Sustainable CHARCOAL PRODUCTION GUIDELINE A Manual for Charcoal Producers and Extension officers K E N Y A Forest Service SUSTAINABLE CHARCOAL PRODUCTION GUIDELINE A Manual for Charcoal Producers and Extension officers i SUSTAINABLE CHARCOAL PRODUCTION GUIDELINE A Manual for Charcoal Producers and Extension officers Nellie Oduor Emily Kitheka James Kimwemwe Joseph Githiomi April 2015 ii Copy right: Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) and Kenya Forest Service (KFS) (2015). This publication may be produced in whole or part or in any form for education or non-profit uses only without permission of the copy right holder provided acknowledgement is made. Published by: Miti Mingi Maisha Bora Programme, KFS Citation: Oduor, N., Kitheka, E., Kimwemwe, J. and Githiomi, J. (2015). Sustainable Charcoal Production Guideline: A manual for charcoal producers and extension officers. Published by the Miti Mingi Maisha Bora Programme of the Kenya Forest Service, Nairobi. Pp 43 Photographs: Nellie Oduor and Emily Kitheka Illustrations: Emily Kitheka Photographs on cover page: Top: A well managed woodland in Ngomeni, Mwingi Sub-county Mid left: Seedling protection using intertwining twigs around it in a V-shaped micro catchment in Mbeere North Mid right: Harvesting charcoal from Casamance Kiln Bottom: A complete stacked Casamance kiln Printed by: Punchlines Limited. Design and layout: Saul Nassilah iii Kenya Forestry Research Institute PO Box 20412, 00200 Nairobi, Kenya Tel: +254 724 259781/2, +254 722157414, +254 734251888 Email: director@kefri.org Website: www.kefri.org Kenya Forest Service PO Box 30512, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya Tel: +254 20 3754904/6 Email: director@kenyaforestservice.org Website: www.kenyaforestservice.org iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors acknowledge with appreciation the financial support from the Governments of Finland and Kenya for facilitating the development of this Manual through the Miti Mingi Maisha Bora Pro- gramme (MMMB). The authors kindly express gratitude to the Bio-energy technical team at KEFRI Karura for their contribution through information sharing on sustainable charcoal production tech- nologies and for their cooperation in the preparation and production of this manual. We would also like to acknowledge the valuable inputs from the editorial committee through its members, namely: Dr. Bernard Kigomo, Dr. Ebby Chagala-Odera, Dorothy Ochieng, Bernard Kamondo and KFS Edi- torial team led by Mr. Charles Ngunjiri (Chief Corporate Communication Officer), KFS.The techni- cal inputs from Meshack Muga, Sheila Mbiru and Violet Oriwo in design and layout of the manual are highly appreciated. Finally, the authors are indebted to the following MMMB programme Staff: Ms Zipporah Toroitich (Programme Manager), Mr. Noor Hussein (Component Four Manager), Liz Betser (Component Four Consultant) and Mr. Keith Dolman (Chief Technical Adviser ) and the Director KEFRI and Director KFS for offering technical guidance, financial and logistical support. v FOREWARD This manual has been prepared by KEFRI through the support of Miti Mingi Maisha Bora Programme funded by the Governments of Finland and Kenya. The manual is designed to assist local communities and grass root extension service providers to understand sustainable charcoal production technologies available in Kenya for improved livelihood and environmental conservation. The purpose of this document is to outline various improved charcoal production technologies and how their use can lead to increased recovery rates, reduced environmental degradation and improved livelihoods. The document is in six parts. Part 1 gives an introduction of charcoal production in Kenya and its contribution to the Kenyan economy. Charcoal is a preferred household energy source due to its affordability and estimated 22 million m3 of wood is carbonized annually to meet Kenya’s annual charcoal demand of 2.3 million tones hence its association with the increasing levels of deforestation and environmental degradation. The continued high dependence and use of traditional earth kilns with low efficiency rates implies felling of more trees for its production. Part 2 outlines the rules and regulation 2009 for charcoal production in Kenya. Part 3 describes sustainable management of woodland resources for charcoal production Part 4 describes the establishment of tree resources for charcoal production and includes tree species se-lection, seed collection and raising of seedlings for woodlot establishment and management for charcoal production. Part 5 outlines the various improved charcoal production technologies currently available in Kenya with high recovery rates and which can contribute to reduced environmental degradation and improved livelihood through increased charcoal production. Part 6 highlights key aspects of briquetting technology as an alternative source of biomass energy. It is important to note that this manual is a guiding document and does not provide all the information on charcoal production technologies, any further information can be obtained from KEFRI and KFS offices. Emilio Mugo Ben N. Chikamai (PhD) Director, KFS Director, KEFRI vi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS CPAs Charcoal Producer Associations CPGs Charcoal Producer Groups ESDA Energy for Sustainable Development Africa KFS Kenya Forest Service KEFRI Kenya Forestry Research Institute MEWNR Ministry of Environment, Water and Natural Resources NEMA National Environment Management Authority vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgement..............................................................................................................................v Foreword........................................................................................................................................... vi List of abbreviations and acronym....................................................................................................vii Table of contents..............................................................................................................................viii 1.0 Introduction..............................................................................................................................1 2.0 Charcoal rules and regulation 2009...............................................................................................2 3.0 Sustainable management of woodland resources for charcoal production.............................3 3.1 Enrichment planting......................................................................................................................3 3.2 Woodland husbandry ....................................................................................................................3 3.2.1. Clearing of undergrowth ........................................................................................................3 3.2.2 Use of enclosures for protection of young regenerating trees.................................................3 3.2.3 Run- off water harvesting........................................................................................................3 3.2.4 Controlled fires.......................................................................................................................4 3.3 Sustainable tree harvesting............................................................................................................4 