Human Rights for Development An international training programme on human rights in development with a focus on children’s rights 30 July-24 August 2012 Antwerp, Belgium Summary report Edited by Ellen Desmet, Beth Duff, Sara Lembrechts, Didier Reynaert, Wouter Vandenhole and Kathy Vlieghe Human Rights for Development  Human Rights for Development An international training programme on human rights in development with a focus on children’s rights 30 July to 24 August 2012 Antwerp, Belgium www.hr4dev.be COURSE REPORT The training programme is organised jointly by With the cooperation of With the financial support of ISBN: 9789074751438 D/2013/2818/01 Proceedings of the ITP 2012, Antwerp 2013 Table of contents INTRODUCTION 1 COURSE REPORT 2 1. About the course 2 2. Course background 2 3. Course conveners 3 4. Course objectives 3 5. Course themes 4 6. Working methods 5 7. Information about participants 7 8. Profile of lecturers 10 9. Course evaluation 10 10. Outcomes and impact of the course 12 11. Financial support 13 12. Recurrent challenges 14 SELECTED PAPERS 15 Implementing a human rights based approach (HRBA) to development for the realization of Indigenous Peoples' self-determination in the Arctic Dorothee Cambou 16 Looking at the Bolivian community in São Paulo with a Human Rights Based Approach to the Right to Development Laura Degaspare Monte Mascaro 23 Applying Human Rights-Based Approaches in Development Practice – A Case Study from Haiti Liesbet Dewallef 44 i Where does "Development" fit in Early Childhood Care and Education? Diana Didilica 54 Human Rights Based Approach to Development: Is it Applicable? The Case of Palestine Haneen Ghazawneh 66 Human Rights Based Approach and children’s rights to education: a challenge in “constant process” in Peru Rosina Vanessa Sanchez Jimenez 80 Neoliberalism, deprived populations and Human Rights: The Case of Adivasi people in Jharkhand India Antony Puthumattathil 90 APPENDIX 101 1. Programme 102 2. Evaluation of the content of the programme 106 3. Biographies 110 ii Introduction This report offers a retrospective view on the International Training Programme Human Rights for Development – HR4DEV, held in Antwerp, Belgium, from 30 July to 24 August 2012. Part I provides some general information about the course, the participants and the speakers, followed by the main results of the course’s evaluation. Con- sequently, it highlights the course outcomes, its impact, the financial situation and some future challenges for the course organisers. Part II presents a selection of reflection papers written by some of the par- ticipants. All participants submitted a paper in which they offered interesting insights into the ways in which a training programme like this can help change practices and approaches in the field of human rights, children’s rights and development. The selection of essays presented here may therefore serve as an example of good practices for others. A final word of thanks goes to our sponsors for their invaluable financial sup- port, to the advisory board for their expert advice and moral support, and to all guest lecturers. Also, we would like to thank Jakub Dysarz, Beth Duff and Sara Lembrechts for their great help and assistance before, during and after the course. We hope to inform you soon about future editions of the course, and wish you a pleasant reading! Prof. Wouter Vandenhole Prof. Stephan Parmentier Dr. Didier Reynaert Dr. Giselle Corradi Dr. Ellen Desmet Ms. Kathy Vlieghe Ms. Terry Amssoms Report: Sara Lembrechts Introduction – 1  COURSE REPORT 1. About the course The international training programme Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) mapped the potential and limits of human rights in development and development cooperation, with a specific focus on children’s rights. Divided into two parts, the main themes included a contextualisation of human rights in the development debate, paradigms of human rights and development, critical approaches to children’s rights in theory and practice, and global challenges to children’s rights. The course targeted ‘leaders of the future’ in practice, policy and academia. 2. Course background The HR4DEV-programme consisted of two modules; a general part (two weeks on human rights and development – Module 1), and a thematic part (two weeks on children’s rights and globalisation – Module 2). Whilst only recently intro- duced, the general part built on the experiences of the summer courses in human rights that were organised in Flanders over the past 15 years, with participation from the universities of Ghent and Leuven, and academic institu- tions in the Netherlands, the United States and South Africa. The thematic part on children’s rights was a continuation of the successful and highly valued course on Children’s Rights in a Globalised World. This children’s rights course has a long tradition. Initially organised as a 10-day course by Ghent University, it developed into a joint initiative of the University of Antwerp, Ghent University, the University College Ghent and KU Leuven, in close cooper- ation with the Children’s Rights Knowledge Centre (KeKi). The creation in 2010 of a Flemish Interuniversity Research Network in the field of law and development (LAW&DEV), bringing together all experts at Flemish universities in this field, offered new opportunities for cooperation. By joining 2 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) forces with LAW&DEV, the knowledge and expertise available in Flanders and in our international networks were pooled in a joint training programme. 3. Course conveners Flanders has a lot of expertise in human rights, children’s rights and de- velopment. Each year, a number of young researchers present themselves at the Flemish research networks for research on these topics. As a result, HR4DEV was organised as a joint initiative of two Flemish interuniversity part- nerships: the Flemish Interuniversity Research Network on Law and Develop- ment (LAW&DEV) and the Children’s Rights Knowledge Centre (KeKi), in coop- eration with the Institute of Development Policy and Management (University of Antwerp). Flemish Interuniversity Research Network on Law and Development The institutional members of LAW&DEV are: the University of Antwerp (Prof. Dr. Koen De Feyter and Prof. Dr. Wouter Vandenhole), KU Leuven (Prof. Dr. Stephan Parmentier and Prof. Dr. Paul Lemmens), Ghent University (Prof. Dr. Eva Brems and Dr. Giselle Corradi) and the Free University of Brussels (Prof. Dr. Stefaan Smis and Drs. Eric Ebong Ebolo). Children’s Rights Knowledge Centre KeKi is an interdisciplinary centre, supported by an interuniversity platform of researchers affiliated with the following institutions: the University of Antwerp (Prof. Dr. Wouter Vandenhole), the Free University of Brussels (Prof. Dr. Els Dumortier), Ghent University (Prof. Dr. Rudi Roose), University College Ghent (Dr. Didier Reynaert) and KU Leuven (Prof. Dr. Johan Put). 4. Course objectives The training programme Human Rights for Development aimed at promoting knowledge, insight and skills in the field of human rights (including children’s rights) and at developing young leaders in policy, practice and academia. The training was designed to enable participants to pass on the knowledge and skills in their own work sphere (according to the train-the-trainers model), and to stimulate critical and strategic reflection on the integration of human rights (including children’s rights) in their professional activities. The course organisers tried to achieve equitable geographical representation of participants from all continents. In so doing, the Flemish expertise was com- plemented with expertise from other regions, stimulating contacts with and between experts and practitioners from the global South (see Section 7 below). HR4DEV was not exclusively organised for participants from the global South. It was an explicit choice to expose participants from North and South to the views of participants from other continents. They were able to exchange information, knowledge and tools that are relevant across the continents. Course report – 3 5. Course themes In recent decades, a human rights approach to development has been increas- ingly attractive to multilateral organisations (including UNDP, WHO, UNICEF, OECD-DAC, EU, etc.), as well as to bilateral donors and to many non-govern- mental development organisations in the global North and South. Three main themes dominate the debate, often with contradictory points of view: 1. The universality of human rights is sometimes questioned, recently e.g. with regard to non-discrimination with respect to sexual orientation. More specifically concerning children’s rights, it is a contentious issue whether the application of children’s rights covers the same concerns, achievements and questions in the global North and South; 2. Structural inequality between global North and South, and the human rights potential to realise global justice in light of the challenges presented by globalisation; 3. Practical operationalisation and added value of human rights principles such as participation, accountability, non-discrimination and empowerment. Particularly as regards children’s rights, there is on-going debate as to the na- ture and strategic added value of children’s rights’ approaches to global prob- lems such as poverty, environmental challenges, armed conflict and migration. Besides the need for knowledge and competence, a platform for critical and strategic reflection on the potential and limitations of a human rights approach to development was welcomed. HR4DEV was conceptualised as a platform for such reflection. HR4DEV addressed the abovementioned key discussion themes vertically as well as transversally during both modules of the course from the approach of human rights and then children’s rights. Discussed vertically were: • Universality: 1) human rights: in the day themes on universality and on human rights & legal pluralism; 2) children’s rights: in the multidisciplinary introduc- tion on children’s rights based approaches (anthropological perspective); • Structural inequality: 1) human rights: in the day themes on development (cooperation) paradigms, on the right to development and on transnational human rights obligations; 2) children’s rights: throughout the day themes of the final week (including global poverty, gender, cultural diversity, migration and armed conflict); • Practical operationalisation and added value of human rights principles: 1) human rights: in the day themes on human rights and violent conflict, human rights and legal pluralism, human rights-based approaches to development; 2) children’s rights: themes on strategies and methodologies for implemen- tation and children’s rights education; • The nature and the strategic added value of children’s rights: themes on critical approaches, poverty, environmental challenges, migration and armed conflict. 4 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) 6. Working methods Lectures and workshops The methodology of the course consisted principally of a mixture of lec- tures and workshops. The emphasis was placed on capacity building and knowledge acquisition, as well as on offering a platform for critical and strategic reflection. This was realised by devoting explicit themes to this topic (e.g. universality of human rights, critical perspectives), by means of the programme structure (confrontation of several disciplinary perspec- tives, approaches and schools), and through the working methods (working groups, open forums, paper). A schematic overview of the programme can be found in Appendix 1. A course of four weeks offered considerable time to the participants to integrate this critical and strategic reflection in their own thinking. Introductory lectures were followed by questions and answers, and time for discussion. Small(er) working groups were established so that participants were able to actively di- gest and discuss new insights. Open Forum In previous editions, participants made clear that they wanted to have more opportunities within the programme to share ideas and working experiences. In order to accommodate this need, four afternoons in the course were allocated for the option of holding an “Open Forum”. Participants took the floor to present and discuss a topic of their particular interest, such as the human rights situa- tion in China, Palestine and India. Individual Assignment General Purpose Participants of the HR4DEV-programme were expected to critically reflect on their own understanding of human rights in development (cooperation) and opportunities and challenges for adopting a human rights approach to their work. They were asked to identify ways in which their understanding and practice could be enriched by insights gained from lectures, discussions and group-work during the course and how they wanted to use this newly gained information. The course was intended to reach out to trainers and high-level professionals, who could themselves share the insights and knowledge that they had acquired in the course. The individual assignment was aimed at encouraging critical re- flection on one’s own professional work in the field of human and/or children’s rights, and at the promulgation of good practices. Concrete design Participants were expected to write an essay of maximum 5,000 words (if participating for 4 weeks) or 2,500 words (if only participating for 2 weeks) in which they: Course report – 5 • Explained their current professional activities in the field of human rights/ children’s rights; • Critically reflected on these activities on the basis of lessons learnt from the course; • Translated these reflections and lessons in to specific intentions for their future professional activities. Guidance and Feedback Participants got the opportunity to obtain guidance and feedback at various stages of their assignment. Even before the course had started, they could find information on the purpose and design of the paper in the course programme booklet. These expectations were further clarified by the course organisers in an introductory session at the start of each module. In addition, participants could submit their abstracts for peer review at the start of week 3, when one Open Forum was dedicated to a preliminary feedback session for those inter- ested. It was also possible to approach lecturers and organisers on an individu- al basis throughout the course. Finally, some general remarks about the quality and content of the papers were shared during the closing session, followed by individual feedback via email upon request. A selection of essays, representative of the different expectations, perspectives, intentions and professional areas, is published in Part II of this report. Group-work General Purpose During the first week of Module 2 on children’s rights, participants were expect- ed to prepare an assignment in a collective setting. The purpose of this assign- ment was for participants to demonstrate that they understand the frameworks of Human Rights and Development and/or Children’s Rights and their under- lying ideas and concepts. Course members were expected to show they could make use of these frameworks in social practices and critically reflect on them. Concrete design In seven small groups of four to eight people, participants interacted and explored the course contents together, in particular the multidisciplinary perspectives on children’s rights and the strategies and methodologies for implementation. The purpose of the group work was to deepen the under- standing of key issues through peer discussion. Participants were encouraged to form groups across disciplines and geographical backgrounds. They could consult the course readers provided, the library of the University of Antwerp, as well as the invited experts of the day. Throughout the collective assignment, the four key themes of the course were to be used as a guideline, i.e. universality; structural inequality; practical operationalisation of rights-based approaches to development; and added val- ue of children’s rights and human rights. 6 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) Presentation At the end of the week, time was allocated for presentations and discus- sion. Each group had 10-15 minutes to present the outcome of its collective deliberations. The themes covered included: violence against children (child marriage), the right to participation, the right to quality education, juvenile justice, the right to health, and economic / sexual exploitation of children (labour and trafficking). Groups used role-play, discussion fora, PowerPoint presentations and participatory research in a multicultural area of Antwerp to come up with highly creative presentations. 7. Information about participants The HR4DEV International Training Programme reached out to professionals from NGOs, national human rights organisations, the government, interna- tional organisations, academics and doctoral students, as well as grass root workers and policy makers. More than 350 candidates applied for the course. Given its setup as a residential training course rather than a conference, it was a conscious choice to limit the group. As a result, 48 highly qualified partic- ipants from diverse cultures, disciplines and professional backgrounds were eventually admitted. Selection criteria included university training, professional experience, different backgrounds and disciplines, gender, and geographical spreading. 27 participants followed the entire course, 7 participated only in Module 1 (Human Rights for Development), and 14 in Module 2 (Children’s Rights). In addition, 7 persons were offered the opportunity to attend specific sessions.1 Figure 1. Gender distribution (total: 48) 1 These latter 7 persons are not included in the statistics portrayed below. Course report – 7 Gender and regional distribution Out of a total of 48, there were double as many female (32) as male (16) partic- ipants (Figure 1). Five geographical regions were represented: 13 participants originated from the African continent, 13 from Europe (of which 6 from Bel- gium), 11 from Asia, 6 from the Middle East & North Africa, and 5 from the Americas (Figure 2). The number of nationalities represented was 33 (Figure 3). As far as the country of residence is concerned (Figure 4), the largest proportion of trainees (excluding Belgium) travelled from the African region (11), followed by 8 participants from Asia, 6 from Europe, 4 from the Americas, 4 from the Middle East & North Africa and 1 from the Pacific. A high number of partici- pants resident in Belgium were also attracted to the course (14). This is mainly to be explained by the fact that the course was recognised as a doctoral school, so that PhD students at the Flemish universities were eligible for funding. Inter- estingly, many of these PhD students residing in Flanders come from different regions in the world. Figure 2. Region of origin (total: 48) Figure 3. Nationalities represented (total: 33) 6 participants 3 participants 2 participants 1 participant 8 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV)  Figure 4. Region of residence (total: 48) Professional background Professional diversity being one of the selection criteria for the course, par- ticipants were active in a wide variety of sectors. From a total of 49 responses (multiple answers possible), the largest group of participants were active in re- search (18), another 13 participants worked in the non-profit sector, 8 in public administration, 7 for international organisations, and 3 in other areas. Educational background The question in which discipline the participants graduated received 62 responses (multiple answers possible) and is represented in Figure 6. Only a limited number of participants had a legal background (14). As is shown by the graph on the professional background (see Figure 5), none of the participants with a legal background is currently professionally active in the judiciary or bar. Lawyers were very closely followed by sociologists (13). Psychology, de- velopment studies and “other” disciplines each accounted for 8 participants. In addition, 4 people had a background in international relations, 3 in anthropology, 2 in social work, 1 in educational sciences and 1 in history. Figure 5. Professional background (total: 49) Course report – 9  Figure 6. Educational background (total: 62) 8. Profile of lecturers In selecting 28 experts to lecture in the HR4DEV International Training Programme, the organisers focused on quality and diversity. The lecturers constituted a multidisciplinary group including academics in human rights, law, economics, development studies, anthropology, educational sciences, sociology and social work. More than half of the lecturers were professionally active in Belgium (17 out of a total of 28). This high number bears testimony to the tremendous expertise that is currently available in Belgium. Other lecturers work in Afghanistan (C. Rondeaux), Argentina (Prof. P. Ceriani Cernades), Chile (Prof. J. Aylwin), India (Prof. A. Punj), the Netherlands (Prof. K. Cheney & Prof. C. Ryngaert), South Africa (Dr. B.D. Mezmur), Switzerland (Prof. K. Hanson) and the United Kingdom (Prof. M.B. Dembour & Prof. C. Lennox). There were slightly more male (16) than female speakers (12). 9. Course evaluation An extensive evaluation procedure has been set in order to closely monitor the participants’ assessment of strengths and weaknesses. This was done in two ways: by online evaluation forms and by a collective feedback session on the last day of the course. Participants were asked to actively take part in both processes. Given the high participation rate in the online evaluation surveys (88% for the survey on Module 1, 87% for the survey on Module 2 and 85% for the overall eval- uation), the results offer strong guidance for future editions. Evaluation on a daily basis At the start of each module, participants received an individualised link to an online evaluation survey via LimeService. Each day, they were asked to evalu- ate the speakers, lectures and activities organised. Participants were invited to 10 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) assess the content, quality and clarity of the lecture, as well as the quality of the complementary lecture materials contained in the course reader. In addition, the participants were asked to indicate whether there had been sufficient time for discussion and whether they had had the opportunity to make any additional comments, both practical and content-based. All questions were asked positively. Participants graded all different categories on a scale of six options - ranging from very negative (“I fully disagree” (A1)) to very positive (“I fully agree” (A6)). Individualised feedback has been provided to the lecturers and workshops facil- itators, with respect to their contribution. The general results are summarised below. Evaluation of Module 1 (Human Rights for Development) In total, 30 out of 34 participants (88%) took part in the survey for Module 1. The lectures and workshop covered a wide range of subjects, including the universality of human rights, development (cooperation), human rights based approaches, the right to development, legal pluralism, violent conflict, resource exploitation and transnational human rights obligations. On the whole, participants were positive to very positive in their evaluation of the lectures. The topics of “The case of global health”, “Emerging frameworks on transnational human rights obligations” and “Human rights & violent conflict” were particularly appreciated. Participants were more critical about the workshops. In all five cases, they doubted whether the methods used were appropriate and highlighted a lack of time to sufficiently explain and discuss the issues at hand. Evaluation of Module 2 (Children’s Rights and Globalisation) In total, 36 out of 41 participants (87%) took part in the survey for Module 2. Similarly, in this part of the course, a great diversity of topics was discussed. In particular, lectures and workshops addressed children’s rights as human rights, a historical and anthropological perspective on children’s rights, critical approaches, strategies and methodologies for implementation, human and children’s rights education, global poverty, gender & cultural diversity, migration and armed conflict. Additionally, participants attended a session on the African Committee on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, and got the opportunity to join a Children’s Rights Walk through Antwerp as well as an extra-curricular excursion to Ghent. Also, an optional session was offered on how to organise a children’s rights course yourself. Participants were, as in Module 1, positive to very positive towards the lectures, especially about the three sessions on the last day of the course on “Transitional Justice”, “Experiences from the African Committee” and “Children in Armed Conflict”. The session on “Unaccompanied minors in Europe” also scored highly. Even though the workshops were also evaluated less positively than the lectures, the contrast between lectures and workshops was not as significant as in Module 1. In this regard, participants indicated that they particularly appreciated the fact that lecturers from the morning session could do a workshop in the afternoon, instead of speakers continually changing (which was not achieved in Module 1). Course report – 11 Overall evaluation At the end of the course, another evaluation survey was conducted in order to assess participants’ general appreciation of the course, including questions on the course organisation, the course content, the assignments, the catering and the evaluation process itself. Here, a total of 41 out of 48 participants (85%) completed the survey. An overview of these results can be found in Appendix 2. Both the evaluation surveys and the oral feedback session showed that the course was a success. All survey-questions were asked positively (e.g. “the programme has improved my knowledge on the subject matter”) and answered almost exclu- sively in positive or highly positive terms (mainly by “I agree (A5)” or “I fully agree (A6)”). Participants were particularly impressed by the quality of the academic input provided, by the diversity of cultures and backgrounds represented, by the opportunities to learn, and by the involvement of the course organisers, also on a personal level. They also appreciated the collective assignments. There is room for improvement in balancing the workload between Module 1 and 2, in particular in order to allow for more time to finalize the paper assignment. Participants also expressed the wish to incorporate more context- specific and/or praxis-oriented input, as the course now tends to stay on a relatively theoretical level. Despite the introduction of open fora and extra sessions to share experiences among participants, there is also still a need for more exchange platforms and knowledge-transfer within the group. In general, participants were slightly more positive about Module 1, even though the difference is minor (see Appendix 2). Module 1 was perceived to be relatively more structured, coherent and critical. 10. Outcomes and impact of the course Concrete course outcomes and impacts are difficult to assess. However, the experience from several course editions, as well as the positive results from the evaluation process, allowing the following conclusions to be made. Guarantees of sustainably moving forward In addition to what participants have personally learned and acquired in terms of knowledge, expertise and critical approaches, the course makes a major contribution to the establishment and elaboration of a network of profession- als. As a follow-up to the course, there will be an on-going sharing of infor- mation and cooperation between the different participants and their respec- tive institutions. In addition, numerous participants showed interest to expand their research and teaching in the area of human rights, children’s rights and development. This will allow for the setting up of regional thematic training initiatives in the near future, thereby triggering the “multiplier effect” HR4DEV envisages. As such, participants can play a role in effectively responding to the need to offer training to grassroots workers at a more practical level, as well as to the need to fully take account of cultural diversity and local specificity when offering training programmes. 12 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) In order to ensure a sustainable follow-up, the course organizers are willing to facilitate such initiatives by • Sharing their organisational and managerial expertise (i.e. course budget- ing, course format etc.);2 • Sharing their materials (reader, background documents etc.); • Making their substantive expertise available to the extent possible (i.e. teaching at these training programmes; • Sharing their network of experts/presenters; • Actively supporting local organizers in fundraising. Course output In their individual assignment, participants explained what they experienced as the impact of the course on their professional work. A selection of these papers is presented in Part II of this comprehensive report. In addition, the course organizers intend to set-up an Alumni Network and newsletter, which will provide opportunities for future communication, friend- ship and involvement with course participants of different editions from all over the world. 11. Financial support The international appreciation of Flemish expertise on human rights, children’s rights and development is evident from the structured financial support of the HR4DEV-programme by two institutions, the Flemish Interuniversity Council – University Development Cooperation (VLIR-UOS) and UNESCO. Through this co-financing, the participation of, in total, 22 trainees and 4 experts was facilitated. VLIR-UOS funding made it possible to invite 4 experts from Argentina, Chile, India and South Africa; and 12 participants from Bangladesh, Brazil, Colombia, Ethiopia, Philippines, Kenya, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Vietnam. Moreover, thanks to UNESCO scholarships, 10 trainees from yet other countries and regions participated in the course, more specifically from China, Democratic Republic of Congo, Greece, Nigeria, Palestine, Peru, Portugal, Russia and Tanzania. This complementary funding allowed for a geographically diverse and balanced group of participants and speakers. As a consequence, a truly intercultural perspective was guaranteed throughout the course. Therefore, the course organisers see this cooperation as a mutually enriching partnership. Additionally, the course organisers managed to obtain funding from the Antwerp and Ghent Doctoral Schools, allowing 10 more participants to join the programme. These grants were distributed among PhD researchers from 2 Part of this has already been achieved in the course session on “How to set up a train- ing programme”, offered by the organizers. Course report – 13 Antwerp, Ghent and Brussels, whose thesis concerns a topic closely related to the content of the course. Three of them also presented their respective research in one of the lectures or workshop sessions, leading to a productive and mutual exchange of information. Additionally, roughly one-third of financial resources were accomplished through the registration fees of paying participants. These fees were in most instances covered by other institutions or employers, such as UNICEF, Govern- ment, NGO’s, and universities. Finally, the Children’s Rights Knowledge Centre brought in collaboration in kind of its staff. The University of Antwerp equally contributed considerably in kind by making their staff, premises and logistic support available. 12. Recurrent challenges Notwithstanding its overall success, the International Training Programme Hu- man Rights for Development (HR4DEV) is faced with some recurrent challenges. Basic orientation As regards the basic orientation of the course, at times a tension can be noticed between the critical perspective advanced by the course conveners, and the more practical questions of implementation (and beyond) put forward by some participants. Even though new initiatives such as the open forum aimed to reduce this tension, it seems to remain inherent to the advanced level of the course. This leaves future editions with the recurrent challenge to balance profound theoretical perspectives by experts with an inductive approach and sharing by participants. Diversity of experts and participants It remains a challenge to identify speakers who have expertise in the wider human and children’s rights field, while at the same time associate themselves with the critical approach of the course. In addition, participants from North and Latin America seem more difficult to reach, the reasons for this remaining unclear. Financial stability To guarantee that future editions can remain offered on a two-yearly basis, the course organisers applied for funding on a more structural basis. Both partners (VLIR-UOS and UNESCO) did register the training programmes in their budget for three years, on condition of annual approval. In the meantime the organisers should aim at the achievement of an appropriate balance between maintaining the registration fee at a reasonable level as to not unduly limit the accessibility of the course on the one hand, and financial attainability on the other. Finally, the presence of a geographically diverse palette of participants and speakers cannot be guaranteed in the future without structured funding. 14 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV)  SELECTED PAPERS Implementing a human rights based approach (HRBA) to development for the realization of Indigenous Peoples' self- determination in the Arctic Dorothee Cambou 16 Looking at the Bolivian community in São Paulo with a Human Rights Based Approach to the Right to Development Laura Degaspare Monte Mascaro 23 Applying Human Rights-Based Approaches in Development Practice – A Case Study from Haiti Lies(bet) Dewallef 44 Where does “Development” fit in Early Childhood Care and Education? Diana Didilica 54 Human Rights Based Approach to Development: Is it Applicable? The Case of Palestine Haneen Ghazawneh 66 Human Rights Based Approach and children’s rights to education: A challenge in “constant process” in Peru Rosina Vanessa Sanchez Jimenez 80 Neoliberalism, deprived populations and Human Rights: The Case of Adivasi people in Jharkhand India Antony Puthumattathil 90 Selected papers – 15 Implementing a human rights based approach (HRBA) to development for the realization of Indigenous Peoples' self-determination in the Arctic Dorothée Cambou Doctoral researcher at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Belgium 1. The right to indigenous self-determination as a research target As a doctoral researcher at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, my activities lie within the research field of International law and Human rights studies. I am currently doing a PhD focusing on the analysis of Indigenous Peoples’ right to self- determination with a specific emphasis on the right of the Sami. This research intends to enhance a better understanding of the development of Indigenous Peoples’ rights within the European and Arctic context. In this respect, my research proposal addresses the question of what it really means for Indigenous Peoples to claim a right to self-determination. The adoption of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) has confirmed that Indigenous Peoples’ rights are crystallising into rules of customary international law at the universal level. These developments have also been reflected regionally in the Inter-American and the African human rights systems. The Inter-American Court on Human rights and recently the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights have participated in the debate on Indigenous Peoples’ rights and are developing an interesting body of case-law that is contributing to the concretization and a better understanding of these rights. Even though the same issues arose in Europe and various complaints from northern indigenous communities have been made, it is still a very controversial issue in the European human rights system whether Indigenous Peoples possess rights beyond those recognized for individuals. The European human rights system is therefore almost totally absent in the debate on Indigenous Peoples’ rights. With the increasing economic relevance of the Arctic region in terms of resource exploitation and the environmental effects of climate change, combined with the recognition of indigenous rights at the universal level, the European human rights system will in the future certainly be confronted with additional Indigenous Peoples’ demands for protection. The question of indigenous self- determination in Europe needs therefore to be addressed urgently. 