Senegambian Megaliths, Peoples, and Landscape: An
Archaeological perspective
Megaliths and Landscape in the Petit Bao-Bolon drainage, Senegal
The project aims to understand the genesis and development of the megalithic traditions of the
Senegambia which spans 3000 years, from 1500 BC to AD 1500. The Senegambian megalithic
zone is located in Central Senegambia, both in Senegal and the Gambia ( Figure 1 and 2).
Figure 1: Senegal and the Gambia, at the westernmost tip of West Africa. Sine-Ngayene and
Wanar in Senegal, Kerbatch and Wassu in the Gambia are listed as UNESCO World Heritage
sites.
Figure 2: Simplified archaeological map of Senegal and the Gambia: The megaliths zone is in
orange.
Thousands of megalithic monuments distributed over an area measuring 150 kms north-south,
from the river Gambia in the south and the river Saloum in the north, and 300 kms west-east,
from the longitude of Kaolack in the west to the east of Tambacounda. These monuments are
found in cemeteries of different size and shapes, preferentially located along water courses
(figure 3)
Figure 3: General distribution of megalithic sites in the Senegambia (Source: Gallay et al:
1982): Sine-Ngayene and Wanar in Senegal, Kerbatch and Wassu in the Gambia are listed as
UNESCO World Heritage sites.
The intriguing megalithic monuments from the Senegambia were visited from the end of the
19 century. Excavations were carried out in the first half of the 20th century by a number of
th
avocational archaeologists. More rigorous field methodologies were implemented during the
second part of the 20th century by G. Thilmans, Cyr Descamps, Alain Gallay et.al, and more
recently by Luc Laporte and his team. Megalithic monuments and burial practices have been
shown to vary in time and space, in a time frame known to range from 200 BC to AD 1500. The
monuments are partitioned into monoliths circles, stone circles, stone tumuli, and earthen tumuli.
Their frequency and patterns of distribution vary from site to site. Burial pratices are at the core
of the research debate. Primary inhumations, simple and multiple, were assumed to have been
the standard practice all over the megalithic zone as indicated by the evidence from Tiekene-
Boussoura monoliths-circles in the central part of the megaliths zone where they were dated to
200 – 170 BC, Mbolop Tobe earthen tumulus, Sare-Dioulde stone tumulus, Sine-Ngayene
monoliths-circles. The concentration of up to 56 individuals skeletal remains in the burial
monuments from Sine-Ngayene and Sare-Dioulde was supposed to document unusual mass-
graves pointing to the practice of human sacrifices (Thilmans et al 1980, Gallay 2006, Gallay et
al 1982, Laporte et al 2007-09). These challenging data were all obtained from interesting sites.
The new research project launched in 2001 is regional in scope. It was designed to look at the
interface between megalithic cemeteries location strategies and landscape in a manageable and
well delineated study area: the Petit-Bao Bolon drainage in west-central Senegal.
The Sine Ngayene Archaeological Project
The new research project is regional in scope and aims at reconstructing the build-up of the
megalithic cultural landscape and the population dynamics that enhanced and supported it. A
bio-archaeological approach to cultural and mortuary remains is the main characteristic of the
Sine Ngayene Archaeological Project which operates from the Ngayene Field Station (fig. 4 and
5).
Figure 4: View of the Ngayene Field Station
Figure 5: After fieldwork, an ordinary day at the Ngayene Field Station
The spatial distribution of settlements, including the highly visible megalithic cemeteries, was
part of the long-term construction of cultural landscape, with its economic, material, and
symbolic implications. The study area, the Petit Bao-Bolong drainage was entirely surveyed,
with all the recorded sites photographed and mapped (figure 4). Three megalithic cemeteries -
Sine Ngayene, Ngayene II, and Santhiou Ngayene [Large, medium, and small]-, an habitation
site, a quarry, and a iron-smelting were sampled, totally or partially excavated. The excavation of
the small cemetery of Santhiou Ngayene is still on-going. Its completion will end the field data
gathering phase of the research project.
Figure 6: General distribution of megalithic cemeteries and habitation sites along the Petit-
Bao Bolon drainage in West Central Senegal.
The project examines the nature, pace of development, and changes of the megalithic builders
settlements, the build-up of the cultural landscape, mortuary practices, as well as demographic,
nutritional and genetic profiles of the represented population. How and when did this settlement
complex emerge? What were their mutual relationships? Did these different elements emerged
from differential use and mapping of the land by the same local community? Alternatively, were
they part of distinct steps in the use of the territory by different groups that happened to be
located accidentally close to each other? Or still, could they have been paired as: (a) Habitation
site – iron-smelting workshop; (b) Habitation site – Cemetery; or (c) Iron-smelting workshop –
Cemetery? These are some of the questions addressed in this on-going research.
The intensive survey of the Petit Bao Bolong drainage has shown the regional settlement
pattern to have consisted of small dispersed but close homesteads and hamlets. No evidence for
large village sites has been found. These small-scale peasant societies who build impressive
megalithic features to bury their deceased, can be expected to have devised a range of socio-
cultural mechanisms to cope with access to critical resources, in this case prime agricultural land,
the river for water and aquatic resources, and high grade iron ore for iron producers. Iron was
used for the manufacture of agricultural tools as well as hunters/warriors gear. Cemeteries with
monumental burial features were a key element of the Megaliths builders cultural landscape.
They may have signaled the control and “ownership” of a spot or a stretch of land. The
excavation of a larger sample of settlements , the detailed investigation of special purpose sites
like iron-smelting workshops and quarries, and a fine grained analysis of mortuary practices will
open a new vista on the complex working of Senegambian Megaliths builders’ communit(y)ies.
A bio-archaeological study of the collected human remains will provide access to past peoples
“lives”.