3.3.1 Selective branch harvesting /pruning......................................................................................4 3.3.2 Pollarding................................................................................................................................4 3.3.3 Selective single tree harvesting................................................................................................5 3.3.4 Selective block harvesting.......................................................................................................5 3.3.5 Coppicing.................................................................................................................................5 4.0 Tree establishment and management for charcoal production......................................................6 4.1 Selection of suitable tree species....................................................................................................6 4.2 Seed collection and handling.........................................................................................................6 4.3 Tree nursery establishment and management..............................................................................6 4.4 Woodlot Establishment and Management for Charcoal Production ............................................7 5.0 Improved charcoal production technologies................................................................................10 5.1Earth kilns.....................................................................................................................................10 5.1.1 Improved traditional earth kiln................................................................................................10 5.1.2 Casamance kiln........................................................................................................................11 5.2 Half orange brick kilns..................................................................................................................13 5.3 Metal kilns..................................................................................................................................15 5.3.1 Drum kilns................................................................................................................................15 5.4 Portable Japanese metal kiln.......................................................................................................18 6.0 Briquetting for charcoal production..........................................................................................20 6.1 Making of charcoal briquettes.....................................................................................................20 6.1.1 Materials and equipment..........................................................................................................20 6.1.2 Steps in making briquette.........................................................................................................21 7.0 References...................................................................................................................................23 8.0 Appendices..................................................................................................................................24 8.1 Appendix1: List of trees suitable for charcoal production ..........................................................24 Appendix 2: important tools and facilities for establishing a tree nursery........................................29 Appendix 3: binder preparation........................................................................................................ 30 viii 1.0 INTRODUCTION Charcoal is a key source of energy in Kenya, providing 82% of urban and 34% of rural household energy, employing and providing income for over 700,000 people who support over two million dependants (ESDA, 2005). Charcoal is a preferred household energy source due to its affordability. It is also used in small-scale businesses such as restaurants, kiosks, poultry keeping and bakeries. Since charcoal production depends on woody biomass harvested from trees growing mostly in woodlands and farmlands, its rising demand is associated with the increasing levels of deforestation. Inevitably, the continued high dependence on charcoal to provide energy to majority of Kenyans means its demand will undoubtedly imply felling of more trees for its production. This in turn exerts pressure on biomass resources in an already deteriorating environment, thus negatively impacting on the well being of most vulnerable groups of the population especially women and children. The Government has consistently made attempts to streamline the charcoal industry. However effective regulation of the industry which represents an estimated annual value of over KSh. 32 billion, remains one of the key challenges (NEMA, 2011). It is estimated that the national demand of charcoal in Kenya is over 16 million m3 while supply is estimated at about 13.5 million m3 (MEWNR, 2013).Low yields of production due to use of inefficient charcoaling technologies is also a major challenge facing the charcoal industry. Various technologies with high charcoal conversion efficiencies and quality have been developed. However, according to several studies, uptake of these improved technologies has been low among charcoal producers. The purpose of this manual is to provide information on these improved technologies to various categories of charcoal producers including charcoal producer groups and association as well as grass root extension agents. The manual outlines: policy guidelines and rules in charcoal production; Sustainable management of wood land resources for charcoal production; tree establishment and management for charcoal production and improved charcoal production technologies. The manual also highlights key aspects of briquetting technology that uses raw material such as agricultural and forestry residues thus conserving the environment. 1 2.0 CHARCOAL RULES AND REGULATION 2009 The Charcoal Rules and regulation 2009 were developed to regulate production, marketing and use of charcoal. They specify the requirements of a charcoal producer and the procedure to follow to be licensed for commercial production and transportation. The rules also highlight issues that relate to streamlining trade in charcoal which includes labelling of charcoal giving the tree species and the weight, establishment of collection points, possession of a valid movement permit and certificate of origin from producer groups..To obtain a license to undertake commercial charcoal production and transportation one has to make an application to the relevant authority through the respective Forest Conservation Committees. For export or import of charcoal products, one is expected to apply to the KFS Director through the relevant Licensing Sub-committee. Those engaged in the trade are expected to keep a record of all sources of charcoal and copies of certificates. 2 3.0 SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF WOODLAND RE- SOURCES FOR CHARCOAL PRODUCTION Charcoal production for commercial purposes from on-farm and woodlands/or forested areas can be achieved if the wood resources are harvested, utilized and managed in sustainable manner. Some of the strategies for sustainably managing wood resources include: Enrichment planting; woodland husbandry and sustainable harvesting. 