16 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) Research on self-determination is often limited to the political aspect of the right due to the fact that UN practice mainly focuses on that domain. In contrast, economic self-determination has never received the same attention in the UN and other circles. Since the indigenous claims are closely linked to the economic aspect of self-determination, this aspect deserves to be further investigated. So far, little attention has been given to the environment and control over natural resources exploitation in the self-determination debate, features considered as essential in many indigenous claims. The research proposal has the aim to fill this gap by focusing on the rights of Sami peoples in Northern Europe. With the increasing interest in natural resource exploitation of the Arctic and the effects of climate change on the region, there is an urgent need to better understand the legal position and rights of the Indigenous Peoples living in the Arctic region. A study of the development of Sami rights is well suited to analyse the problematic issues arising out of the indigenous right to self-determination and the corresponding access to land and natural resources. The 20% of the world’s undiscovered oil and gas reserves that the region seems to harbour is now the object of nascent international disputes. The interests of the EU and its relationship with the Arctic give additional justifications for choosing this case study as well as the fact that at the European level the topic has to a great extent been unexplored. From a broader perspective, what requires to be further analysed is the protection of human rights within the Arctic region. In particular, the development of the Arctic region must be critically assessed in respect to human rights principles. To guarantee the prevalence of human rights within the Arctic, its development should not only respect its principles but also promote them generally. Adopting a HRBA to development in the Arctic may be the key path to meet this goal. 2. Critical reflections and future research pros- pects: developing a HRBA to development for Indigenous Peoples in the Arctic With respect to the large amount of topics addressed during this summer programme, this contribution will only focus on the specific lectures relating to this research target, namely the issue of a HRBA to development within the Arctic context. The implementation of HRBA in the Arctic requires identification of both the right holders and duty bearers of human rights. To this end, the relationship between Indigenous Peoples, states and companies within the development frame of the Arctic must be analysed further. During the programme, several sessions covered these issues from different perspectives. Specific attention will be given, here, to the discussions that addressed HRBA to development, the right to development and human rights and resource exploitation. Selected papers – 17 2.1 HRBA and the development of the Arctic The scope of my research includes an analysis of the development of the Arctic region. In recent decades, climate change and the melting of sea ice have had an incredible effect on the region. In particular, the maritime traffic across the region has accelerated tremendously. Additionally, fishing, mining and drilling activities have also increased in several parts of the region. The interests generated by the economic potential of the Arctic Region have thus grown for both states and multinational corporations. Although this development can be addressed in term of opportunities, it must nevertheless be regulated so to preserve the fragile Arctic ecosystem and protect indigenous communities whose livelihood depends on land and natural resources. The application of HRBA has been mainly oriented towards supporting the development of developing countries. Yet, applying HRBA to the development of the Arctic may be a way to promote a sustainable transformation of the region while ensuring the promotion and protection of human rights values through development policies. According to Corrine Lenox, different steps must be envisaged to fulfil HRBA. Firstly, the identification of human rights claims and the corresponding obligation of all the stakeholders must be determined. Secondly, an analysis of the causes of the non-realization of rights and an assessment of the capacities of both rights holders and duties bearers must be performed. Finally, the development process must be monitored in connection with human rights principles (C. Lennox). In respect to her analysis, which emphasises the necessity to focus on minority rights within HRBA, additionally the inclusion of Indigenous Peoples’ rights as a component of the HRBA to the development of the Arctic should be satisfied. Although indigenous and minority rights may sometimes overlap, the discourse of Indigenous Peoples’ rights is defined by its specific features (collective rights and claim to self-determination). Consequently, and before applying HRBA to the Arctic, one must determine who Indigenous Peoples are and what the content of their rights entails. Answering those questions may already lead to difficulties that derive from the specificity of Indigenous Peoples’ rights within the framework of international human rights. Their collective claims and the absence of consensus over the meaning and extent of their rights over land and natural resources are in tension with the traditional framework of international human rights law. Nevertheless, those questions necessitate further analysis so as to insure that a HRBA to development can be implemented satisfactorily in the Arctic. 2.2 HRBA and Indigenous Peoples’ rights The human rights based approach to monitoring the development of the Arctic requires the realization of human rights for all. The realization of Indigenous Peoples’ rights must therefore be mainstreamed as one of the programmatic component prioritized through the development of the Arctic. In recent years, Indigenous Peoples’ rights have matured as a specific subject of international human rights. This development is supported by the United 18 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) Nations (UN) and the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, which was specifically established for dealing with the concerns of indigenous peoples in the UN system. The development of Indigenous Peoples’ rights as a specific human rights issue has also affected the United Nations Development Group (UNDG) programmes and activities. Following the adoption of the UNDRIP, UNDG has introduced in 2008 a set of guidelines targeting the issues faced by Indigenous Peoples and thereby recognizes the specificity of Indigenous People’s rights within the HRBA to development.1 These guidelines aim ‘to assist the United Nations system to mainstream and integrate Indigenous Peoples’ issues in processes for operational activities and programmes at the country level.’2 They ‘set out the broad framework for implementing a human rights-based and culturally sensitive approach to development for and with Indigenous Peoples.’3 Within its report, UNDG has identified self-determination, and threat to lands and resources as key issues faced by Indigenous Peoples. In accordance to these specific issues, it also identified the guiding principles for mainstreaming development policies. Those guiding principles are based on the UNDRIP and other relevant human rights frameworks. Yet, the UNDRIP is not a bidding document and therefore it remains problematic as to the extent and content of Indigenous Peoples’ rights. In particular, it is not clear whether Indigenous Peoples’ self-determination as proclaimed under Art. 3 UNDRIP, equates the right to self-determination of other peoples. This issue is striking because of the relationship between the right to self-determination and the right to development. According to Article 1 of the Declaration on the right to development, ‘the human right to development also implies the full realization of the right of peoples to self-determination’. Self-determination constitutes indeed a prerequisite to the realization of all others human rights. In parallel, Article 1 of both the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESR) stipulate that self-determination embodies the right for all peoples to determine their own economic, social and cultural development. Consequently, the right to development and the right to self-determination are intertwined with each other in their respective realization. Thus, the analysis of the right to self-determination constitutes an imperative in the research field of human rights and development that deserves to be better investigated so as to ensure that a HRBA to development can fully be implemented. With this view, the implementation of the HRBA to development in the Arctic requires supporting the realization of Indigenous Peoples’ right to self- determination. However, the recognition of Indigenous Peoples’ right to self-determination offers two challenges, which are analysed in my doctoral research: the identification of the right holders and the identification of what Indigenous Peoples can determine by themselves. 1 United Nations Development Group Guidelines on Indigenous Peoples Issues, February 2008, at 2 UN Development Group Guidelines on Indigenous Peoples’ Issues, at 1. 3 Ibid. Selected papers – 19 With respect to the definition of the rights holders, it remains a very controversial issue who can be considered Indigenous People under international law. Due to a lack of consensus, the UNDRIP chose not to adopt any authoritative definition. In the absence of an official definition, in practice reference is usually made to the working definition elaborated by Martinez Cobo, the UN Special Rapporteur on the study of discrimination against indigenous populations. According to this definition, ‘Indigenous populations are composed of the existing descendants of the peoples who inhabited the present territory of a country wholly or partially at the time when persons of a different culture or ethnic origin arrived there from other parts of the world, overcame them, by conquest, settlement or other means, reduced them to a non-dominant or colonial condition; who today live more in conformity with their particular social, economic and cultural customs and traditions than with the institutions of the country of which they now form part, under a state structure which incorporates mainly national, social and cultural characteristics of other segments of the population which are predominant.’4 However, this definition has its own limits and discussion remain open over whether a definition that is more inclusive and less focused on historical continuity should not be promoted. With respect to what entails the right to self-determination, there remains great controversy whether Indigenous Peoples can benefit from the same right to self-determination as other peoples. Even though Indigenous Peoples’ right to self-determination has been recognized in almost the same wording than Article 1 ICCPR, in practice it is not clear what Indigenous Peoples can legitimately claim under the scope of self-determination. This particular issue is problematic because of the cardinal position occupied by the right to self- determination within the framework of international human rights. It becomes thus a priority to determine both the content and extent of Indigenous Peoples’ right to self-determination for implementing a HRBA to development in the Arctic and elsewhere. 2.3 HRBA, resources exploitations and Indigenous Peoples’ rights Access and protection of indigenous lands and natural resources is a key component of both the indigenous right to self-determination and the right to development. Besides, UNDG recognizes that ‘land and resource issues are often at the heart of the tensions between indigenous communities and States and are often the source of human rights violations.’5 A session of the summer school was dedicated to the analysis of human rights and resource exploitation. This session helped to clarify the main problems deriving from the impact of development activities on the livelihood of Indigenous Peoples. In respect to this issue, two separate challenges can further be described: the responsibility of states to protect Indigenous Peoples’ 4 Martinez Cobo, E/CN.4/Sub.2/1986/7/Add.4, p. 29, para. 379, United Nations publica- tion, No. S.86.XIV.3. 5 UN Development Group Guidelines on Indigenous Peoples’ Issues, at 16. 20 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) right to land and natural resources, and the liability of companies in respect to violations of Indigenous Peoples’ rights. In many cases, the failure of the state to recognize the collective rights of Indigenous Peoples over lands and natural resources has been the trigger of human rights violations. Additionally, many critics have been addressed to the regime of international law because of its lack of consideration of companies as subject of international law. Even though those companies are responsible of human rights violations, there is still no mechanism capable to hold them accountable for those violations. This is a major shortcoming within the framework of international human rights. To overcome these lacunae, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights has begun to develop jurisprudence favouring the protection of Indigenous Peoples’ rights against the impact of modern activities. Adopting an evolutionary interpretation of the American Convention for Human rights, the Court now promotes the specificity of Indigenous Peoples’ rights within its case law. In particular, Indigenous Peoples’ right to collective property, to land and natural resources and their right to be consulted, have been upheld against the impact of developments occurring in the Amazonian region (Anaya). The case Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Community v. Nicaragua was the first landmark case adopted by any international court for the protection and promotion of Indigenous Peoples’ collective rights to lands. The Court held that the failure to demarcate indigenous lands, and the granting of a concession for logging within the community traditional lands, represents a violation of indigenous right to property. In its decision, the Court acknowledged that indigenous rights for property derive from their traditional use and occupancy patterns and do not depend on state recognition. This jurisprudence was further strengthened in Yakye Axa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay, whereby the court alleged that obstruction of the effective access by Indigenous Peoples of its traditional lands can translate into a violation of their right to life. Additionally, the Court concluded in Saramaka Peoples v. Suriname that Indigenous Peoples have the right to natural resources within the lands that they have traditionally occupied. In the same case, it asserted that Indigenous Peoples affected by development projects within their territories should be compensated and share the benefits resulting from those developments. More recently, the Inter-American Court has adopted a ruling favouring Indigenous Peoples’ rights against the exploration and exploitation of oil and gas within their ancestral land. The case Kichwa People of Sarayaku v. Ecuador stipulated the obligation for the state to obtain Free Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC) of Indigenous Peoples whenever a large scale development is affecting their land and territories. It thus confirmed the standards established in Saramaka and provides a better understanding of the content and scope of the FPIC principle. Together these rulings are the bases for the protection of Indigenous Peoples within and against the development of projects affecting their traditional way of life. To a certain extent, these developments were also upheld by UNDG within the ambit of its Guidelines on Indigenous Peoples’ Issues to implementing a human rights-based approach to development for Indigenous Peoples. UNDG asserts that ‘the right of Indigenous Peoples to develop their own priorities Selected papers – 21 requires that United Nations programmes and projects also take measures to involve Indigenous Peoples in all stages of the development process.’6 This confirms that Indigenous Peoples’ rights are crystalizing into international human rights customary law. The difficulties experienced by Indigenous Peoples from the Amazonia are not so different from indigenous communities living in the Arctic. A legal comparison between Indigenous Peoples’ rights in the Amazonia and the Artic may therefore foster the creation of a development model that guarantees the protection of their traditional way of life. The jurisprudence developed by the Inter-American Court may also be applied to the Arctic. Both the strength and weakness of the case law developed by the Inter-American Court can be evaluated in respect to its value for the protection of Indigenous Peoples’ rights in the Arctic and elsewhere. Whereas the development of the Amazonia is advanced, the development of the Arctic has just begun. Learning from the Amazonian experience in the field of human rights may consequently prevent the violation of Indigenous Peoples’ rights in the Arctic and enhance the realization of a sustainable development within the region. 3. Conclusion To briefly summarize this contribution, implementing a HRBA to the development of the Arctic should be promoted because such an approach can support a sustainable transformation of the region. In particular, the right to Indigenous Peoples’ self-determination and their right to land and natural resources should be primarily mainstreamed through the development of the Arctic to ensure that a HRBA to development is fulfilled. To this end, further research should be performed within this field, including an analysis of the consolidating rights of Indigenous Peoples’ rights in respect to modern activities and resources exploitations. Besides, the developments that occurred in the Amazonian region may prove useful to implement a HRBA to development in the Arctic that fulfils Indigenous Peoples’ claim for self-determination. 6 UN Development Group Guidelines on Indigenous Peoples’ Issues, at 15. 22 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) Looking at the Bolivian community in São Paulo with a Human Rights Based Approach to the Right to Development Laura Degaspare Monte Mascaro Researcher at Instituto Norberto Bobbio: cultura, democracia e direitos homanos 1. Introduction This paper uses a human rights based approach to development to analyse (i) the current public policies for Bolivian migrants in the city of Sao Paulo and (ii) how this approach could be used to implement change. One issue that has to be kept in mind is that the concept of development has changed since the 1940s, when it started to be discussed from a developed/ underdeveloped countries perspective. So far, we do not have a legally binding document establishing the right to development. However, some kind of international consensus has been reached by the United Nations (UN) in the Declaration on the Right to Development (RTD Declaration) that has a rather comprehensive view of the way in which development should be conducted by countries, individuals, peoples and communities, especially if we consider the traditional restrictive view of development as economic growth. If we analyse the 1st article of the RTD Declaration, which establishes the concept of the right to development, we realize that, metaphorically speaking, it is a snake eating its own tail: The right to development is an inalienable human right by virtue of which every human person and all peoples are entitled to participate in, contribute to, and enjoy economic, social, cultural and political development, in which all human rights and fundamental freedoms can be fully realized. (Emphasis added) It states that not only can the right to development be considered a human right, but also it is supposed to be realized through human rights (focus on the human person, participation, enjoyment of economic, social and cultural and political rights, co-operation between states, equality, non-discrimination) and, finally, it aims at achieving the full realization of human rights. Thus, it is possible to conclude that this concept of development, as well as the core norm of the right to development fleshed-out by the High Level task Force on the Implementation of the Right to Development (HTLF), is permeated with principles and concepts extracted from human rights norms and existing framework. Selected papers – 23 Although the right to development may not bring any added value to the existing human rights framework, it certainly builds a bridge of dialogue between, on the one hand, the human rights theory and its means of implementation, and on the other hand, the development theories and their means. Not only will the actors that are willing to promote development have to think of a human rights based approach for their strategies, but also the human rights actors will have a different discourse and perspective that may effect and promote human rights. Fulfilling human rights may not accelerate development in terms of global indicators or contribute to economic-growth. Moreover, some strategies that wave the human rights flag may not be adequate at all for accomplishing human rights as a whole, since there are many discussions, even on the human rights fields, when it comes to the collision of norms, minimal standards and universality of rights. Accordingly, we are not suggesting that a critical approach of human rights, or of human rights based approaches to development, should be abandoned. We are only considering the proximity and dialogue that should exist between these two platforms. However, it is clear that this dialogue will only be productive if both human rights and development are still being debated, since no consensus has been reached in both fields. For all the above, neither human rights, nor development, should be taken as dogmatic and strictly normative fields; both should be considered to have a zetetic dimension, a kin to law itself. Zetetic thinking raises the question as fundamental positioning and may not bring the final answer, but does not avoid the contingent and situational aspect of humanity. Thinking about human rights in general and economic, social and cultural rights specifically, it is almost impossible to consider their promotion without the contribution of the economy. However, there is a delicate balance between the mere accomplishment of economic growth and enhancement of purchasing power, and the simultaneous realization of human rights that, as said, sometimes can delay efficient growth strategies. A choice must be made by public and private managers in relation to the priorities and purposes of their strategies. This choice must be oriented by compromises assumed by states towards human rights, and in this particular case, by Brazil. Brazil must leave its position as sole ruler of the country and allow its people to become a duty bearer, subject to accountability. Moreover, it must become part of a discussion that goes beyond its borders, but that should at the same time be brought to the context and existential situation of the people, peoples, and minorities it shelters, transforming the control policies into policies of hospitality and inclusion. To do that, development must be continuously debated as having the major goal of respecting and fulfilling human rights, not having human rights as means, or useful tools, but as principles and ends. In the case of the Bolivian migrants community in São Paulo, this is relevant in at least three ways. Not only might promoting development bring attention 24 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) to the situation of minorities or vulnerable groups, their participation may also help the government to achieve more sustainable and stable results considering international goals. In addition, it is also clear that the discourse of development and human rights as two connected lines of action, that have to be worked together, will be of great value for civil society and government actors that try to promote human rights in the main financial, corporate and commercial centre of Latin America.1 The São Paulo City Hall has a Municipal Secretariat of Urban Development,2 created in 2009 (Municipal Law nº 14.879), with the purpose of driving government actions aimed at urban planning and development of the municipality. The main focus, however, seems to have been urban development from the perspective of organization of the urban space. Nevertheless, there is one project that intends to reach a much broader dimension: SP 2040 – A cidade que queremos (The city we want). This project aims at building a long-term strategic vision of São Paulo, with assessments and propositions focusing on a timeframe for the year 2040. This project has just taken its first steps to be publicized and has a much more comprehensive approach. Included in its structural axes it has, among others,3 social cohesion4 and environmental improvement. It also predicts a phase of popular participation in forums and workshops, in which the preliminary project shall be debated. It is important to mention that the project is at its initial phase. Surprisingly, the contributions of the Municipal Commission of Human Rights for the project have, so far, been only skin-deep. Also, the team of specialists working as consultants for the project is composed mainly by economists. Therefore, considering the common ground shared by the human rights and the urban development agendas, it is urgent that some effort is made in order to improve the dialogue between these two areas of practice. For that purpose a common language is needed. The intention of this paper is to outline and exercise some ways of thinking how this dialogue can happen considering, particularly, one group which the mu- nicipal government has been struggling to approach: the Bolivian community. 1 São Paulo has the 10th highest GDP in the world and alone represents 12.26% of all Brazilian GDP and 36% of the total output of goods and services of the state of São Paulo, being home to 63 % of multinationals established in Brazil, as well as being responsible for 28% of the national scientific production in 2005 (São Paulo. Wikipedia. Available on: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo. Access on: 14.08.2012.) 2 PREFEITURA DA CIDADE DE SÃO PAULO: Desenvolvimento Urbano. Available on: http://www.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cidade/secretarias/desenvolvimento_urbano/. Access on: 15.08.2012) 3 Urban development, business opportunity and mobility. 4 Social cohesion meaning appreciation of diversity (creed, political position, age, origin, etc.) and reduction of all forms of inequality, especially income inequalities, and of access to public services. Selected papers – 25 Therefore, the following idea will be considered as a hypothesis to the reflection here intended: Government efforts to improve sustainable human development and pro- mote inclusion and stability are complemented and strengthened with better attention to the situation of minorities and with the participation of minorities in such efforts. The marginalization of ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities has a significant detrimental impact on poverty re- duction, democratic governance, environmental sustainability and conflict prevention. (UNDP, 2010, p. 1). 2. Can Bolivian migrants in São Paulo be con- sidered a minority? Why? Firstly, it is important to make clear who are the people included in the Bolivian community. For the purposes of this paper, this group is to be formed by Bolivian migrants living in São Paulo, in regular or irregular legal status, as well as by their descendants who were born in Brazil, and, consequently, can be considered Brazilian.5 The second question which is essential to ask for the purposes of this paper is: can the Bolivian community in São Paulo be considered a minority? It is important to say that, usually, in the political discourse, even of those who intercede in behalf of that community, the Bolivians are not identified as a minority. Rather, they are frequently referred to as a “vulnerable population”. i. From an objective perspective, they do share characteristics, such as national origin, language, ethnicity, culture, although some differences may appear, considering that they may come from different regions of Bolivia6, for instance. ii. Considering the principle of self-identification, it is more difficult to answer whether they refer to themselves as a minority or not. For this purpose, this group would have to have legitimate representatives that could speak in the name of the community, and also they would have to be informed regarding what it is to be a minority, what are the implications etc. Currently, most of the political and social movement that is concerned with the situation of migrants in São Paulo is not composed of Bolivians, but of representatives from the Catholic Church, civil society organizations, NGOs and others. iii. There is no reliable demographic data on this group, considering that part of them are undocumented or out with the norms of society. Although, it is very difficult to determine its exact size, it is estimated that the Bolivian population may range from 80 to 200 000 inhabitants in São Paulo alone. 5 Brazilian Constitution, article 12. 6 La Paz, Potosi, Oruro, Cochabamba, Santa Cruz de La Sierra (Waldman, 2011). 26 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) iv. With regards to the length of residence of this group in São Paulo, compared to other communities that immigrated much earlier, the Bolivian community is quite recent: the first immigrations started in the 50s and it has become more intense since the 80s. Nevertheless, it is important to notice that these older migrant communities, such as the Italians, Japanese, Jews, Koreans, either have already been fully integrated into the city or have reached stable and favorable social positions. Probably because of their recent presence in the city, the government is only now taking steps to make positive measures directed at this group. It is stated, however, that “more recently arrived groups are entitled, at a minimum, to non-discrimination and to practice freely their culture, language or religion.” (UNDP, 2010, p. 10) v. It is imperative to consider that minorities do not have to be citizens to claim recognition, respect and protection of their identities (art. 27 of the ICCPR). The State party must protect minority rights of all individuals within its jurisdiction, including migrant workers and non-permanent residents. However, it is pointed out by the UNDP (2010, p. 10) that the residence status may impact on the policy measures taken by the country to fulfill minority rights. For all the above, it is possible to consider the Bolivian migrants in São Paulo as a minority group. However, it also depends primarily on their self-recognition as such. That said, the forthcoming step would be claiming for government recognition. That would require some political articulation between the members of that same group, which is very precarious today. Albeit the Brazilian Constitution clearly guarantees protection just for indigenous groups and, in the cultural aspect, to Afro-Brazilians, Brazil is a State party of the ICCPR. On the other hand, Brazil has not, at this time, signed the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families (1990), although, in 2009, discussions were held between the Foreign Ministry and the Commission on Human Rights and Minorities of the Chamber of Deputies.7 The recognition of the Bolivians as a minority would certainly change the way public policies are designed for that population. Currently, this population is addressed mainly by the federal government (Ministry of Justice and Federal Police) with the purpose of border and migration control. In exception to this, one can identify some initiatives of individual public services located in the areas where the Bolivians are most concentrated, as well a number of actions of the public prosecutors concerned with human trafficking and slave labor. Nevertheless, positive actions aimed at promoting these minority rights are not part of local policies, especially in São Paulo. 7 BRAZIL: Câmara dos Deputados. Convenção da ONU sobre migrantes é debatida em reunião entre Itamaraty, Comissão de Direitos Humanos e IMDH. Available on: http://www2.camara.gov.br/atividade-legislativa/comissoes/comissoes-permanen- tes/cdhm/noticias/convencao-da-onu-sobre-migrantes-e-debatida-em. Access on: 16.08.2012. Selected papers – 27 2.1 Planning Public Policies and strategic focused actions 2.1.1 Diagnosis issue As has been pointed out, quantitative data about Bolivian migrants living in São Paulo is very limited. There might be a few reasons for that: (i) some of them are undocumented and living clandestinely in the country; (ii) the research institutes do not focus on that group, because it is of no interest to the government to recognize and publicize the existence and size of that population, among others. The official data comes from the 2000 census and from the Federal Police. However, these numbers are very underestimated, if we consider our current reality, especially if we consider that in the last amnesty for foreigners (2009- 2011) 17.000 Bolivians obtained temporary visa, which represents almost the total number of Bolivians living in Brazil as counted by the 2000 National Census.8 Bolivian Migrants in Brazil PASTORAL CARE OF NATIONAL CENSUS FEDERAL POLICE MIGRANTS OF SÃO PAULO 2000 60.000 20.388 32.416 Source: SILVA, 2007 The data produced by official agencies is generally quite rich with relation to the detailing of the living conditions of immigrants. It is possible to observe the distribution of population within national boundaries, their level of education, their occupation, family structure, among other characteristics. However, the main limitation of this data is the fact that it is restricted to immigrants with legal status. This is even more clear in the case of the Federal Police, which has the power to extradite those who have undocumented status in the country. The data produced by the Catholic Church and socio-cultural organizations held by the immigrants themselves tend to be overestimated or closer to the reality, either because such institutions have easier access to illegal immigrants or because they have the political need to give visibility to immigrant communities. In short, it is very difficult to determine which institution has the most accurate data on the reality of Bolivian immigration in Brazil, but while assessing this data it is mandatory to take into account their goals and limitations. However, from this data it is possible to elicit where this population is concentrated within the territory: São Paulo emerges as the city with the highest concentration of Bolivians, with 37, 9% (SOUCHAUD & BAENINGER, 2008). Therefore, a major task for the recognition of this population would be to collect reliable quantitative data on this minority, among other minorities. In 8 Moreover, it is known that the last amnesty didn’t manage to regularize even half of the Bolivian population living illegally in the country, either for lack of information or barriers to access to appropriate means of application. 28 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) addition to that, it is essential that the data is disaggregated at least in the Subprefeitura9 level, because São Paulo is a very big and populous city with a lot of very particular communities, which makes it very difficult to develop initiatives that encompass the entire city in the same way. The Municipal Commission of Human Rights intended to include the Bolivian migrant population as one of the target groups in the Intraurban System of monitoring Human Rights10, however, it was not possible to find any consistent data about that population. Therefore, the data would have to be collected, possibly by an agency that could have access to the Bolivian migrants’ homes and sewing workshops. It is crucial to mention that the lack of disaggregated data makes it very difficult to plan focused actions for this population, to think about budget allocation or even to know if there is discrimination of Bolivian migrants in the execution of public policies, such as health or education policies, and the impact of this eventual discrimination in the global results.11 Also, for accountability matters it is fundamental to consider having detailed and disaggregated data on minorities’ access to rights and universal policies. 2.1.2 Political will and visibility One has to consider that the way the Bolivian migrants appear in the public space is rather furtive and fluid and also that, due to the lack of reliable data, it is easier for public authorities to disregard the large presence of this group inside the sewing workshops, working irregularly for up to 16 hours a day, and contributing to the profits of the textile industry. As mentioned before, few isolated public services and facilities recognize the existence of this group and take steps toward addressing their specific demands. Moreover, it is impossible to ignore the part Bolivian migrants have been playing, since the 80s, in São Paulo’s and Brazil’s economy, especially in the clothing industry. Their participation as workers in an illegal condition is still not measurable, however more and more illegal sewing workshops that employ Bolivian workers are being crashed out by the police. One recent example is of the brand ZARA, whose clothes have been discovered to be manufactured by Bolivian migrants in conditions similar to slavery (REPÓRTER BRASIL, 2011). The participation of the textile and clothing industry in the global industry of São Paulo is expressive: the sum of the performance of the two industries is 8% of 9 Territories within the city partially administrated by Subprefeitos (Sub-mayors). There are 31 Suprefeituras in São Paulo. 10 PREFEITURA DA CIDADE DE SÃO PAULO: Comissão Municipal de Direitos Humanos. Sistema Intraurbano de Monitoramento de Direitos Humanos. Available on: http://www.simdh.seade.gov.br/apres/index.php. Access on: 17.08.2012. 11 We will take a deeper look into this matter when talking about maternal health policies, concerning millennium development goal nº 5. Selected papers – 29 total industry performance in São Paulo. Therefore, it is important to consider the economic interests behind the disregard of the Bolivian migrants’ rights in São Paulo. Source: Fundação seade If we consider the strictly economic growth point of view, it is possible to argue that keeping the Bolivian migrants under illegal and inhuman work and living conditions is necessary to improve the industry performance. The argument that having inclusive policies for minorities will increase the possibilities of these groups reaching their maximum potential and performance (UNDP, 2010) might not be adequate for this specific case, since their illegal condition is what makes their labor force so cheap and exploitable. The very interest in this population migrating to Brazil is entirely based on the exploitation of illegal labor. Considering the above it appears that the local government may not have a particular interest in fulfilling all the rights to which this group is entitled, starting with labor rights. It seems that ignoring this population’s existence is the best strategy to avoid addressing their issues. Considering that the specific group of illegal immigrants doesn’t even hold political rights within the Brazilian territory,12 it is even more difficult to talk about spontaneous political will. It is quite obvious that public authorities have to be made aware of the role they play as duty bearers of human rights and minority rights, and to be confronted by organized political movements, or even, and most likely, both. Moreover, accountability mechanisms should be implemented to guarantee the recognition of and attention to vulnerable groups in general. This leads to our next topic: political participation. 12 Brazilian Constitution (article 14, §2º) and Law nº 6.815/80. 