a university mainly in esperanto
A UNIVERSITY MAINLY IN ESPERANTO
by
Federico Gobbo and Reinhard Fössmeier
Since at least 1905, the Esperanto movement provides an alternative way of inter
nationalization. The International Academy of Sciences (AIS) San Marino is a pri
vate University founded in 1985, which uses Esperanto as the main language of its
curricula as well as its administrative procedures. It is a virtual university, whose
activities split between summer schools, classes given at partner institutes, and dis
tance teaching, mainly across the Internet. This paper describes the language poli
cies followed in AIS activities, in particular the relationship between Esperanto and
other languages used by the AIS or its faculty and students. Possible ways of analyz
ing different kinds of motivation for the use of Esperanto are suggested.
1. Introduction: a different internationalization
Launched as a planned language in 1887 by Lejzer Ludwik Zamenhof,
Esperanto succeeded in forming a speech community which surviv
ed two World Wars and developed a culture of its own (Forster
1982; for a general introduction on the phenomenon Esperanto,
see Janton 1993). Well before the actual term ''globalization'' came
into common use – with all the problems that this term entails –,
users of Esperanto have practiced internationalization through the
use of a 'neutral' language. In this context, a 'neutral' language is
considered a language which belongs to no particular group, such
that nobody can be considered to be a privileged user. In other
words, it is a language defined by an ethos (the neutrality as defined
above, which is called interna ideo within the Esperanto culture)
instead of an ethnos (no people or ethnic group has the privilege of
defining a linguistic norm).
Since there are no monolingual Esperanto speakers, all speakers of
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federico gobbo and reinhard fössmeier
the language are (at least) bilingual. The Esperanto community has
never tried to establish any monolingual educational institution on
any level from kindergarten to university, as there is no Sprachraum
for Esperanto – i.e. there is no territory where Esperanto is rooted
permanently, in the way in which, e.g., the Italian language is, more
or less, tied to the territory of Italy (Gobbo 2009). As a consequence,
all speakers of Esperanto have an experience of being schooled in
other languages. An institution like the International Academy of
Sciences (AIS) San Marino should be considered against this cultural
background.
2. The languages of the International Academy of Sciences San Marino
The AIS San Marino was founded in 1985. One of the central
objectives of its founders was to create an academic framework
free from discrimination by language. The first paragraph of the
AIS constitution declares that AIS members ''communicate with
each other mainly in a neutral language'' (''komunikadas inter si
precipe per neŭtrala lingvo''). They decided that the closest they
could come to this aim was the choice of Esperanto as the working
language. Among possible candidates, Esperanto was the only one
in which a significant body of scientific literature and a suitable
terminology to be used in a higher educational context already had
been developed. Esperanto was not only considered as neutral in
a sociolinguistic sense by not favoring any group of speakers, but
also in the sense that its inner structure is not biased towards a
specific group of languages, in spite of its largely European system
of root words. (This issue has been thoroughly debated in the
literature since Piron's seminal 1977 article, cf. Piron 1977, 1981;
Dasgupta 2000; Gobbo 2005).
The AIS constitution did, however, not take up Esperanto's
neutrality for discussion. For AIS Esperanto is taken for granted,
2
a university mainly in esperanto
but in all AIS documents, beginning with the statutes of 1985, it
has not been referred to as 'Esperanto', but as 'The international
language' or for short 'ILo', an abbreviation of the Esperanto term
internacia lingvo.
In any case, the 1985 statutes stipulated that for the time being
this language would be the planned language ''initiated by L. L.
Zamenhof (under the pseudonym of 'Doktoro Esperanto') in 1887''
(Frank 2003: Art. 4.3, p. 105). While some of the AIS' founding
members were also active in the Esperanto movement, they wished
to limit the role of Esperanto in the AIS to a mere communication
tool. Indeed Helmar Frank, the first president of the AIS, has never
been active in the Esperanto movement and considers himself a mere
''user'' of the language. It is noteworthy that the very word ilo in
Esperanto means ''tool'': the ratio of this name is to underline that
the instrumental use of the language is by far more important than
its ideological aspects. In fact, in the event that an international body
such as the UN should ever introduce another neutral international
language than Esperanto, the AIS constitution expressly allows to
adopt this language for the AIS, too (Frank 2003: Art. 4.7, p. 105).
