1
Paasonen, Susanna, User‐generated pornography: Amateurs and the ambiguity of
authenticity. In Feona Attwood, Clarissa Smith, R. Danielle Egan and Brian McNair (eds.),
Routledge Companion to Media, Sex and Sexuality. London: Routledge (forthcoming).
***
User‐generated pornography: amateurs and the ambiguity of authenticity
Susanna Paasonen
Focusing on pornographic content generated by amateurs begins, to a degree, to undo
‘pornography’ as a point of reference, object of common‐knowledge, and topic of public
debate, policy and regulation. Largely, albeit not completely, detached from the porn
industry as a system of production and distribution, the developments and histories of
amateur pornography remain ill documented. These cultural artefacts remain notably
absent from publicly available media archives, yet enough traces of images, films and
texts have remained to suggest that amateur production was both lively and multi‐
medial well before the rise of digital production and distribution and so‐called user
generated porn. While some scholars associate DIY content with the affordances and
specificities of network media (e.g. Jacobs 2007), such claims come with the risk of
ahistorical generalization
This chapter accounts for both the historical roots of amateur porn production across
different media and the complexities that the contemporary distribution of user‐
generated content involves. In order to chart some of the mundane histories and
experiences connected to amateur practice, I draw on memory work material on
pornography that my research group collected together with the Folklore Archives of
the Finnish Literature Society in 2012.1 These recollections are helpful in mapping out
2
both transformations and continuities in everyday encounters with pornography across
decades as they have played out in one specific North European country in the course of
drastic changes in media culture, technology and the public visibility and regulation of
sexual cultures alike.
The appeal of amateur content
The Latin root of the word, amare, “to love,” suggests that amateurs do what they do for
the love of the practice rather than for the objective of monetary or other gain. This
separates amateurs from professionals who also stand apart in their mastery of
professional technique and professional tools. Furthermore, “while the professional
conducts activities for work, an amateur labors away from work, in free time or leisure
time” (Zimmermann 1995, 1). This category of the amateur, in its contemporary uses, is
a creation of the late 19th century, connected to the separation of work from leisure and
hobbyism from professionalism. In the process, the amateur “shifted from the older,
aristocratic notion of the lover, to the newer middle‐class notion of the hobbyist”
(Armstrong 2000, 102). Aristocratic amateurs wrote poetry, created architectural plans,
composed music and excelled in watercolour painting, whereas the new articulation of
the amateur was more closely tied in with consumer markets catering to leisure
diversions for the middle‐class.
Amateur photography and film have been, since their 19th century beginnings, focused
on the private sphere of home, leisure, family and intimate others, and amateur porn is
no exception to the rule. Amateur camera markets broadened from photography to
16mm film in the 1920s, 8 mm the following decade, and Super 8 in the 1960s (Slater
1991; Zimmermann 1995; Citron 1999). Polaroid cameras, with their self‐developing
3
film, became a popular format for amateur porn in the 1960s, the same decade that
witnessed the launch of the very first portable video cameras (McNair 2002, 39). It was
nevertheless not until the 1980s expansion of the mass market for video cameras and
VCRs that “millions of people bought their first home video camera and budding film‐
makers decided to make their own pornography” (Esch and Mayer 2007, 101). These
home grown products were occasionally shared through swap‐and‐buy services, yet
broader distribution remained an obvious challenge. Later digital imaging technologies
– including inexpensive scanners and easy to use, often free, image manipulation and
video editing software – built on these developments while also expanding the
possibilities of sharing and recycling materials generated by non‐professionals.
Before the era of the World Wide Web, images of both amateur and professional origins
were shared in Usenet newsgroups and through IRC (Internet relay Chat), which
allowed for exchanges between people with similar sexual interests, tastes and
preferences (Slater 1998; Dery 2007). Such DIY activities developed in tandem with the
more mainstream distribution forms of online pornography which have, since 2006,
increasingly focused on easy‐to use and mostly free video sharing sites modelled after
YouTube (such as PornHub, YouPorn, Tube8 or RedTube). The era of smart phones and
ubiquitous connectivity in the 2000s has amplified these developments, and the last
decade in particular has witnessed a radical increase in the available volume and forms
of online pornography, and in the cultural visibility of amateur productions in particular.