30 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) 2.1.3 Political participation on decision-making and empowerment From the human rights standards that protect minorities, including Article 27 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination and the UN Declaration on the Rights of National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities, it is possible to extract four broad concerns (UNDP, 2010, p. 15): protection of existence, non-discrimination, protection of identity and participation. With concern to, specifically, the effective participation of Bolivian migrants in public life, there are some elements that represent considerable barriers to its accomplishment. First of all, the Brazilian legislation addressed to foreigners living in the country is very conservative and dates from the military dictatorial regime (1964-1985), when migration was seen as a matter of national security. Law nº 6.815/80 states that “the foreigner admitted to the territory may not engage in political activity, nor interfere, directly or indirectly, in public affairs in Brazil”, among other more specific provisions such as prohibition on participating in labor unions; limitation on having, managing or orienting media vehicles etc. It is quite evident that these legal limitations are not consistent with one of the main aspects of participation minorities are entitled to: the right to participate in public life and decision making, especially on issues that affect them. Thus, in order for the government to be able to take action to enable this kind of participation of the Bolivian community, a legislative reform would have to take place. Only then would it be possible to initiate the political reform. In theory, the Brazilian Constitution of 1988 already revoked these unconstitutional provisions of Law nº 6.815/80, however, the law itself is still in force and the Federal Court of Justice, which is the competent court to address unconstitutionality, has never manifested this issue. The good news is that there is already a Bill (nº 5.655/09) circulating in the Chamber of Deputies, which is intended to replace Law nº 6.815/80. One of theinnovations introduced by the new law would be the permission to greater participation in public life. Furthermore, it is important to recognize that formal and legal structures would not be enough for enabling effective participation. There are many reasons, besides the legal existing framework and municipality structure, why the Bolivian migrants will not participate in public affairs. Firstly, many of them face exhausting journeys to work in the sewing workshops. Cymbalista and Xavier (2007) suggest that the living conditions of the vast majority of Bolivian immigrants are characterized by a confinement of the social space to the workplace, due to long hours in the workshops and the lack of distinction between the workplace and the residence. This favors the invisibility of this population in the public space, making it more difficult to get involved in the decision making processes of the community in specific, and even less possible to claim and participate in the municipal policies for local development. Accordingly, we believe that one of the main challenges posed Selected papers – 31 to facilitate the empowerment of the community and its members would be to broaden the channels of discussion about the migrants’ living and working conditions in São Paulo, as well as to enable greater dialogue with civil society concerned with human rights and development. From the point of view of the population distribution within the territory, there is a clear concentration of the group of Bolivian immigrants in neighborhoods where most of the trade and production of the textile market in São Paulo happens. However, there has been a progressive dispersion of these workshops. The centers of sociability of that population, which constitute a crucial complement for the “collective privacy” of sewing workshops, are gradually being consolidated, for example, the Kantuta fair, the Coimbra Street and the Church of Peace. However, these spaces are not characteristically “latinos” during the week, because immigrants are performing their work activities within the workshops. The civil society institutions that address these immigrants tend to accommodate this challenging transience and dissipation, which in the case of the phenomenon of immigration, extends to a global scale. The government, though, is very far from being able to accommodate this dissipation, considering that urban management is based on the administrative territories and divided into specific departments, each working on one aspect of multiple demands. Another important point to be taken into consideration is that even when in those spaces of sociability, or participating in meetings of civil society organizations,13 or in Bolivian associations,14 the Bolivians do not seem to bring a political discourse. For example, their collective manifestations are very centered on the incidence of cultural events for the community. The same thing happens with the associations and its leaders: their main goals are usually related to the promotion and dissemination of culture, socio-economic assistance, and sports. This kind of organization is very relevant for the purpose of the recognition of the group as a minority, with its own language, culture and practices and also for promoting the right to participate in the life of their own community.15 However, it does not work so well when we think about participation in decision making processes and the right to participate in the benefits of economic progress and development. Whilst having the right to participate in meetings, we realize that the Bolivians do not have community leaders to attend these forums. The individuals that attend are usually brought by civil society organizations, such as the Pastoral Care of 13 It is very difficult to get a Bolivian migrant worker to participate in civil society and/ or government meeting, because they usually happen during the week, when these laborers have to be working, because they are paid based on production. 14 Bolivian Residents’ Association is one example. 15 The only kind of participation which is accepted by the law is the association for cul- tural, religious, recreational, charitable or assistance purposes. So the participation in the life of the community is legal. 32 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) Migrants, and do not bring demands from the entire class, but only individual and very specific claims. Also, they often do not attend many meetings. Therefore, we could say that creating policy responses on participation is much more complex than just establishing local foreigners’ councils, or other local consultative bodies. Prior to that, the government needs to address some basic issues that hinder the political articulation of this group, like labor conditions, discrimination, fear of the local authorities, legislation, and regularization of immigration status, among others that were mentioned. Otherwise, the interests of this minority could be manipulated by more powerful groups that would feel very comfortable to speak in their name. Of course some kind of mechanism should be implemented forthwith. Here follow some examples: i. In the public spaces they attend, public departments and secretariats could promote individual queries on matters that would affect this specific group; ii. Building up capacity for participation in a way that is adequate to their current habits; iii. Invitation to public forums that already exist; iv. Making these public forums more accessible in terms of divulgation, scheduling, language, location; v. Building up awareness of the importance of participation as a group, with long term concerns and plans. The municipal government should recognize that enabling political participation by minority groups can strengthen State cohesion and accountability. In addition, it can help to achieve democratic governance. Fair political representation of minorities can stimulate broad-appeal policies that maximize development potential (UNDP, 2010). For that purpose, we shall explore one specific example, taking into consideration the context of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) to reflect about how the human rights and inclusive-based approach could contribute to more consistent results and to promote human rights in development policies. 2.2 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Although, as mentioned before, the added value of development as a human right is questionable, the discourse of development can be a powerful tool to human rights agents when dialoguing with governmental instances to make them accountable for fulfilling their human rights obligations and making them recognize the people and minorities not only as objects of their strategies, but also as subjects of development and rights holders. This way, a different fo- cus is placed on development policies that must be realized with emphasis on accountability. This has so far been lacking in the MDGs process, for instance, and can be provided by the binding nature of human rights treaties and covenants. To achieve the MDGs, greater efforts are needed to address hard-to-reach groups like the Bolivian migrants community. If these groups are left behind Selected papers – 33 by the MDGs, inequality will increase and intercommunal tensions could rise, undermining the sustainability of MDG achievements (UNDP, 2010). At this point, we shall use Goal nº 5 of the MDGs as an example to show how mater- nal health has been addressed by the local government and how health public policies (and other related policies) could be improved to address the Bolivian migrant’s community, their access to these policies and to provide quality ma- ternal health care services. 2.3 Goal nº 5: Improve maternal health: including Bolivian women Promoting maternal health is a goal which comprises the reduction of the maternal mortality ratio and providing universal access to reproductive health. In order to be fulfilled, this goal requires an approach that goes far beyond technocratic thinking and involves more than one aspect of women’s lives. Health in general, and maternal health in specific, is part of the existing human rights framework, mainly expressed in the Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, therefore, it has to be approached always in relation to other human rights: “Not only is maternal mortality fundamentally linked to women’s social and economic status in society, but gender inequality and violations of women’s sexual and reproductive rights constitute grave injustices even when they are not directly related to women’s deaths or morbidity.” (YAMIN, 2010, p. 96) At this point, MDG n º 5 doesn’t bring anything new to the existing human rights framework, it only sets up specific targets and terms to the existing obligations, especially to the obligation to fulfill. Thus, in this paper, we are going to focus on the obligation to fulfill and to take proactive steps to progressively realize women’s rights to maternal health. Our concern will be how to transform the discourse of rights into practical health policy and programming tools that can affect development practice and transform health systems to meet women’s needs. Bolivian migrants women will be considered here as a group of reference with certain particularities that have to be considered by the maternal health care system. Pursuing effective accountability in this area requires moving beyond traditional human rights models of punishing individual perpetrators, to focus on institutional and systemic factors, of both the maternal health care system and the Bolivian women’s status in society. The traditional model of human rights advocacy, which seeks to identify a violation, a violator and a remedy, may not be sufficient to advancing accountability for improvement of maternal health, because the individual sanctioning may divert attention from the systemic problems mentioned. Frontline health professionals might not be able to provide access to care because of systemic factors outside their control (YAMIN, 2010). 34 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) The legal standards and accountability must be clarified and translated to actors at various levels, from health service providers to policy-makers. Also, the accountability has to be established in relation to the people that are being addressed, in this case, women (Bolivian women). Thus, effective participation has also to be considered a tool to addressing maternal health issues. The first level that can shape the design of policies and programs to address maternal health is the government level (national, regional, or local). 2.3.1 Government Level Brazil’s numbers on maternal mortality are average if compared to South America in general: Maternal Mortality ration per 100.000 live births Locality (2005) 16 Chile 20 Uruguay 57 Venezuela 72 Suriname 77 Argentina 110 Brazil 130 Colombia 150 Paraguay 210 Ecuador 240 Peru 290 Bolivia 470 Guyana Source: MDG monitor Selected papers – 35 In the city of São Paulo (2010), this number improves (left bar), going below 60/100.000 live births. Source: PORTAL ODM/ RELATÓRIOS DINÂMICOS/INDICADORES MUNICIPAIS However, this data does not give us tips on how to improve maternal health and reduce maternal mortality rates, for instance. A robust situational analysis must be carried out, regarding sexual, reproductive and maternal health in the country and in its localities, as well as the best evidence of what interventions are required to address maternal morbidity and mortality. Although the four pillars of reducing maternal mortality have to be prioritized in every planning (skilled birth attendance, access to emergency obstetric care, functioning referral network, family planning), there are some specific measures that will vary contextually, based upon the situational analysis. As far as the individual person and community are concerned regarding the planned measures, the ultimate goal must be enabling women to exercise agency with respect to their bodies and their lives. For this purpose, transparency, evaluation and participation are fundamental to the development of every plan. The women who use health services have to be seen as agents with a very important role to play, not only as targets of a development policy or objects of governmental charity. With respect to the Bolivian women in São Paulo, despite the limitation to their political rights, evaluation and participation channels have to be made available for them to influence the definition of what constitutes culturally appropriate 36 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) care and its practices in the maternal health care system, for instance. On the contrary, the SUS – Sistema Único de Saúde (Unified Health System), which has among its principles the universality of care, will only be made universal in its service desk, not in its conception as a system or programming. From this point of view also the significance of “universal access to reproductive health” must be considered. Everything must be subject to meaningful public deliberation and justification, from allocation of budget, to cultural practices, since there is no single or right answer to exactly how much priority should be placed on each area or specific group. In order to make accountability and participation more effective, monitoring and transparency play a very important role. Appropriate quantitative indicators are fundamental, as well as qualitative analysis, to measure the progress and identify causes and possible discrimination of areas or minorities. It would be very helpful, to (i) plan action towards women’s health at the municipal level, as well as to (ii) identify potential discrimination and repressed demands in relation to minorities, and (iii) to have disaggregated data on nationality/origin/ethnicity related to the MDG nº 5 indicators. In São Paulo, the indicators that compose MDG nº 5 can be disaggregated by district, therefore, we can deduce the most vulnerable regions. However, it is impossible to access, from this data, the nationality of the women who died giving birth, who had lower access to prenatal care, who had children while adolescents and who were attended by skilled health personnel. As demographic data also remains insufficient, we can only interpret the data disaggregated by district by our perception of the areas where the Bolivian migrants are most concentrated, because of the sewing and clothing industries. In this case, based on the 2000 census, we can observe which districts in São Paulo have a major concentration of Bolivians: Selected papers – 37 From this map, it was possible to highlight, the mentioned districts in the graphics below (in lighter colour): SOURCE: SECRETARIA DE SAÚDE DA CIDADE DE SÃO PAULO 38 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) However, as was mentioned before, the data is not conclusive regarding exactly who are the groups and minorities that are being excluded from maternal and reproductive health care, since the areas inhabited by Bolivian migrants are mostly in the downtown area, which attracts most of the most vulnerable groups, like sex professionals, homeless people, migrants, refugees, people living in inadequate housing, among others. The housing and working conditions are precarious for all groups that coexist in the center of São Paulo, thus, it is very difficult to tell by this data who is being included by the SUS and who is not. Therefore, more specific data must be collected and made public, and qualitative research must be carried out in order to determine whether there is discrimination and how it should be addressed. It is fundamental that the monitoring indicators are measured continuously, evaluating the performance. Another strategy that can be used at the government level to determine accountability is budgetary analysis, once we have more details about the location of this population in the territory and the services they demand. Although plans of action may be filled with human rights principles and values, fulfilling women’s health care obligations requires expenditure. Budgets are a very good evidence of where the priorities are being settled. For this reason, the budget must be made transparent and adequate to be accessed by all people, of all social levels and groups. They must also be subjected to public critique and revision, if necessary. 2.3.2 Health care service level Another level for promoting maternal health that must not be ignored is the health care facility, considering that initiatives within the unit should be implemented, based on a local perspective. At this level, we have a very clear example of how the health care professional, dealing directly with Bolivian migrants could come up with some specific solutions to their demands, with respect to the rights of employees as well as patients’ rights: the experience of one particular primary health care center (Centro de Saúde Escola Barra Funda – CSEBF) (TAMBELINI et al., 2009); located at Barra Funda, one region with a large concentration of sewing workshops and immigrant labor. CSEBF began serving Bolivian migrants in the 1990s and since then has started to develop strategies to facilitate access of this group to the services, based on day to day practice and perception, bounds of trust established between professionals and the community, territory exploration etc. Today, the migrant population corresponds to 28% of the active users of this primary health care service, of which 72% are Bolivian migrants (CARNEIRO et al, 2011). According to the CSEBF’s women’s health team, the main difficulties of Bolivian women while accessing the health care system are: i. The language is a considerable barrier whilst accessing primary health care, however, some units, where this population is more concentrated, have already hired Bolivian community health works; Selected papers – 39 ii. Some Bolivian women that work in the textile industry and are paid by production find it very hard to get out during working hours to attend the medical appointments16; iii. They often face discrimination from the health care professionals because of their appearance, language and illegal status; iv. Most of the health care professionals are not familiarized with their culture, their habits, etc. Since Bolivian migrants were first seen at the CSEBF, around 1998, it has changed. At first Bolivian women came to the CSEBFAV in the puerperium, in the immediate postpartum period, and, thus, had to be referred to the hospital. Since then, the access to the service has been occurring earlier and earlier. Today, Bolivian women spontaneously require assistance to the mother/child, prenatal and postpartum, family planning and prevention of cancer of the cervix. However, family planning has not always been a spontaneous demand, having been captured by the CSEBF. Other demands which are being met are related to domestic and sexual violence and prevention of sexually transmitted diseases. Domestic violence is always mentioned by health care professionals during the medical appointments and counseling about sexually transmitted diseases is always being suggested through women to their husbands. The professionals from CSEBFAV had to find strategies to deal with cultural and linguistic differences, and with insecurity and the suspicious attitude of Bolivian immigrants, who, according to the professionals, fear receiving a lower quality service, in view of the status of illegal migrants. One element that contributes to raising the degree of difficulty of answering to this population’s needs is gender inequality and domestic violence against women. To address these issues, women’s health care professionals define their strategies from the sheltering of the abused woman and seek to strengthen the possibilities of empowerment of these immigrants, often deprived of control over their choices, especially in the early years of residence in Brazil. The health issues that do not involve these complicating factors, in general, are more easily solved among Bolivian immigrants than among other populations in situation of great vulnerability. In addition, not only is the maternal mortality fundamentally linked to social and economic status of women in society, but gender inequality and violations of sexual and reproductive rights of women are serious injustices, even when they are not directly related to women’s deaths or morbidity. There is a 30% prevalence of domestic violence among Bolivian women compared with other women attending the CSEBF (CARNEIRO et al, 2011). 16 Most of the women that didn’t have trouble getting permission to be absent during labor hours have already achieved some kind of social stability. Among them are trad- ers, owners of sewing workshops and workers who consider themselves autonomous. 40 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) SOURCE: SECRETARIA DE SAÚDE DA CIDADE DE SÃO PAULO 17 Having overcome the communication barrier, patients tend to listen to the opinion of the professional and adhere to treatment. However, domestic violence remains a complicating factor that has to be overcome. Concerning the domestic violence, first it is necessary to qualify the violence as a problem, which often is not realized as such by the Bolivian women. Given this lack of recognition, the professionals seek, by establishing a bond of trust and even affection, to discuss what violence is and how it makes them feel, and then start to change in their perception. The second step would be to try to make women overcome their fear of their partners and feeling of impotence before them, their work and the Brazilian official institutions. 17 Darkest bars: districts of Bolivian migrants’ concentration. Selected papers – 41 The CSEBF is one of the health care units that are taking considerable steps to overcome the barriers of access to health care by the Bolivian women and to assure that they get quality health service, by adopting inclusive and positive discrimination strategies, educating the staff and attacking discrimination. However, this is not a municipal policy and a lot of difficulties still exist in many health care units. Also, some health problems concerning labor and housing conditions, gender inequality and domestic violence extrapolate the scope of the health care system and have to be addressed by other public policies as well. The fact that many Bolivian women fail to report domestic violence to the proper police stations (Delegacias da Mulher) or to other police authorities – due to the fear for these authorities, the fear of discrimination and the fear of mistreatment in any public facility – is a big problem that has to be considered from a wider and relational point of view if the municipality wants to build a more comprehensive policy. 3. Conclusion This paper intended to reflect upon the dialogue that must be established between the human rights and the development discourses in order to reach the true meaning of the right to development. For this purpose, we drew upon our reflections of the Bolivian migrant’s community in São Paulo to reflect whether these two discourses could intersect in order to meet this particular group’s needs and rights, while building up public policies and development in the local level. From the reflection here waged, it is possible to say that the meeting of these two lines of thinking could result in significant changes for this specific population if it is considered as a minority, entitled to minority rights. However, we could not conclude that this approach could result in better results concerning development goals, either because the suggestions were not yet implemented, or because the invisibility of this minority or the lack of disaggregated data will not show how the development policies have been excluding this group and how the results of these policies could be affected by this exclusion. Concerning the MDGs, a lot of efforts should be made to guarantee accountability beyond insufficient indicators pointed out by the MDGs framework. Such efforts can be undertaken at the governmental level and the level of services, as exposed in relation to the inclusion of the Bolivian population in women’s health care policies and focused attention (MDG nº 5). A lot of efforts have been made by some particular institutions and facilities in order to improve access of this population to public services, however, there is still no official recognition from the local municipal government of this population as a minority, that should be addressed as such. This would be the first step to beginning to think about this group’s particularities and about the root causes of the marginalization of the Bolivian migrants in São Paulo. We expect that this paper could initiate the reflection on these causes and on what could be the possible ways to attack these causes; however, it is far from depleting this discussion. 42 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) References Carneiro, N.; Oliveira, R. L. S.; Jesus, C. H.; Luppi, C. G. Immigration, social exclusion and health servisse: the case of the bolivian population in the central metropolitan region of São Paulo. In: SUS: Mosaico de Inclusões, v. 13, n. 2, pp. 177-181, 2011. Cymbali Sta, R. & Xavie R, I. A comunidade boliviana em São Paulo: definindo padrões de territorialidade. In: Cadernos da Metrópole, n. 17, p.99-119, 2007. Silva , S. Hispânico ou Latino: faces de um processo identitário entre imigrantes sul-americanos em São Paulo. In: PAIVA , O. (Org.). Migrações internacionais: desafios para o século XXI. São Paulo: Memorial da América Latina, 2007. Repórter Brasil. Roupas Zara são Fabricadas com mão de obra escrava. 2011. Available on: www.reporterbrasil.org.br. Access on: 30.10.2012. Souchaud, S. & Baeninger, R. Collas e cambas do outro lado da fronteira: as- pectos da distribuição diferenciada da migração boliviana em Corumbá, Mato Grosso do Sul. In: Revista Brasileira de Estudos Populacionais, v. 25, n. 2, p. 271-86, 2008. Tambelini, E.;  Mascaro, L. D. M.; Silva, U. Inclusão de imigrantes bolivianos na cidade de São Paulo: algumas estratégias e políticas locais. In: Cássio Silveira; Nivaldo Carneiro Junior; Maria Regina Giffoni Marsiglia. (Org.). Projeto Inclusão Social Urbana: Nós do Centro. Projeto Inclusão Social Urbana: Nós do Centro. 1ed. São Paulo: Fundação Arnaldo Vieira de Carvalho, 2009, v., p. 123-166. Waldman, T. C. Migratory Movements from the perspective of health rights: Bolivian Immigrant Women in São Paulo. Revista de Direito Sanitário, São Paulo, v. 12, nº 1, pp. 90-114, 2011. United Nations Development Programme. Marginalized Minorities in Develop- ment Programming. 2010. Available on: www.undp.org/governance. Access on: 14.08.2012. Yamin, A. E. Applying a rights-based approach to fulfill maternal health obliga- tions. In: SUR, v. 7, n. 12, Jun. 2010, p. 95-121. Selected papers – 43 Applying Human Rights-Based Approaches in Development Practice – A Case Study from Haiti Liesbet Dewallef NGO development worker for Broederlijk Delen / Réseau National de Défense des Droits Humains (RNDDH), Haiti 1. Introduction As an NGO development worker of the Flemish NGO Broederlijk Delen and working for its partner organization RNDDH (National Human Rights Defense Network) in Haiti, I will first give some background on both organizations and their current activities. This context is necessary to better understand my roles within the two NGOs and my current professional activities in the field of human and children’s rights. 1.1 Broederlijk Delen Broederlijk Delen is a Belgian NGO which supports the initiatives of groups of people in the global South who strive to build a future for themselves. They execute their own plans in their struggle against poverty and injustice. This guarantees that the solutions are adapted to their specific context. Broederlijk Delen is convinced that this approach leads to sustainable results. We refer to the organizations we support as “partner organizations” because we try to work on a basis of equality. Worldwide, Broederlijk Delen supports some 170 partners in 14 countries in Africa, the Middle East and Latin America. Each partnership grew from local inspiration, vision and expertise. All of the projects we support in the partner organizations are linked to sustainable rural development, human rights, democratization and participative citizenship. We do this by applying a Human Rights-Based Approach to development. Broederlijk Delen is also active in sensitization campaigns. We try to raise awareness in Flanders of the problems and obstacles that people in the global South face when working towards their own sustainable development. The annual Lent Campaign is the culmination of our work each year. Broederlijk Delen supports its partner organizations in different ways a. Through financial support For each Euro that was donated to Broederlijk Delen in 2010 85,5 cents were used to support our partner organizations. b. Through capacity building Broederlijk Delen organizes and stimulates the exchange of ideas and 44 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV)  experiences between and within partner organizations. We try to strengthen the capacity of civil society organizations in the South in various ways: through dialogue, training, both short and long term, and through the involvement of expatriate development workers and volunteers. A development worker’s main task is to increase capacity of the partner organization by offering their expertise to work with partner organizations at the partner’s request. They build bridges between continents and help fight prejudice. This is also my role in my partner organization RNDDH.1 Broederlijk Delen currently employs some 25 development workers and a limited number of volunteers. c. Through political action Development is strongly linked with politics, as well as national and international legislation. Many of our partner organizations in the South undertake political action in order to demand better laws or respect for existing ones. Broederlijk Delen supports the political action of its partner organizations, regularly lobbies Belgian and European governments and launches its own political actions, most often in coalition with other NGOs. More information can be found on www.broederlijkdelen.be. 1.2 Réseau National de Défense des Droits Humains – RNDDH RNDDH, Réseau National de Défense des Droits Humains (National Human Rights Defense Network), is a non-governmental, non-profit organization that has been working in the field of human rights since 1982. Considered a pioneer in its domain, it works towards the development of a democratic society, respect for the rule of law, and the promotion and protection of human rights in Haiti. RNDDH achieves its objectives by providing training sessions on human rights. At the same time, it operates as a national network that observes, monitors, and documents the activities of key state institutions such as the Haitian National Police (PNH), judiciary and prisons. Additionally it publicizes its findings on these and other human rights issues via press releases and investigative and periodic reports. In cases of documented human rights violations, RNDDH liaises with the appropriate public authorities in order to ensure that perpetrators are held responsible and the victims find justice. RNDDH also works closely with other actors and organizations in Haitian civil society and international NGOs operating in Haiti and abroad, such as the Humanitarian Accountability Partnership International (HAP), the International Human Rights Federation (FIDH), and Human Rights Watch. a. Monitoring Program RNDDH has established a human rights monitoring program whose objective it is to contribute to the effectiveness of the rule of law in Haiti where the rights and the responsibilities of the Haitian population are respected. RNDDH’s program has the following aims: - To support key Haitian State institutions in the fight against impunity by observing, identifying and documenting cases of human rights violations, and carrying out various actions to inform national and Selected papers – 45  international public opinion; - To work towards the protection and the defense of the rights of victims of human rights violations; - To advocate for the reform of key Haitian State institutions. b. Education Program RNDDH provides Haitians with practical knowledge of human rights and reinforces their capacity to apply these rights in their community. This work is carried out with the participation of existing local structures, paying special attention to women and children. The aims of this program are: - To reinforce the participation of existing local structures in the promotion and defense of human rights; - To develop and launch a national, decentralized structure to continue human rights education and monitoring; - To support the Haitian state in its efforts to reinforce key state institutions with regards to human rights issues.2 More information can be found on www.rnddh.org. 1.3 My current professional activities and expectations of the course a. Marrying theory and practice Since I started working for Broederlijk Delen at the Haitian National Human Rights Defense Network (RNDDH) I had been waiting for a unique occasion like this, to find an international capacity building program, in this field, at home in Flanders. As a thirty-three year old anthropologist and sexologist with an academic teacher’s degree, supporting one of the most dynamic human rights organizations in Haiti, I am eager to enrich my knowledge of human rights. At present, I have three years of practical experience with development, human rights and children’s rights in Haiti. This practical experience would be greatly enriched by a more theoretical point of view and by an academic platform for critical and strategic reflection. b. Passing on my knowledge and skills The motivation for me to take this training was two-fold. More important than my own professional development, these lessons and the resulting new abilities will be multiplied in my working environment in Haiti, thereby benefiting my colleagues and the participants of our Human Rights Training Program. In my role as a participatory training specialist, I am continuously passing on all relevant knowledge and skills. As explained, my role as an NGO development worker is only to give support, it is not my task to take important decisions on behalf of RNDDH. However, we always work together as a team: I have the opportunity to introduce new ideas but I cannot impose them. I feel this is a good way to make sustainable changes. c. Human Rights-Based Approaches to Development and Children’s Rights Broederlijk Delen recognizes the importance of taking a human rights based 46 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) approach to their development programming internationally. Therefore, they work to educate on and encourage taking this approach. At present RNDDH has completed the second of a three level training cycle for the staff of Lutheran World Federation (LWF) on the subject of a “Human Rights-Based Approach to Development”. Furthermore, the RNDDH education staff plans to integrate this module into the existing advanced-level human rights training seminars for key influential people in community organizations. Therefore, my participation in this training will benefit both Broederlijk Delen and its partner organizations. Children’s rights is an important part of RNDDH’s training program for teachers, students and grass roots organizations. The HR4DEV-module on Children’s Rights will allow me to motivate our internal working commission on the transversal theme Children and Youth rights, of which I am a member. 