Esperanto is not the only official language of AIS. According to the
Art. 4 of the Statuto of 1985, ''L'Accademia si esprime in tutto il
mondo in Lingua Internazionale e inoltre, in aggiunta all'italiano (in
quanto lingua ufficiale della Repubblica di San Marino), in ingle
se, in francese, in tedesco e, se ritenuto necessario e opportuno, in
altre lingue.'' (''the Academy expresses itself all over the world in
the International Language as well as, besides Italian (being the of
ficial language of the Republic of San Marino), in English, French,
German and, according to necessity and opportunity, in other lan
guages.'' Fössmeier and Frank 2000, p. 147). This official language
policy was confirmed in 2003 by the Konstitucio (Constitution),
which was written originally in Esperanto and German. Note that
Italian is the official language of San Marino, a small sovereign state
surrounded by Italian territory.
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federico gobbo and reinhard fössmeier
The four ethnic languages mentioned in the statutes are mainly
used for administrative purposes, where AIS distinguishes between
its Scientific Sector, its Supporting Sector, and its external relation
ships.
As all academic members in the Scientific Sector of the AIS must
be fluent in Esperanto, and even novices at least must be able to
read this language, Esperanto is the only administrative language in
the Academic Senate and in the Assembly of Effective Members, the
two highest governing bodies of the Academy. On the sub-faculty
(''fakaro'') level it is possible, though, that assemblies choose to use
further meeting languages besides Esperanto. In such a case, the
minutes must be made available in all languages used. This pos
sibility is hardly ever made use of, though. For a faculty structure,
scientific knowledge has been categorized following the distinctions
of Windelband (by method) and Popper (by object). The Scientific
Sector is divided into two areas, the ''nomothetic'' (rule-based,
predictive) and the ''idiographic'' (fact-based, descriptive) sciences.
Each of them is further divided by the nature of its objects (physi
cal, informational, abstract). So the humanities are described as
idiographic sciences about information, while natural sciences are
nomothetic and treat physical objects (see Figure 1).
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a university mainly in esperanto
Figure 1. Categorization of scientific knowledge within AIS (Fössmeier and
Frank 2000: 81)
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federico gobbo and reinhard fössmeier
The academy's Supporting Sector consists of persons who give financial
support but do not (necessarily) take part in the scientific work. In
January 1995, 91 individual and 6 collective members belonged to
the Supporting Sector; in January 2009 there were 200 individual
and 6 collective supporters.
Not all supporting members speak or understand Esperanto, and
their assembly can decide to use any of the official languages for
its sessions and also to provide translation during a session. Here,
too, the rule about the minutes being available in all languages used
applies.
In its external relationships the AIS prefers to correspond in one
of the four ethnic permanent official languages, save for relations
with associations using Esperanto, in particular the ''Universala
Esperanto-Asocio'' (UEA, World Esperanto Association). Since
1995, AIS actively collaborates with UEA in organizing the Inter
national Congress University (''Internacia Kongresa Universitato'',
AIS-IKU), a special AIS session where lecturers give a course of 4
or 8 lectures in Esperanto, where participants can take exams at the
end, receiving a diploma from AIS.
Special emphasis is given to the official AIS web site – http://
www.ais-sanmarino.org/ – as it is used both for external and internal
relationships. The site contains mainly information in Esperanto but
also contains a ''Frequently Asked Questions'' (FAQ) section in all
five official languages. AIS lecture notes are often published on the
official web site and may, if detailed enough, serve students as material
for a correspondence course. In this case they may take their course
exam during an AIS session or at an AIS partner institute, with the
author of the course material or another AIS member as an examiner.
Thus AIS has actually been a virtual university ante litteram, i.e.,
before the theory and practice of teaching at university level partly
or fully through e-learning was established. But the potential that
lies in having a virtual university has still not been fully explored
even at AIS. To take an example, in Fössmeier and Frank (2000)
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a university mainly in esperanto
a full database of curricula of AIS members can be found called
International Documentation of Scientists (''Internacia Sciencista
Dokumentaro'', or ISD). Each entry contains a small biography, an
account of research interests, a photograph and contact information.