3.1 Enrichment planting Enrichment planting involves establishing seedlings in open areas within existing woodlands to increase the plant density (i.e. the numbers of plants per hectare). It can be used to introduce preferred species for charcoal production where such species have been reduced or depleted. 3.2 Woodland husbandry 3.2.1. Clearing of undergrowth Clearing undergrowth can be done in woodlands where the preferred charcoal production species are being out-competed by unwanted plants .i.e. bushes, climbers and parasitic plants. Removal of unwanted species encourages natural regeneration of preferred charcoal species through reduced competition for nutrients, moisture and sunlight. Unmanaged wood land /thicket (left) and well managed woodland in Ngomeni, Mwingi Sub-county 3.2.2 Use of enclosures for protection of young regenerating trees Young seedlings and saplings are prone to damage by domestic and wildlife animals, as well as by uncontrolled fires. To protect the young plants, fences or enclosures are used to keep off browsing animals for faster growth. Dead branches, thorny plants like cactus or sisal, barbed wire or chain link can be used to enclose them from damage. 3.2.3 Run- off water harvesting Water retention ditches or trenches are water conservation structures established to trap and hold run-off during storms. The trenches hold the water which then seeps slowly to tree root zone promoting fast growth and natural regeneration. 3 Water retention ditches in Isiolo (left) and in Kitui (right) for improved regeneration and increased tree survival 3.2.4 Controlled Fires Controlled fires as a management tool can boast natural regeneration by breaking seed dormancy thus improving germination rate, reducing competition for water, nutrients and light by removing herbaceous plants and reducing flammable material. This results in less risks of having uncontrolled fires which kills young seedlings/saplings and other herbaceous plants. 3.3 Sustainable tree harvesting 3.3.1 Selective branch harvesting /pruning Selective branch harvesting involves cutting or lower bigger branches of a tree for use in charcoal production. The cut off branch, in case of trees for fuel wood production, is allowed to sprout back. This is the most appropriate method to sustainably harvest biomass materials for charcoal production as it avoids unnecessary harvesting of whole trees. A tree whose branches were cut off and sprouting is evident 3.3.2 Pollarding Pollarding involves pruning off the crown (top) and branches of tree and leaving it to grow new branches from the top of the remaining stem. The cut branches can be used for charcoal production. Pollarding has the advantage that the new shoots are high and therefore more appropriate to be protected from animal and fire damage. Re-growth after pollarding is vigorous because the tree’s root system has already been well established. Harvesting of the re-growth can be done after 3 to 4 years. 4  Pollarded Acacia tortilis tree (left) and sprouting Acacia polyacantha tree (right) after pollarding 3.3.3 Selective single tree harvesting Single-tree selection harvesting method involves cutting of preferred scattered individual trees of multiple age classes for charcoal production. This type of selection system produces openings in the canopy conducive to the establishment and growth of shade intolerant tree species. The treatment also favours trees of a desired species and stem/wood quality. According to studies, harvesting of 3-4 trees per hectare per year is recommended. 3.3.4 Selective block harvesting This involves sub-dividing the area into blocks depending on the size of the farm and the estimated number of years trees will take to attain exploitable size. Only mature and over mature trees are harvested in the blocks designated for harvesting. The harvested block is then closed for a certain period of time before the next harvest cycle in the same area. This time allows younger trees to grow to their full commercial potential. 3.3.5 Coppicing Coppicing is the natural ability of certain species to regenerate after trees are cut at stump level. Woodland species with the ability to coppice include: Acacia species like A. polyacantha: A. mellifera and A. tortilis. To encourage coppicing, removal/uprooting or burning of cut stumps should not be done. 5 4.0 TREE ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT FOR CHARCOAL PRODUCTION Tree establishment and management for charcoal production involves: Selection of suitable tree species, Seed collection and raising tree seedlings, woodlot establishment and management. 4.1 Selection of suitable tree species There are many tree species suitable for charcoal production that could be established as plantations (Appendix 1- List of species and detailed seed pre-treatment).These species are preferred mostly because they produce heavy non-sparking charcoal that burns for a long time with non-irritating smoke. The tree species should also be fast growing; branchy, drought resistance; and have coppicing ability. 4.2 Seed collection and handling In sourcing for quality tree seeds for on-farm tree planting or woodlot establishment, it is important to obtain certified seeds from reputable sources such as Kenya Forestry Seed Centre or identified community seed sources. Individuals can also collect seeds from sites with similar environmental conditions to planting site. Quality tree seeds are usually obtained by collection from at least 25 trees. Methods of seed collection and processing • Shaking trees or branches for seeds which dislodge easily- a sheet should be spread underneath the tree to collect seed to avoid loss of seeds and contamination from pests, diseases, soil or water. • Hand picking–Seeds can be picked directly from short trees • Collecting seed from felled trees– Seeds can be collected from trees which have been felled for other uses. Seeds of most tree species suitable for charcoal production e.g. Acacias are extracted through sun-drying, and threshing of pods. Fleshy (pulpy) fruits such as Tamarindus indica (Tamarind) and Azadirachta indica (Neem) can have their pulp removed through squeezing and washing over mesh wire to extract their seeds. 4.3 Tree nursery establishment and management The extracted seed are sown in the nursery to raise quality tree seedlings in sufficient quantities. Tree nurseries should be located at suitable sites and should have necessary tools and equipment (Appendix 2). Nursery operations involve seed pre-treatment, seed sowing, pricking to containers and caring of the seedling. Seed pre-treatment Seed pre-treatment is a process to encourage rapid and uniform seed germination. Seeds of most  Water treatment – Seeds are soaked in hot water and left overnight or until the water charcoal species are pre-treated by various methods. This manual describes two methods:  Nipping – part of the seed coat is removed to allow the seed to easily absorb water. cools down. Seeds can also be soaked in cold water for six hours to a day.  