by!Otis.!A.!Pease.!Seattle:!University! of!Washington!Press,!1967.!! ! Hoy,!Suellen.!Chasing+Dirt:+The+American+Pursuit+of+Cleanliness.!Oxford!and!New! York:!Oxford!University!Press,!1995.! !! Residents!of!Hull!House,!eds.!HullJHouse+Maps+and+Papers:+A+Presentation+of+ Nationalities+and+Wages+in+a+Congested+District+of+Chicago+together+with+ Comments+and+Essays+on+Problems+Growing+out+of+the+Social+Conditions.! Boston:!Thomas!Y.!Crowell!&!Company,!1895.! ! An+Illustrated+Guide+of+Lincoln+Park+Chicago.!Chicago:!GunthorpPWarren!Printing! Company,!1911.! ! Jensen,!Jens.!A+Greater+West+Park+System.!Chicago:!West!Chicago!Park! Commissioners,!1920.! ! Jensen,!Jens.!“Parks!and!Politics.”!American+Park+and+Outdoor+Association,!n.d.!Copy! in!Dwight!Perkins,!Architectural!and!Personal!Papers.!Chicago!Historical! Society.! ! Kimball,!Fiske.!“The!Social!Center,!Part!I:!Commercial!and!Cooperative!Enterprises,”! “The!Social!Center,!Part!II:!Philanthropic!Enterprises,”!“The!Social!Center,! Part!III:!Civic!Enterprises.”!The+Architectural+Record!45!(May!1919);!417P440;! 45!(June!1919):!526P543;!46!(July!1919):!29P46.! ! Kliebard,!Herbert!M.!The+Struggle+for+the+American+Curriculum,+1893J1958.!Boston:! Routledge!&!Keegan!Paul,!1986.! ! Kloppenberg,!James.!Uncertain+Victory:+Social+Democracy+and+Progressivism+in+ European+and+American+Thought,+1870J1920.!New!York!and!Oxford:!Oxford! University!Press,!1986.! ! Lay,!Charles!Downing.!“Playground!Design.”!Landscape+Architecture!2!(1911P1912):! 63P75.! ! Lee,!Joseph.!Play+in+Education.!New!York:!The!MacMillan!Company,!1923.! ! Lewis,!William.!Democracy’s+High+School.!New!York:!Houghton!Mifflin!Company,! 1914.! ! Mangan,!J.A.!and!Roberta!J.!Park,!Eds.!From+“Fair+Sex”+to+Feminism:+Sport+and+the+ Socialization+of+Women+in+the+Industrial+and+PostJIndustrial+Eras.!London:! Frank!Cass,!1987.! ! Manieri!Elia,!Mario.!Louis+Henry+Sullivan.!New!York:!Princeton!Architectural!Press,! 1996.! ! Mattson,!Kevin.!Creating+a+Democratic+Public:+The+Struggle+for+Urban+Participatory+ Democracy+During+the+Progressive+Era.!University!Park,!Pennsylvania:!The! Pennsylvania!State!University!Press,!1998.! ! McArthur,!Benjamin.!“The!Chicago!Playground!Movement:!A!Neglected!Feature!of! Social!Justice.”!Social+Service+Review,!September!1975,!376P393.!! ! Moore,!E.C.!“The!Social!Value!of!the!Saloon.”!The+American+Journal+of+Sociology!3,!no.! 1!(July!1897):!1P12.! ! Morrison,!Hugh.!Louis+Sullivan:+Prophet+of+Modern+Architecture.1935.!Reprinted!New! York:!Norton,!1963.! ! Mundie,!William.!“The!Architect!and!Chicago!Schools.”!The+Western+Architect!4! (1905):!4P9.! ! Mumford,!Lewis.!!The+City+in+History:+Its+Origins,+Its+Transformations,+and+Its+ Prospects.!New!York:!Harcourt!Brace!&!Company,!1961.! ! National!Education!Association.!Report+of+Committee+on+School+House+Planning.! Washington!DC,!1925.! ! National!Register!of!Historic!Places!Nomination!for!Lincoln!Park.!Compiled!by!Julia! Sniderman,!Bart!Ryckbosch,!and!Laura!Taylor.!Chicago:!Chicago!Park!District,! 1994.! ! Nasaw,!David.!Schooled+to+Order:+A+Social+History+of+Public+Schooling+in+the+United+ States.!Oxford:!Oxford!University!Press,!1979.! ! Nelson,!Donna.!“School!Architecture!in!Chicago!during!the!Progressive!Era:!The! Career!of!Dwight!H.!Perkins.”!PhD!diss.!Chicago:!Loyola!University,!1988.! ! “A!Novel!Use!for!the!Skyscraper.”!The+Architectural+Record!25!(March!1909):!214.! ! Obituary.!The!Evanston!Review,!November!6,!1941.!! ! Official+Proceedings+of+the+Lincoln+Park+Commissioners.!Vol.!7.!August,!13!1907P December!20,!1910.!Special!Collections,!Chicago!Park!District.! ! Official+Proceedings+of+the+Lincoln+Park+Commissioners.!Vol.!8.!January!4,!1911P December!23,!1912.!Special!Collections.!Chicago!Park!District.! ! Peaslee,!Horace!W.!“Park!Architecture,!III:!Lodges,”!“Park!Architecture,!Part!IV:! Refectories,”!