2. Lessons learnt in general 2.1 It’s good to be confused! It is good to continually question your own beliefs as another perspective is always possible. There are no “one and for all” answers! I highly value a critical approach, but I have been close to discouragement to continue my development work because of the focus on the negative elements. I found the input from several disciplines and cultural diverse participants very enriching. I was reminded that human rights are always subjected to intense and perceptive critiques3. When studying anthropology, I was certainly very aware of that, but in my daily work in Haiti, I rarely criticized or questioned the notions of human rights or children’s rights as such. It was quite confrontational for me to realize that there is no clear link between aid and development. I always had doubts about the effectiveness of aid, but I did not realize that the situation was as problematic. I also learned that in the development sector, many assumptions are made without real evidence to support them. 2.2 Critical approach to the Millennium Development Goals In my experience, in line with Paul Nelson’s argument4 the Millennium Development Goals are only an issue in the West. The approaches to poverty contained in the Human Rights Movement and the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) are very different. I also found fundamental differences in the social actors the two approaches have been able to mobilize. I had never imagined that the MDGs could also be harmful. But, they can if they are abused by governments to, for instance, gain more control over ethnic minorities or nomadic people. This point helps to balance the views on something that was always portrayed as totally positive. Still, I think it would be useful to examine together with the RNDDH staff how we could monitor the MDG’s in Haiti and verify that their implementation is not creating human rights violations instead. Selected papers – 47 2.3 Human-Rights Based Approaches (HRBAs) a. More than one Human Rights-Based Approach Like many others, I wrongly made the assumption that there is only one human rights based approach. The reality is that there are principles to be applied in order to achieve human rights standards, and the choice of methods, tools, etc, are left to states, NGOs, etc to choose according to what is most effective. A government, donor, or NGO may use different approaches for different areas of work in different contexts.5 b. Globalizing Social Protection as a radical HRBA to development If we really want to get rid of the paternalistic and imperialistic vision of North - South relations as “donors” and “beneficiaries”, as most HRBAs proclaim, I think we should globalize social protection. In Belgium, for example, all citizens pay taxes and the resources are distributed across the country to cover the welfare for all, making it a mutual relationship. It is open-ended because there is no expectation that this relationship will ever end - the young will absorb the cost of the old, the healthy that of the sick - in a cyclical relationship that extends over time. Why not work towards global mutual and open-ended relationships?6 As global tax payers we would contribute concretely be taking our responsibilities as global citizens to help fulfill the rights of all the others. 3. Lessons learnt for my Broederlijk Delen work Since 2010, Broederlijk Delen has explored whether implementing a Rights- Based Approach would be a good strategy to contribute in a qualitative and efficient way to making changes would benefit of marginalized groups of people in the global South. In 2011 the organization has opted to start applying a general RBA in the whole of the organization and in their development work, especially in their country programs. At present the NGO has a participative process going on for the planning of those country programs, that should be implemented from 2014 onwards. The starting point is a context analysis from a HRBA perspective. I happened to participate in two of the meetings with the partner organizations in Haiti where this participative approach to programming was used. I also had the opportunity to observe and analyze the internal guiding text about the RBA7. I found that it is already very balanced, so I had minor improvements to make. Broederlijk Delen as an organization is very aware of the opportunities and risks of this approach. They also stress that there is no scientific evidence available yet that proves it works, but that this way of working is also not that different from the good development practices they already had. It is definitely still work in progress. What we experience is that the HRBA is more difficult to communicate and explain in a fundraising context because of its focus on processes and long-term results instead of direct, tangible outputs. At the time of writing, we, as NGO development workers in the South, have not yet been trained by Broederlijk Delen on the HRBA. This process of internal capacity building is now beginning. I will have the opportunity to share some of my insights on HRBA’s with the other BD development workers in Haiti during a training session at the beginning of September. This kind of capacity building 48 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) is one of the ways in which Broederlijk Delen starts to implement a HRBA. However, organizational change is always a slow process. 4. Lessons learnt for my RNDDH work The insight that legal texts are not neutral and can be used or even abused was a very important eye-opener for me. 4.1 Monitoring a. Resource exploitation in Haiti As far as I know, RNDDH has not yet given a lot of attention to human rights and resource exploitation in its monitoring work. I would like to defend its importance to my colleagues, especially in the light of a gold rush currently going on in the North of the country. Some – like the new Prime Minister – say the $20bn worth of copper, silver and gold buried in the country’s hills could help Haiti overcome its dependency on foreign aid. Many fear that the mines will be boom for foreign investors and bust for local communities and not even for the state coffers. Licenses are being awarded behind closed doors by the government. More than a third of Haiti’s North – at least 1,500 sq km – is under license to US and Canadian companies. The companies lining up to dig pit mines in Haiti have so far been working with little governmental monitoring. Haiti has not signed the Convention concerning safety and health in mines, or the voluntary Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative. The country ranks 175 out of 200 on Transparency International’s corruption index.8 b. Minority Rights for the Majority During the lecture about the “Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities”, I strongly felt that the minority rights discourse could be very helpful to defend the rights of the majority of the Haitian population. I’m not the only one who made that observation. This information comes from the Minority Rights Website: “The overwhelming majority of the population (95%) of Haiti is predominantly of African descent. The rest of the population is mostly of mixed European-African ancestry (mulatto). A small light-skinned wealthy business and professional elite located in the capital city controls most of Haiti’s economy and decision- making. The large black majority is excluded from all formal political and economic participation. Haiti’s official languages are French and Kreyòl Ayisyen (Haitian Creole). Nearly all Haitians speak Kreyòl Ayisyen, with French being spoken by the small group of educated people. Catholicism is the formal state religion and there is a considerable Protestant minority. The largely African-based religious system known as Voudon is recognized as an official religion and is practiced by a majority of the population. Due to centuries of demonization by formal churches and stereotyping and ridicule by the secular world, most of the population prefers to conceal their simultaneous adherence to this faith. Even though it is numerically dominant, it can be argued that the position of the large African-descended population of Haiti is that of a ‘beleaguered majority.”9 Selected papers – 49 c. Awareness of legal pluralism in Haiti It is very important to be aware of the legal pluralism in Haiti, because figures indicate that between 40% and 50% of the populations of Latin America and the Caribbean live in sectors that are unrecognized by official law. In Haiti, the figures reach 68% in the cities and 97% in the countryside.10 In keeping with the profound dualism of Haitian society, land tenure arrangements are marked by two parallel systems: one legal and the other customary. In fact, both systems are interactive and constitute a type of legal pluralism rather than two discrete systems. Formal title is not necessarily more secure than informal arrangements in the Haitian context of legal pluralism. Formal title is more expensive and less flexible than the informal system.11 4.2 Training a. On Human Rights An observation that can be made about human rights education in Haiti is that “human rights accounts are generally celebratory and triumphalist. This is so much the case that a student can take a course entirely devoted to human rights without ever being introduced to some of the critiques reviewed above.”12 Even though this may not be entirely the case for our RNDDH human rights training program, it may still not be critical enough. I would like to help the organization to integrate a more critical perspective in our training. When we present the “Universal Declaration of Human Rights” in our training, for instance, we mention proudly that it was the Haitian delegate Emile Saint- Lot who came up with the term “Universal”. In my opinion, the questioning of the universality of human rights should become an important theme in RNDDH’s Human Rights training. I think that the “universalism versus relativism”- matrix will be very useful to me to explain the debate. Simplified, this could be portrayed as follows: Universalism Relativism Good side Respect for common Respect for difference standards Bad side Arrogance Indifference (Imperialism) Culture is not a static and homogeneous “thing” that should be preserved without changing. Anthropologists have demonstrated that it is a dynamic process. Culture can be oppressive also in the West, for instance in the excessive control of security. I also thought it was very interesting that universalism does not always have to be opposed to cultural relativism. In my opinion, the true opposite is particularism. “We are always somewhere between the ideal represented by universalism and the reality of being embedded in culture. We are bound to oscillate between the two positions in a pendulum-like motion.”13 Incorporating the post-colonial critique would also be an interesting way to create a more balanced human rights training curriculum. During training, our team 50 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) often remarks that it were the atrocities of the Second World War that brought into being the international human rights bill. Again Marie-Bénédicte Dembour’s14 analysis will be very useful to me in this sense as she states: ”Others bitterly note that it took the suffering of whites to force the powers that be into action; by comparison, slavery and colonialism left the world indifferent.” Inspired by the HR4DEV course I would like to start using these statistics on suicide of the World Health Organisation in our RNDDH training to fuel the discus- sion about human rights and wellbeing, as well as to deconstruct the common thinking of Haitians that everything in the West is better than in their country. Number of suicides by age group and gender. HAITI, 2003.15 Age 5-14 15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65-74 75+ All (years) Males 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Females 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Total 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Number of suicides by age group and gender. BELGIUM, 2005.16 Age 5-14 15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65-74 75+ All (years) Males 1 98 195 315 328 209 161 170 1477 Females 0 26 48 106 129 98 75 69 551 Total 1 124 243 421 457 307 236 239 2028 b. On Children’s Rights During our gender training we make our participants aware of the social con- struct of women’s and men’s roles. This is not currently a feature of our children’s rights training, but in the future I shall suggest we give the following message: “Child-images can change through time and from culture to culture”.17 The trail- er of the documentary “Babies” can also be used to illustrate this.18 I would also like to integrate the exercise we did about the different schools of thought in children’s rights19 into our RNDDH children’s rights training mod- ules. Firstly we would present Paternalism, Welfare, Emancipation and Liber- ation and explain their different childhood images, the attributed competence, the kinds of rights they attribute to children and their answer to the difference dilemma. We would then ask our participants to answer the following ques- tions. “In which school of thought would you situate most child rights advo- cates? Can you give some examples of each school? What is your preferred school and why?” I believe that this exercise would broaden the reflection about the participants’ own conception of children’s rights. Another useful tool is the set of questions in the survey about children’s rights. Even if computer and Internet access is not (yet) realistic in our training settings in Haiti, these questions can be used to fuel the discussion on the artificiality of age borders, the child image and the linked attributed competences of the participants. Selected papers – 51 1. At what age is it appropriate to leave a child alone without adult supervision? 2. At what age is it appropriate for a child to be given responsibility for care of other children? 3. At what age is it safe to allow a child to use a sharp knife (e.g. machete, kitchen knife) without supervision? 4. At what age should children/young people be allowed to leave school? 5. At what age should people be allowed to take a paid job? 6. At what age should boys be allowed to engage in sexual activity (age of consent)? 7. At what age should girls be allowed to engage in sexual activity (age of consent)? 8. At what age should people first be held responsible for criminal acts (liable to be taken to court and risk imprisonment)? 9. At what age should people first be allowed to vote (in local or national elections)?20 c. On Gender Equality I would love to start using this example in RNDDH’s Gender Equality and Women’s Rights training. “In 1789, the first article of the French Declaration proudly stated: ”Men are born and remain free and equal in rights”. One year later, Olympe de Gouges asserted in a “Declaration of Rights of Woman”, of her own making:”Women are born free and remain equal to men in rights.” This stance did not go down well. On 3 November 1793, de Gouges was guillotined – like a man – for having forgotten the virtues of her sex and inappropriately sought to become a statesman.” 21 d. Methodology I also saw some very interesting methodologies which we can use in training practice, like the “Think – Pair – Share” method and the “Jigsaw discussion”. This second method is a way to make group work more interesting and dynamic. After a first round of discussion in one group (1-2-3-4), every one is attributed to a second group (A-B-C-D), which now has input from all 4 groups. The method of using an “arbitration commission” of participants to “judge” the work of the different group is an attractive method to work with in Haiti. 5. Conclusion This international capacity building program was a very rich experience for me. My academic knowledge of the human rights field has been enriched, but more importantly my critical view has been greatly strengthened. This course is extremely important for my professional development. I will do everything possible to make my colleagues (both from Broederlijk Delen and from RNDDH), as well as the participants of our RNDDH Human Rights Training Program, benefit from these lessons and the resulting new abilities. However, in my role as a participatory training specialist, I cannot impose anything. I will just use these new ideas in discussion with my colleagues; it is up to them to decide if they want to use them and what they will do with this. I will continue to use the HRBAs in my work, even if I will now do so in a more critical way. I still believe, despite all the critical remarks, that it is a strategy that is certainly worthwhile trying in development practice, even if there is not yet any scientific 52 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) evidence that it will work. In the future I would like to take up a more specific engagement with children’s rights, which already is an important part of our training program for teachers, students and grassroots organizations. This course has motivated me to stimulate our RNDDH internal working commission on the transversal theme Children and Youth rights, of which I am a member. Notes & References 1 http://www.broederlijkdelen.be/home-en 2 http://www.rnddh.org/cvisite-eng.php3 3 Dembour, M.B. (2010), Critiques, in: D. Moeckli at al (eds.), International Human Rights Law, Oxford, Oxford University Press (Chapter 3) 4 Paul J. Nelson (2007), Human Rights, the Millennium Development Goals, and the Future of Development Cooperation, World Development Vol. 35 (12) p.2041-2055. 5 http://www.ihrnetwork.org/what-are-hr-based-approaches_189.htm 6 http://yalejournal.org/2010/03/stop-development-assistance-globalize- social-protection/ Gorik Ooms - published in the Yale Journal of International Affairs (2010) 7 Craenen, T. (2011), Inleiding tot de rechtenbenadering van ontwikkeling als cen- tral benadering van de partnerwerking van Broederlijk Delen, Interne nota van Broederlijk Delen. 8 http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/poverty-matters/2012/may/30/ haiti-gold-mining 9 http://www.minorityrights.org/?lid=2571 10 www.law.yale.edu/documents/pdf/.../Bonilla.pdf Extralegal Property, Legal Monism, and Pluralism – Daniel Bonilla Maldonado 11 http://etd.auburn.edu/etd/bitstream/handle/10415/731/DOLISCA_FRITO_25.pd- f?sequence=1 Population pressure, land tenure, deforestation, and farming sys- tems in haiti: the case of foret des pins reserve - Frito Dolisca (2005) 12 Dembour, M.B. (2010), Critiques, in: D. Moeckli at al (eds.), International Human Rights Law, Oxford, Oxford University Press (Chapter 3) 13 Dembour, M.B. (2010), Critiques, in: D. Moeckli at al (eds.), International Human Rights Law, Oxford, Oxford University Press (Chapter 3) 14 Dembour, M.B. (2010), Critiques, in: D. Moeckli at al (eds.), International Human Rights Law, Oxford, Oxford University Press (Chapter 3) 15 http://www.who.int/mental_health/media/haiti.pdf 16 http://www.who.int/mental_health/media/belg.pdf 17 Verhellen, E (unpublished), Historical perspective. Educational consequences and reflections in the CRC. 18 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aQEtpsmlUIA (Bébés – Thomas Balmès – Bande Annonce) 19 Hanson, K. (2012), Schools of thought in Children’s Rights, in: M. Liebel (ed.), Children’s Rights from below – Cross-Cultural Perspectives, New York, Palgrave Macmillian, 73. 20 http://www.surveymonkey.com/s/92LVVNF (Survey of Cheney, K.) 21 Dembour, M.B. (2010), Critiques, in: D. Moeckli at al (eds.), International Human Rights Law, Oxford, Oxford University Press (Chapter 3) Selected papers – 53 Where Does “Development” Fit In Early Childhood Care And Education? Diana Didilica PhD Student at Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Romania Give to every human being every right that you claim for yourself. Robert Green Ingersoll (11 August 1833 – 21 July 1899) 1. Introduction The purpose of this paper is firstly, to elaborate on implementing children’s rights in the early years as part of the worldwide initiatives in child development and secondly, to discuss the argument that both paths (rights-based and development) constitute facets of the same goal: reaching universal child well- being. As the article will reveal, the difference in both approaches is limited to the time frame and issues regarding accountability, with their philosophical constructions being similar. This paper is part of the ongoing qualitative inquiry of my doctoral thesis “The right to love, care and education in the early years”. It summarizes critical findings on brain research and considers implications for children’s development and teacher’s developmentally appropriate practice shaping relationships based on love and care in order to enhance a learning environment based on the paradigm shift in child care. The issues of care and education in the early years have been a constant concern for states starting the new developments and breakthroughs in neuroscience and the findings relating quality early childhood services to improved economic outcomes. 2. The developing brain Early childhood is a critical period as suggested by scientific evidence: during the first eight years of life the brain develops to almost 90%1 of its capacity. Miller and Cummings (2007) estimate that by the time a child reaches the age of 5, more than 100 billion neurons have made connections within the cerebral cortex (the grey matter of the brain). The majority of these neurons can die out - if not used, as neurons are initially overproduced so the child can be supported to navigate through life. Learning one of the 3,000 languages that are present (Nevills and Wolfe, 2009) and making decisions about when to crawl, stand, walk, and talk are both developmental and connected to the neurons in the brain, making strong healthy connections. The stronger the connections 1 Center for the Developing Child, Harvard University, working papers on the early years, available at http://developingchild.harvard.edu/ 54 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) between neurons, the stronger and faster the reaction will be in recalling information (Gallagher, 2005). These findings contradict the constructionist theories and support a different approach to development: the child should not be confined to curricula based on stages of development (as developmental psychologists may suggest). Instead, he or she should be treated as an object of education, stimulated and exposed to a learning environment as early as possible in life. Neuroscientists have well established that the brain has a highly robust and well-developed capacity to change in response to environmental demands, a process called plasticity (OECD, 2002). This involves creating and strengthening some neuronal connections and weakening or eliminating others. The degree of modification depends on the type of learning that takes place, with long-term learning leading to more profound modification. It also depends on the period of learning, with infants experiencing extraordinary growth of new synapses. But a profound message is that plasticity is a core feature of the brain throughout life, therefore the need for a stimulating environment is highlighted. 3. Development Research literature abounds with empirical evidence supporting the importance of the early years in a variety of different areas such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, neuroscience and even economics. Special attention was drawn to the first years of life due to the initiatives of major international organizations (World Bank, UNESCO, Save the Children, UNICEF, etc.) that set out some indicators for child development worldwide. These indicators refer to child health, child mortality, child poverty, enrolment in primary education and malnutrition. The argument supported by the current paper is that this approach is lacking because it set out half goals: eradicating poverty on half of the globe by 2015. The most significant and comprehensive movement was launched in 1990 at the  World Conference on Education for All  in  Jomtien,  Thailand. There, representatives of the International Community (155 countries, as well as representatives from some 150 organizations) agreed to the significance of lifelong learning and set out a number of six objectives to ensure basic needs of education: universal access to learning, a focus on equity, emphasis on learning outcomes, broadening the means and the scope of basic education, enhancing the environment for learning and strengthening partnerships by 20002. UNESCO coordinates the efforts of governments, development agencies, civil society, non-governmental organizations and the media are but some of the partners working toward reaching these goals. The Framework for Action to Meet Basic 2 World Declaration on Education for All, Jomtien, http://www.unesco.org/education/ wef/en-conf/Jomtien%20Declaration%20eng.shtm Selected papers – 55 Learning Needs3 the states agreed on provides specific guidelines for those goals to be met by the year 2000. Later on, in 2000, representatives of the international community met again at the World Education Forum in Dakar. Stressing the fact that the goals set out previously were far from being accomplished, the participants re-affirmed their commitment to the importance of lifelong learning and ensuring the basic needs of education. There was an obvious need for a change of perspective, therefore, six other measurable goals have been set put in order to meet the educational needs for children, youth and adults by 2015. These new goals refer specifically to the first years of life: (i) expand early childhood care and education, (ii) provide free and compulsory primary education for all, (iii) promote learning and life skills for young people and adults, (iv) increase adult literacy by 50 per cent, (v) achieve gender parity by 2005, gender equality by 2015, and (vi) improve the quality of education. These goals clearly impose the need for much more scrupulous attention to be paid to the early childhood and care services and the commitment of the state parties to strengthen educational policies and ensure methodological guidelines in order to achieve them. As a consequence, in order to address the flaws and obstacles they encounter achieving the goals, a need to monitor the progress of each country emerged. An Education for All Index was elaborated to measure the four goals related to early childhood education, goals 1, 4, 5 and 6 using data that was available in each country. According to The Education for All Global Monitoring Report4 progress has been made in the case of Romania. Early childhood education in Romania has become a priority in the educational policies beginning in 2011. According to a UNESCO Report in 20075, Romania has no national education policies or guidelines for institutions serving this age group and information is limited regarding the duration (in hours per day/week) of programmes targeting under-threes, the pupil/teacher ratio in early childhood institutions in Romania was 18/1 in 2004 (UNICEF)6. Early Childhood Education and Care (ECCE) policies are aligned with other national and sectorial development policies in Romania as a strategic way to leverage resources and promote integration of ECCE. Public expenditure on pre-primary education in 2004 ranged from 0.3% or less (GNP) which creates difficulties in achieving the remaining goals and also the realization of the national policies. Although there are significant changes in some official documents: National Strategy for Child Protection and Children’s Rights Promotion 2008-2013 includes the preoccupation for the early years, the modification of the law 3 Framework for Action to Meet Basic Learning Needs, Education for All: Meeting our Collective Commitments, Adopted by the World Education Forum Dakar, Senegal, 26- 28 April 2000 http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001211/121147e.pdf 4 http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-international-agen- da/efareport 5 Education for all Monitoring Report 2007, Regional overview: Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia, statistical tables; CRS online database, Table 2; UNESCO Institute for Statistics 6 UNICEF (2004), Early Education in Romania, http://www.unicef.org/romania/ro/ Studiu_crese.pdf 56 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) considering the organizing and establishment of early childhood education settings, in 2007, adds education to the institutions’ objectives, the New Law on Education (2011) clearly emphasizes the importance of reorganizing the activities in the crèches in order to meet the educational needs of the child yonger than three years old. UNESCO advocates for Early Childhood Care and Education programmes that attend to health, nutrition, security and learning and which provide for children’s holistic development. It organized the first  World Conference on ECCE7  in September 2010, which culminated in the adoption of a global action agenda for ECCE called  Moscow Framework for Action and Cooperation: Harnessing the Wealth of Nations. As a  follow-up to the World Conference, UNESCO works in partnership with Member States, partners and other stakeholders to encourage timely and effective implementation of the Moscow Framework so that all young children develop their potential to the fullest. 4. Rights The image of the child has been fluctuating from needy and dependent (Woodhead, 1998, 2004) to autonomous as a result of the new sociology of childhood and the growing interest for the construction of childhood and its position in society. This way the status of the child is still ambiguous for some which makes the understanding of the child’s rights more difficult and challenging (Freeman, 2007). But the question still remains: do we give special rights to children or treat them as adults? We cannot ignore the specificity of this period and at the same time, there is the risk that by defining “children’s rights” instead of human rights, it can be interpreted that they are no longer entitled to the rights after reaching the age of 18. Provision rights, protection rights, and participation rights are recognized categories of children’s rights. Recent studies in the field of children’s rights are concerned about the child’s right to participation (Article 12 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, CRC), 1989) and present the child as a social actor, capable and autonomous (Mac Naughton et. al., 2007: 162), a significant part of the social order. That implies for all the members to be equally considered (Mayall, 2000). This focus was primarily due to the publication of the General Comment No.7, Implementing children’s rights in early childhood education (UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, 2005) that draws special attention for rights based approach in the early years. Although the Convention is considered to be a mild document that only makes the children visible and is based on moral pressure rather than strong punitive mechanisms (Freeman, 2007), the General Comment No.7 points out more specific guidelines for the implementation of child rights and respecting the principles of the CRC in the early years. Even though all the 7 http://www.unesco.org/new/en/world-conference-on-ecce/moscow-follow-up/ Selected papers – 57 principles of the CRC have implications for rights in the early years, as Smith (2007) points out, my argumentation focuses on Article 6 that states the right to life, survival and development and the right to education. Trying to develop a children’s rights based approach in the early years can be- come a challenge especially since the child with the age from birth to three years old is considered to be immature and in a developing stage so therefore unable to articulate opinions and participate in order to change their state. Children are seen as subjects that need to be cared for and educated. Brigitte Qvarsell (2005) argues that the big dilemma regarding children’s rights in the early years con- sists in how to regard them – as children with rights although they cannot claim them or as children who will be able to claim them as they get older. A rights based approach is more appropriate for child development in the early years especially since it has more potential to ensure quality. According to Stainton Rogers (2004) it highlights the strengths unlike the needs approach, which is based on filling gaps. 5. Quality education standards for the early years The new social realities in Romania led to several important changes in the legislation of the country. The child protection law package is a modern one, synchronized to the European protection rights of children and fully harmonized with international treaties to which Romania is part, in particular the European Convention on Human Rights and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989 (Balahur, 2008). That includes the Law 272/2004 on the protection and promotion of the rights of the child, the most important and relevant document for professionals working with children and the child protection worker’s most important tool. Even so, there are still categories of children that do not get the necessary attention. Even though there is a strategy for the early childhood education, there is no special focus for the zero to three years and the institutions of ECCE (crèches). The history of early childhood education in Romania is being written. Until recently, the public institutions for children between 0 to 3 years have been a part of the Health System, because they were based particularly on giving protection and were similar to nurseries. The staff that is working there is basically the same as 20 years ago: nurses and other medical staff such as: infirmaries and doctors. These centers provide only nutrition, sanitary, safety and basic care needs. Romania lacks a monitoring system of achievement in the early years. In 2011, the New Education Law - Law nr. 1/2011 was enforced and for the first time early childhood education was mentioned as a priority and its importance was emphasized, but there are no methodological instruments to be put into practice at the moment. The early childhood education is not part of the compulsory education. The New Law of Education reconfigures the educational cycles. Compulsory education starts at 6 years, with the Preparatory Class, before entering primary education. 58 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) In my doctoral thesis I analyze three different setting for early childhood education in Romania. First, I have evaluated 6 of the public crèches in Iasi (a city located in the North East of Romania). Secondly, I have visited and interviewed the staff in two private crèches (one of which is not yet accredited by the Ministry of Education, Research and Youth) and one public kindergarten that opened its door in the fall of 2012. In the private crèches, the number of staff is higher: there are three mind devel- opers taking care of 10 children. The personnel have had educational training and at least five years of experience with young children. Given the fact that it has opened recently (September 2011), the number of children attending the private crèche is still low, ten children, although the capacity is for 30 and the equipment is according to the early childhood standards stated in the Strategy for early childhood issued by the Ministry of Education, Research and Youth and international guidelines for early childhood development (Starting Strong III re- port, 20128, European Commission Provisions on Early childhood education and care9). This fact is also due to the accreditation problems new institutions face: the process is very long and the specific requirements are sometimes unclear because there are no legislative norms on the methodology private crèches. 6. Research The data of the research was generated through interviews with educators, nurses, social pedagogues and managers working in early childhood institutions and observations of day-to-day life in the three case study centers: public crèches in Iasi (and a kindergarten with a special class for under threes), private crèches in Iasi and recently open early childhood care and education centers ANTANTE10 in Bucharest. In the first stage interviews were conducted in order to analyze the carers’ perceptions of children’s rights in early childhood. Juxtaposed to constructivism, as a way of teaching our young, are educators who believe in a more traditional, teacher-led approach to education (Rushton, 2009). Many of these educators are guided by the political pressure for standardized testing and also the financial cuts they stress. Limited resources stand in the way of realization of appropriate teaching experiences for children: the educator from the public crèches sometimes is forced to buy paper, glue, crayons and other materials for the activities in class. In the ANTANTE centers, these problems do not occur, since the project is financed by the European Union and also the General Office of Social Work Bucharest in collaboration with 8 Starting Strong III, OECD, 2012 - A Quality Toolbox for Early Childhood Education and Care http://www.oecd.org/education/preschoolandschool/startingstrongiii-aquality- toolboxforearlychildhoodeducationandcare.htm 9 Eurydice, 2009, Early Childhood Education and Care in Europe: Tackling Social and Cultural Inequalities http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice/documents/the- matic_reports/098EN.pdf 10 http://www.antante.org/ Selected papers – 59 the Ministry of Education, Research and Youth. The staff has been specifically trained to address the specific needs in the early years. The training consisted of 6 months of theory and 6 months of practice, which were followed by an exam and then led to the hiring of the person. This project is of great value because it is the first in the public sphere that introduces the notion of education through play in their programme. Accountability and setting measurable standards represent crucial steps for early childhood as the concept of developmentally appropriate practices. As long as the objectives are not set universally for all early childhood institutions, there will be a lack of transparency and the data will fail to be conclusive. Analyzing the relations between children and the persons working in crèches, I have observed that there is an obvious difference in attitudes in the three settings. The public crèches in Iasi are based on protection. The everyday schedule is dully followed and any interruption or intervention creates frustration for the personnel. It starts with events like: arrival at the crèches in the morning, breakfast and then potty time are to be at the exact time for each one of the children. In the bathroom children are supposed to sing songs or recite poems and if they do not manage to do that, they are sometimes shouted at. Emotional components have long been neglected in institutional education, and the case remains in the public crèches. Contrary to this situation, in the ANTANTE centers, carers and educators take time with each child individually. Another focus of the research is developing a set of indicators for quality in early childhood education and constructing a guide for child’s rights imple- mentation in the early years based on the experience and good practice of early childhood education systems from other countries and adapted to the Romanian context. 7. Developing affective relations – love, care, solidarity Another starting point was that neuroscience points out the importance of the nurturing environment for the developing brain. It is every child’s birth right to receive love, respect, compassion and empathy. These are the basic and essential ingredients of support. The right to love has not been mentioned in any Declaration so far, but it cannot be denied. Bronfenbrenner sees the instability and unpredictability of family life we have let our economy create as the most destructive force to a child’s development (Addison, 1992). This is a serious argument for evolving quality early childhood settings. The parents no longer can provide the needed attention for the first years because they need to re-enter the work field after a year of maternal leave. This can be problematic since the public services in Romania are not sufficient and cannot respond to the growing demand of young children and at the same time, the private ones are high-priced. 