Tree seeds are first sown in seedbeds, which can be any improvised container such as a Seed sowing and raising of seedlings plastic basin, until they germinate. Hanging seedbeds (Seedbed hang on a tree branch) are suitable for small-scale nurseries or individual farmers where livestock is a menace as they  Germinated seedlings are transferred into potting materials such as milk packets and plastic protect germinating seedling from browsing animals. containers .and raised in nursery beds. 6   Nursery beds in dry areas should be sunken as they help trap and conserve water. The sunken nursery bed should be 15cm deep and one metre width. The length depends on the available area and amount of seedling being raised. To aid conservation of water, a polythene sheet is  Seeds which are big enough to hold such as Croton megalocarpus, Mangifera indica, placed underneath the seedlings.  The soil used to raise seedlings should be well drained and fertile. Manure can be added Terminalia and Combretum species can be sown directly into the potting materials. where soils are poor at a ratio of 1part manure to 3 parts soil. Hardening up of raised seedlings One month before planting season begins; seedlings earmarked for planting should be well prepared  Reducing the watering frequency by half for the harsh field conditions through hardening. This can be achieved through:-  Exposing the seedlings to more sunshine  Root pruning frequently 4.4 Woodlot Establishment and Management for Charcoal Production Selection of site Trees or woodlots for charcoal production can be established on-farm. The selected site should be easy to access for management purposes, secure or well protected from human and animal damage and free of conflicts. Sites on a slope may require construction of soil and water conservation structures such as terraces or water retention ditches. Digging of planting holes For a woodlot, trees can be spaced at 5 x 5 m or more to encourage branching of trees and reduce water competition especially in drylands. Holes measuring at least 45 cm width x 45 cm length x 45 cm depth are suitable for planting in the drylands. Refilling the planting hole Planting holes are refilled with top soil mixed with manure just before rains. For loam soil a mixture of manure and soil at ratio1:3 is recommended. For clay soil, add 1 part of sand to improve water infiltration. Avoid use of un-decomposed manure and mulch as the practice attracts termites around the root zone. Mark the centre of the hole with a stick for ease of location of the point after rains which may level the ground. Actual tree planting Tree planting should start immediately the rain season begins (April or November). Allow a few days for moisture build up. Step 1: Dig up soil from lower horizons of the planting hole after a few days of continuous rain. This should be done on a non-rainy day. Create hole the length of the container using panga or jembe. Slice the container sideways without disturbing the soil. 7  Step 1: Dig up soil from lower horizons of the planting hole after a few days of continuous rain. This should be done on a non-rainy day. Create hole the length of the container using panga or jembe. Slice the container sideways without disturbing the soil. Step 2: Container grown plants should have the container removed before planting with minimal disturbance to the root system. Coiled roots should be cut off or straightened before planting Step 3: Insert seedling into the hole without disturbing the soil and cover it well with soil. Tree management Weed control Remove weeds by uprooting them as soon as they appear. Weeding can be achieved through spot weeding or clear / complete weeding. Spot weeding Seedling protection Protection of tree seedling from human and animal damage can be achieved through spot fencing (protection of individual tree) or complete fencing of the planted site. Protection can be done using dead thorny branches such as from Acacia species or inter twined fitos as shown on the left. Barbed wire or chain link wire can also be used for fencing. Tree seedlings should also be protected from termites. Protection can be through timely weeding, destruction of termite hills and use of local organic concoctions such as Neem, aloe and hot pepper extracts. In termite prone areas, termite resistant trees e.g. Acacia, Combretum and Terminalia species should be planted. 8 Water Harvesting Techniques Tree survival can be improved through use of water harvesting structures or techniques which enhance performance of trees by collecting surface run-off around the root zone of the planted trees. Water harvesting techniques also act as controls for water runoff and soil erosion. Commonly used water harvesting techniques include; V-shaped micro-catchments, W-shaped catchments micro- catchments, and Circular or semi circular micro-catchments. V-shaped micro-catchments v The -shaped micro catchments are easy to construct, able to re- lease excess runoff, easy to maintain, and long lasting. The soil mound is normally about 20-30 cm high. W– Shaped catchments micro-catchments This is constructed by continuously inter connecting V-shaped micro-catchments along the contour. It provides good results on gentle slopes with well drained soils. They are highly effective in run-off retention and soil erosion control. However, they require larger and stronger soil mound than V-shaped structures hence more costly and also require regular maintenance Circular or semi circular micro-catchments It is applicable for individual seedlings planted in flat areas. A basin about 160 cm diameter is created around the seedling. The soil mound is normally about 20-30cm high. 9 5.0 IMPROVED CHARCOAL PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES High charcoals yields can be achieved through use of efficient production kilns. There are three major factors influencing conversion yield: (a) Moisture content of the wood at time of carbonisation (b) Type of carbonising equipment used (c) Care with which the process is carried out Diverse efficient kilns have been used in charcoal production. These can be categorised into three types namely; earth, masonry and metal kilns. Earth kilns are of various types with the most common being the improved traditional and Casamance kilns. The common masonry kilns include the Half Orange (Brick) and Adams Retort kilns. The metal kilns include the Drum kiln and Portable Japanese metal kiln. 5.1Earth kilns 5.1.1 Improved Traditional Earth kiln The Improved Traditional Earth kiln is an improvement of the Traditional Earth kiln. It has recovery rate of up to 30% which is close to thrice what is normally achieved using the Traditional Earth kiln (KEFRI, 2006a.). The Improved Traditional kiln uses fabricated metal air inlets and chimneys for air control as opposed to Traditional kilns that use holes as air inlets and breathers. Construction and operation of the Improved Traditional Earth kiln, involves the following steps: Step 1: Wood cutting and drying • Cross-cut the wood into 1 – 1.5 metres in length immediately after felling for faster drying. • Dry the wood for 2-4 weeks in the open area where there is ample sunshine and wind to facilitate rapid drying Step 2: Stacking • Determine the wind direction for lighting position. (The lighting place should face the wind). • Stack the wood as tightly as possible in a horizontal position starting with bigger logs • Fill all gaps between the wood with smaller wood pieces to allow better heat transfer. 