“Park!Architecture,!Part!VI:!Boathouses.”!The+Park+International,! November!1920:!225P233;!January!1921:!23P46;!May!1921:!231P237.!! ! Peisch,!Mark!L.!!The+Chicago+School+of+Architecture:+Early+Followers+of+Sullivan+and+ Wright.!!New!York:!Random!House,!1964.! ! “A!Perfect!Recital!Hall.”!N.p.![1900?]!Copy!in!Dwight!Perkins:!Architectural!and! Personal!Papers.!Chicago!Historical!Society.!! ! “Mr.!Perkins!and!the!Chicago!Board!of!Education.”!The+Brickbuilder!(May!1910):! 128.! ! Perkins,!Dwight!H.!Architectural!and!Personal!Papers.!Chicago!Historical!Society.! ! Perkins,!Dwight!H.!“Is!Architecture!a!Living!Art?”!Inland+Architect+and+News+Record! 29,!no.!4!(May!1897):!35P36.! ! Perkins,!Dwight.!“The!Purpose!of!School!Buildings.”!Typescript,![June!24,!1910?].! Dwight!H.!Perkins:!Architectural!and!Personal!Papers.!Box!2,!Folder!2.! Chicago!Historical!Society.!! ! Perkins,!Dwight.!1904+Report+of+the+Special+Park+Commission+to+the+City+Council+of+ Chicago+on+the+Subject+of+a+Metropolitan+Park+System.!Chicago!Historical! Society.! ! Perkins,!Dwight!H.!!“School!Buildings.”!Dwight!H.!Perkins,!Architectural!and! Personal!Papers.!Chicago!Historical!Society.! ! Perkins,!Dwight!H.!“School!Buildings.”!Typescript,!n.d.!Dwight!H.!Perkins,! Architectural!and!Personal!Papers.!Chicago!Historical!Society.!! ! Perkins,!Dwight!H.!“School!Building!as!a!Social!Center.”!The+Brickbuilder!24! (December!1915):!293P294.! ! Perkins,!Dwight!H.!“Settlement!House!Type.”!Annual+of+the+Chicago+Architectural+ Club,+being+the+Book+of+the+Thirteenth+Annual+Exhibition,+1900.!Chicago:!Art! Institute,!1900:!63.! ! Perkins,!Dwight!H.!“Three!New!Schoolhouses,!Chicago.”!The+Brickbuilder!18! (November!1909):!225P229.! ! Perkins,!Dwight!H.,!and!Howell!Taylor.!“The!Functions!and!PlanPTypes!of! Community!Buildings.”!Architectural+Record!56,!no.!4!(October!1924):!289P 302.! ! Perkins,!Dwight!H.,!William!K.!Fellows,!and!John!L.!Hamilton.!Educational+Buildings.! Chicago,!The!Blakely!Printing!Company,!1925.! ! Perkins,!Eleanor!Ellis.!Perkins+of+Chicago.!Evanston,!IL:!SelfPpublished,!1966.! ! Perkins,!Lucy!Fitch.!Design!for!Park!Improvement!sponsored!by!the!Art!and! Literature!Department!of!the!Chicago!Woman’s!Club.!Annual+of+the+Chicago+ Architectural+Club,+being+the+Book+of+the+Thirteenth+Annual+Exhibition,+1900.! Chicago:!Art!Institute,!1900:!32P33.! ! Perkins,!Lucy!Fitch.!“The!City!Beautiful:!A!Study!of!the!Artistic!Possibilities!of! Chicago.”!The+Inland+Architect+and+News+Record!43!(September!1899):!10P14.! ! Pond,!Allen!B.!“The!Settlement!House.”!Pts!1P3.!The+Brickbuilder!11!(July!1902):!140P 144;!(August!1902):!160P163;!(September!1902):!178P185.! ! “Refurbishing!Hitchcock.”!On+the+Midway.!University!of!Chicago!Magazine,!n.d.!Copy! in!Dwight!Perkins,!Architectural!and!Personal!Papers.!Chicago!Historical! Society.! ! 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Perkins,!Architectural!and!Personal!Papers.!Chicago!Historical!Society.! ! Tomes,!Nancy.!The+Gospel+of+Germs:+Men,+Women,+and+the+Microbe+in+American+Life.! Cambridge,!Massachusetts:!Harvard!University!Press,!1998.! ! Weiner,!Deborah!E.B.!!Architecture+and+Social+Reform+in+lateJVictorian+London.! Manchester!and!New!York:!Manchester!University!Press,!1994.! ! Weiner,!Deborah!E.B.!“The!Architecture!of!Victorian!Philanthropy:!The!Settlement! House!as!Manorial!Residence.”!Art+History!13,!no.!2!(June!1990):!212P227.! ! Weinstein,!James.!The+Corporate+Ideal+in+the+Liberal+State,+1900J1918.!Boston:! Beacon!Press,!1968.! ! Westbrook,!Robert!B.!!John+Dewey+and+American+Democracy.!Ithaca!and!London:! Cornell!University!Press,!1991.! ! Wiebe,!Robert.!The+Search+for+Order,+1877J1920.!New!York:!Hill!and!Wang,!1967.! ! Wight,!Peter!B.!“Public!School!Architecture!at!Chicago.”!The+Architectural+Record!27! 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