60 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) Children do not have the constant mutual interaction with important adults (parents, relatives, carers) that is necessary for development. According to the ecological theory, if the relationships in the immediate microsystem break down, the child will not have the tools to explore other parts of his environment. Therefore, I can argue that the theory of attachment (Bowlby and Ainsworth) - is dated and neuroscience provides strong evidence that the carers do not replace the mother and yet need to establish relations based on love and genuine affection for an appropriate development. Children are constantly looking for the affirmations that should be present in the child/parent (or child/other important adult) relationship look for attention in inappropriate places. These deficiencies show themselves especially in adolescence as anti-social behavior, lack of self-discipline, and inability to provide self-direction (Addison, 1992). One of the most powerful set of findings concerned with learning concerns the brain’s remarkable properties of “plasticity” – to adapt, to grow in relation to experienced needs and practice, and to prune itself when parts become unnecessary – which continues throughout the lifespan, including far further into old age than had previously been imagined (OECD, 2002). The demands made on the individual and on his or her learning are key to the plasticity – the more you learn, the more you can learn. On the other hand, a traumatic experience becomes the most powerful architect of the child’s brain. This neurochemical wash decreases the number of synapses, or connections, that are so necessary for learning. High cortisol levels during a child’s early years increase activity in the brain structures that are involved in vigilance and arousal. Consequently, a traumatized brain has a hair-trigger set point that is easily activated whenever a child dreams of, thinks about, or is reminded of the original trauma or stress. Self-regulation and control are difficult for a child whose brain has been, or is being, flooded with stress hormones. It has also been found that the hippocampus, a memory- making part of the brain, is smaller in adults who were abused as children (Begley, 1997). Goleman (1995) referred to this as a “neural hijacking.” When under stress, the brain is programmed to respond in two ways: fight or flee. In times of perceived or real danger, it makes sense that the brain would resort to simple, basic patterns of self-preservation; however when the brain is hijacked, it is at the expense of critical and careful thought. One of the boys in an ANTANTE center showed real progress while at the crèche, but as soon as his parents came he would change his behavior drastically: he would start kicking the carer and the other children and he would not listen to them. That is because of the attitude parents have towards the crèche and the staff there, they would immediately re- ward this behavior with a chocolate in order to compensate for their absence and encourage him to act this way. Although the social pedagogue maintains the rela- tionship with the parents and encourages them to continue the activities at home, this is one of the failed cases. The collaboration with parents seems to be deficient, although in some cases parents returned to the center impressed by the things their child started to recite at home, or other things he/she learned at the crèche. Selected papers – 61 Teachers need to “orchestrate immersion” (Caine & Caine, 1991) through differentiated curricula that purposefully meet the varied interests, styles, and levels of all learners in the classroom. Low expectations for children ultimately result in limited teacher effort to provide interesting or challenging experiences. As the results of the qualitative inquiry that I conducted show, these low expectations are due to the lack of training on the staff’s part regarding child development, psychology and specific early childhood appropriate educative experiences. A critical ingredient in any best practice program is the opportunity for young children to learn from experience through interactive feedback. In cases when there is only one carer for 20 children, like in the case of the public crèches, this can create frustrations on the carer’s part or the children’s. Children, who want to share a success in drawing for instance and are not given the attention, start crying or abandon the activity. Another similar situation is during the “watching cartoons” activity in the public crèches, some children want to play or simply get bored with the cartoon and start making noises to draw attention, in this case, the carer will have to force the child to watch the cartoons. Caine and Caine (1997) reported that the brain is social and changes in response to engagement with others. Consequently, conversation is not a frill; indeed, it is a necessary learning tool. Dialogue and conversation enable learners to change or refine how they think and what they do. Part of successful student learning, it follows, depends on establishing relationships in the community and finding ways to belong. This was very much present in the ANTANTE crèches, when educators try to give sense to everything the child gets into contact with, for instance when reading a book, the educator clearly repeats the new words she encounters in order for the child to process the information. Some children ask questions and interrupt the reading and they are answered patiently and explained the parts they do not understand. I have also observed collaboration with children from the part of the staff in these centers. If a child wants to be held and cries it is explained to him why it would be difficult for the carer to do so and asked to stop crying because his other friends are listening to the story. This attitude is efficient especially since the child seeks attention and affirmation of his behavior. 8. Conclusions Reforming child care will encourage access to high quality, affordable, flexible services and support well-qualified staff and the development of community/ parent boards. This reform must take into account making new sense of existing theories and interpretations in order to introduce a specific attention to the neuroaffective development of the child and the love labor of those working with them in early childhood institutions. Ensuring quality early childhood education is a matter of social justice since children are not the only ones involved, but also working parents and carers, 62 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) who need to have their rights fulfilled as well. Among the findings in my research is that the physical and organizational environment have serious effects on the quality of all programs and also revealed the tensions between the infants’ rights and the educators’ or carers’ responsibilities in enacting those rights and implementing them into practice. These tensions were very much related to the insufficient funding of these services. There are still many questions to be answered, but when it comes to children’s rights in the first years the duty bearers are everyone, and even though we still need to “harden” the children’s rights discourse, we should avoid the superficial realization and provide more evidence that it works from the field. This I think is the easiest way to argue for a change. Bronfenbrenner suggests child development research is better informed when institutional policies encourage studies within natural settings and theory finds greater practical application when contextually relevant. The specialists working with children must be encouraged to produce scientific knowledge from the field for the construction of a coherent strategy for early childhood education in the first three years and also national quality standards in order to evaluate the progress of each setting. At the moment, things seem blurry and small initiatives that exist quickly fade away. The cycle of limited resources must be broken as well as the perception in the public services that children younger than three years need only protection, safety and healthy environment and are not capable of learning. The key to a quality early childhood education must be systematic encouragement of positive attitudes and behaviors, expressing respect for the human being and dignity, tolerance and solidarity is not the ‘prerogative’ of a specialized institution, but a constantly cultivated quality of the entire social environment, continuously optimized in terms of structures, institutions, social categories, and individuals. Since the developmentalists are addressing the world’s inequalities, the rights- based approach would only strengthen and support the outcomes and ensure its sustainability and dissemination. One of the starting points can be overcoming the threats and weaknesses of the two approaches: if each country has a different rhythm of fulfilling the developmental goals, that shouldn’t be used against it, but for facilitating the process without patronizing it (as a skeptic would argue that the human rights based approach is an imperialistic way of using political influence of developed countries in the developing countries). Another would be involving the communities and the civil society we should promote a right to international solidarity and empower the involvement of each citizen in achieving the global goals, by sharing responsibility and ensuring social justice, a perspective that is clearly left out by our programmes regarding child protection and youth. This can also be accomplished by educating and Selected papers – 63 training staff working with children in the affective domain which is at the moment unconsidered (Lynch, 2009). Training for love, care and solidarity is imperative, since education is indifferent to other-centered work arising from our interdependencies and dependencies as affective, relational beings states the author. In particular it has ignored the centrality of nurturing for the preservation and self-actualization of the human species. Acknowledgements This work was supported by the European Social Fund in Romania, under the responsibility of the Managing Authority for the Sectoral Operational Programme for Human Resources Development 2007-2013 [grant POSDRU/107/1.5/S/78342]. References Addison, J. T. (1992). Urie Bronfenbrenner. Human Ecology, 20(2), 16-20. Balahur, D., 2008, Child and Childhood in Romania, in Greenwood Encyclopedia of Children Issues World Wide, Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport, CT, USA (six volumes), Book Code: GR3614 ; ISBN: 0-313-33614-8 ; ISBN-13: 978-0-313-33614-0 Begley, S. (1997. March). How to build a baby’s brain (Special issue). Newsweek  28-32. Caine, R., & Caine, C. (1991).  Making connections: Teaching and the human brain.Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley. Education for all Monitoring Report 2007, Regional overview: Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia, statistical tables; CRS online database, Table 2; UNESCO Institute for Statistics Framework for Action  to Meet Basic Learning Needs, Education for All: Meeting our Collective Commitments, Adopted by the World Education Forum Dakar, Senegal, 26-28 April 2000 http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0012/001211/121147e.pdf Freeman, M. (2007). Why it remains important to take children’s rights seriously. International Journal of Children’s Rights, 15, 5-23. Gallagher, K. (2005). Brain research and early childhood development: A primer for developmentally appropriate practice. Young Children, 60(4), 12–20 Goleman, D. (1995).  Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. New York: Bantam. Lynch, K., Baker, J., Lyons, M.(2009), Affective equality. Love, Care and Injustice. Palgrave Macmillan Miller, B., & Cummings, J. (Eds.). (2007). The human frontal lobes. New York, NY: Guilford. 64 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) Mac Naughton, G., Hughes, P., Smith, K. (2007) Early childhood professionals and children’s rights: tensions and possibilities around the United Nations General Comment No. 7 on Children’s Rights, International Journal of Early Years Education, 15(2), 161-170. Mayall, B.(2000), The sociology of childhood in relation to children’s rights, The International Journal of Children’s rights, 8(3), 243-259 Nevills, A., & Wolfe, P. (2009). Building the reading brain preK-3. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin OECD (2002) Understanding the brain: Towards a new learning science, Paris: OECD Publications Rushton, S., Juola-Rushton, A., & Larkin, E. (2009). Neuroscience, Play, and Early Childhood Education: Implications, Connections and Assessment. Early Childhood Education Journal, 37, 5 Qvarsell, B. 2005. Early childhood culture and education for children’s rights. International Journal of Early Childhood, 37(3), 99-108. Smith, A. B. 2007, Children’s rights and early childhood education, Australian Journal of Early Childhood, Vol.32, 3, 1-8 Stainton Rogers, W. 2004. Promoting better childhoods: Constructions of child concern. In M. J. Kehily (ed.), An introduction to childhood studies. 125-144. Maidenhead: Open University Press United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child (2005) General Comment No.7, Implementing child rights in early childhood, Geneva, online source: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/crc/docs/AdvanceVersions/ GeneralComment7Rev1.pdf United Nation Convention on the rights of the child, adopted by the United Nations in November 1989, online source: http://www2.ohchr.org/ english/law/crc.htm UNICEF (2004), Early Education in Romania, http://www.unicef.org/romania/ro/ Studiu_crese.pdf Woodhead, M. (1998). ”Quality” in Early Childhood programmes – a contextually appropriate approach, International Journal of Early Years Education, 6 (1), 5-17. Woodhead, M. (2004). Foreword in M. J. Kehily (Ed.). An introduction to childhood studies (pp. x-xi). Maidenhead: Open University Press. World Declaration on Education for All, 1990, Jomtien, http://www.unesco.org/ education/wef/en-conf/Jomtien%20Declaration%20eng.shtm Selected papers – 65 Human Rights Based Approach to Development: Is it Applicable? The Case of Palestine Haneen Ghazawneh Researcher at the Palestine Economic Research Institute (MAS) in Ramallah- Palestine Abstract Human Rights Based Approach (HRBA) to development is appealing and widely spread among human rights defenders as well as among development workers. This paper aims to reflect on the Human Rights for Development course that was held at Antwerp University during the period 30th July-24th August 2012. First, this paper examines the status quo of the HRBA to development and its honorable ideology behind it. However, when it comes to the practical side of implementation, this approach faces difficulties on the ground, especially in the case of Palestine. More precisely, to Palestinian’s right to food. Key words Development – Human Rights – Food Security – Palestine. 1. Introduction Historically, as has been discussed during the course, a HRBA to development has been increasingly attractive to multilateral organizations (UN, OECD-DAC, EU…). Cornwall and Nusembi (2004) classify three broad justifications for the value of rights in development: normative, pragmatic and ethical. The normative justification is that talking about rights put values and politics at the very heart of development practice1. Such an approach would also make the effectiveness of international aid less questionable. Moreover, as it was discussed by Molenaers, there have been shifts in the development paradigms during the past few decades. Aid has shifted from projects based intervention, during the period 1960-1980, into budget support aid nowadays. Such a shift has promoted the ‘governance reform’ agenda and thus raises the ‘rights based approach’ agenda. The UN has established a Practitioners’ Portal on HRBA, and makes it accessible to UN practitioners through a single entry point, www.hrbaportal. 1 Cornwall and Nusembi, (2004). Putting the ‘Rights-Based Approach’ to Development into Perspective. Third World Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 8. Pp 1415-1437. 66 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) org. UN agencies appear to tend towards a HRBA with UNDP and UNICEF leading the way2. UNICEF takes the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women as the organizing frameworks for its work. UNDP has not (unlike UNICEF) translated HRBA into a practical tool for rights-based programming to be applied to its poverty eradication and sustainable human development work. UNDP’s key contribution has been at the conceptual level3. In the Palestinian context, UNDP’s conceptual level of HRBA to development discourse was obvious in its Palestine Human Development report 2009/2010 titled “Investing in Human Security for a Future State”. The report states that: “Human insecurity is the result of pervasive, recurrent or intense threats, and can only be remedied by the protection and empowerment of people”4. Thus, focusing on protection policies rather than right claiming policies. When it comes to the case of Palestine, as a conflict zone, it is more interesting to think about HRBA to development and how could it be applied; bearing in mind that there is a daily documentation on Israeli violations of Palestinian rights. HRBA created a new dimension to my thinking about how we can progress towards Palestinian economic development and self-determination through this approach. Before going more into detail, section 2 identifies the core concepts used in this paper. Section 3 reflects on HRBA to development as an approach and raises the question of the applicability and viability of such an approach. The Israeli violations of Palestinian rights are discussed in section 4. Section 5 sheds light on the right to food in Palestine since studying food insecurity is one of the major tasks I do back in my home country. Finally, in section 6 I reflect and conclude. 2. Understanding the Core Concepts Due to the wide variety of definitions available and surrounding debates of the concepts of development, development cooperation, human rights, and food security, it is important to define these as they relate to the paper. 2.1 Development and Development cooperation The term development is about transformation which includes not only economic growth, although that is crucial, but also human development— providing for health, nutrition, education, and a clean environment. Thus, human development is the central concern of development. On the other hand, is there a difference between development and development cooperation? 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid. 4 http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/nationalreports/arabstates/palestine/name,14112,en. html Selected papers – 67 Development cooperation is a wider concept than development aid. It promotes greater coherence among the development activities of different development partners, with the aim of reducing considerable development disproportions between the developed and developing countries. Those promoting the concept of development cooperation argue that impact of development assistance is minimal to development. However, development cooperation is much more important. Those suspicions about the concept of development cooperation argue that the word ‘aid’ is being replaced by the phrase ‘development cooperation’. However, it is questionable if that linguistic change has made any real change5. In the Palestinian context, development and development cooperation are hardly ever used despite the fact that Palestinians receive one of highest levels of aid in the world. But despite the billions of dollars spent, “development” has not resulted. The EU and other international organization are financially generous enough to Palestine, but never try to address concretely the causes of the chronic deterioration of Palestinian socio-economic conditions. Some literature argues that the EU is/was an excellent ‘payer’ but never took the role of the ‘player’6. Thus, it is difficult to talk about development cooperation in the Palestinian context; more precisely international aid to Palestine is merely a sop for political failure7. 2.2 Human Rights The UN office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights defines human rights as: “… rights inherent to all human beings, whatever our nationality, place of residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, language, or any other status. We are all equally entitled to our human rights without discrimination. These rights are all interrelated, interdependent and indivisible. Universal human rights are often expressed and guaranteed by law, in the forms of treaties, customary international law, general principles and other sources of international law. International human rights law lays down obligations of Governments to act in certain ways or to refrain from certain acts, in order to promote and protect human rights and fundamental freedoms of individuals or groups.” As it was discussed thoroughly during the course, the value added by a human rights way of thinking may be summarized by the abbreviation of PANTHER: Participation (from bottom), Accountability (rights and duty-holders), Non- Discrimination, Transparency, Human dignity, Empowerment and Rule of law. 5 http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/poverty-matters/2011/jul/27/ aid-and-development-coordination 6 Steffen Schulz (2001). Payer or Player? The Role of the European Union in the Middle East Peace Process. Diplomarbeiten Agentur diplom.de 7 http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/poverty-matters/2011/aug/24/ aid-wont-help-desperate-palestinians 68 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) Dembour summarized six critiques to human rights: deriving from realist, utilitarian, Marxist, particularist (cultural relativist), feminist, and postcolonial theoretical perspective. Each of these critiques reveals a gap between what human rights claim to be or achieve, on the one hand, and what human rights are or do in practice, on the other. The question is whether this gap is bridgeable? In the Palestinian context, the Independent Commission for Human Rights (ICHR) is the Palestinian National Human Rights Institution and has full membership in the International Coordinating Committee of National Human Rights Institutions of the United Nations. The ICHR monitors the different Palestinian laws, by-laws and regulations in order for them to meet the requirements for safeguarding human rights (www.ichr.ps). 2.4 Right to Development The Commission on Human Rights began considering the concept of the right to development in 1977 (Marks, 2011). In 1979, the UN Secretary-General states that the evolution of the concept and its translation into a notion based on human rights standards will depend significantly on the future course of action adopted by the Commission on Human Rights. Afterwards, it was followed by a declaration and efforts to promote its implementation. Article 1 of the Declaration on the Right to Development (1986) proclaims: 1. The right to development is an inalienable human right by virtue of which every human person and all peoples are entitled to participate in, contribute to, and enjoy economic, social, cultural and political development, in which all human rights and fundamental freedoms can be fully realized. 2. The human right to development also implies the full realization of the right of peoples to self-determination, which includes, subject to the relevant provisions of both International Covenants on Human Rights, the exercise of their inalienable right to full sovereignty over all their natural wealth and resources. This is a very idealistic definition when we relate it to what is happening in reality. Regardless of international human rights law, international humanitarian law, and refugee law, some might argue that the international aid system actually undermines local leadership, local agendas, and grassroots participation. It does so by putting decisions concerning how resources are used into the hands of non-locals, applying standards of transparency and accountability to local actors that are not applied to donors and their agents, ignoring local circumstances (including the challenges of working under occupation in the Palestinian case)8. 8 http://www.thisweekinpalestine.com/details.php?id=2537&ed=156&edid=156 Selected papers – 69 2.5 Food Security The World Food Summit (1996) defines food security as a general state “When all people at all times have both physical and economic access to sufficient food to meet their dietary needs for a productive and healthy life”. Four elements coexist in this definition: • Food availability – whether produced locally or imported. • Food accessibility – where all individuals have access to adequate resources to meet appropriate dietary needs. • Food stability – where access to adequate food is permanently secured, with no risk of shocks. • Food utilization – the consumption of food with adequate sanitation, clean water and where health care is provided. The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) has assured the right to food in article 11: “The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living for himself and his family, including adequate food, clothing and housing, In the Palestinian context, more than one third of Palestinian households are food insecure due to the limited economic and physical accessibility as it will be illustrated in section 5. After clarifying the core concepts used in the paper, the next section reflects on a HRBA to development and questions the possibilities of applying such an approach. 3. Human Rights Based Approach to Develop- ment: Is it Applicable? The UN Common Understanding of HRBA to development states: 1. All programmes of development co-operation, policies and technical assistance should further the realization of human rights as laid down in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other international human rights instruments. 2. Human rights standards contained in, and principles derived from, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other international human rights instruments guide all development cooperation and programming in all sectors and in all phases of the programming process. 3. Development cooperation contributes to the development of the capacities of ‘duty-bearers’ to meet their obligations and/or of ‘rights-holders’ to claim their rights. The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights-OHCHR (2006) defines HRBA to development as “…conceptual framework for the process of 70 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) development that is normatively based on international human rights standards and operationally directed to promoting and protecting human rights”. There are some human rights indicators that are used as a tool. The indicators should measure the extent to which duty-bearers are fulfilling their obligations and rights- holders are enjoying their rights9. I should admit that HRBA to development for me was too abstract (now it is somewhat less abstract), until we undertook the SWOT analysis exercise of the approach. Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats have been analyzed deeply. While a HRBA to development is legally binding and holistic, the implementation is not clear and it may be set by a foreign policy. These are just few examples of the advantages and disadvantages of such an approach. Moreover, as has been discussed during the course, such an approach is not a proven methodology; that is, is it human rights that lead to development or the opposite? I believe that rather than discussing the chicken or the egg causality dilemma, the question should be does a HRBA to development help in achieving a change or at the very least facilitate change? Section 4 looks at the Israeli violations of Palestinian rights and raise the question how a HRBA to development might, at the minimum, facilitate a change in that area. 4. The case of Palestine: Robbery and Violations of Palestinian Rights After presenting the main idea behind a HRBA to development, it is obvious that an activity that only incidentally contributes to the realization of human rights does not necessarily comprise a HRBA, where the aim of all activities is to contribute directly to the realization of one or several human rights. The question is how this approach may be applied in my country in order to achieve real changes on the ground, bearing in mind the daily Israeli violations of Palestinian rights? Since I am not a lawyer and I am not familiar with all the conventions and laws, I’ll narrow my analysis to three main laws: the international humanitarian law (IHL), the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)10. Israeli violations 9 DE Beco, G. (2010). The Interplay between Human Rights and Development the Other Way Round: The Emerging Use of Quantitative Tools For Measuring The Progressive Realisation of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Human Rights and International Legal Discourse, 4 (2), 265-287. 10 One of the interesting parts of the course that I would like to learn more about when I’m back in my country is the Maastricht Principles on Extraterritorial Obligations of States in the area of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights that was adopted in 28th September 2011. These international legal principles clarify the human rights obliga- tions of States beyond their own borders. I’m afraid I’ll fail to reflect clearly on that part in this paper with the time and words limitations. Selected papers – 71 of these conventions are very obvious, as it will be discussed, however, no state has enough power to bring Israel to stop its violations11. The Amnesty International report 2012 summarizes Israeli violations of Palestinian rights which are against international law: … The Israeli authorities continued to blockade the Gaza Strip, prolonging the humanitarian crisis there, and to restrict the movement of Palestinians in the Occupied Palestinian Territories (OPT). In the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, the authorities continued to construct the fence/wall, much of it on Palestinian land, and to expand settlements, breaching international law. They demolished Palestinian homes and other facilities in the West Bank, and homes of Palestinian citizens inside Israel, especially in “unrecognized” villages in the Negev. The Israeli army frequently used excessive, sometimes lethal force against demonstrators in the West Bank and civilians in border areas within the Gaza Strip. Israeli military forces killed 55 civilians in the OPT, including 11 children. Settler violence against Palestinians in the West Bank increased, and three Palestinians were killed by Israeli settlers. Israeli settlers and soldiers accused of committing abuses against Palestinians generally escaped accountability. The authorities failed to conduct independent investigations into alleged war crimes by Israeli forces during Operation “Cast Lead” in 2008- 2009. The Israeli authorities arrested thousands of West Bank Palestinians. More than 307 were administrative detainees held without charge or trial; others received prison terms following military trials. Israel held more than 4,200 Palestinian prisoners at the end of 2011. Reports of torture and other ill- treatment of detainees continued… These violations have been documented by other human rights organizations as well; Human Rights Watch, the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), B’Tselem (the most respected human rights organization in Israel), Diakonia …etc. Regarding the violation of the ICESCR, The Palestinian Centre for Human Rights (2010) has summarized the Israeli violations of the some articles of this convention12: 1. Article 1. Right to self-determination: Israel’s long-standing occupation of the Occupied Palestinian territories (oPt) has deprived Palestinians of their fundamental right to self-determination. This right is intended to allow peoples to pursue political and territorial self-rule and economic, social and cultural development. Without an ability to exercise self-determination the fulfillment of all other rights is inhibited. 11 It is worth noting that many of human rights are violated within the Palestinian terri- tories as well. But this is out of the scope of this paper. 12 http://www.pchrgaza.org/portal/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=ar- ticle&id=7090:alternative-report-submitted-to-un-committee-on-econom- ic-social-and-cultural-rights-in-response-to-israels-third-periodic-re- port-ec12isr3-&catid=51:pchr-interventions&Itemid=196 72 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) 2. Article 6. Right to work: Through its closure regime and apartheid wall which creates a physical separation of the oPt, Israel has significantly affected the right to work of Palestinians. Israel has denied the Gaza Strip any means to maintain or develop an economy. 3. Article 10. Right to family: The denial of family reunifications and residency rights which are part of a policy of forcible transfer aimed at eliminating the non-Jewish population in occupied East Jerusalem, Israel is violating the right to family. 4. Article 11. Right to adequate standard of living: Through the confiscation of West Bank land for building illegal Israeli settlements, demolishing of Palestinian houses, controlling the access to water and food. These policies amount to collective punishment on the civilian population which is clearly illegal under binding norms of international law. 5. Article 12. Right to health: Restrictions on the movement of people out of the Gaza Strip for medical care, the restrictions on entry of construction materials, fuel, medical equipment and medicines create a situation where adequate medical care is impossible for the civilian population. In the West Bank, with the closure measure, people have to follow long roads to arrive at medical care centers. 6. Article 13. Right to education: The direct targeting of schools and universities through raids and military attacks along with restrictions on movements of persons due to the closure has seriously damaged the ability of students to achieve an education. Regarding Israeli violations of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), I’ll let the photos below express it: Source: http://www.Guardian.Co.Uk/world/2012/jun/26/israel-palestinian-children-injustice http://www.A-w-i-p.Com/index.Php/2011/07/20/denying-palestinian-children-education Selected papers – 73 As it is apparent, violations occur on a daily basis. The question is whether it is enough to document these violations? What else can be done? Do other states have extraterritorial obligations to help create an environment for the realization of all human rights? What role should international organizations play? Where are Maastricht Principles in the case of Palestine? If we look at principle 21 of Maastricht Principles, for example, it states clearly that: “… states must refrain from any conduct which aids, assists, directs… another state … to breach … international organization’s obligations as regards economic, social and cultural rights…”. Thus, even if Palestine is not considered as a State, till now, other states and international community should take serious actions against Israel’s violations of other international organizations’ roles in Palestine (for example demolishing UN built schools). Herewith, I recommend the Research Networking Programme “Beyond Territoriality: Globalisation and Transnational Human Rights Obligation – GLOTHRO” to have the Israeli violations of Palestinian rights as a priority. 5. Shed the Light on Right to Food in Palestine At my work back in Palestine, one of my major tasks is tracking and analyzing food insecurity status in the occupied Palestinian Territory. Since I started working on that theme in 2009, my major argument has been that food insecurity in Palestine is a man-made disaster rather than a natural one. Moreover, I was/ am arguing that rather than pouring food aid to food-insecure people, we need to investigate and try to solve the causes of food insecurity in Palestine rather than the symptoms. However, I was never able to phrase my argument in a HRBA way of thinking, which I now intend to do. Food Security Status in Palestine Palestine was traditionally known as an agrarian society, where the local population depended on agriculture as its prime source of support and sustenance. However, the Israeli control of local water resources, and the continuous confiscation of land, has caused great distortions in agricultural land, water prices, and agricultural wages. This has, in turn, led to a deterioration of the economic role of the Palestinian agricultural sector13. The contribution of the agricultural sector to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has steadily declined during the years of the Israeli occupation. Whereas it represented nearly 35 percent of the GDP during the period 1968-1974, it dropped to nearly 22 percent within the period 1982-1985. During 2008, the contribution of agriculture to the GDP did not reach 5 percent. Since then, a new phenomenon started to appear in the Palestinian Territories: the food insecurity crisis. 13 Other reasons relate to the Palestinians themselves, where the inheritance of land has resulted in the division of land and the spread of small-scale family agricultural production. 