10  Step 3: Covering the kiln • Cover the wood with thick loose leafy twigs or grass. • Place two chimneys (made from gauge 26 galvanised iron sheet, 180 cm long with a diameter of 12 cm) at the opposite side to the lighting place. • Place four metal air inlets measuring 60cm long of 5 cm diameter, two on each side of the kiln. • Cover the stack with a thick layer of soil on top of the loose leafy twigs or grass to a depth of about 20 cm but leaving the lighting point (door) free. The thick layer of soil is necessary to prevent complete combustion. Step 4  Light the fire and once the wood near the lighting point has caught fire, the lighting point is Lighting the kiln sealed off with leafy twigs, grass and soil. Step 5 The emission of dense white smoke indicates the process carbonisation is progressing well. Monitoring the charcoal production process A light bluish coloured smoke indicates the charcoal is carbonised. This usually takes 5-6  Remove the chimneys and air inlets and seal all the ventilations. During this period of days for 3m3of wood. cooling ensure the kiln is air tight to prevent the charcoal catching fire. Cooling can take  Remove the soil and leafy twigs or grass covering the kiln. If some pieces of charcoal start 2-3 days. This process can be aided by allowing soil into the kiln. to burn, cover with soil. Never use water to cool burning charcoal as this affects its quality. However, a bucket of water should be available for precaution in case of an emergency. 5.1.2 Casamance kiln The Casamance kiln is a modified earth kiln that has one chimney and four air inlets. The chimney and air inlet is made of gauge 26 galvanized iron sheets. The chimney measures 180 cm long with a diameter of 15 cm and the air inlet is 60 cm long and 5cm in diameter. The chimney improves air circulation, which reduces the amount of un-carbonised wood and speeds up the carbonization. It gives better carbonisation control resulting in higher yields of 30-40% and better charcoal quality. Construction and operation of the Casamance kiln, involves the following steps: Step 1 Cutting the wood The wood is cut into lengths of 0.5 m and left to dry for 2-4 weeks. Step 2: Creating an air channel • Determine the wind direction for lighting position. (The lighting place should face the wind). • Selecta suitable site for the kiln which should be close to the source of wood and free of vegetation • Make an air channel by placing thin pieces of wood on top of two long posts. This is to allow air to flow easily within the kiln. 11 Step 3: Creating the base of the kiln • Arrange thin pieces of wood in a circular way to form the base of kiln around the air channel. The base plays an important part for it assures airflow within the wood Step 4 :Stacking the kiln • Starting from the centre of the kiln, arrange largest pieces of wood in an upright position. The medium and small-sized pieces arranged circularly around larger ones. • Ensure stacking is done as tightly as possible by filling all gaps between the wood with smaller wood pieces. This allows better heat transfer. Step 4: A completely stacked Casamance kiln Step 5:Covering the stack • Cover the wood with a thick layer of loose leafy twigs or grass. • Place the chimney at opposite end of the lighting point. It is angled at the bottom end to connect into the air channel. • Place the air inlet pipes round the base of the kiln – two on either side of the kiln. • Cover the kiln with a thick layer of soil on top of the loose leafy twigs or grass to a depth of about 20 cm but leaving the lighting point (door) free. Step 6:Lighting the kiln • The kiln is then lit. 12  Step 7:Monitoring the kiln • Monitor to ensure the smoke comes out of the chimney or air inlets and therefore any cracks within the kiln should be sealed with soil. Dense white smoke emitted from the chimney indicates that the carbonisation process is progressing well • After 24 -36 hours the kiln should sink to about half of its original height and the smoke emitted is thin and reduced in amount. A light bluish coloured smoke indicates that the charcoal is carbonised. • The carbonisation takes 2-3 days  Put off the kiln by removing the chimney and the air inlets. The cooling can be aided by Step 8: Charcoal harvesting using a long pole to force soil into the kiln  After cooling, remove the soil and grass covering the kiln and pack the charcoal 5.2 Half Orange Brick kilns Half Orange Brick kilns is one of the many masonry kilns. The capacity varies from small-sized kilns producing 4-5 bags to those that can produce 80-120 bags. The recovery rates vary between 25-30%. The kiln walls are 30-40cm thick for small sized kilns and 42-48cm thick for larger kilns. This wall insulates the kiln thus aiding carbonization and also enables cooling after carbonization process. The large capacity kilns can utilize huge chunks of wood to make charcoal. These kilns are suitable for static use where the wood is brought to the kiln at a central point or where volume of wood is available over a long period. The kilns require more time to complete charcoal carbonisation due to slow cooling process. Maintenance and operating labour costs are high as doors and other openings have to be constructed with each firing while the brick walls require frequent repairs to seal cracks. Construction and operation of the half orange brick kiln, involves the following steps Step 1: Constructing the brick kiln • Engage a trained masonry specialist for designing and the construction of an appropriate kiln size 13 Step 2: Stacking the Kiln • Place small lengths of wood with diameters of not more than 8 -10cm on the ground in the kiln. • Stack the wood upright starting at the back wall of the kiln progressing towards the door placing the larger diameter logs at the centre of the kiln. • The next layer of wood is placed horizontally on top of the upright wood. • Place easily flammable pieces of wood close to the light point. This will aid in firing the kiln. • Ensure that the air inlets/holes are not blocked Step 3: Closing the kiln • Once the kiln is fully loaded, smear all the outer side of the kiln wall with slurry of mud and ash to make the bricks less porous to air. • Close the door opening with bricks. This is done until half way to leave space to light the wood Step 4: Lighting the Kiln • Place small dry twigs at the door opening • Light the twigs. • Once the wood has caught fire close the remaining space of the door with bricks and smear with slurry of mud and ash. Step 5: Monitoring of the kiln • On daily basis monitor carefully for cracks on the outer wall of the kiln and apply slurry of mud and ash on any noticeable crack • Monitor the colour of the smoke. Dense white smoke emitted from the air inlets indicates that the carbonisation process is progressing well • Bluish smoke indicates carbonization is complete. • Once carbonization is over carefully block all the air inlets with a brick to stop the process and start cooling • Allow the kiln to cool until the walls cool down. For small kilns cooling can take 2-3 days while for the big kilns it can take 3-4 days 14   Remove the charcoal from the kiln with a special fork/ Step 6: Charcoal harvesting  Spread out the charcoal on the ground to ensure rake  In case of charcoal still burning, cover with soil complete cooling 5.3 Metal Kilns Metal kilns are of various dimensions and have been designed to be easily transported. The key advantages of these kilns are their portability to the source of wood, short production cycle (16-24 hours)and high recovery rate of between 30% to 38%. However, they have a higher initial capital cost compared to improved earth kiln or the masonry kilns of equal production capacity. The cost of imported fabricated metal kilns is high but this can be reduced through local fabrication. The widely available metal kilns in Kenya are the Drum kilns and Portable Japanese metal kilns. 