Amateur porn distributed in the self‐organizing online networks of sexual subcultures
has been identified as gift economies driven by the pleasure to see and be seen (Jacobs
2004a; Dery 2007) where “deviance is the norm” (Halavais 2005, 21). The appeal of
non‐professionally produced pornography is regularly, even routinely, associated with
4
its unpolished aesthetics of directness, authenticity, domestic intimacy and rawness, as
well as with its assumedly ethical principles and conditions of production (e.g. Hardy
2009; van Doorn 2010; Hofer 2014; cf. Chalfen 2002). This was also the case with six
respondents to our memory work project who wrote about favouring amateur content
precisely because of it being more raw, relaxed and unpolished than commercially
produced imagery: “since you see real people in it, no unnaturally built‐up men, or
women drowning in silicone” (male, born 1986). User‐generated pornography has also
more generally been seen to broaden the range of body shapes and styles, sexual tastes
and practices available in the palette of online porn, beyond North American video porn
and their female performers “permatanned, waxed, bleached, artificially enhanced with
silicon” (Härmä and Stolpe 2010, 113; also Albury 2003, 204; Rooke and Moreno
Figueroa 2010, 227), even if the performers of the most viewed and the most highly
rated amateur videos do not deviate far from culturally hegemonic beauty norms. Some
respondents doubted the authenticity of the amateur content they have consumed while
others considered the ethical dilemmas potentially connected to its circulation.
I’ve watched almost exclusively amateur porn online. I like it a lot since I think
it’s real. It depicts ordinary people in sexual acts and they’re not as false as
regular porn films. I believe that for other people, this falseness offers
fantasies to be experienced but what I want for porn is a sense of real life. So
perhaps I’m a “voyeur”. But then again amateur porn also evokes conflicting
feelings. One can’t know if a video uploaded online has ended there
intentionally or through dishonest means. I’ve heard of cases where a video
intended to be private has been uploaded after a break‐up out of vengeance
and without the other party’s knowledge. I can’t know that as a viewer so
perhaps it’d be best for me not to think about it. (male, born 1988)
5
I haven’t produced porn material myself but I’m scared that my former
partner might add personal pictures of me on some web site. There’s nothing
pornographic, revealing material, in them though but someone may perceive
even mundane pictures as such. (female, born 1989)
Contra to the idea of amateur porn being more ethical in its production practices, the
respondents cited above commented on the controversies and concerns connected to
revenge porn (for which numerous sites have been dedicated, and which has sparked
legal action in several countries) and other forms of non‐consensual circulation of
personal media materials (also Parvez 2006, 627). For the male contributor, the
uncertainty of consensual distribution is a source of unease that eats away at the
titillation of the videos themselves, even if such hesitations do not necessarily drive him
to turn away from the materials in question. Some, primarily male, respondents
emphasized the pleasures of authenticity and creativity that amateur content offers. For
others, however, realness itself translated as boring, dull and unexciting:
Neither have I been any consumer of amateur porn – its appeal has been said
to lie in its realer connection with ‘real sex’ but I’ve really never been
interested in ‘real sex’ or realism in porn. Porn is about fantasy tales for the
adult that aren’t for me meant to be fully realistic. I’m bothered by the bad
lighting and such of amateur porn (I’m a very visual person) so I’ve chosen to
consume less of it. Of course the boundary is mercurial these days. (male, born
1975)
6
Niels van Doorn (2010) has explored the similarities between amateur and professional
pornography in the acts, poses and routines that they document and depict, in his study
of YouPorn amateur videos. As Doorn points out, amateur porn both approximates the
generic conventions of studio porn and provides alternatives to it as scenarios that are
assumedly more authentic and less acted out. One crucial factor in these distinctions
involves monetary compensation, given that amateur pornographers largely share their
content online for free, “for the love of it”, while professionals do it for the money (also
Jacobs 2004b). At the same time, most platforms on which amateur content is shared are
far from non‐profit in their principles of operation. User‐generated pornography
involves particular forms of gift economy where users post their pictures and videos for
free and hosting sites sell advertising space and premium membership fees while often
holding the rights to distribute the user‐generated content in any formats they see fit.
Users may therefore have precariously little control over the content that they generate
and that they willingly give for the site to host. The situation is not altogether different
from that of mainstream social media services, such as Facebook, which reserve the
right to use the content their users post for any purposes they consider appropriate. In
most instances, users are unlikely to read through the terms and conditions.
At the same time, not all amateur content is representative of such gift economies, and
the divisions separating the amateur from the professional, or the non‐commercial from
the commercial, are neither binary nor fixed (Paasonen 2010a). The boundary of
amateurs and professionals has in fact never been particularly clear in its contours in
the context of online pornography where some of the first entrepreneurs to gain fame
and fortune around the mid‐1990s were amateurs running their own websites
(Paasonen 2011, 93–97). User‐generated content travels across platforms both freely
and for money and, given its popularity, it is far from being a marginal feature in the
7
landscape of contemporary pornography. On sites such as Sell Your Sex Tape, amateurs
are compensated for the content they upload. In her analysis of the site in question,
Kristina Pia Hofner notes that the videos depict pornographic heterosexual domesticity
void of squabble, friction or compulsory routines. At the same time, their gendered
domestic scenarios, including household chores, are elaborately staged “to gloss over
the fact that producing a pornographic video is labour.” (Hofner 2014, 335, 343–344.)