74 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) Food insecurity has greatly increased since the outbreak of the second Intifada, which resulted in severe, and long-term, movement and access restrictions, closure regimes, barriers, the necessity of obtaining permits, destruction of assets as well as settlement expansion. The first food security assessment in the Palestinian Territories was conducted in 2003 by the two main food organizations in the Palestinian Territories (the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Food Program (WFP)), and has since been used as the baseline for food security. The assessment concluded that although food is generally available, access is limited. The main factor affecting food security in the Palestinian Territories was noted to be the Israeli occupation measures, which impose restrictions on the borders of the Palestinian Territories and on internal movement between villages, towns, and cities. Restricting movement and access has negatively affected economic access to food; people have lost their jobs and income and have therefore been unable to meet basic food needs. The results were updated in subsequent assessments in January 2007 and May 2008, and support the findings of the first survey: namely, potential agricultural areas are affected by closures and isolated from urban markets, thus resulting in an increase in the number of people reliant on food aid. Figure 1 tracks the food-security situation in the Palestinian Territories as indicated in the three household surveys. Figure 1: Food Security Status in the Occupied Palestinian Territory Source: Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis (CFSVA) 2003, 2007,and FAO/WFP/UNRWA, May 2008. Selected papers – 75 Figure 1 shows the alarming situation of food insecurity in the Palestinian Territories. Although the incidence of food insecurity fell by 6 percent between 2003 (40 percent) and 2006 (34 percent), the number of people who were food insecure rose again by 2008 to 38 percent of the population in the Palestinian Territories, regardless of the massive increase in food aid during the same period. The WFP, the main provider of food aid to non-refugees14, increased its appeal for food-aid funds by 61 percent between 2003 and 2008. However, the food insecurity situation has not improved, as shown in Figure 1. Kanafani and Al-Botmeh (2008) argue that food aid in the case of the Palestinian Territories treats only the symptoms rather than the roots of the food insecurity crisis. Bearing in mind that Palestine is traditionally an agrarian society, investing in agriculture could be a vital developmental tool for improving food security among Palestinians. Although in reality very few funds go to the agricultural sector compared with food aid (See Table 1). Table 1: Requirements and Secured Funding of the CAP* in the Palestinian Territories, 2003–2008 (thousands of USD) Food Agriculture Year Required Funded Covered % Required Funded Covered % 2003 42,649 46,186 108% 4,737 2,242 47% 2004 82,576 43,183 52% 5,450 2,345 43% 2005 86,476 45,750 53% 12,599 5,162 41% 2006 106,628 131,859 124% 36,897 1,561 4% 2007 147,668 149,876 101% 14,480 5,794 40% 2008 202,129 172,948 86% 22,485 12,617 56% Source: *Consolidated Appeal Process (CAP), 2003-2009. Table 1 compares the resources requested and the resources obtained by the Consolidated Appeal Process (CAP) for the food and agriculture sectors. The amount required to finance these sectors has continued to increase since 2003. The greatest response has been to the food sector, where funds actually exceeded requirements by 24 percent in 2006. On the other hand, the amount requested and obtained for agriculture is relatively small when compared to the amount required for the food sector. Informal talks with representatives from WFP and FAO to explore the reasons behind the low investment in agriculture have produced only ambiguous responses, the most frequent being: “It’s a policy!” Further investigation is needed to explore the obstacles that limit investment in agriculture. 14 UNRWA is the main provider of food aid to Palestinian refugees. 76 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) But the main question remains: Is it food assistance or other priorities that the fertile land needs in order to address the crisis of food insecurity? For any intervention to be effective, however, donors must play a political role and insist that Israel changes its inhuman policies towards Palestinians. After describing the phenomenon of food insecurity in Palestine, the question now is: what is the added value of applying HRBA to food insecurity in the Palestinian context? As has been discussed during Mestrum’s lecture on “Children and global poverty: An Alter-globalist Perspective”, other policies rather than reducing food insecurity level policies might be needed. Interveners should prioritize their interventions towards giving people economic and social rights. Any intervention should address the main causes of food insecurity in Palestine; that is, the restrictions on physical and economic accessibility as have been discussed above. If those big international organizations involved in the food security sector (such as UN, FAO and WFP) stress the main causes of the crisis, and stress the right of Palestinians to dignity, life, work, food, water…etc (they do stress the main causes on a conceptual and descriptive levels), this should increase the awareness of that crisis among the international community as well as among the locals. Internationals would put more effort on enforcing Israel to obey international laws. The locals as well, might have a different perspective towards receiving food aid and instead claim their rights. 6. Reflections and Conclusions After one month of discourse and discussion on a HRBA to development, there is no one recipe how to apply such approach. Therefore, my conclusions and reflections will be shaped as open questions that I still need to think about rather than final concrete conclusions on such an approach. On a personal level, I would like if there was a recipe for this approach and to go home and apply it. Others complain that like other fashions, the label ‘rights- based approach’ has become the latest designer item to be seen to be wearing, without any real changes15. Therefore, when questioning the applicability of a HRBA to development, the answer would depend on who we ask? Conflict zones countries? UN agencies? Academics? Lawyers? Certain Western countries? Certain Eastern countries?... etc, and there will be different perspectives to answer this question. This reminds me of a familiar question/joke that we usually raise in Palestine: What is your opinion about lack of food in the rest of the World? The answer will depend on who you ask: 15 Cornwall and Nusembi, (2004). Putting the ‘Rights-Based Approach’ to Development into Perspective. Third World Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 8. Pp 1415-1437. Selected papers – 77  Africa: What does food mean? Europe: What does lack mean? America: What does rest of the World mean? Arab: What does opinion mean? Thus, as a beginner to this field and coming from a conflict zone area, I would rather conclude my paper by raising the following open questions rather than concrete conclusions. Although I failed in giving a concrete answer to human rights as an approach, I am totally convinced that the combination of human rights and economic development should be a must in the Occupied Palestinian Territory. • Does a HRBA to development help in achieving goals or facilitating change, no matter how small? • What does emergency aid mean if it is happening every year? • How to distinguish between obligation and enforcement? • Is enforcement territorial? • What is the responsibility of other states? • What will happen to food insecure people if we try to rely on Human Rights to reduce food insecurity? • Who is responsible to monitor Israeli illegal settlement products in the in- ternational markets (Responsible sourcing)? • Who judges who is violating human rights? • Which is stronger state law or international law? • To what extent there is an obligation for developed countries to provide assistance to developing countries? If there is, how to distribute responsi- bilities? • State law and international law? Where to start? Especially in conflict zones? 78 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) Acknowledgements I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to the whole organizing committee of this course who gave me the golden opportunity to participate in such an interesting course. I am really thankful to all of you. References Amnesty International (2012). The State of the World’s Human Rights. Annual Report 2012. Israel and the Occupied Palestinian Territories. http://www. amnesty.org/en/region/israel-occupied-palestinian-territories/report-2012 Cornwall and Nusembi, (2004). Putting the ‘Rights-Based Approach’ to Develop- ment into Perspective. Third World Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 8. Pp 1415-1437. De Beco, G. (2010). The Interplay between Human Rights and Development the Other Way Round: The Emerging Use of Quantitative Tools For Meas- uring The Progressive Realisation of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Human Rights and International Legal Discourse, 4 (2), 265-287. Kanafani, N. and S. Al-Botmeh, “The Political Economy of Food Aid to Palestine,” in The Economics of Peace and Security Journal (2008), Vol. 3, No. 2. Selected papers – 79 Human Rights Based Approach and children’s rights to education: a challenge in “constant process” in Peru Rosina Vanessa Sanchez Jimenez Assessment coordinator and information manager at the Initial Education Direction, Ministry of Education, Peru 1. Some lines about my current professional experience Since 2008, I have worked at the Educational Quality Measurement Unit (UMC1) in the Ministry of Education of Peru. One of the main institutional challenges is to expand learning opportunities to children from remote zones of the country –mainly from the Andes and the Amazonian jungle– in order to reduce inequality gaps. UMC is the technical body of the Ministry, responsible for developing the National Assessment of student achievement and to provide relevant information to the decision-making of educational policy, the educational community and the society in general about these results. One important part of my work relates to educational research design. One of these duties is to construct conceptual frameworks to study factors associated with learning outcomes. Another is to design assessment instruments –like surveys–, to train test administrators, monitoring the administration process, etc. Furthermore, I elaborate studies using this data and provide technical guidance and advice to the central, regional and local governments. Results from our studies are submitted to individual families too – this was the case with the school census evaluation where each individual child from second grade of primary is observed. This is one of the core functions of my office, to deliver results to the education system. Even though the Peruvian state offers free school education to every child, we still lag behind on school quality. Our efforts are therefore concentrated in this area. One of the most interesting experiences I had in UMC was the application and analysis of the “study of early childhood education” on children of five years of age in a national sample. During the last three years I have been involved in the coordination of the final reports. A “child-centered assessment model” with the use of concrete materials by young children has been a challenging task since there has not been such an assessment in Peru –even in other countries of Latin America– (in terms of logistics, evaluation model, interpretation of results, etc.). This has been a multidisciplinary project enriched by different 1 See: http://umc.minedu.gob.pe/ 80 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) experiences with children from different parts of the country. The starting point to develop the framework and to adjust the assessment tools from particular characteristics to general ones has been especially important. The challenge was to asses learning outcomes taking into consideration different regions, localities and, therefore, cultures. At the same time, at this age (five years) we had to consider that children are in continuous development and that every child has a different rhythm of growth. All of this makes it very difficult to assess learning achievement at a national level. We recently concluded the final reports and we expect to help teachers, community promoters, state functionaries and researchers, to better understand children’s learning as a process, where family participation, knowledge and understanding about this stage of life are essential. Since 2012, I am also coordinator of the editorial board of Latin American Children’s Magazine (Infancia Lationamericana) sponsored by Rosa Sensat Teachers Association in Spain. This is an online magazine and is also a network among professionals in the field of early childhood education2. This magazine provides a channel to communication and exchange ideas and teaching experiences. It is also a space for reflection and collaboration of theoretical and practical matters in education. This platform gives me the opportunity to promote good practices in early childhood education and to discuss with different professionals of my region and Europe. 2. Queries on HRBA and children’s rights From the moment I started the course I had a general question in mind: How can we as practitioners mainstream a human rights based approach and children’s rights in the “practice”? I kept that question in mind during all sessions. As days went by, the query became more precisely defined. In the next lines, I will discuss the questions that need to be addressed in order to mainstream a children’s rights approach: What are the main difficulties or challenges to be faced in my country? What are the “main” principles that should be considered in my country? Furthermore, regarding the implementation of children’s rights under the human rights approach, what kind of principles should serve as a guide to research in education? I will focus on children up to six years of age, which means until the first grade of primary education. My general thesis is that, despite having an adequate framework based on international conventions and more precisely in domestic hard laws, mainstreaming a human rights based approach and children’s rights in education is still an issue in Peru. One of the main reasons why the implementation of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) is far from being concluded is because our country is a multicultural nation, where different cultures and “world views” coexist. Moreover, in such a context in which social consensus is lacking, it is difficult for State institutions to agree on priorities, organization and timing. The political, economic and social agendas that are developed to achieve the goals in the short, medium and long term, often do not 2 See: http://www.rosasensat.org/revista/ Selected papers – 81 complement one another. Figure 1, briefly represents the main ideas of a process in course, pushed by an encouraging international and national framework. Figure 1. HRBA and children’s rights to education as a challenge in “constant process”. Source: own elaboration. Therefore, despite the signing of the UNCRC by the country, the implementation of the principles of participation, protection and provision, in the context of multiple agendas and priorities remains a challenge. 3. Fragile social institutions and multiple agendas As mentioned on Zwart´s paper about the receptor approach, “states are free to choose their own means for implementing international human rights obligations”3. Moreover, according to the author, “international human rights obligations can be implemented more fully through local social institutions”. However, the complexity in the operation of local social institutions and their inter-relationship is not a minor matter. Even when the receptor approach takes as its starting point the existing social institutions, their own legitimacy as actors in this process can be questioned. In Peru, we often experience that some institutions such as non formal local committees (e.g. community organizations) or even local formal educational authorities (e.g. regional education boards) do not have the support of the population to reach agreements, nor of the teachers or school authorities. 3 Zwart, T. (2012) Using Local culture to further the implementation of international human rights: the receptor approach. Human Rights Quarterly, Vol. 34, N. 2, may 2012. Pp. 546-569. 82 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) The legitimacy of institutions, and actors that represent them, could distort and do not allow progress in the implementation of the rights of children4. Regarding this matter, it is necessary to understand the extent to which “bottom-up” decision making has been implemented. That is because even when, as noted by Zwart, “the receptor approach is based on receptor sensitivity to and respect for the culture of every society”, maybe this is not so evident in a multicultural context. In this way, social actors (educational actors) often view the interpretation of rights within documents (soft law and hard law) differently from one another. The availability of social capital at the local and regional level must be considered5 to better understand the openness to horizontal institutional relationship which may, on their turn, be based in the roots of emerging or old conflicts. For instance, frequently teachers’ union authorities do not agree on priorities addressed to the fulfillment of children’s rights to quality education. This is particularly the case in some cities in the Highlands. This suggests one of the reasons why it may be hard to implement educational policies in favor of children’s rights is that explicit agreements are not reached at the level of society. Additionally, often it is not only explicit agreements that are not reached at the level of society, but when adopting rules or directives in compliance with laws, these are not well-known by those involved in the education system. For instance, when the central- government launches initiatives, regional and local governments are responsible for disclosure and compliance by the school authorities. However, school directors do not agree or fail to dialogue with teachers to put it into practice. Clearly, this situation makes the dissemination and therefore the application of the existing rules difficult and may become an obstacle in the implementation of the rights of children to a quality education. From elsewhere, what is also necessary to point out is that institutional capacity building is still in process. Human capacity building has not yet been considered as a priority since the beginning of the decentralization process. Furthermore, common goals and “social consensus” has not yet been achieved, meaning that continuity in urgent matters but also in the long term political decisions is still not present. Moreover, we are a multicultural country where different populations coexist and, hence, different identities and visions of the world6. Thus, the coincidence or parallel progress among political, economic and social agendas, 4 Supporting authorities can be somewhat volatile even considering that some of them were chosen through free elections processes. 5 In the Peruvian administrative division, the next level after national government is the regional government. 6 In Peru, according to the National Census of Population and Housing (National Statistics Institute - INEI), by 2007 there were 4,045,713 natives, who accounted for 14.76% of the total population: 83% was Quechua, 11% Aymara and 6% belonged to other communities having Spanish as a second language. Within this group, 645,081 boys and 439,391 girls were in school. However, 28.87% of indigenous children not attend school, and 73.1% of indigenous children were delayed by school age. Selected papers – 83 which noticeably promote the development of the country7, cannot find a rhythm or a dynamic that generates a sustainable change. Some authors have pointed out the influence of the multidisciplinary nature of agendas for the realization of educational goals. Riddle8 (1999) suggests the need for a multidisciplinary framework for analyzing educational reform (the process of improving public education) in developing countries. According to the author, there are three eyeglasses to wear for the analysis of education reform: educational, economic and political. Each lens usually has a different agenda. The “educational” is focused on access to education, quality educational experiences and fairness in the provision of service. On the other hand, the economic scope is more focused on efficiency, leaving the quality and effectiveness at the secondary level. Finally, the “political” agenda is the link with the implementation process itself. Typically, the political agenda has led the decision process, leaving aside individuals or interest groups in society. Inasmuch as political interests are a priority, the discussion points about educational reform became secondary. In this way each one has a different vision for efficiency and effectiveness. Riddle noted that the challenge is not to interpret the scope of educational reform with “varifocal” glasses but to interpret the basic framework taking into account the three lenses. As an upper-middle income economy, according to World Bank9, Peru faces new challenges as part of its participation in a globalized world; and, to make decisions according to multiple interests, “minority populations” may be part of the discussion. For instance, in recent years social conflicts have emerged due to the exploitation of mineral resources in lands traditionally inhabited by indigenous populations, who not always approve mining activities. Unfortunately, local authorities fail to mediate in conflict resolution, with severe consequences for some regions and provinces; for instance, the Cajamarca with Conga mining project (Balarezo, 2012)10. Then, minorities and their claims appear in the economic, political and social panorama, revealing their great power over the government and foreign companies. Nevertheless, these conflicts do nothing but crack social institutions, involving the local educational system in a waiting process or standby. These are just some of the challenges we face in making decisions. Some key strategies to achieve common goals are those proposed by international organizations in the sense of promoting participation and empowerment of 7 Levy, B.; Fukuyama, F. (2010). Development strategies. Integrating Governance and Growth. Policy Research Working Paper 5196. World Bank, Washington D.C. 8 Riddle, A. (1999). The need for a multidisciplinary framework for analyzing educational reform in developing countries. International Journal of Educational Development. Volume 19, Issue 3, May 1999, Pages 207–217. 9 See: http://data.worldbank.org/country/peru/ 10 Balarezo, J. (2012). Conga: Emerging socio-environmental conflicts & environmental politics in Humala’s Peru. NorLARNet analysis, 23 April 2012. http://www.norlarnet.uio.no/pdf/behind-the-news/englis/2012/conga.pdf 84 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) civil society11. It is likely that these and other principles help us to dialogue horizontally. However, some basic principles are driven in isolation in some interventions or specific projects, but not at macro level. Finally, it is necessary to note that educational policies in Peru have changed over the years due to the political will of the government in power. Nevertheless, currently, in the group of norms that organize the educational system, we have the national education project from 2006 to 202112. This document outlines a shared vision of what is to be achieved by 2021 in terms of education. It contains six strategic objectives for each of the main problems encountered (quality education for all; relevant learning achievement; well-prepared teachers; decentralized, democratic and equitable education; quality higher education; society educates and engages citizens with the community) and the institutions responsible for the implementation. The most important characteristic of this policy document is that it targeted policies to be tackled in the coming years with specific goals. 4. Childhood and children’s rights as paradigms in process of understanding I will discuss some aspects that I find important to consider as a reflective practitioner involved, somehow, in the implementation of children’s rights in order to articulate the human rights-based approach in the education field. I will refer to my current experience focused on education. The search for a notion of childhood (as a social construction) that can be shared by different actors in a multicultural context is not new. The challenge is that this conception of childhood has to be assumed from political, social and economic agendas at the national, regional and local level. Although the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) proclaims the fundamental rights to be consecrated by signatory states, with the important principles of participation, protection and provision, how do these agendas cause these rights and principles to prevail? This is the dilemma faced by estate planners in many countries. Whereas in more stable countries it is possible for governments to program a budget by results according to long-term 11 Gready, P. & Ensor, L. (2005). Introduction, in: P. Gready & J. Ensor (eds.). Reinventing Development? Translating Rights-based Approaches from Theory into Practice, London: Zed Books (p. 20-44). 12 See:http://www.cne.gob.pe/index.php/Proyecto-Educativo-Nacional/proyecto-educa- tivo-nacional-al-2021.html It is interesting to note that in this document human development is described as proposed by United Nations. 13 For instance, Chile has a Ministry of Planning and Cooperation whose mission is to ensure the efficient allocation and use of public resources in the context of fiscal policy, by implementing systems and tools of financial management, programming and management control. Selected papers – 85 objectives13, this is not so in the case of Peru. Moreover, even talking about the same concept of childhood or pretending to talk about a single notion during the policy planning process is challenging. Maybe we all have an ideal “child” in mind that reflects general or particular paradigms of Peruvian childhood. As a practitioner in this field I am always confronted with this discussion. Every society and every culture has a particular way of defining and characterizing childhood. These representations may even be opposed. For example, while in some cultures it is expected that girls and boys are obedient, in others they stimulate curiosity; in some cultures individualism is reinforced and in some others collectivity, etc. Particularly, in Peru, due to ethnic, cultural, linguistic and social relations, notions of childhood are dissimilar; the various features of the country can provide different scenarios of socialization (Anderson, 2003)14 with heterogeneous socioeconomic realities that may or may not lead to different learning opportunities. In this regard, it is important to recognize and reflect on the different notions about childhood, as they help to understand development and learning characteristics, parenting patterns, educational patterns, among others. If the notion of childhood is still complex to understand, it could be even harder to talk about children’s rights. However, policies that target children and that tackle specific aspects (child-related themes such as child labor, street children, etc.) of their lives and age period could have made it – somehow – ​​easier to deal with the implementation15 of policy. This does not mean that the phrase proclaimed by Hillary Rodham (1973) about children´s rights: “children´s rights is a slogan in search of a definition”, is not applicable today, on the contrary this is still valid. There is awareness that children (and adolescents) are a group that must be attended, but the process is at the moment still vertical. I find the main discussion about “Understanding key issues to better understand the meaning of children16” very useful: (i) what are children? (childhood image); (ii) what do children know? (competence); (iii) what do children deserve? (rights); and (iv) which differences between children and adults are important? (dilemma). In the context of the assessment of learning outcomes, these simple questions, could help us keep in perspective the goal of our research. In this kind of work maybe the question about the differences between children and adults is not relevant. However, the other questions are appropriate. On the image of childhood (i), what matters is not copying literally what the rights approach says, about gender, multiculturalism, etc.; here the task is to find 14 Anderson, J. (2003). Observando a los niños. El estudio de la socialización y el desarrollo infantil en el Perú. En MED (Ed.). Desarrollo infantil, socialización y crianza. Lima: MED. 15 National Plan of Action for Children and Adolescents 2012 – 2021: http://www.mim- des.gob.pe/files/DIRECCIONES/DGFC/DINNA/Plan_Nacional_PNAIA_2012_2021.pdf 16 Lecturer Karl Hanson on “Critical approaches: refracting children´s rights”. 86 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) similarities and differences among children in certain contexts of the country. I think it is wise trying to find them both and not to homogenize one conception of children in a strict sense. For instance, cultural differences take into account learning and playing  materials and the way children  explore them by themselves and with adults and peers.  In addition, in rural areas where indigenous languages are traditionally orally transferred through generations (because they do not privilege written language) mechanisms and strategies to the implementation should be carefully designed. This discussion also considers different social classes, such as, if children come from higher or lower  social class (socioeconomic status) it makes a difference to access to public or private schools, and in most cases, it means more or less opportunities for children. The question about (ii) the competence of children, what they can do at a certain time (age), in my opinion is crucial in this task. Certainly, we know human development is not a linear process; psychogenetic theories (mainly Piaget) help us to understand the course of a human being, their main characteristics and needs, among others. In any case, at this point the challenge seems more complex. To do research work in education one has to base results on qualitative and quantitative findings. The consensus arrived at should be based on research results in the field. Making decisions without empirical evidence in these cases is even more complex. Regarding the competence of the child, we have to consider that in educational research, the main source of information is the child himself. Therefore, the manner in which they participate is the responsibility of the adults involved. To this end, the UNCRC provides inputs applicable to all settings in which children participate. The basic requirements for the implementation of the right of the child to be heard17 offers nine criteria to be fulfilled in order to realize this right (transparent and informative, voluntary, respectful, relevant, child-friendly, inclusive, supported by training, safe and sensitive to risk, and accountable). For instance, as far as I understand a core requirement of a researcher in the fields is to have child-friendly environments and working methods adapted to children’s capacities. Also, it is essential to be supported by training to facilitate children’s participation and to work with their evolving capacities. Beyond reasons strictly linked to research procedures, this is one of the ways to be respectful of children´s rights in practice. Finally, with regards to the third dimension (iii) on rights, this question makes me think of the provision of services that are required by children at certain ages. For the development of research in the field of education (e.g., to address recommendations to education authorities based on study findings), we must not lose sight of the principles of participation, provision and protection. Here the importance is to find out how these results can contribute to the discussion of the needs and opportunities that children require at different ages. It is complex to articulate cross-cutting issues, considering the shared responsibilities in the 17 Committee on the Rights of the Child. General Comment n° 12 (2009). The Right of the Child to Be Heard. http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/crc/comments.htm Selected papers – 87 implementation of strategic actions, but it is part of the responsibility of doing research work. My intention is not to force the implementation of every principle of the CRC in all contexts of work. What is important, however, is to be consistent with our personal discourse  or our  position on  the priority-issues  of children.  This  means committing to what seems to be  appropriate  in each context,  depending on the topic, target group, the relevance of its application in practice, the actors involved,  the objectives  and scope  of our work,  the relevance  for building  an equitable society, among others. Another aspect  that came to  my mind regarding  the different schools  or positions  about childhood (paternalism, welfare, emancipation and liberation) is that in the context of a receptor approach, one has to understand the preferences of the local social institutions. In Peru, the major responsibility in the execution of actions rests on the State and on its various instances. But, may it be more complex for the government to get  involved in discussions with local social institutions? Typically, there is room for dialogue at first, when initial discussions aimed to define and set common goals and when partners are chosen. But after a period of time the communication with local institutions tends to fade. The identification of these institutions requires making explicit the (shared) vision on childhood, according to the subject and age of children. I imagine, for instance, a committee of women working in soup kitchens (comedores populares) in rural areas. Local women leaders will probably have a particular vision, and state authorities or NGOs a different one. In addition, this vision can change from one subject to another. Perhaps women in this community are more paternalistic in the case of children of five years and more emancipators in the case of adolescents. In any case, it is preferable to openly include these issues because different  ideas or  thoughts about  childhood might affect the implementation of actions. So, it seems that conceptions about children should be also mainstreamed. I think that the analysis of the schools of thought on children’s rights is good practice i.e., to try to identify the schools of thought that authorities, and those involved in education, have in mind. But it is more important to start this exercise with oneself in order to better understand our position. The main reason to clarify our viewpoint is because we should share, at least, basic principles with our reference institution. Even when we know that the most important document regarding children’s rights is the UNCRC, as we can see, this is not enough. That is why it seems to be useful to consider the most sensitive issues in our internal discussion regarding children’s rights, such as child labor, children affected by domestic violence, street children, among others. 88 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) 5. Final remarks Long discussions could be held in regard to the problems experienced by the Peruvian government to implement the right to quality education (from the standpoint of economics, policy, culture, anthropology, etc.). However, within the limit of restricted time and words, my intention was to mention some relevant aspects about some topics developed in the HR4DEV. When I referred to a “constant process” I did so thinking about the ups and downs we have had as a country; about the setbacks and stalemates in this ongoing process. It has been a process marked simultaneously by achievements and defeats. At present there are two policy priorities for early childhood care: expanding coverage of services and quality of education. Both are part of the Early Childhood Care and Education program (ECCE). One of the challenges of the education policy is to extend the coverage of services to the most vulnerable segments of the population. Care coverage remains low in rural areas, in poor and extremely poor areas, and for children under 3 years. Similarly, for children aged between 3 to 5 years, access to educational services in these areas remains low (68% of indigenous children three to five years of age do not have access to an educational service18). The challenges ahead are enormous considering the immensity of the task. The priorities of the central and local governments must take into account the needs of the educational community and general population. Yet there has always been a disconnection between the different actors of the education system, which makes the task of applying the receptor approach in Peru a complex one. However, the possibilities and opportunities for Peru today are numerous in terms of regulatory framework, public budget increase, consolidation of social inclusion at the central level (a new Minister exclusively in charge of these issues has been installed), prioritization of learning achievement, planning according to learning outcomes (at regional level), etc. Additionally, the Ministry of Education has given priority to do research in early childhood, expanding the assessment from learning processes to the quality of programs for this target group. Therefore, in the coming years, this process will be held to enhance the range of criteria of care provision (materials, teacher- child interaction, learning, etc.). Then, under this view it is important to ask how these interventions will promote children’s rights in the country? Certainly, it is important to know how the information from the research will be used in the future. The output of education research should be oriented towards providing more and better information for policy-makers, particularly for the central and local governments. At the same time, different agendas must be integrated in order to plan the short, medium and long term goals according to a “public agenda”. 18 UNICEF-INEI (2010). Estado de la niñez indígena en el Perú. Lima: UNICEF, INEI. 152 p. http://www.unicef.org/peru/spanish/ENI_2010.pdf. Selected papers – 89 Neoliberalism, deprived populations and Human Rights: The Case of Adi- vasi people in Jharkhand India Antony Puthumattathil Doctoral student at the Department of Conflict & Development Studies, Ghent University (UGent), Belgium 1. Introduction A BBC news update on 13 July; 2010 reported that eight Indian states (Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand), had accounted for more deprived people than in the 26 poorest African countries combined.1 However, ironically, during the past one and a half decades, the Indian economy has been displaying a sustained high growth-rate of gross domestic products (GDP). Among these Indian states, Chattisgharh, Jharkhand and Odisha have more than a quarter of their total population categorised as ‘Scheduled Tribes’ (STs). The Hindi word ‘Adivasis’, meaning; ‘original inhabitants’2 or ‘indigenous peoples’, is the term the ‘Tribes’, in central eastern India, have chosen to address themselves since the 1920s. Since the mid 18th century, the non-Adivasi groups, aided by the British colonialists, invaded and plundered Adivasi territories. They treated Adivasi societies like cattle, destroyed their political institutions and cultures, took their lands and natural resources, and forced products and customs upon them. However, the Adivasis did not take this plunder passively. They fought the plunderers with all their might. From the end of the 18th century till the beginning of the 20th century, the British Raj in India faced continuous revolts and insurrections by Adivasis who had escaped the humiliating effects of the pre-colonial brahmanic statecraft3 into the forested and rugged regions 1 This estimate was based on a Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) developed by Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI). 