5.3.1 Drum Kilns This is simple metal kiln that has been modified from the ordinary oil drum. The kiln is suitable for domestic charcoal production using small diameter stems or tree branches of not more than 10 cm. These kilns use wood that is cut into small pieces measuring 80 cm in length and a diameter not exceeding 10 cm. It is important to ensure the wood is dry before use by drying for 2- 4 weeks. There are two variants of the drum kiln – horizontal and vertical drum kiln. This kiln requires skilled artisans to fabricate. The Horizontal Drum kiln This kiln has a removable lid with a metallic belt that joins the lid to the drum. Other components of the kiln are: metal grill, chimney, air inlet and firing door. Operation of the Horizontal Drum kiln, involves the following steps: Step 1: Loading the wood • Place the metal grill inside the kiln and arrange the cut wood on it. • Pack the kiln until fully loaded ensuring close packing of the wood Step 2: Lighting the kiln • Close the loaded drum with the lid which has a firing door. • Stack small pieces of wood at the firing section for lighting the kiln • Light the kiln and ensure the chimney is emitting smoke before covering the kiln with soil. 15   Cover the kiln with soil, leaving the firing door Step 3:Covering the kiln uncovered. The soil is for insulation to prevent heat  Close the firing door after ensuring the wood in the loss during carbonisation  Cover the lighting door with soil and allow the wood kiln has caught fire to carbonize.  Monitor the colour of the emitted smoke. Step 4: Monitoring Kiln  Dense white smoke emitted from the chimney indicates that the carbonisation process is progressing well. A clear blue smoke indicates the  It takes 6-12 hours for the carbonization to be wood is fully carbonized. complete.  Remove the chimney and seal the chimney holder Step 5: Cooling and harvesting of charcoal with grass and soil. The chimney may be slightly hot, therefore, use  Leave the drum to cool for 12-24 hours before re- protective materials while removing it  After cooling, remove the soil to expose the drum and moving the charcoal. remove the charcoal. The vertical drum kiln This drum has 3 air inlets welded at equidistance from each other at the base of the kiln. The lighting point is also situated at the base of the drum. The wood is loaded from the top where the lid of the drum has been fabricated to open half-way. The kiln has a chimney welded on the lid at the top. The pieces of wood are arranged up right. The front view with lighting zone in the fore ground, two air inlets at bottom visible. The top with top lid open The process of arranging the wood and carbonising is as follows 16 Step 1:Setting up the kiln • Level the ground and set the kiln upright with the lighting door facing in the direction of the wind. Step 2: Loading the kiln • Load the wood from the top and ensure its tightly packed upright. • Close the lid of the drum. Step 3:Covering and lighting of the kiln • Cover the lid of the kiln with soil. • The soil is for insulation to prevent heat loss during carbonisation. • Place small dry pieces of wood or twigs at the firing section and light the kiln Step 4: Close the firing door • Close the firing door once the wood has caught fire. • Cover the kiln with soil at the base of the kiln ensuring that the air inlets at the base of kiln are not blocked with soil Step 5:Monitoring of the kiln • Monitor the smoke emitted from the chimney. Dense white smoke indicates that the carbonisation is progressing well • A bluish smoke indicates carbonization is complete. • It takes 6-12 hours for the carbonization to be complete. 17  Step 6: Cooling and harvesting of charcoal • Remove the chimney and seal the chimney holder with grass and soil. The chimney may be slightly hot, there- fore, use protective materials while removing it • Leave the drum to cool for 12-24 hours before removing the charcoal. • After cooling, remove the soil to expose the drum and remove the charcoal 5.4 Portable Japanese Metal Kiln Portable Japanese metal kilns operate on reverse draught principle (where carbonisation starts from top downwards). The kiln has chimneys situated around the base of the kiln. They provide a better control and greater yield of charcoal at a recovery rate of about 25-30%. The kiln has three inter- locking cylindrical sectors, a conical top cover with smaller detachable lid and a round metal grill. The bottom cylinder has four air inlets and four chimneys arranged radially at the base. For its operation the following steps are taken. Step 1: Assembling and loading the kiln • Place bottom cylinder on the ground • Place round metal grill at the centre of the bottom cylinder. • Arrange wood pieces on the ground radially from circumference to centre of the cylinder. This is to prevent direct contact between wood and the ground and to give sufficient space to allow free circulation of air from inlet holes • Arrange the wood upright starting with large diameter pieces around metal grill. • Fill the inner circle of the grill with dry twigs that will be used to light the kiln. Step 2 • After filling the bottom cylinder with wood, place the second cylinder on top of it and stack it with wood using the same procedure as described in step 1. • After stacking the second cylinder, place the third cylinder on top and equally load it with wood. • Fix the chimneys in alternate air inlets at the bottom of the kiln. The skipped air inlets serve as the air inlets. 18  Step 3: Covering and firing the kiln • Light the dry twigs in the metal grill to fire the kiln. • Cover kiln with the cone shaped cover without its detach- able lid. • Wait until the fire gets the bottom of the kiln through the metal grill and place the detachable small lid. • Cover the seams between the cylinders with soil to make the kiln air tight. Step 4: Monitoring of the kiln • Monitor the smoke emitted from the chimney. Dense white smoke indicates that the carbonisation is progressing well • A bluish smoke indicates carbonization is complete. It takes and takes about 24 hours for carbonization to complete. Step 5: Cooling and harvesting of charcoal • Remove the chimneys and close the air inlets completely to avoid further carbonisation. As the chimneys may be slightly hot, use protective materials while removing them.  Leave the kiln to cool for 12-24 hours before removing the charcoal. 19 6.0 BRIQUETTE PRODUCTION A briquette is a block of compressed organic material that is used as fuel instead of charcoal, fire- wood or mineral coal. Use of briquettes reduces cutting of trees for woodfuel. Briquettes are more environmentally friendly as they smoke less than firewood and charcoal. They also have an economic advantage of using materials that would otherwise be discarded as waste. 