The authenticity of amateur pornography can therefore also be conceptualised as a form
of emotional labour – the suppression and expression of feeling adding value to the
products generated and detaching them from the more scripted, glossy and acted sort of
pornography (see also Parvez 2006).
DIY across media
The standard narrative of amateur pornography usually travels from still photography
and 8mm home movies, through Polaroid and video (necessitating no photochemical
developing and outside involvement) to the qualitative and quantitative rupture caused
by digital media technologies and online distribution platforms. Through this rupture,
amateur pornographers have become understood as content generators whose
productions can be circulated on web sites openly or behind member‐only paywalls,
shared one‐on‐one or kept privately for nobody else to see.
It is nevertheless noteworthy that this narrative, while in many senses apt in summing
up the central transformations that have occurred in the possible forms of engaging with
media technology, heavily privileges image and video. This emphasis is aligned with how
public concerns over the public visibility and the perceived effects of pornography – or,
more broadly still, concerns over the so‐called sexualisation or pornification of culture
8
(Smith 2010) – focus on visual and audiovisual media culture as a site of contestation
and intervention. This gives rise to notable blind spots concerning the field of
pornography as one spanning the written word and visual culture. Pornographic
literature, drawing, painting and graphic prints preceded the era of photographic and
audiovisual pornography by centuries (e.g. Hunt 1996) and they remain notably lively
fields in the production of user‐generated content.
The popular appeal of the written word is easily exemplified by the cultural
phenomenon of the Fifty Shades of Grey trilogy (and E.L. James’ continuing publishing
efforts connected to the series), which grew from sexually explicit amateur Twilight fan
fiction to one of the largest financial literary successes of the new millennium (Deller
and Smith 2013; Illouz 2014). Less successful amateur literary efforts accumulate on
seemingly endless online platforms, of which Literotica (est. 1998) alone hosts well over
300, 000 submissions. While the themes and scenarios of amateur erotica are often
more explicit and controversial than those of video porn – incest and non‐consent, for
example, are among the most popular Literotica story categories – they tend to garner
little public attention outside their readership that not only reads but also grades the
stories and provides authors with feedback on their strengths and shortcomings (see
Paasonen 2010b).
The sociability of people engaged in the production and consumption of pornographic
content is hardly a phenomenon specific to the online platforms of the 2000s, many of
which incorporate social media features into their principles of operation. Online
platforms have nevertheless rendered such sociability and exchange increasingly
available and visible outside the closed circuits of specialist clubs and networks. The
current range of publishing forums for amateur pornography in their multiple forms
9
also shows how user‐generated content has, in general, come to be seen as a resource
and source of profit after the dot.com crash. And it speaks equally of the popular appeal
of low‐fi production and its claims to authenticity that has, in obvious ways, added to the
diversification of online porn.
The division between users and producers is highly blurred on online platforms, with
the volume and range of peer‐to‐peer exchanges, personal uploads, and practices of
tagging and sharing contributing to the erasure of dualisms separating the producers of
online content from its consumers, performers from audience members – or, to
appropriate the terminology of classic communication models, the “senders” from the
“receivers” (see Attwood 2002; Dijck 2009). Such opening up of categories which are
often seen as mutually opposing allows for a reconsideration of the degree to which the
consumers, or audiences, of porn, have also been its producers, as well as the degree to
which the practices of porn consumption and production have tended to entangle (also
Wood 2015).
DIY has been part and parcel of the cultures of pornography from the outset. It is
therefore not surprising that sixteen contributors to the memory work project wrote of
having made porn themselves, in productions that were amateur, professional and
somewhere in between – and in multiple roles as authors, performers, directors and
publishers alike.
I have both read and written erotic stories, or perhaps I should call it porn in
this context. First of all I read them but since I was interested in reading also
in other ways, at some point I noticed judging erotic stories also as literary
achievements. I often thought how clumsy description and bad language
10
there was. And that I could probably write better. My first stories were
published before I had accumulated any practical knowledge of sex. (male,
born 1973)
This respondent had contributed short stories to Finnish men’s magazines for a decade
for pay. While he described the pleasure of “how at best the story began to unfold at its
own speed, and how it felt to channel one’s growing arousal to writing”, he also stated
his current unwillingness to share such stories online for free: “I know I’m good at
erotica writing but why on earth would I write for free so that some site host makes
money off his advertisers, and I get nothing out of it but the joy of writing? There’s
enough professional pride in me that I didn’t want to go back in the amateur league, that
is, to produce porn for the use of others without monetary compensation”. The
difference between amateur and professional author was, in this instance, articulated as
one of skill and money, as well as insights into the profit mechanisms of online
platforms. In addition to their textual achievements, contributors described drawing
both singular images and comics.