It has turned out that the AIS, founded before the birth of the World
Wide Web, is still far from making full use of the possibilities of the
latter and that contacts between AIS members, including students,
still can be improved. In fact, a University, regardless whether it is
virtual or real, is made up by both faculty members and students:
hence, an ''Academia 2.0'' should also take into account the students,
who now tend to be ''digital natives'' (Prensky 2010), thus generat
ing the flow of content that assures a constant and vivid presence of
their institution on the Web. To assure this flow, every student who
passes at least one exam should be accounted for, e.g., through the
teacher's page. This strategy takes into account that today's students
are tomorrow's AIS faculty members.
At present, there is no automatic choice on the AIS web site
between language versions based on the preferences of the user;
rather, different language versions of the same text are cross-linked.
Sometimes, bilingual texts are published and appear in parallel
columns on the screen. Furthermore, entries about AIS are found
in Wikipedia; as of September 2011, besides Esperanto in Catalan,
English, French, Italian, Polish, Romanian, Russian and Turkish.
AIS follows a non-discrimination language policy as a special
concern (like the language policy school of ecolinguistics (Fill
1993)). San Marino is only the seat of the university in a legal sense
and sometimes host of the summer school called SUS, Sanmarineca
Universitata Sesio (Sanmarinian University Session). When an AIS
session is conducted elsewhere, the ethnic language of this place is
granted a temporary status as an official language – for instance,
Polish becomes an official AIS language when an AIS session takes
place in Poland. To scientific language use, no restrictions apply.
Any developed language with a scientific literature can be used,
7
federico gobbo and reinhard fössmeier
alongside with Esperanto, as the second language in a thesis, or as
a course language outside an SUS.
Finally, Latin has also a (small) place within the SUS, reflecting
its former status of international language of science for centuries in
Europe (Mortensen and Haberland 2012). Academic titles granted
by AIS have also been in Latin since 1986, by the Resolution 431/86
of the Dicastero della Pubblica Istruzione, Cultura e Giustizia of San
Marino (cf. Frank 2000: 158–159). Long before the Bologna Process,
the AIS prepared a standard basis for comparing academic degrees
on a four-level scale with Latin terms (baccalaureatus/a, magister/
magistra, doctor, doctor habilitatus/a). This standard comparison was
introduced in order to make it possible for AIS faculty members to
get their original academic degree (usually a PhD) confirmed by the
AIS through a re-examination procedure in Esperanto, called adapta
adopto (adoption by adaptation). This process implies a complete
examination but is based on the candidate's original thesis.
3. The language policy of AIS publications
The AIS not only provides its scientific members with an academic
platform where scientific exchange is made (though not exclusively)
through the use of Esperanto. AIS also offers courses and degree
programs in Esperanto. AIS regulations do not pre- or proscribe
specific languages for research. However, for a scientific paper or
book to be published as a ''verkaĵo el la Akademio Internacia de la
Sciencoj'' (work from the AIS) at least half of its contents must be
in Esperanto. This rule allows publishing bilingual works, and has
been advocated by Frank and Franke (1997), who write that ''(e)ine
zweisprachige Texterstellung … bewirkt eine höhere Präzision der
Aussage durch sofortiges Sichtbarwerden von kaum übersetzbaren,
da inhaltsleeren Sprachhülsen'' (bilingual writing … leads to a higher
precision of the statement, as it immediately uncovers semantically
8
a university mainly in esperanto
void and therefore virtually untranslatable buzzwords). The book
by the two German authors Frank and Franke is itself bilingual, in
German and Esperanto.
As AIS lacks the necessary resources to fund research projects, the
only available data about the use of Esperanto in scientific coope
ration are joint publications of several authors in Esperanto, such
as Galadí-Enríquez and Wandel (2001). It seems safe to assume
that wherever co-authors had different native languages they used
Esperanto to communicate (as do the authors of the present paper,
an Italian and a German). To become a full member of the AIS it is
required to present at least three scientific publications in Esperanto,
though not necessarily in a peer reviewed journal, since they are
unlikely to follow this particular bilingual pattern with Esperanto. A
notable exception is Acta Sanmarinensia, a journal which publishes
the proceedings of AIS conferences and other material from AIS
members. A statistical evaluation of such publications may be the
subject of a future work.