6.1 Making briquettes 6.1.1 Materials and equipment Materials  Charcoal dust Materials that are used for briquette making include:  Saw dust  Wood shavings  Bagasse (from waste sugar cane)  Tree seed shells e.g. croton seed shells, Melia volkensii shells  Agricultural waste e.g. coffee husks, rice husks, coconut shells, maize cobs, wheat/  Waste paper beans/barley straws, groundnut and macadamia shells Binders: There are various materials that can be used as binders e,g i. Commercial Starch ii. Cassava iii. Clay, red soil or any other fine soil etc iv. Waste paper v. Gum exudates from trees vi. Cow dug vii. Wax viii.Molasses ix Lim e The first four are the most commonly used binders Water – for mixing the binder and the raw materials Equipment Briquettes can be made by hand but the product will not be as compact as required. Consequently, briquetting equipment have been fabricated for increased compaction and production. Equipment used for making briquettes can either be manually operated or motorised. Manual charcoal briquette machine (left) and a motorised charcoal briquette machine (right) 20 6.1.2 Steps in making briquettes  Collect the raw materials and binders. Step 1: Preparation of materials  Carbonize raw materials if it is not carbonized to reduce production of smoke when the  There are various types of carbonizers; portable cylindrical structures, used oil drums, open briquette is used. air carbonizers and constructed troughs made from bricks. Apart from charcoal dust, all other uncarbonized materials must be carbonized. Portable cylindrical carbonizers – mainly used for rice husks  Sort/sieve the raw material using a wire mesh to remove unwanted particles – stones, wood Step 2: The briquette production process  Chop or crush the selected biomass material into small pieces. However material such as chips etc  Mix the selected biomass with appropriate binder. coffee husks, rice husks, sawdust do not require shredding  The binder is added and mixed thoroughly to enhance compactness and prevent the substrate from falling apart or crumbling down. The amount of binder used is a ratio of the carbonized  Mixing ratios of selected binder to biomass: material. – For rice husk and wood chips, the binder should comprise 3-5% – For sawdust, charcoal dust, the binder should comprise 10%. – Ensure the binder does not exceed 10% regardless of the type of biomass For more information on how to prepare binders refer to Appendix 3 Measuring the raw materials and the binder (left) adding bidder to raw material (right)  Add water to the mixture of biomass and binder to make it loose and easy to work with 21  Take a handful of the mixture and squeeze to make a ball to test the effectiveness of the binder. Mixing raw material and binder (left) Adding water to the mixture (right)  Pour the mixture into the pressing machine and compact it using a rod. Push out the compacted If the mixture remains firm ,it is ready for pressing. briquette from the machine. Compacting the mixture using a rod Freshly produced briquettes  Dry the briquettes under shade away from direct sunlight for 3-5 days depending on the weather. Protect the briquettes from water.  Package the dry briquette and store them in a dry place. Step 3:Packaging, storage and transportation  Avoid piling of the packaged briquettes during storage and transportation to reduce breakages. 22 7.0 REFERENCES ESDA Energy for Sustainable Development Africa. (2005). National Charcoal Survey: Exploring the potential for a sustainable charcoal industry in Kenya. A product of the Kenya Charcoal Working Group. June 2005. Pgs. 74 FAO Forestry Paper 63, 1985. Industrial Charcoal Making. Mechanical Wood Products Branch, Forest Industries Division. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) Forestry Department. FAO UN Rome 1985. www.fao.org/docrep KEFRI, 2006a. Charcoal production using improved earth, portable metal, drum and Casamance kiln. Published and distributed by the Kenya Forestry Research Institute Pp 19 KEFRI, 2006b. Tree seed handbook of Kenya Nairobi, Kenya. Published and distributed by the Kenya Forestry Research Institute. Pp 284 Ministry of Environment, Water and Natural Resources (MEWNR), 2013. Analysis of demand and supply of wood products in Kenya. WANLEYS Consultancy Services, Nairobi, Kenya National Environment Management Authority (NEMA). 2011.Status of the Environment and outlook 2010. 23 8.0 APPENDICES 8.1 List of trees suitable for charcoal production Botanical Common / Local Quality of Other uses Seed Pre-treatment Names names Charcoal maturity methods periods Acacia Hook thorn or wait-a- Very Fuel wood , fencing June-July Cut the seed coat mellifera bit thorn (Standard good posts, bee forage using a sharp knife Name),Iti (Taita), or nail clipper or Muthia (Kamba), Soak in water over Muthigira (Kikuyu, night. Embu) Ebunyu (Tur- kana), Bilei (Somali) Oete (Masai) Acacia Falcon Claw Thorn Good Fuel wood , bee June-July Cut the seed coat polyacantha , (Standard Name), forage using a sharp , knife Mwea, Kivovoa, or nail clipper or (Kamba), Oyongo, Soak in cold water Ogongo (Luo) Mk- over night Standard Nameewa (Kiswahili) Acacia Iunga (Kamba) Very Fuel wood , bee July- Cut the seed coat hockii good forage September using a sharp knife or nail clipper or Soak in cold water over night Acacia Egyptian Thorn Very Fuel wood July-August Cut the seed coat nilotica, (Standard Name), good ,medicinal, fodder, using a sharp knife Musemei (Kamba), bee forage or nail clipper or Mchemeli (Taita) Soak in cold water Tugerr (Somali), over night Mgunga (Kiswahili), Burguge (Boran), Opokwo (Pokot) Acacia seyal, White Thorn (Standard Good Fuel wood , Gum July, Cut the seed coat Name) Mungololia Arabic , fodder December using a sharp knife (Taita), Musewa or nail clipper or (Kamba) Mugunga Soak in cold water (Kiswahili), Fullai over night (Somali) Ole-Digeldi (Masai) Acacia Nguolea (Taita) Very Fuel wood , July – Cut the seed coat horrida, good Fencing materials , September using a sharp , knife bee forage or nail clipper or Soak in cold water over night Acacia Sudan Gum Arabic Good Gum Arabic, fuel July-August Cut the seed coat senegal (Standard Name) wood using a sharp knife Kikwata (Taita), or nail clipper or Mung’ole (Kamba) Soak in cold water Ekonoit (Turkana) over night 24 Acacia Mukaguba (Taita), Good Fodder ,fuel wood, July-August Cut the using a sharp tortilis, Muaa ( Kamba), bee forage seed coat using a ChemStandard sharp knife or nail Namealyon (Pokot), clipper or Soak in Dacach (Boran), Kura cold water over night (Somali), Ses (Pokot), Ltepes (Samburu) Acacia Kiunga (Kamba), Good Fodder, bee forage, July- Cut the seed coat drepanolobium fuel wood September using a sharp knife or nail clipper or Soak in cold water over night Acacia Mweya (Kamba) Good Fuel wood, fodder, February Cut the seed coat xanthophloea Kuth Ataro (Luo), bee forage &December knife or nail clipper Olerai(Masai), or Soak in cold water Mwelela(Taveta), over night Murera (Kikuyu) Acacia Sigere(Taita), Very Fuel wood, fodder , July- Nicked seed coat elatior Kiswahili(Kamba) good bee forage September knife or nail clipper or Soak in cold water over night Acacia Muthi , Munina ( Good Fuel wood, fodder, July – Cut the seed coat gerrardii Kamba) bee forage September knife or nail clipper or Soak in cold water over night Balanites Desert Date(- Medium Fodder, fuel wood, June to Au- Soak in cold water aegyptiaca, Standard Name) bee forage gust over night. Mulului(Kamba), Baddan(Boran) , Mjuju(Kiswahili) Mukagani(Taita), Odhio(Luo) Balanites Kibugwa (Kamba) Medium Fuel wood, fodder N/A Cut the seed coat maughamii using a sharp knife or nail clipper or Soak in cold water over night Croton Mukinduri (Kikuyu), Medium Fuel wood, medicinal, June -July Pre-treatment not megalocarpus Kithulu (Kamba), poles, tool handles, necessary , Musine (Luhya) bee forage, timber, Masineitet(Nandi) fodder, mulch and green manure Croton Mutundu (Kamba) Medium Medicinal, timber, September Pre-treatment not macrotachyus Musudzu(Luhya), bee forage, mulch or and necessary Omusoso (Kisii), green