The research is still at its beginning but there are some interesting preliminary results. The
large 50 hectares megalithic cemetery of Sine-Ngayene, the best preserved site of the whole
megaliths zone, is made of 52 monoliths-circles and 115 earthen tumuli (figure 5). The latter are
for most completely eroded and leveled by centuries of agricultural work. Four new monuments
were excavated in addition to the three monoliths-circles previously excavated by Thilmans et al
(1980)
Figure 7: Satellite view of the fenced megalithic cemetery of Sine-Ngayene: the double-
monolith-circle is visible at the center of the site
Figure 8: View of the center and northwest of the site.
Laterite monoliths were obtained from quarries like this one, located at 1 km northeast of the
cemetery of Sine Ngayene (figure 7). The number of broken and abandoned monoliths point not
only to the technical knowledge and skill required but also the permanent risks of failures due to
the presence of un-seeing micro-cracks in the basement rock formation.
Figure 9: Partial view of the Sine-Ngayene quarry
The central double-monolith-circle was in use from AD 700 to 1400, and went through four
successive cycles starting with a large secondary burial with at least 25 individuals based on
skull counts (AD 700 – 800), followed in cycle II by the preferential burial of a few selected
limb bones (AD 800 – 900), then the burial of jaw bones signaled by an upside-down clay vessel
in cycle III (AD 900 -1100), and finally, the construction of the smaller circle and the use of the
monuments for offerings and rituals in cycle IV (AD 1100 – 1400) (figure 8).
Figure 10: Excavation in progress in monument #27, the central double monolith-circle from
Sine-Ngayene.
The use of this monument for rituals purposes is supported by the presence of the nearby
“ceremonial space” dated to the same period (figure 9)
Figure 11: Partial view of the “ceremonial space” under excavation in the south flank of
monument 27, the central double monolith-circle from Sine-Ngayene.
Figure 12: View of the southeastern axis from the central double-monolith-circle
Two earthen tumuli, both located in the central part of the cemetery were also excavated. One,
tumulus SN-03-1 contained the remains of a 25 – 30 years old male, dubbed “the mighty
warrior” buried with a “sword” probably in a leather scabbard across the chest, seven 30-45 cm
long iron spears – the wooden part was not preserved -, an alloyed copper fine torque, and iron-
handle of a stick (fig. 11). This remarkable burial is dated to the beginning of the 1st millennium
BC, ie. 850 – 990 BC.
Figure 13: View of the burial from Tumulus SN-03-01 dated to 850 – 990 BC.
The second tumulus in the southwest flank of the cemetery had very poorly preserved human
remains but an impressive array of jewelry in alloyed copper, essentially arms and ankle rings
(figure 12). This burial is dated to the early part of the second half of the 1st millennium AD, ie.
650 – 750 AD.
Figure 14: View of the burial from tumulus SN-03-02 at Sine-Ngayene, dated to AD 650 –
750.
The excavation of the 1.5 ha megalithic cemetery which contains some forty burial
monuments has revealed an impressive diversity in the mortuary practices of the megaliths
builders. At the present state of research, this site complex which includes an habitation site, and
iron-smelting site, and a quarry located at approximately 1 km in the northeast, was in use from
1200 -1350 BC to 1500 AD. Monoliths-circles and stone circles from this site were almost
exclusively used for secondary burial of a few to several tens of individuals (figure 15 and 16)
Figure 15: View of the stone-circles from Ngayene II at the beginning of the 2005 field-
season
Figure 16: Excavation in progress in stone-circle #8 from the cemetery of Ngayene II
The project has a strong bio-archaeological component, designed as a systematic study of a
population - in the statistical sense - in order to reveal its demographic profile - (Age, life-
expectancy, Sex, stature) - its state of health and nutritional profile - (morbidity, infectious
decease, nutritional stress, trauma) - and possibly migrations through isotope analyzes. Well
conducted isotope analyses will help tracing the origins of people and address the vexing issue of
migrations in the past and DNA analyses will help addressing the issue of “who” is buried with
“who” in the same monument.
Selected references
Gallay A., 2006, « Le mégalithisme sénégambien : une approche logiciste », in C. Descamps et
A. Camara, (éds.), Senegalia : études sur le patrimoine ouest africain, Paris, Sepia, pp. 205-223.
Gallay A., Pignat G., Curdy P., 1982, « Mbolop Tobé (Santhiou Kohel, Sénégal) : Contribution a
la connaissance du mégalithisme sénégambien, Archives suisses d’Anthropologie générale
46, 2, pp. 217-259.
Holl A.F.C., Bocoum H., 2006, « Variabilité des pratiques funéraires dans le mégalithisme
sénégambien : le cas de Sine Ngayène, in C. Descamps et A. Camara (éds) Senegalia : études
sur le patrimoine ouest africain, Paris, Sepia, pp. 224-234.
Holl A.F.C., Bocoum H., Dueppen S., Gallager D., 2007, “Switching Mortuary Codes and Ritual
Programs: The Double-Monolith-Circle from Sine-Ngayene, Senegal,” Journal of African
Archaeology 5, 1, pp. 127-148.
Laporte, L., H. Bocoum, R. Bernard, F. Bertin, V. Dartois, A. Delvoye, M. Diop, A. Kane, L.
Quesnel, 2007-2009, Le Site megalithique de Wanar (Senegal). Afrique: Archeologie et Arts
5: 99-108.
Ozanne P., 1965, “The Anglo-Gambian Stone Circles Expedition,” Research Review 1, pp. 32-
36.
Thilmans G., Descamps C., Khayat B., 1980, Protohistoire du Sénégal. I. Les sites
mégalithiques, Dakar, IFAN.