Due to the low print numbers of Esperanto media, scientific
textbooks are available in this language only for a limited number
of topics, and usually only on the bachelor level. An example is
the introductory text book on astronomy by Galadí-Enríquez and
Wandel (2001). Furthermore some AIS courses have been published
in printed form in the series of Acta Sanmarinensia. A good example
is the course on medical parasitology by Sachs (2004).
4. Teaching activities
As an teaching institution, AIS organizes courses and offers degree
programs in Esperanto from bachelor to doctoral levels, with exams
held during the summer school called SUS, Sanmarineca Univer-
sitata Sesio (Sanmarinian University Session), which usually takes
place around September 3, the national holiday of San Marino
9
federico gobbo and reinhard fössmeier
and official date of the foundation of the Most Serene Republic
of San Marino. The SUS takes place at least once per year, since
1985 always in a European country, such as San Marino, Poland,
Slovakia, or Bulgaria.
During SUS, all classes use Esperanto as the teaching language.
As two credits from SUS classes are a prerequisite for graduation, all
AIS students must follow at least two courses taught in Esperanto.
Most AIS courses are, on the other hand, taught at AIS partner in
stitutes, such as Lucian Blaga University in Sibiu (Romania), or the
Międzynarodowe studium turystyki i kultury (International College of
Touristic Science and Culture) in Bydgoszcz (Poland), and most of
these classes taught by locals are held in the local language. Foreign
guest teachers usually teach in Esperanto, except when they teach
a course about their own native language, using the direct method.
The reason why Esperanto courses are mandatory for AIS students
is not only to allow them to benefit from guest teacher courses,
but also to prepare them for participation in the SUS and for their
eventual AIS graduation.
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a university mainly in esperanto
Figure 2. Example from the course material on the AIS web site (Fössmeier
2005)
To earn a degree from the AIS, candidates must fulfill four re
quirements: a number of credits required for a degree program, a
number of credits from an SUS, a thesis, and an oral examination.
Graduation exams for AIS students only take place during the SUS.
These sessions must be announced publicly, and the oral exams are
open for the public in order to make the examination procedures
transparent and the quality of the degrees earned verifiable. Students
participating in an AIS course may qualify for credit points by suc
ceeding in a course exam even without attending the classes: this is
11
federico gobbo and reinhard fössmeier
a significant option, since a considerable amount of course material
is freely available on the AIS web site to anyone. An example in
German and Esperanto can be seen in Figure 2.
Course exams usually are held in the language of the course. In
their graduation exams, where Esperanto is mandatory, candidates
may use the services of an interpreter, in which case they have to
prove their knowledge of Esperanto in another way. If a language is
the topic of an exam it may also serve as the examination language.
When course authors offer bilingual material for a distance course
(usually in Esperanto and the teacher's ethnic language), they can
decide in which language(s) they offer an exam. It has happened that
the same AIS course was taught and examined in both languages
by the same author. For courses taught within the scope of an SUS,
Esperanto is mandatory as the course language as well as the exami
nation language. It is recommended that such exams require only
a passive knowledge of Esperanto. That means that answers either
are chosen from a set of proposed statements (''multiple choice''),
or consist in filling in a gap in a sentence presented in the exam
material. The idea behind this is to give AIS novices a chance to
benefit from an SUS programme even with a limited knowledge
of Esperanto.
Theses for an AIS graduation are composed under the supervision
of an AIS teacher, in two languages. One of them is Esperanto, the
other is chosen by the candidate, with the restriction that an external
examiner has to be available who at least has a passive command of
that language. Usually the two versions of the text are arranged in
parallel columns, with figures, tables, equations etc. extending over
both columns. Students are allowed to have the text translated by
someone else but must mention this in the imprint. The purpose
of the bilingual text is twofold: first, it allows students to present
their work outside the AIS, and second it allows externals to evaluate
its quality. It turned out that students tend to choose their native
language as the second language, while speakers of other languages
12
a university mainly in esperanto
can access the text in Esperanto. So as a secondary benefit the bi
lingual text helps keeping smaller languages alive on the scientific
stage. For doctoral theses the regulations prescribe two external
examiners. If one of them is chosen from outside the AIS (which is
possible), this external examiner usually bases her or his report on
the version not written in Esperanto.