2 Adivasi villages have accommodated a number of the so-called ‘service caste groups’ who have been sharing some what similar value-systems of Adivasis for centuries. Hence, I use the term ‘Adivasis’ to refer to all of them inclusively, although the Indian Census reports have categorised them into Scheduled Castes and Other Backwards Castes, etc. 3 Brahmanic ideology makes people believe that Brahma, the creator god ordained a social order with a rigidly stratified hierarchy of four main castes/varnas each with specific dharma (duties and obligations). The four basic castes/varna are: brahman, kshatriya, vaisya and sudra. People in the lowest caste sudra is to be the servant-caste whose divinely ordained duty is to serve the upper castes. Thus, a few upper-caste elite 90 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) of India. As a result of these resistance and protest movements, the British raj enacted ‘protective legislations’ in several Adivasi areas to prevent non-Adivasi interference in Adivasi traditional customary rights in their geographical territories. However, despite such legislative measures, the resources in Adivasi territories continued to be appropriated by powerful forces of non-Adivasi industrial capitalists. Processes of primitive accumulation and dispossession of Adivasi societies by the colonial state itself had a devastating effect. In addition to it, the postcolonial state policies have proved to be disastrous for Adivasi societies (Kujur 2011; Xaxa 2011; Kennedy and Purushotham 2012). Presently, Adivasis have been pushed to hilly, inaccessible, once forested but now denuded and degraded land, at the peripheries, by the more powerful non-Adivasi groups from the plains. Furthermore, the peripheral and degraded Adivasi lands have been found to have huge amounts of mineral deposits underneath. For example, the Jharkhand region alone possesses more than 37 percent of the total mineral wealth of India (Sunder 2009: Introduction). While Jharkhand is one of the richest states of India in terms of its mineral and natural resources, it also houses a large number of deprived Adivasi populations in India. About 80 percent of Adivasi population in rural Jharkhand are condemned to destitution, chronic and severe poverty, with all its accompanying evils of low life expectancy, social exclusion, ill health, illiteracy, dependency and effective enslavement (Das et al 2010). The latest survey results for Integrated Tribal Development (ITD) areas, published in 2009, by the National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau, ‘show that 40% of men and 49% of women have body mass index below 18.5, and can be considered as suffering from chronic hunger; by implication, these areas should be considered famine affected’ (Sen 2012: 4). Such an unacceptable extent of durable and multiple deprivations of Adivasi societies continue to exist despite several mineral-based extractive industries throughout Indian history have managed to keep vast numbers of populations under their control as slaves. Since, these majority slaves were forced to do all menial and hard labour, they stunk and remained always dirty and hence ‘impure’ or ‘polluting’ to the upper caste elites. The slaves would not be allowed to possess any property, would not have access to the vedas, the sacred texts or knowledge and learning, etc., and were condemned to remain so for ever stripped of any human right (Saha 1986). For more on the nature and extent of caste based beliefs and practices today, please watch the documentary ‘India Untouched’, available online: http://www.youtube. com/watch?v=lgDGmYdhZvU. Today, the main four varna/castes have taken myriads of forms and have multiplied into thousands of jatis occupational groups. Although, Caste based practices and ‘untouchability’ has been abolished Constitutionally since 1950s, their ill-effects are still at work: the tendency of the elite to treat the poor and deprived people as inferior or of lesser value and to use them as a means to advance their own vested interests, on the one hand and the poor and deprived people’s humble submission to the systemic injustice saying, ‘it is our fate’. The overarching brahmanic ideology and its ill-effects have not yet been demystified/deconstructed sufficiently in Indian social psyche. Adivasis are people who have been escaping the insidious power of the dehumanising and superstitious brahmanic statecraft for millennia together into forested mountain areas of the subcontinent. Adivasis do not practice caste-based discriminations (see ‘I have a problem with the makeover of tribal culture’ by Niranjan Mahawar in The Hindu, October 24, 2012). Selected papers – 91 of coal, iron, bauxite, limestone, etc. being operational in Jharkhand since 1894 (Corbridge 1993). Although, paradoxically, while these extraction industries have multiplied considerably since independence, especially since the 1990s (with new economic ‘reforms’ as part of the processes of globalisation, privatisation and liberalisation),4 the Adivasi communities in rural Jharkhand have grown economically poorer and impoverished. This article is inspired by a critique of ‘human rights based claims’ by Prof. Marie-Benedicte Dembour during the summer course on ‘Human Rights for Development’. Based on my experience of working with Adivasi communities for about ten years before I began my PhD. programme in political science at Gent University in 2010, as well as on ethnographic fieldwork of six months during 2011, I attempt to explain the paradox of improved economic growth and increasing destitution of rural Adivasis in Jharkhand. By doing so, I would like to show the complexity and contradictions of a human rights based approach to development, in particular when the state functionaries at the regional, national and international levels are preoccupied with economic growth in terms GDP, while millions of people are denied of their basic human rights and dignity in a ‘democratic’ country like India. I begin with the description of a recent protest movement led by Adivasis, in a village called Nagri near Ranchi the capital of Jharkhand state, against land acquisition by the Jharkhand government. Further, I explain why such strong protest movements, by local people, lose their voice at the decision making arena due to a process of ‘adverse incorporation and social exclusion’ (AISE). Finally, I conclude the article by delineating some of the main challenges in incorporating human rights approaches for development. 2. Local people’s resistance to land acquisition Two recent mainstream poverty studies in India have acknowledged that Adivasi societies in rural areas are the most deprived social groups. They have specified displacement from land and deprivation of livelihood resources due to ‘development’ as the main reasons for enduring poverty and marginalisation of Adivasi societies. These studies have also stated that chronic poverty and destitution in remote rural areas will continue, and that it is difficult for the state and other development agencies to reach these deprived people (Xaxa 2011; Mehta et al 2011). Furthermore, one of the studies also suggests that 4 The new economic ‘reforms’ in India are neoliberal policies. Walker (2008: 618) argues that the Indian state’s adoption of neoliberal policies in the early 1990s has produced a pattern of predatory growth that has privileged urban India, reducing growth in agrar- ian sector, increased and forcible expropriation of land and livelihood resources of the rural poor while both domestic and international capital have become the main beneficiaries of the ‘internal colonization’ of the poor through dispossession and sup- pression. This process has at once swelled the rank of the destitute and ‘reserve army’ of impoverished labour with the landless, bonded rural proletariat that was already massive in size both in rural and urban areas. See also Mukherji (2009) for a review of the processes of economic liberalisation policies and growth in India. 92 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) Adivasis lose their voices of protest when their representatives come to the decision-making table, despite very strong local protest movements being out on the streets. The following paragraphs will describe a recent instance of the state’s efforts to acquire some agricultural land, to which the local Adivasi society who own the land reacted with a powerful protest movement. In 1957-58, the state government of the united Bihar5 had ‘acquired’ 227 acres of agricultural land from an Adivasi village called Nagri about 15 kilometres from Ranchi. The villagers refused to give their land. However, out of the 193 households whose land was acquired, about 25 of them had taken compensation for their pieces of land offered by the state functionaries in 1958. The rest of the households had not taken any compensation but kept protesting the state’s move to take their land. They kept cultivating this land every year during the monsoon. At the beginning of 2012, the Jharkhand government issued a notice stating that it would begin the construction of an ‘educational hub’ at this place, with top-level institutions on management, technology and law: the Indian Institute of Management (IIM), which needs 76.74 acres of land, the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) on 73.79 acres, a Central University (CU) on 63.76 acres and part of a ring-road, with the remaining 12.42 acres, connecting the city to this area. Becoming aware of the state’s plan, the villagers organised themselves with the help of local activists and leaders to protest against it. In July, the villagers broke down the boundary wall that was built around this property by the state and began planting paddy on the agricultural fields. The state deployed military/police forces to control the villagers. There were some violent encounters between the police and the people. A few policemen and several villagers were injured. Several demonstrations were held following this incident. Several memoranda were submitted to the governor of the state to interfere in the matter using his special constitutional powers, in scheduled areas, to alter the government’s decision when such decisions hurt the sentiments of local Adivasis living within scheduled areas. However, there has not been any positive response from the governor either. Cases were filed in the Supreme Court, by both sides against each other – the state against the people and the people against the state. Recently, on 16 October 2012, Dayamani Barla, the first Adivasi woman activist in Jharkhand, who led this movement in Nagri against the state’s land acquisition, was arrested on a minor case that had been filed against her in 2006 in an effort to abruptly stop the people’s protest by the state6. She was granted bail by the 5 The present Jharkhand state was part of the former Bihar state. On November 15, 2000, the southern part of Bihar, also called Chotanagpur, was separated from Bihar. The present Jharkhand state was created ostensibly to advance development of Adiva- sis in this region. Although nothing much has changed for deprived Adivasis since the new state was created due to the continued control of non-Adivasis on the resources and political power in the state, the formation of this new state is considered to be an achievement of about 150 years of Adivasi struggle (Shah 2011). 6 See ‘No place for Dayamani’: http://thehoot.org/web/home/story.php?storyid=6399# Selected papers – 93 court on 25 October but was rearrested soon in another minor case. At the time of writing, she is still in jail and protests and demonstrations against the unjust arrest of Dayamani7 are going on. This incident is not an isolated one. This type of localised protest movements has been very common in all the fifth schedule areas in Jharkhand. The main reason for such resistance is that the state’s large scale projects such as dams, extractive industrial estates, educational hubs, etc. displace thousands of Adivasis from their ancestral lands, herewith threatening their basic security, subsistence and identity. Moreover, proper compensation is never paid to project affected people and Adivasis, as a whole, hardly benefit from any of these projects. Consequently, several state initiated development projects remain incomplete in fifth schedule areas in Jharkhand (Kujur 2011). Normally, Adivasis, who enjoy a reasonable level of financial security, some level of education and who have learnt the tactics of mediating effectively between the Adivasi society and the state and industrialists, emerge as politicians from such mobilisations of protest and resistance invoking the notions of constitutional, protective (and legislative) provisions, Adivasi identity, livelihood, existence, etc. These local Adivasi leaders get elected to the state legislative assembly as representatives of Adivasi societies. Once they are elected, they become alienated from the rural-masses whom they ostensibly represent. They come under severe pressure from ‘mainstream’ political parties and industrial capitalists to support their interests of advancing primitive accumulation and dispossession of Adivasi societies. Elected Adivasi representatives are a minority in the state legislative assembly. They easily succumb to Industrial capitalists’ pressures by accepting bribes rather than defending the cause of deprived rural Adivasis. If an Adivasi leader refuses to accept the bribe or succumb to the pressure of Industrial capitalists of the mainstream society, he/she will be falsely accused of corruption or crimes or be eliminated8. Such processes of aborting Adivasi interests by industrial capitalists can be termed as a form of ‘adverse incorporation and social exclusion’ (AISE), which will be discussed in detail in the next section of this article. There are more than 15,000 mines operating in Jharkhand now and many more illegal mines that are not accounted. Very few of the deprived illiterate Adivasis (who constitute more than 80 percent of the rural population) get employment in these mines as causal and cheap labourers with poor and deplorable working conditions. Several of these Adivasi workers die very early due to pollution related sicknesses caused by uncontrolled mining (Pati 2012). Many more loose their livelihoods due to polluted dust and water spreading out of mines into their agricultural lands (Human Rights Watch 2012). The rural agrarian system has become unsustainable due to lack of investment in basic 7 See ‘Indian and International Organisations Condemn The Unjust Arrest of Activist Dayamani Barla’: http://iadhri.wordpress.com/2012/11/01/367/ 8 There are several cases of killing of Adivasi and non-adivasi leaders and activists who stood by the people and have tried organize them to fight for their rights in Jharkhand. 94 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) infrastructure by the state, which is preoccupied with advancing extraction industries for ‘economic growth’. On the other hand, the nexus of politicians, industrial capitalists and top bureaucrats in the state advance their own personal interests unhindered. With the liberalisation of the economy, local extraction industries and their owners, who are experts in tax evasion, have grown so big that their money can buy the entire Jharkhand government and its people. For an example, there is an Adivasi leader who directed a local NGO, which works to promote human rights of Adivasis in West Singhbhum district of Jharkhand. During the last assembly election in 2009, he got a ticket from the mainstream Congress party to contest the election. A few weeks before the actual election day, he was called by a local mining industrialist to his office. After making him sit comfortably in his office, the industrialist asked this Adivasi candidate if he wanted to win the election. He said, ‘Yes’. The industrialist said, ‘If you sign an agreement with me not to hinder mining in this fifth schedule area during your term in office, you will win the election respective of the party you have chosen to contest the election. If you do not enter into such an agreement with me, you will be defeated in the election no matter to which party you belong9. As a matter of fact, elections in these areas are ‘managed’ by industrialists. The type of government and its policies are decided by capitalist industrialists in Jharkhand. Besides the industrial capitalists, black economy and shadow state-practices, have become normal. Besides these, there are armed Moist insurgents (Naxalites) who ostensibly defend the rights of deprived Adivasis. Ultimately, the politicians, Industrial capitalists, and the bureaucrats benefit from the politics of development, land alienation and protest movements in Jharkhand while the rurally incarcerated, marginalised and illiterate, Adivasis, who number up to several millions, get further impoverished. ‘Many of India’s most pressing debates are located in Adivasi regions: endemic poverty, the failure of ‘development’, armed insurgency, the character of the state – living proof of a history whose consequences are still working themselves out’ (Kela 2012: 10, emphasis original). 3. Lose of voice – Adverse incorporation and Social Exclusion (AISE) Surajit Kumar Saha (1986) has explained the concept of AISE in order to establish the historical roots of Adivasi problems in India. According to him, Adivasi kingdoms that existed in forested and rugged areas with different modes of production, consumption, and more egalitarian political systems, etc., were incorporated into the dominant brahmanic state-system in ancient India. Isolated Adivasi kingdoms and their chieftains were appropriated by the elite in caste-based communities, who had occupied the alluvial plains of the subcontinent. Adivasi chieftains or kings, who were attracted by the caste based 9 My conversations with the candidate on 21 August, 2011 at his residence. Selected papers – 95 state-craft, were co-opted to the rank of the Hindu kings by special religious rituals by brahman priests/scribes while the rest of Adivasi population were relegated to the rank of the outcasts or to the lowest toiler caste. This process of co-option amounts to adverse incorporation and social exclusion (AISE). AISE has been prevalent throughout Indian history. More importantly, the brahmanic ideology, which stigmatizes the deprived poor people as inferior, has not yet been demystified or deconstructed in Indian public discourses to construct an alternative discourse on equal dignity, socio-economic justice and human rights. Adivasi representatives, who are elected to the legislative assembly to represent Adivasi’s genuine grievances, are adversely incorporated by the brahmanic- minded elite class, while the substantive grievances of deprived rural Adivasis go unaddressed. Adivasi leaders, who have not enjoyed any substantial prosperity so far, are tempted with big money offers so that the industrial capitalists can advance their interests of resource extraction, primitive accumulation, investment, profit and further investment – keeping the wheel of capitalism moving, no matter how many millions are forced into destitution. Consequently, the state actors, such as legislators, the judiciary, bureaucrats, and politicians remain at the service of industrial capitalists. Hence, although the local people’s resistance to land acquisition appear to be very strong out on the streets, their leaders who emerge from such struggles are easily co-opted to the detriment of the population whose voice and aspirations never echo at the decision-making tables where ‘development’ policies are formulated. Such frustrations of people’s struggle will stop only when people rise with an acute political clarity and consciousness. And this will certainly require time and sustained efforts along with alternative visions and thinking about development based on human dignity and rights. 96 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) 4. Conclusion Violations of human rights – processes of systematic, planned and sustained deprivations (of certain social groups and individuals) of their access to and control over basic resources and consequently reducing them to enduring and severe poverty – have history, politics and culture behind them. These are often not very obvious in today’s India. In addition to such local historically entrenched caste/class oppressive and discriminatory structures, there exist broader international, national and regional neoliberal capitalist forces that are very complex and devouring10. ‘Severe poverty is fuelled by local misrule. But such local misrule is fuelled, in turn, by global rules that we impose and from which we benefit greatly’ (Pogge 2005: 7). Hence, development interventions, poverty alleviation programs, human rights discourses, activism, etc. must be informed by multidisciplinary social research that reveal the underlying causes of continued deprivations and processes that defeat or betray local people’s struggles and aspirations. As explained in this paper, what frustrates local peoples’ aspirations and struggles, at this point of time, are neoliberal policies administered by the postcolonial brahmanic-minded elites, in India, who have recently put their trust in unregulated market forces. They await a ‘trickling down effect’ to remedy the misery and sufferings of India’s deprived millions. In a postcolonial and caste- ridden India, with historically entrenched unequal power relations reinforced, meaningful redistributive policies to reduce endemic poverty and hunger are almost impossible. Often, the situation seems too complex and murky. In such a context, discourses of ‘human rights’ by the traditional power-holders would be ironic, contradictory and even counterproductive (Verma 2011; Kapoor 2012). However, discourses of human dignity, equality, need for greater justice, genuine efforts to redresses people’s substantial and long standing grievances, etc., have helped Adivasi societies to resurrect hopes to continue their struggles despite several and repeated set-backs. Their struggles give us hope that changes can happen although it takes time. Hence, human rights education and efforts to extend solidarity to deprived communities and individuals must continue. Adivasi societies in India have been able to continue their struggles because there is a growing awareness of human rights among them. Often, such protest and resistance movements provide an alternative learning environments for people. Given the long history of oppression and exploitation and the complexity of social processes, a person who is aware of Indian history, can say that there are several positive changes taking place – people have shown extraordinary courage to speak out against injustice. Things have certainly begun to change with the explosion of communication and alternative mass media increasingly 10 Arundhati Roy has attempted to expose the nature and extent of all these powerful, oppressive, insidious, exploitative but invisible structures and forces, put together in the Indian context, in her book – The Shape of the Beas.: conversations with Arundhati Roy, 2008. Selected papers – 97 highlighting deprived people’s struggles, enabling exchange of ideas and extending solidarity across the globe. I would like to end this paper with a quotation from Mhatma Gandhi: ‘The present powers of the zamindars (feudatory landlords), the capitalists and the rajas (rulers/kings) can hold sway only so long as the common people do not realize their own strength’ (M. K. Gandhi 1947, in Harijan, emphasis added). And the real challenge is to bring this realisation among groups of people and individuals who have been deprived, dispossessed and marginalised for millennia. References Corbridge, S. (1993) ‘Ousting Singhbonga: The Struggle for India’s Jharkhand’, in P. Robb (ed.) Dalit Movements and the Meaning of Labour in India, Delhi: Oxford University Press: 121-150. Das, M.B., G. Hall, S. Kapoor, D. Nikitin (2010) Indigenous Peoples, Poverty and Development: The scheduled Tribes, available online:http://siteresources. worldbank.org/EXTINDPEOPLE/Resources/407801-1271860301656/ Chapter_6_India.pdf (accessed 29/10/2012). Human Rights Watch (2012) Out of Control: Mining, regulatory Failure, and Human Rights in India, USA: Human rights Watch. Kapoor, D. (2012) ‘Human rights as paradox and equivocation in Contexts of Adivasi (original dweller) dispossession in India’, Journal of Asian and African Studies 47 (4): 404-420. Kela, S. (2012) A rogue and peasant slave: Adivasi resistance, 1800-2000, New Delhi: Navayana Publishing. Kennedy, J. & Purushotham, S (2012) ‘Beyond Naxalbari: A Comparative Analysis of Maoist Insurgency and Counterinsurgency in Independent India’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, (4):832–862. Kujur, J.M. (2011) ‘Development, displacement and rehabilitation: The context of tribes in central India’ in Somayaji, S. and S. Talwar (eds.) Development -Induced displacement, rehabilitation and Resettlement in India: Current issues and challenges, London and New York: Routledge: 134-150. Mehta, A.K., A. Shephered, S Bhide, A. Shah, A. & A. Kumar (2011) India Chronic Poverty Research: Towards Solutions and New Compacts in a Dynamic Context, New Delhi: Indian Institute of Public Administration. Mukheji, R. (2009) ‘The State, Economic Growth, and Development in India’, India Review, 8(1): 81-106 98 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) Pati, I. (2012) ‘Silicosis a major health concern in Jharkhand’, The Hindu, 13 Jan 2012. Pogge, T. (2005) ‘World Poverty and Human Rights’, International Affairs 19(1): 1-7. Saha, S.K. (1986) ‘Historical Problem of India’s Tribal Problem, Journal of Contemporary Asia, 16(3): 274-319. Sen, B. (2012) ‘The Coming Famine In India’ a delivered on September 6, 2012 at IIC, New Delhi, as A. N. Das Memorial, published in Frontier: http:// frontierweekly.com/views/sep-12/30-9-12-. Shah, A. (2011) ‘Who cares for new state? The imaginary institution of Jharkhand’ in Rycroft, J.D and S. Dasgupta (eds.) The politics of Belonging in India: Becomong Adivasi, London and New York: Routledge: 217-230. Sunder, N. (2009) (ed.) Legal Grounds: Natural Resources, Identity and the Law in Jharkhand, New Delhi: Oxford University Press: pages. Verma, V. (2011) ‘Conceptualising Social Exclusion: New Rhetoric or Transformative Politics?’ Economic & Political Weekly, xlvi (50): 89-97. Walker, K.L.M. (2008) ‘Neoliberalism on the Ground in Rural India: Predatory Growth, Agrarian Crisis, Internal Colonization, and the Intensification of Class Struggle’, Journal of Peasant Studies, 35(4): 557-620. Xaxa, V. (2011) ‘The Status of Tribal Children in India: A historical perspective, Children of India: Rights and Opportunities’, IHD-UNICEF Working Paper Series no. 7. Selected papers – 99  APPENDIX 1. Programme 2. Evaluation of the content of the programme 3. Biographies Appendix – 101  Programme update general Part: Human Rights and Development (week 1 + 2) Module 1: Contextualising Human Rights in the Development Debate Location: Antwerp University, City Campus; Prinsstraat 13, room C. 101–C.102 Sunday 29/07 Monday 30/07 Tuesday 31/07 Wednesday 01/08 Thursday 02/08 Friday 03/08 Saturday 04/08 Theme Course Objectives Development & Human Human Human / The Universality Development Rights-Based Rights-Based Rights-Based of Human Rights Cooperation Approaches Approaches Approaches 9 – 10.30 Opening Session Development Minority-based Introductory The UN Introduction to the Paradigms approaches to lecture Development Arrival Free Course: Design N. Molenaers Human Rights W. Vandenhole Group and Objectives (part 1) W. Vandenhole 102 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) W. Vandenhole C. Lennox 11 – 12.30 The Universality of Development Minority-based WG: Human WG: A Human Human Rights Cooperation approaches to Rights-Based Rights Approach M.B. Dembour Paradigms Human Rights Approaches to Food Security N. Molenaers (part 2) W. Vandenhole A. C. Lennox Vandenbogaerde 14 – 15.30 WG: The Human Rights Open Forum Open Forum: Open Forum Universality of and Millennium Human - General Human Rights Development Rights-Based - PhD session M.B. Dembour Goals Approaches C. Lennox 16 – 17.30 17.30: 15.30: Library Paper Paper Paper Paper Departure for Tour; Briefing City walk & Paper Assignment Dinner and Course Meet & Greet Evaluation  Module 2: “Human Rights and Development” Paradigms Location: ITG Campus Rochus, Sint-Rochusstraat 43, 2000 Antwerpen Sunday 05/08 Monday 06/08 Tuesday 07/08 Wednesday 08/08 Thursday 09/08 Friday 10/08 Saturday 11/08 Theme Right to Human Rights Human rights Human Rights Transnational Development and Legal and Violent and Resource Human Rights Pluralism Conflict Exploitation Obligations 9 – 10.30 Free Concept, Human Rights Human Rights Human Rights Emerging Departure Context, Current and Legal and Violent and Resource Frameworks on of some debate Pluralism Conflict Exploitation (part 1) Transnational participants A. Punj G. Corradi C. Ryngaert J. Aylwin Human Rights Obligations W. Vandenhole 11 – 12.30 A Critical WG: Case Case Study: Human Rights The Case of Perspective Study: Peru Afghanistan and Resource Global Health A. Vandenbogaerde E. Desmet C. Rondeaux Exploitation (part 2) G. Ooms J. Aylwin Paper 12.30 – 14.00 Participants human rights part: Feedback Session on Papers; Evaluation and Brainstorming Session 14 – 15.30 Human Rights Paper Open Forum WG: Human Rights and WG: Companies Development Tools Resource Exploitation T. Atabongawung G. de Beco C. Buggenhoudt 16 – 17.30 Paper Paper Paper Participants Farewell drink Appendix – 103 human rights part: human rights Deadline Paper part Submission Participants whol e course: Paper  Thematic Part: Children’s Rights in a Globalised World: Critical Approaches (week 3 + 4) Module 1: Children’s Rights in Theory and Practice: Critical Approaches Location: Antwerp University, City Campus; Prinsstraat 13, room C. 101–C.102 Sunday 12/08 Monday 13/08 Tuesday 14/08 Wednesday 15/08 Thursday 16/08 Friday 17/08 Saturday 18/08 Location: ITG Theme Children’s Rights A Multi­ Children’s Rights Critical Strategies and Human and as Human Rights disciplinary in Practice Approaches Methodologies for Children’s Rights Introduction implementation Education Free 9 – 10.30 Introduction Historical Re-Fracturing Introductory Introductory to second part perspective. K. Hanson Lecture lecture / Children’s Educational K. Hanson D. Reynaert Children’s Rights Rights as Human consequences Walk 104 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) Rights: a Legal and reflections Arrival some Perspective in the CRC participants W. Vandenhole E. Verhellen 11 – 12.30 Children’s Rights Anthropological Contextualising Sharing of WG Curriculum as Human Perspective R. Roose & Experiences by Development Rights: a Legal K. Cheney K. De Vos Participants D. Reynaert Perspective K. Hanson W. Vandenhole 14 – 15.30 WG: Children’s Collective Collective WG Illustration: Training Session: Rights as Human Assignments Assignments child labour setting-up a CR Rights: A Legal K. Hanson course Perspective Organizing W. Vandenhole committee 16 – 17.30 18.00: Briefing Paper Collective Collective Collective Presentation Departure Assignment, Assignments Assignments Assignments of Collective for welcome Collective Assignments drinks and Assignments and tapas Course Evaluation  Module 2: Children’s Rights: Global Challenges Location: Antwerp University, City Campus; Prinsstraat 13, room C. 101–C.102 Sunday 19/08 Monday 20/08 Tuesday 21/08 Wednesday 22/08 Thursday 23/08 Friday 24/08 Saturday 25/08 Theme Children Children, Children and Children and Closure and Global Gender and Migration Armed Conflict Poverty Cultural Diversity 9 – 10.30 Free World poverty A Gender A Southern Introductory Feedback Session Departures and Social Perspective Perspective Lecture on Papers Justice K. De Graeve P. Ceriani Cernadas B.D. Mezmur Evaluation and K. De Feyter Brainstorming Session 11 – 12.30 An anti- The Cultural Unaccompanied A Transitional Closing Ceremony globalist Defense Minors in Europe Justice and Reception perspective E. Desmet I. Derluyn Perspective F. Mestrum S. Parmentier 14 – 15.30 Open Forum Paper WG: film and WG Departures discussion B.D. Mezmur & P. Ceriani Cernadas & S. Parmentier I. Derluyn 16 – 17.30 Paper Paper Participants Experiences whole course from the African and participants Committee children’s rights B.D. Mezmur part: Deadline Paper Submission Appendix – 105 2. Evaluation of the content of the programme The programme has improved my knowledge on the subject matter. The programme has raised my awareness of fundamental tensions in the sub- ject matter. 106 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) The programme has raised my critical engagement with the subject matter. The right balance is struck between lectures, workshops and assignments. Appendix – 107 The methodological approaches were sufficiently diverse and relevant. The course will be of direct relevance for my work/research. 108 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) I had sufficient occasion to establish new professional contacts. I would recommend this programme to colleagues. Appendix – 109 3. Biographies EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE AMSSOMS, Terry Belgium – University of Antwerp Terry Amssoms has been working for the University of Antwerp for over more than 25 years and is currently employed at the International Mobility Department of the Faculty of Law. She is the administrative assistant of the International and European Legal Studies Program since 2007, and responsible for the incoming Erasmus exchange students. Besides these tasks, she is also in charge of the organisation of international conferences. CORRADI, Giselle Argentina / Belgium – Ghent University Giselle Corradi is a post-doctoral researcher at the Human Rights Centre of Ghent University. She holds a Bachelor in law from the University of Buenos Aires and a Master’s in Comparative Science of Culture from Ghent University. She developed an interest in development studies in the course of her work as a consultant in fair trade initiatives in Peru and Guatemala for the Durabilis Foundation. In her doctoral thesis, which she defended in December 2012, she combined these three domains focusing on the relationship between human rights, legal pluralism and justice sector aid in sub-Saharan Africa. DESMET, Ellen Belgium – Ghent University / University of Antwerp Ellen Desmet is a post-doctoral researcher at the Human Rights Centre of Ghent University and the Law and Development Research Group of the University of Antwerp. She is the project coordinator of the Interuniversity Attraction Pole “The Global Challenge of Human Rights Integration: Towards a Users’ Perspective”. Before that, Ellen was researcher and policy staff member at the Children’s Rights Knowledge Centre, and a substitute lecturer in anthropology of law at the KU Leuven. She complemented her law studies with a master in Cultures and Development Studies (KU Leuven) and a master in Development Cooperation (UGent), and holds a PhD in Law from the KU Leuven. Her doctoral research focused on nature conservation and indigenous peoples’ rights, taking a human rights and legal anthropological perspective, and was based on extensive fieldwork in Peru (Indigenous Rights Entwined with Nature Conservation, 2011, Intersentia). PARMENTIER, Stephan Belgium – KU Leuven Stephan Parmentier (1960) studied law and sociology at the KU Leuven (Belgium) and sociology and conflict resolution at the Humphrey Institute for Public Affairs, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities (U.S.A.). He currently 110 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) teaches sociology of crime, law, and human rights at the Faculty of Law of the KU Leuven, and has served as the head of the Department of Criminal Law and Criminology (2005-2009). In July 2010 he was appointed Secretary-General of the International Society for Criminology and he also serves on the Advisory Board of the Oxford Centre of Criminology and on the Board of the International Institute for Sociology of Law (Oñati). REYNAERT, Didier Belgium – University College Ghent Didier Reynaert holds a bachelor in child nursing and a master in special education (orthopedagogics). In 2012 he obtained his PhD in Social Work at Ghent University with a dissertation on children’s rights education and the role of the children’s rights movement in implementing the U.N.