manure. December Mukinduri(Meru, Embu, Kikuyu) 25 Combretum Kiama (Kamba) Good Fuel wood, February- Pre-treatment not molle furniture, posts, March necessary tool handles, carving medicine, fodder and bee forage. Combretum Mutithi (Kamba) Good Fuel wood, timber, February- Pre-treatment not schumannii furniture, posts, tool March necessary handles, carving medicine, fodder and bee forage. Calodendrum Cape Chest nut ( Good Timber fuel wood, Feb /March Pre-treatment not capense Standard Name) tool handles, bee necessary Mucarage, Murarachi forage, aesthetic, (Kikuyu), Yangu medicine and shade (Kamba), Ol-Larashi (Maasai), Mutimueru, Mujai (Meru), Larachi (Samburu), Mogorusi (Taita) Delonix Muange (Kamba), Medium Aesthetic, August/Sep Cut the seed coat elata Sukela (Boran), using a sharp knife Lebbi(Somali) or nail clipper or Soak in cold water over night Dalbergia African Blackwood (- Good Carving, July /Aug Pre-treatment not melonoxylon Standard Name) necessary , Mw Standard Nameo (Meru) Samachi (Boni) Mbaranguluwe (Digo), Muvingo (Kamba) Mpingo (Kiswahili) Markhamia Kyoo (Kamba), Good Soil improvement, Feb-march & Pre-treatment not lutea, Siala(Luo) Mobet Fuel wood , June -August necessary (Nandi) Muho, Muu aesthetic (Kikuyu) Olea African wild Olive Very Fuel wood, shade, September & Pre-treatment not africana tree (Standard good March necessary var Name), Muthata europea (Kamba, Meru, Embu), Mkumbi (Taita), Mutamaiyu (Kikuyu), Jerso (Somali), Lorien (Samburu) Terminalia Hareri(Somali) Mutoo Good Construction and August Cut the outer coat prunioides, (Mutoo) (Kamba), fencing posts ,poles &March with sharp knife to Mwangati, Mwangati- ,tools handle and expose the radical Punda, Mwalambe carving end of the seed. (Swahili) 26 Terminalia Baresa (Boran) Biress Good Curving, posts, tool August & Dewing, nip and brownii (Somali) ,Epiyei handles, medicine, March soak in water over (Turkana) , Muuku soil night (Kamba) improvement/mulch Terminalia Mutula (Kamba) Good Posts for August & Dewing, nip and spinosa Construction and March soak in water over fencing posts , Fuel night wood , aesthetic Tarchonanthus Oleleshwa (Maasai) Good Fuel wood, charcoal N/A N/A camphoratus Tamarindus Tamarind(Standard Good Fruits ,shade Feb, June, Pour boiling water indica Name) , Kithumula Sept, Oct. over seeds and allow (Kamba ) Muthithu cooling for 24 hours. (Meru) Roka (Samburu) Mkiwachu (Taita), Mkwaju (Kiwsahili), Euclea Mukinyai(Kamba) Good Natural Dye N/A N/A divinorum Exotic tree species suitable for charcoal production Casuarina Horsetail tree, Good Poles, soil Feb-March Pre-treatment not equisetiflolia whistling pine improvement necessary (Standard Name) Mvinje (Swahili) Gmelina White Teak (Standard medium Timber, fuel wood, Dec-Jan Pre-treatment not aborea Name) aesthetic necessary Melina (Kiswahili) Senna Muchingiri (Kikuyu) medium Aesthetic, bee June -Sept Pre-treatment not spectabilis forage necessary Jacaranda Mucakarada(Kikuyu) Good Aesthetic, bee May –July Pre-treatment not mimosifolia forage necessary Azadirachta Neem(Standard Name) Good Medicinal, curving, April-June No Pre-treatment ( indica timber, furniture ,bee sow when fresh Mkilifi (Swahili), forage, wind control, soap making and Mwarubaini(Swahili) , poles Senna Mjohoro (Swahili), Medium Fuel wood, aesthetic, June –Sept. Pour boiling water siamea Ikengeta (Kamba), soil improvement , over seeds and allow Oyieko (Luo) bee forage cooling for 24 hours. Prosopis Mesquite, (Standard Very Fodder, bee forage All year Expose seed to juliflora name), Mathenge, Good round. termite to eat up Eterai(Turkana) Mulacha the pulp. (Taita) 27 Eucalyptus River Red Gum tree Medium Pole, posts, Timber All year Pre-treatment not calmaldulensis (Standard Name) Mu- round necessary sanduku( Kamba) Munywa maii (Kikuyu) Eucalyptus Grey ironbark tree (- Medium Timber for heavy all year Pre-treatment not paniculata Standard Name) construction, poles round necessary Musanduku ( Kamba) ,posts, 28 APPENDIX 2: IMPORTANT TOOLS AND FACILITIES FOR TREE NURSERY ESTABLISHMENT. Tools and Facilities Fence Fencing around the nursery is important to keep off intruders and animals Water drum For water storage -necessary if the source of water is not near This is where potting and pricking out is done. It provides shade to the young Nursery shed plants. Seed beds Are nursery structures for raising seedling before they are transferred into pots Rakes, shovels, jembe,pangas, jerry can, slasher, file, soil sieve, Tools wheelbarrow, watering can, pair of scissors, kitchen knife, pruning knife, tin with perforated holes. FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN ESTABLISHING A TREE NURSERY A tree nursery should be located in a site that:-  Accessibility-should be easily accessible;  Water -Has reliable water supply;  Gently Sloping- Has level terraced ground or undulating ground to allow free flow of water;  Security -Secure from wind, animal and even people;  Sizable land - this will depend on available space, labour, water, required and number of seedlings;  Tools such jembe, panga, spade, wheelbarrow should be available. Other recommended tools include slasher, knife, sieve, watering can and a water drum;  Soil mixture that include forest soil, sand, manure;  Potting material and seeds – Ensure adequate provision. 29 APPENDIX 3: BINDER PREPARATION BINDER PREPARATION COMMENTS  Collect and crush soil particles  Sieve to remove big debris Soil can be clay or red soil. The  Mix with raw materials. Soil ratio should be3- 5% of the raw material.  Cut cassava into pieces and dry for  Grind into fine flour and sieve week or until dry., Cassava  Pour the flour in boiling water and Ratio should not exceed 10% cook into a porridge (uji)for a few  On cooling mixing with raw materials minutes  Source the starch from shops Commercial  Prepare a porridge ( UJI)  Mix with the raw materials Ratio should not exceed 10% Starch  Cut the papers into small pieces,  Soak them in water and use mortar and Wastepaper pestle to crush them and make paper Ratio should not exceed 10%  Dilute with little water before mixing pulp  Dilute molasses in water at ratio 1:5 with raw materials (1;3) Molasses (Mollases to water ) before mixing with Ratio should not exceed 10% raw material 30 Glossary /Definitions  Bagasse – Is the fibrous matter that remains after juice is extracted from after sugarcane. is crushed to extract their juice  Briquette – A briquette is a block of compressed organic material that is used as fuel in- stead of charcoal, firewood or mineral coal like charcoal  Calorific value– The quantity of heat produced by the complete combustion of a given mass of a fuel, expressed in joules per kilogram  Carbonise – A process of converting organic material into carbon through pyrolysis (heat- ing of an organic material in absence of oxygen)  Charcoal – Charcoal is a light, brittle, soft and black material that is a residue of solid organic matter that results from incomplete carbonisation by heat in the absence of air at temperature above 300°C.  Jembe – A hoe, an implement for digging the ground  Micro-catchment – A form of water harvesting structure used in agricultural and reforesta- tion practices  Molasses – A brown thick and sticky viscous by-product of the of the refining of sugar- cane into sugar  Panga – A broad blade machete  Seed pre-treatment –It is a process for enhancing seed germination.  Slasher –An implement with a long sharp blade used to clear grass or bushes 31 32 33