A final exam for an AIS graduation consists of a lecture given in
Esperanto by the candidate and a discussion (viva voce) between
the candidate and the commission. As a rule this discussion is in
Esperanto, too, but regulations allow the candidate to use an inter
preter. At least three different native languages must be represented
in the commission, so the exclusive use of languages different from
Esperanto normally would not be an option. The candidate lecture
may be based on slides or written notes, and it may even be read
aloud from a prepared text. The latter happens especially on the
bachelor level, where both language knowledge and presentation
skills still have to develop. Using an interpreter for one's viva involves
considerable costs; as a result this option is made use of extremely
rarely, and there are no full statistics about how many out of 315
AIS graduates (until 2009) chose it, but out of the 54 graduates
since 2004 not a single one took it. The candidates who used an
interpreter for their viva before 2004, usually also had their thesis
translated by a professional translator. For most students, however,
the costs of such a translation are prohibitive.
5. The practice of language usage
While the propagation of Esperanto is not the objective of the AIS,
Esperanto courses are offered in its sessions and its affiliations in
order to allow students to benefit from its course programme. For
teaching sessions, such as an SUS, Esperanto courses are frequently
offered before the beginning of the session. The idea behind this
13
federico gobbo and reinhard fössmeier
is that trained scientists with at least a passive knowledge in one
or two foreign languages should be capable of picking up enough
Esperanto in one or two days to be able to follow an elementary
scientific course.
As for many courses no text books in Esperanto are available,
AIS teachers usually either offer their students more or less detailed
lecture notes or base their courses on a textbook in a language all
students are familiar with. The latter is usually possible at AIS partner
institutes, where all students speak the local language, but not dur
ing an SUS. When a teacher prepares a course or students write
their thesis it may happen that they need a technical term with no
generally accepted Esperanto translation. In such a case Esperanto
either tries to construct the missing term from existing root material
or to introduce a new root (neologismo or novismo) borrowed and
morphologically adapted from other languages. Both teachers and
students would list and define the chosen expression in a glossary
and also explain their motivation for the choice. Glossary defini
tions should be based on the established terminology in Esperanto
and not resort to translations into other languages. Given that a
large part of AIS students and courses are on the bachelor level, the
necessity for using terms without an existing Esperanto equivalent
rarely arises.
Even if there are some research findings in the practice of Espe
ranto-in-use, ''one is immediately struck by the paucity of 'hard
data'' (Edwards 2010: 189). In particular, language usage by AIS
members or at AIS events has not yet been subjected to any kind
of formal research. While more than 20 years of practice have
shown the general feasibility of the AIS approach, the evidence
on many fields remains more or less anecdotal and can be shown
here only from the authors' angle. The best established facts about
language usage at the AIS are the language skills of AIS members,
as judged by themselves, which are registered in the ISD. By June
2009, the database contained 868 people, who had 52 different
14
a university mainly in esperanto
native languages (23 people had two native languages). As can be
seen from table 1, Esperanto had 11 native speakers, 557 other
speakers, and 198 people with mere reading knowledge. That
means that the remaining 102 people, being merely support
ing members, could not even read Esperanto. The next largest
languages by speakers were English, German, Russian, and French.
By native speakers the order was Russian, German, Polish, Italian,
with English on the 5th rank. This shows, among other things, a
certain Eurocentrism of the AIS; with only 16 native speakers of
Chinese, 8 of Japanese, 3 of Korean and Farsi each, and 2 of Hindi
and Vietnamese respectively.