I drew kinds of comics with colour pencils in notebooks. Then I started
drawing on Xerox paper and some thicker paper. For some drawings I used
photos as models. I mostly draw a series of one to three images. They featured
curvy women. I also drew on a computer but it was too hard since I couldn’t
use the mouse well enough. I only have left 199 A4 sheets of drawings from
1989–2002. The drawings are stapled into three books with a plastic sheet
and cardboard with a cover image drawing and black carton as the back.
(male, born 1970)
11
It is noteworthy that encounters with material perceived as pornographic described
before World War II were primarily ones involving drawings, raunchy jokes and song
lyrics: in other words, materials that would currently be understood as user‐generated.
At the end of the Winter War I was a 12‐year old school kid. Our school was
closed for a Military hospital during the winter. As we returned back to school
at the eve of spring, then at some point as I was sitting at the ring of the
outhouse and looking for some sort of a tissue, my attention focused on some
paper roll [… stuck between the inner wall]. I only managed digging it out
for my reach with some effort. As I managed spreading out the roll, I was
looking at an A4‐sized pencil drawing. I understood it to be of a man and a
woman in what I later understood to be the missionary act position. It was a
very beautiful drawing having some artistic eye. The image revealed well the
genitals of both. I showed it to my comrades and we laughed and snickered
about the image. (male, born 1928)
Men’s magazines only grew available in Finland after WWII, and audiovisual material
remained even scarcer for decades to come. Drawings came across in the memory work
material as a particularly common forms of generating – and, in instances such as the
one described above, encountering – pornographic material. This was also the material
that people, with some exceptions, do not describe sharing online with others. The
privacy attached to drawings in particular – which respondents often describe
destroying soon after completion and possible masturbation – speaks of the
ephemerality of such practices in terms of media historiography. Not only are these
images privately generated and stored but they are often immediately discarded and
hence unavailable other than as traces that people are willing to later recall. Similar
12
privacy, temporality and ephemerality seem to apply to self‐made pornography more
generally. Respondents also wrote of their unwillingness to share written porn with
people other than intimate partners, for whom these may also have been especially
composed:
I’ve written one porn story, it was especially for my partner as a gift. The story
is about 5 pages long and includes many things that we’ve done and what I’d
like us to do for real. I actually gave it to her and she was delighted that I’d
made a story for her that she featured in. (male, born 1986)
Both male and female respondents described taking photos of themselves in order to see
how they might appear to others, shooting videos with their partners and drawing erotic
pictures for sexual titillation: some of these products were immediately discarded while
others were kept for private use. Despite the obvious limitations of this memory work
material in terms of its cultural specificity and limited number of respondents, it allows
for selected glimpses at people’s mundane engagements with amateur pornography
across decades as both its producers and consumers.
Ephemerality and longevity
Unlike the ephemerality of amateur porn across the previous decades, materials once
uploaded online have considerable tenacity. Digital files are often associated with
immateriality (as opposed to the tangibility of print photographs, film reels, paper
magazines or video cassettes), but this is hardly accurate. Hosted on servers that eat up
considerable energy resources, produced and viewed on smart phones, tablets and
13
computers, user‐generated porn is copied and circulated in ways and directions
impossible for those who originally uploaded them to control.
The boundaries of pornography have grown ephemeral as people engage in intimate
web cam sessions or share images that are sexually suggestive or explicit on social
media sites, dating apps and sites specialized in porn. The issue is therefore not only one
of rethinking the notion of pornography – who makes it and how, who consumes it and
why – but one concerning the mediated forms, spaces and functions of sexual depiction
and expression more generally. Sexual imaging and writing is shared on online
platforms, even if the majority of people may choose to keep such practices private. The
expansion of sexual amateur content nevertheless means its availability for
consumption and analysis alike. Rather than framing this as a social concern over the
pornification of culture, the accumulation of user‐generated porn, in its more or less
kinky forms, with its broad range of performers and other creators, can be seen as
affording insights into how sexualities, and the norms attached to them, are lived,
enacted and re‐imagined.
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1 The memory work material involves 14 female and 31 male respondents born between
1924 and 1994 and it spans a total of 853 pages of text. For a more detailed discussion
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of the research methodology, analysis and findings, see Paasonen et al. 2015; Kyrölä and
Paasonen 2015.