Table 1: Languages of AIS members
Native Other Reading
Language Total
speakers speakers knowledge
Esperanto 11 557 198 766
English 36 491 105 632
German 189 199 104 492
Russian 212 151 70 433
French 30 241 131 402
Italian 45 80 98 223
Polish 85 30 25 140
In the Esperanto movement there is a taboo about speaking other
languages with Esperantophones. This is only partially tolerated if
both actors share the same ''native tongue'' (whatever this means)
and they are located in the appropriate Sprachraum – e.g., Italian
Esperantophones speaking in Italy are allowed to speak Italian
among themselves, elsewhere not. This allows the creation of an
Esperanto environment even where only speakers of one native
language are present. Using another language where the use of
15
federico gobbo and reinhard fössmeier
Esperanto would be possible is called krokodilado and is booed
at. The AIS has not adopted such a taboo and prefers a more
pragmatic approach to the choice of languages used. Like in many
other language environments, it is considered impolite if anybody
present is unnecessarily excluded from a conversation by the lan
guage choice. At AIS sessions it has been observed that AIS staff
usually speak Esperanto even among compatriots but occasionally
change to the common native language in a longer conversation.
The use of a language other than Esperanto or the common na
tive language of everybody present has very rarely been observed,
mostly if somebody wants to take the opportunity to practice a
foreign language with a native speaker. According to the authors'
observations, code-switching is not infrequent while code-mixing
is very rare. In one case it was observed that somebody with a
limited knowledge of Esperanto was encouraged to resort to their
native language (Italian), a language which everybody in the group
understood, though not on a native-speaker level.
On a few occasions the AIS tried to practice a model of recep
tive multilingualism (cf. ten Thije and Zeevaert eds. (2007); cf.
also Posner's ''polyglot dialog'' (1991)) – meaning that everybody
was allowed to speak their native language. Among other oc
casions, the SUS 27 session in 2004 applied this model during
its academic forum; all participants were from Europe or North
America. The objective was to allow new participants, with only
a passive knowledge of Esperanto, to take part in a discussion.
While these experiments worked to a certain degree they showed
two significant disadvantages. First, they discriminated against
the speakers of small languages, who did not have much of a
chance of being understood in their own language and so had to
use Esperanto. Second, it was difficult to determine for a speaker
how many of the listeners understood what they said, and to
what degree. Moreover those experiments generally fell short of
the purpose to provide newcomers with a gradual entrance into
16
a university mainly in esperanto
the practical use of Esperanto, as only a small part of them later
engaged in the AIS.
6. Conclusions and further directions of research
While not much of a formal evaluation of AIS language usage has
been done, more than 20 years of practice have shown that Esperanto
works quite well in the scientific as well as the administrative field.
In other words, Esperanto is suitable for running a university and
reducing linguistic discrimination by a significant degree. On the
other hand, it seems that several approaches towards a gradual entry
to the AIS practice, such as with translations or receptive multilin
gualism, have essentially failed to motivate novices to become active
within the AIS. There is no quantitative analysis about all this yet.
As usual, it is difficult to explore the motivation of drop-outs, who
are normally not available for an interview.
The available data are insufficient to evaluate to which degree
the apparent eurocentricity of the AIS is related to the choice of its
official languages (Esperanto plus four ethnic European languages).
More work is necessary to come to quantitative conclusions. This
concerns both the evaluation of existing material (such as publica
tions in Esperanto) and strategies to collect more data about the
practical functioning of the AIS.
The analysis of the use the AIS is making of the Internet suggests
that there is considerable scope for expansion of web-related activi
ties of the AIS. Many of the more recent technologies are not being
made proper (or any) use of. As much of the software concerned is
either already available in Esperanto or could be easily ''localized''
(adapted to Esperanto), this seems an important field for the AIS to
increase its activities. While there is no need of adopting an on-line
e-learning tool, being connected is the most important part of the
external strategy to be implemented: would-be students are certainly
17
federico gobbo and reinhard fössmeier
present in places like Facebook or Ipernity, which are highly popular
among Esperanto-users because their interface is fully translated
into that language.
Federico Gobbo
Centro di Ricerca ''Informatica Interattiva''
Università degli Studi dell'Insubria
Via Mazzini, 5
I-21100 Varese
Reinhard Fößmeier
AIS San Marino
Rahel-Straus-Weg 19
D-81673 München
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