-Convention on the Rights of the Child. As researcher at the Department of Social Work of the University College Ghent, he is involved in several research projects in the field of child and youth policy and children’s rights. He is member of the board of the Flemish Children’s Rights Knowledge Centre. Previously, he worked for the Flemish Children’s Rights Coalition, the Child Legal Centre and as a civil servant at the Ministry of the Flemish Community on youth protection. VANDENHOLE, Wouter Belgium – University of Antwerp Wouter Vandenhole teaches human rights and holds the UNICEF Chair in Children’s Rights at University of Antwerp Law Research School (Belgium). He is the co-director of the Law and Development Research Group and chairs the Flemish Children’s Rights Knowledge Centre. His research interests include economic, social and cultural rights, children’s rights, and the relationship between human rights law and development (in particular the issue of transnational obligations). VLIEGHE, Kathy Belgium – Children’s Rights Knowledge Centre (KeKi) Kathy Vlieghe has a master’s degree in German philology and a specialization in documentation and literature sciences from Ghent University, Belgium. From 1989 to 2009, she worked as a scientific collaborator at the Centre for the Rights of the Child (Ghent University). Until today, she is associated for 10% at the Department of Social Welfare Studies of Ghent University. She is co-organizer of different national and international training programmes, such as the Post- Academic Training Children’s Rights and the International Interdisciplinary Course on Children’s Rights. She is also editorial secretary of the Journal on Youth and Children’s Rights (in Dutch: Tijdschrift voor Jeugd en Kinderrechten). Appendix – 111 Conference staff DUFF, Beth United Kingdom – Glasgow University Beth Duff is from Glasgow in the United Kingdom. She is currently studying a Bachelors of Law at Glasgow University and has just completed her third year. For the last year she has been participating in an ERASMUS exchange with the University of Antwerp. During this time she completed two human rights related courses, which cemented her interest in and passion towards this field of law. In September she begin her final year of study in Glasgow. Once completed, Beth hopes to be accepted for a masters in human rights or, alternatively, undertake a traineeship before pursuing her interest within the European Union or an NGO. DYSARZ, Jakub Poland – University of Gdańsk Jakub Dysarz was born in 1990 in Gdańsk (Poland). Currently, he is a law student at the University of Gdańsk, as well as a 2012 graduate of the International and European Legal Studies Programme at the University of Antwerp. His fields of interest vary from private law to protection of human rights and European integration from a legal perspective. LEMBRECHTS, Sara Belgium/Germany – Free University of Berlin Sara Lembrechts is a student in the European Network of Masters in Children’s Rights (ENMCR) at the Free University of Berlin, Germany. She has an LLM in International & European Law and a BA in European Studies, both from the University of Maastricht (Netherlands). She has experience as an intern with Amnesty International in New Zealand, with UNICEF in Geneva and with the Belgian National Commission on Children’s Rights (NCRK). In addition, she has regularly assisted KeKi with projects and events since 2010. Since October 2012, Sara works fulltime for KeKi. 112 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) Speakers ATABONGAWUNG, Tamo Cameroon / Belgium – University of Antwerp Tamo Atabongawung is a researcher at the Centre for Law and Cosmopolitan Values (Universiteit Antwerpen) in Belgium. His research focuses on Corporate Responsibility and International law. He holds LLB from the University of Buea (2005); Maitrise en Droit (Business Law) from the University of Yaoundé II (2006) Cameroon; Post Graduate in International/European Law from the University of Antwerp (2008); and MA in Governance and Development Studies from Centre Européen de Recherches Internationale et Strategiques (CERIS) Brussels (2009). AYLWIN, José Chile – Universidad Austral de Chile, Observatorio Ciudadano (Citizens Watch) José Aylwin is a human rights lawyer from Chile, specialized in indigenous peoples and citizens’ rights in Latin America. He graduated in legal and juridical studies at the Faculty of Law of the University of Chile in Santiago (1981) and obtained a Master in Laws degree at the School of Law of the University of British Columbia, in Vancouver, Canada (1999). He has researched and published for different organizations including the University of La Frontera, Chile, the United Nations (ECLAC), the Inter American Institute for Human Rights, IWGIA (Denmark), and the University of Montana on several topics including indigenous peoples’ land rights, Ombudsmanship in Latin America, globalization and human rights in Latin America and human rights in Chile. He currently acts as Co-director of the Observatorio Ciudadano (Citizens’ Watch), an NGO for the promotion and protection of human rights in Chile based in Temuco and Santiago, Chile (www. observatorio.cl). He also teaches Indigenous Peoples’ Rights at the School of Law of the Universidad Austral de Chile, in Valdivia, Chile. BUGGENHOUDT, Claire Belgium – University of Antwerp Claire Buggenhoudt received a Master’s in Law, magna cum laude, from the University of Antwerp (Belgium) in 2009. She is currently employed as a PhD student and teaching assistant in public international law at the University of Antwerp. Her doctoral thesis examines the approach of international judicial bodies to public interest concerns in litigation on natural resource exploitation. Her research interests include international adjudication, human rights, environmental protection and transnational obligations. CERIANI CERNANDES, Pablo Argentina – Center of Human Rights of the National University of Lanús Pablo Ceriani Cernandes is the Coordinator of the Migration & Human Rights Program, Center of Human Rights of the National University of Lanús, Argentina Appendix – 113 (UNLA). He is Professor of Human Rights of Migrants (University of Buenos Aires –UBA– Law School; Master on International Migration Policies –UBA; and Master on Human Rights –UNLA). He is also a PhD candidate at the University of Valencia, Spain. At Lanús University, he coordinates a research team that carries out a number of projects on migration and human rights. Several of these initiatives are focused on the rights of children in the context of migration, both at global, regional (Latin America and Caribbean) and national level (Argentina, Mexico, Guatemala). Since 2009, he provides technical assistance to the Argentinean office of UNFPA on sexual and reproductive health of women and adolescent migrants. He has also been consultant of UNICEF (New York Office) on the rights of child migrants’ rights. From 2002 to 2006, he coordinated the Legal Clinic for Immigrants and Refugee’s Rights (University of Buenos Aires and Centre for Legal and Social Studies, CELS. CHENEY, Kristen United States / The Netherlands – International Institute of Social Studies Dr. Kristen E. Cheney is Senior Lecturer of Children and Youth Studies for the International Institute of Social Studies in The Hague, Netherlands. She is also co-convener and advisory board chair for the AAA Anthropology of Children & Youth Interest Group. Her research focuses on children’s survival strategies amidst difficult circumstances in Eastern and Southern Africa. Her book Pillars of the Nation: Child Citizens and Ugandan National Development (2007, University of Chicago Press) looks broadly at the social intersections of childhood and nationhood. She is currently working on a manuscript based on her Fulbright-funded ethnographic research with orphans and vulnerable children (OVC). Her work takes an explicitly child-centered approach while still considering the hegemonic practices of government, development industry, and family, and their effects on children’s choices. DE BECO, Gauthier Belgium – Université Catholique de Louvain Gauthier de Beco holds a Ph.D. in Law from the University of Louvain, an LL.M. (Master of Laws) from the University of Nottingham and a J.D. from the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. He is Associate Researcher at the Centre for Philosophy of Law of the University of Louvain and Fellow at the Institute for Human Rights of University College London. He was Researcher and Junior lecturer at the University of Louvain for four years and Teaching Fellow in Human Rights at University College London from September 2011 to January 2012. He also worked previously for the Belgian public administration. Gauthier de Beco is the author of many publications in the field of human rights and is a regular consultant to the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) and several NGOs. He is a member of the Working Group on the Role of the EU in UN Human Rights Reform (COST Action IS0702) and of the editorial board of the Revue trimestrielle des droits de l’homme. 114 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) DE FEYTER, Koen Belgium – University of Antwerp Koen De Feyter is the Chair of International Law at the University of Antwerp (Belgium), Faculty of Law. He is the Spokesperson of the Law and Development Research Group at the University of Antwerp Legal School, the Convenor of the International research network on ‘Localising human rights’, Chair of VLIR-UOS (Flemish Interuniversity Council – university cooperation for development); Board Member of the Inter-University Research Network on Law and Development, LAW&DEV; and board member of the academic committee of international summer schools on ‘Cinema, human rights, advocacy’ (National University of Ireland, Galway), ‘Liberty, equality and fraternity’ (Utrecht Network) and ‘Religion, culture, society’ (UCSIA). DE GRAEVE, Katrien Belgium – Ghent University Katrien De Graeve has a Master in African Languages and Cultures and a PhD in Comparative Sciences of Culture, both from Ghent University. Her research interests are situated at the intersection of critical kinship and family studies and the anthropology of migration and post-coloniality. DEMBOUR, Marie-Bénédicte United Kingdom – University of Sussex Marie-Benedicte Dembour is Professor of Law and Anthropology at the University of Sussex. Her numerous publications include Who Believes in Human Rights? Reflections on the European Convention (Cambridge University Press, 2006) and ‘What are Human Rights? Four Schools of Thought (Human Rights Quarterly 2010, pp. 1-20). She has co-edited Culture and Rights: Anthropological Perspectives (Cambridge University Press, 2001), Paths to International Justice: Social and Legal Perspectives (Cambridge University Press, 2007) and Are Human Rights for Migrants? Critical Perspectives on the Status of Irregular Migrants in Europe and the United States (Routledge, 2011). Her early work was on the Belgian Congo and the memory of colonialism. She is regularly invited to participate in international conferences and workshops. She has taught at the Free University of Brussels as well as given occasional lectures and seminars at the University of Oxford and the IUKB in Switzerland. DERLUYN, Ilse Belgium – Ghent University Ilse Derluyn obtained her PhD in Pedagogical Sciences at Ghent University (Belgium) and is currently affiliated as post-doctoral researcher to the Department of Orthopedagogics, Ghent University and as guest lecturer to the University of Kent - Brussels School, where she teaches courses in migration and refugee studies. Ilse is also coordinator of the Centre for Children in Vulnerable Situations, an interuniversity centre researching the psychosocial well-being Appendix – 115 of children in vulnerable situations in the South www.centreforchildren.be). Ilse’s main research topics concern the psychosocial well-being of migrant and refugee children, child soldiers, unaccompanied minors, war-affected children and victims of trafficking. HANSON, Karl Belgium / Switzerland – Children’s Rights Unit, University Institute Kurt Bösch (IUKB) Karl Hanson is Professor in Public Law at the Children’s Rights Unit, University Institute Kurt Bösch (IUKB) in Sion, Switzerland, where he teaches in the Master interdisciplinaire en droits de l’enfant (MIDE). He is also the Programme Director of the Master of Advanced Studies in Children’s Rights (MCR) and a member of the Directive Committee of the European Network of Masters in Children’s Rights. He obtained his doctorate in Law from Ghent University, Belgium, where he worked as a Researcher at the Children’s Rights Centre and as a Senior Researcher at the Human Rights Centre. His publications and main research interests are in the emerging field of interdisciplinary children’s rights studies and include international children’s rights advocacy, child labour and working children, juvenile justice and the role of independent national children’s rights institutions. LENNOX, Corinne United Kingdom – University of London Corinne Lennox is Lecturer in Human Rights at the Institute of Commonwealth Studies, School of Advanced Study, University of London. She holds a PhD and MSc in International Relations from the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE), an MA in the Theory and Practice of Human Rights from the University of Essex, and a BA (Honours) in Political Science and Human Rights from McMaster University in Canada. Her research focuses on issues of minority and indigenous rights protection, civil society mobilization for human rights and on human rights and development. She has worked for many years as a human rights practitioner and trainer with various NGOs, including at Minority Rights Group International (2001-2006). She has been a consultant on minority rights for the UNDP, the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, the UN Independent Expert on Minority Issues and the Swiss government. Dr. Lennox has delivered several human rights education projects, including co-designing the undergraduate programme in human rights at the University of Essex. MESTRUM, Francine Belgium – Free University of Brussels Francine Mestrum has a PhD in social sciences from the Université Libre de Bruxelles. She is a researcher, international consultant and activist and works mainly on poverty and inequality, social development and globalisation. She is chairwoman of ‘Global Social Justice’ (www.globalsocialjustice.eu), an association working on the promotion of transformative universal social protection and the Common Good of Humanity. She represents Imodev (Institut 116 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) du Monde et du Développement – Paris) in Belgium and is a member for CETRI (Centre Tricontinental, Louvain-la-Neuve) of the International Council of the World Social Forum. She published various books in Dutch, French and English on development and development cooperation, poverty and international taxes. MEZMUR, Benyam Dawit Ethiopia / South Africa – University of the Western Cape Dr Benyam Dawit Mezmur is currently a research fellow based at the Community Law Centre, University of the Western Cape (UWC) in South Africa. He is also a lecturer (part time) of the LLM modules International Protection of Human Rights, as well as Children’s Rights and the Law, at UWC, and at the Addis Ababa University in Ethiopia. Previously, he has worked as a Legal Officer for the African Child Policy Forum (ACPF). He has been a guest lecturer in academic institutions in Africa and Europe and has published a number of articles on children’s rights in Africa related topics. Mezmur is also the Vice Chairperson (2nd) of the African Union treaty body - the African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (ACERWC). Mezmur holds a Doctorate in Law (LLD) from UWC. MOLENAERS, Nadia Belgium – University of Antwerp Nadia Molenaers holds a PhD in political science (Free University Brussels) and is a lecturer at the Institute of Development Policy and Management (University of Antwerp). She teaches courses on ‘The politics of Aid’, ‘Politics of Development’, ‘Governing for Development’. Her fields of research are NGOs and aid delivery, Political Conditionalities and Foreign Aid, Civil society and Development/Democracy, Aid Modalities. OOMS, Gorik Belgium – Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp Gorik Ooms is a human rights lawyer, who graduated from the Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium, in 1989. During most of his professional career he worked with Médecins Sans Frontières Belgium, of which he was the executive director from August 2004 until May 2008. In March 2008, Gorik Ooms obtained a PhD degree in Medical Sciences from the University of Ghent, Belgium, for his thesis on the subject: “The right to health and the sustainability of healthcare: Why a new global health aid paradigm is needed.” In August 2008, he joined the Department of Public Health at the Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium. While remaining a post-doctoral researcher at the Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium, Gorik Ooms was appointed as Global Justice Fellow at the Whitney and Betty MacMillan Center for International and Area Studies at Yale, USA, and Visiting Professor at the Yale School of Public Health for the 2009-2010 academic year. Since September 2010, he has been appointed as Adjunct Professor of Law at Georgetown University, Washington DC, USA. Appendix – 117 PUNJ, Amita India – National Law University, Delhi Amita Punj is Assistant Professor of Law at the National Law University, Delhi. She has also taught at Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, Delhi. After completing her undergraduate degree in law she worked with national and international NGOs on the issues of human rights and social justice. On completion of her post-graduation in law from the University of Delhi, India she pursued specialization in Law in Development from the University of Warwick, U.K. and has been a British Chevening scholar. She has been engaged in research and creation of easily understandable learning material on women’s rights, prisoner’s rights and Human Rights Commissions in India. She is currently engaged in research on the legal dimensions of economic globalization especially with respect to their impact on the marginalized in India. RONDEAUX, Candace Afghanistan – International Crisis Group Candace Rondeaux is the senior analyst for the International Crisis Group’s Afghanistan Project. Based in Kabul, Rondeaux has lived and worked in South Asia for nearly four years where her work has focused on the ongoing conflict in South Asia. She has written extensively about the U.S. engagement in Afghanistan and Pakistan, producing in-depth reports on elections and political instability, security sector reform and the state of the insurgency in Afghanistan. Before joining ICG in 2009 she was the Islamabad/Kabul bureau chief for The Washington Post, capping an nine-year career spent working as a journalist for several leading newspapers in the United States. She has reported extensively on criminal justice and legal affairs, work that has garnered her several honors and awards and was part of a team of reporters and editors at The Washington Post awarded the Pulitzer Prize for breaking news coverage of the 2007 Virginia Tech massacre. Her writing and analysis has also been featured by the Council on Foreign Relations, The International Herald Tribune, Foreign Policy, The Boston Globe, The New York Daily News, The New York Observer, The New York Daily News and The Village Voice. Rondeaux earned a B.A. in Russian Area Studies from Sarah Lawrence College and an M.A. in Journalism from New York University. ROOSE, Rudi Belgium – Ghent University / University of Brussels Rudi Roose is a senior researcher at the Department of Social Welfare Studies at Ghent University and is part-time Associate Professor at the Department of Criminology at the Free University Brussels. The research activities at the Department of Social Welfare studies consider both fundamental and policy- oriented researches. From 1978 to 2010, the Department of Social Welfare Studies hosted the Centre for the Rights of the Child, of which the Children’s Rights Knowledge Centre is the continuation. Next to research, the Department of Social Welfare Studies offers several training programmes for students. Rudi Roose teaches youth criminology and juvenile justice and agogic theories. At the Free University of Brussels, he teaches the course forensic welfare work. 118 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) RYNGAERT, Cedric Belgium/Netherlands – Universities of Leuven and Utrecht Cedric Ryngaert is lecturer in international law at the Universities of Leuven and Utrecht, and guest professor at the Royal Military Academy in Brussels. He holds a PhD in international law from Leuven University. Cedric has published on jurisdiction, immunities, non-state actors, international organizations, and the role of international law in domestic courts. He was awarded the 2012 Henri Rolin prize for his work on jurisdiction. VANDENBOGAERDE, Arne Belgium Arne Vandenbogaerde is the programme coordinator of the Research Networking Programme Beyond Territoriality: Globalisation and Transnational Human Rights Obligations (GLOTHRO - www.glothro.org) and a doctoral candidate at the Law and Development research group at the Faculty of Law of the University of Antwerp. Arne Vandenbogaerde holds a MA degree in international politics (University of Ghent) and obtained an LLM in International Human Rights Law from the Irish Centre for Human Rights (Galway, Ireland). Previous to his current research at the University of Antwerp he worked in numerous NGOs and intergovernmental organisations such as the FAO Right to Food Unit. His main research interests include international human rights law, in particular economic, social and cultural rights and the issue of extraterritorial and transnational human rights obligations. VERHELLEN, Eugeen Belgium - Former Director, Children’s Rights Centre, Ghent University Until 2002 Eugeen Verhellen was professor of Juvenile Justice Law and Children’s Rights at Ghent University (Belgium). He has been the founding director of the Children’s Rights Centre at the university (recipient Human Rights Award of the League for Human Rights, 1995). He was the co-ordinator of the European Erasmus/Socrates programme on Children’s Rights. He was also co-ordinating the Unesco-programme CRUN (Children’s Rights Universities Network). Since 1996 he was the organiser of the annual International Interdisciplinary Course on Children’s Rights. Professor Verhellen has been a consultant on children’s rights to the Council of Europe and the United Nations and to international non- governmental organisations. He still is lecturing on children’s rights and juvenile justice at different universities. He is vice president of UNICEF Belgium. He is co-founder and member of the editorial board of The International Journal of Children’s Rights (Martinus Nijhoff) and of A commentary on the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (Martinus Nijhoff). He is published widely in Dutch, French and English on children’s rights issues. Appendix – 119 Participants Entire course AL-FARAJIN, Nidal Palestine Nidal Al-Farajin was born and raised in Arroub refugee Camp in West Bank. He works for Les Enfants Le Jeu et l‘Education, a Palestinian non- profit organization founded in 2002 in Palestine. He works as a Community Development officer and consults with Palestinian NGO’s on Children’s Rights. Previously, Mr. Alfarajin was a field monitor officer for the United Nation World Food Programme Jerusalem and advocated for Palestinian children’s issues within Palestine and internationally. He has also led capacity building activities NGO’s on children’s participation and involvement in planning, advocacy and monitoring. He received his MA degree in Human rights & Democratization from the University of Malta in 2005, and his bachelor’s degree from Bethlehem University/Sociology Department in 2000. ASSIM, Usang Maria Nigeria / South Africa Usang Maria Assim is currently a PhD student at the Law Faculty, University of the Western Cape (UWC, South Africa). She holds a masters degree in Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa from the University of Pretoria (South Africa). She has been a researcher on Children’s Rights and the Law since 2009. Through the Children’s Rights Project of the Community Law Centre at UWC, Maria has been a member of the Civil Society Forum of the African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child since 2010. AZARI, Hajar Iran / Belgium Hajar Azari is a PhD student at the Antwerp University Faculty of Law, conducting research on criminal protection of women victims of sexual offences (comparative study: international law and Islamic law). She holds a master degree of criminal law and criminology (with focus on criminal protection of women victim of rape in Iranian law) from the Tarbiat Modares University in Tehran and a bachelor degree of Law (judicial studies) from Tehran University (Iran). CASTRO FORTE, Ana Portugal Ana Castro Forte has a postgraduate degree in Neuropsychology from the Portuguese Society of Neuropsychology and a Master in Psychology from Oporto University. Currently, Ana is a psychologist in a Community Intervention Project, working with vulnerable families and children/teenagers. In addition, she researches on Gender Equality and Violence against Women and Children. In her free time, Ana volunteers as a youth leader. 120 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) CHOWDHURY, Atik Anwar Bangladesh Atik Chowdhury is a Bangladishi by birth. He has been working in the development sector for the last 10 years, in different national and international organisations like Save the Children, ILO and South Asia Partnership – Bangladesh. His main area of work is to provide technical and capacity-building support to vulnerable children, youth and adults through NGO’s by improving their education and livelihood situation. The technical support consists of designing different programmes, capacity and supervising support to staff for implementation, developing communication materials, conducting research and evaluation and doing advocacy to change government policies more conducive to children and vulnerable people. Atik is married and likes travelling and reading books. DAORAM, Itsaraporn Thailand Itsaraporn Daoram has five years of experience in working with international non-profit organizations such as a Country Coordinator for Thailand & Laos; Emergency Response Coordinator for Terre des Hommes Germany; and Mental Health Program Coordinator for Malteser International. In addition, she has six years experience in academia as a Lecturer and Child Psychologist at Chiang Mai University Faculty of Education Demonstration School in Chiang Mai province, Thailand. Her expertise is situated in the psychosocial field, as ell as in development planning, coordinating, presenting ideas, networking, negotiation, organizing and facilitating meeting and training. DEGASPARE MONTE MASCARO, Laura Brazil Laura Degaspare is Brazilian. She graduated in Law in 2007 and obtained a Master’s degree in Philosophy of Law in 2011, both at the University of Sao Paulo (Brazil). She has research experience in the field of law, with emphasis on philosophy of law, literature and human rights. Laura currently works in the Municipal Commission of Human Rights (Sao Paulo city hall), developing local human rights projects. DEWALLEF, Liesbet Belgium / Haiti Liesbet Dewallef has been a participatory training specialist and NGO development worker for the Belgian NGO Broederlijk Delen at RNDDH (National Human Rights Defense Netowrk – Port au Prince, Haiti) since 2010. She also has work exerperience with Humanitarian Accountability Partnership International. Liesbet studied at the KU Leuven in Belgium, where she obtainened her Academic Teachers Degree in 2004, her licentiate in Sexology in 2003 & in Social and Cultural Anthropology in 2001. Appendix – 121 DIDILICA, Diana Roumania Diana Didilica is a PhD student at the Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iasi, Romania. She is a teacher assistant the Social Work and Sociology Department at the Faculty of Philosophy and Social Sciences and an associate researcher at the Centre for Social Management and Community Development, also at Alexandru Ioan Cuza University. GEBRU, Tadios Kebede Ethiopia Tadios Gebru was born in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. He is married and has two daughters. He graduated from Addis Ababa University in July 2004 with a BA in Sociology and Social Administration. He has worked in different NGOs operating in Ethiopia for nearly seven years, holding different supervisory and managerial positions. Since September 2008, Mr. Gebru works as a Program Coordinator in an NGO called Hiwot Integrated Development Association (HIDA). GHAZAWNEH, Haneen Palestine Haneen Ghazawneh from Palestine holds a Master degree in Rural Development from Copenhagen University. Since she graduated she joined Palestine Economic Research Institute (MAS) in Ramallah-Palestine as an economic researcher. MAS is an independent think-tank producing regular studies and surveys of the socio-economic situation in Palestine, with aim of providing policy advices to policy-makers and fostering public participation in the formulation of economic and social policies. Her research interest is in Social Capital. She is also in charge of editing two of MAS periodicals, the quarterly Economic and Social Monitor and the bi-annual Food Security Bulletin. MARINI, Natalie Democratic Republic of Congo Natalie Marini is a lawyer with a degree in International Public law and a Master in Education. She works as an advocate in the DR Congo. Natalie’s professional background is composed of human rights, children rights, gender issues, political affairs, internationals relations, human resources, programme management and technical cooperation. She has been working as a legal advisor in the Higher Chamber of the Parliament and as a public relations advisor in several human rights NGOs. For three years now, she has been working as a Human Rights Officer in the United Nations Peace Keeping Mission of Stabilization of DR Congo (MONUSCO) in the Joint Human Rights Office. MEJIA, Dagmara Ecuador Dagmara Mejia is an Ecuadorian national. She has an MA in International Relations from the Jaguiellonian University (Poland) and the Universita degli Studi di Roma Tre (Italy), as well as a Postgraduate degree in Conflict Resolution 122 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) from the Coventry University in the UK. Dagmara has over four years of working experience in development and human rights issues in South America and Central Asia. Her main subjects of professional expertise include: humanitarian response and inclusion strategies for refugees, labor migration, minority rights, human trafficking, child protection and torture prevention. Currently Dagmara is living in Dushanbe, Tajikistan, working at the UN Human Rights Advisor Office. MSAFIRI, Msedi Tanzania Msedi Msafiri works at the Commission for Human Rights and Good Governance in Tanzania. He has a background in Social Science Studies (BA in Sociology) and experience of working as a volunteer, researcher and as a consultant. Individually, he is a Person with Physical Disability: Msedi has grown up with a disability after contracting Polio in childhood. He is very interested in human rights issues and looks forward to learning more about children’s rights and to apply it in these areas. MUKWAYA, Grace Uganda Grace Mukwaya is a Town and Regional Planning practitioner with extensive knowledge and experience in regional integrations and planning, labour law and community development projects. She has worked extensively in both the private and public sectors in South Africa and in Uganda and handled numerous projects in urban regeneration and renewal, slum upgrading and pro poor settlement interventions. Currently, Grace Mukwaya is working as a Project Officer on the Project of Transformation of Urban areas for the urban poor in Uganda (TSUPU Project). MWAMBULI, Nuru Lusekelo Tanzania Nuru Mwambuli is a married Tanzanian from Mwanza. For six years now, she has been working with the Regional Secretariat at Mwanza Region as a technical advisor and a legal officer. She completed her first degree in Law from the University of Dar es Salaam (Tanzania), after which she continued with a Postgraduate Diploma in Environmental Journalism and Communication until 2006. NIKIFORIDOU, Eleana Greece / United Kingdom Eleana Nikiforidou is 21 and from Greece. She has a Bachelor in English literature from the University of Essex (UK) with courses in psychology, media/ sociology and criminology. Currently, she is a candidate for the MSc in Organised Crime, Terrorism and Security. Eleana has experience as a volunteer with one of the Greek departments of Doctors of the World and with an NGO dealing with animal rights. She participated in a training course in Albania about minorities and gave presentations about female stoning and child trafficking in UK. Appendix – 123 PANGO, Isabel Filipines Isabel Pango has a Bachelor of Laws and a Bachelor of Arts with major in Psychology. She is currently working as a legal officer at the Federation of Free Workers Legal Centre. Previously, she has been engaged in various endeavours such as community organizing and community development. She had a short stint working as a United Nations Volunteer, acting as a Legal Specialist of the Ministry of Home Affairs and Rural Development of the Government of Tuvalu. PETER, Digna Tanzania Digna Peter has an Advanced Diploma in Community Development, which she obtained after three years of studying at the Tengeru Community Development Training Institute in 2000. Since then, she has been a community development professional, having worked mostly with local non-governmental organizations in Tanzania. Digna worked with the Institute of Cultural Affairs as a project officer and projects coordinator, with World Vision Tanzania as a projects facilitator and with Tanzania Women of Impact as a projects coordinator. Currently, she is the Director of the Women Centre for Communication and Development. PHAN THI KIM, Lien Vietnam Phan Thi Kim Lien was born and grew up in the North of Vietname. In 1999, she graduated from the Vietnam Institute for International Relations, specialised in international laws. Attracted by the idea of helping disadvantaged children and communities like those in her homeland, she then decided to change her career from being a diplomat to working in the development field. That is when, 12 years ago, she joined Plan International. She started as a sponsorship communication officer, then became child rights coordinator, and is now a programme manager. PILLAY, Alexis South Africa Alexis Pillay is a university lecturer, academic advisor and outreach specialist (2006–present) at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, specialising in student academic development. Currently, he is a PhD candidate in Sociology with a research focus on human rights education. He completed a MA in Sociology cum laude, a BA (Hons) in Psychology cum laude, and a BA in Psychology. Alexis is an active member of Amnesty International and was chosen as a delegate for the movement of the British Council’s “Global Youth Symposium: Meaningful Participation of Young People in International Decision-Making” hosted in London in May 2011. 124 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) SALIL, Charles Kenya Charles Salil has a Master in Sociology from Moi University (Kenya) and a Diploma in Community Development from Kampala University (Uganda). Since 2007, he has been the coordinator of the Centre for Indigenous Voices of the North Rift. Before that, Charles worked as a project manager for the Ministry of Gender and Social Services. SANCHEZ JIMENEZ, Rosina Vanessa Peru Vanessa Sanchez is a psychologist with a master degree in governance and development from the University of Antwerp, Belgium. She works as a senior specialist in the Ministry of Education of Peru in the Educational Quality Measurement Unit. She coordinates the elaboration of final reports on the evaluation of learning at the preschool level. In addition, she coordinates the editorial council of the magazine Infancia Latinoamericana for Peru, sponsored by the Rosa Sensat Teacher’s Association, Spain. SANTOS GONZALES, Laura Marcela Colombia Laura Santos Gonzales has got positions in different branches of her field, including social labour in poor communities, gender, human rights, mental health, children’s rights etc. As a social psychologist and social researcher, she finished her Master of Arts in Cultural Mediation and Citizenship Participation (third edition) at the Universidad de Valencia, Spain, in 2010. These studies widely opened her professional perspectives in her field of expertise. During her professional life, Laura has received many distinctions. Among others, she was selected by Human Heartshare Service of New York as a Colombian Internship holder (2006-2007), as well as to the Bilbao Local Government Followship in International Cooperation (2008), and to the international training programme in Human Rights, Peace and Security, sponsored by the Swedish International Development Agency (2009). TONG, Xiaojung China Xiaojun Tong has an MSW and a PhD from the Graduate School of Social Work, University of Denver, Colorado, USA. She is now teaching and doing research on child welfare on campus. She is passionate and committed to the cause - the change for better for children in China. Tong is Associate Professor of School of Social Work, China Youth University for Political Sciences,teaching “Qualitative Research Methods” and “Child Social Work in Child Right Perspective”. She is also the Deputy Director of China Social Work Research Center, China Youth University for Political Sciences; a Consultant to the Ministry of Civil Afairs, P.R. China; and a Consultant to Child Protection Office and HIV/AIDS Office of UNICEF (CHINA). Tong’s research interests are situated in Professionalization of Social Work and Child Welfare in China. In addition, she is involved in a series of national pilot projects on the Construction of Community Child and Family Service System and the Improvement of Shelter Services for Children. Appendix – 125 VANDENBUSSCHE, Koenraad Belgium Koenraad Vandenbussche has a Master of Pedagogical Sciences with a Major in Foundations, Theory and Study of Education. Since January 2012, he is the deputy director of staff at the Belgian non-profit organisation GO! Onderwijs van de Vlaamse Gemeenschap. Before that, he was advisor and diversity counsellor for GO! Ouders (parents). In 2008-2009, he did a 6 weeks research internship at the Mphimbi Primary School in Mponela, Malawi. YIMER, Moges Endris Ethiopia Moges Endris Yimer is 28 and from Ethiopia. He is now permanently employed as a lecturer in the Department of Journalism and Communication of Mekelle University, Ethiopia. He also worked at the private firm called “Centre for Development Consulting (CDC).” Moges Endris attended his postgraduate studies in Journalism & Communication Studies at Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia, where he obtained his MA in 2010. Before that, he did a BA in Foreign Languages and Literature, which he finished in 2005 with Great Distinction at Debub (now Hawassa) University, Ethiopia. First module (Human Rights and Development) AROUSSI, Sahla Tunesia / Belgium Dr Sahla Aroussi is currently employed as a post-doctoral researcher at the University of Antwerp. She has expertise on women’s rights in conflicts and post-conflict societies, peace agreements and power sharing in sub-Saharan Africa. Recent publications of Dr Aroussi include ‘Women, Peace and Security: Addressing accountability for wartime sexual violence’ and ‘Campaigning for ‘Women, Peace and Security: Transnational advocacy networks at the United Nations Security Council’. CAMBOU, Dorothée France / Belgium Dorothée Cambou is a PhD researcher working at the Free University of Brussels, Belgium. Her research interests lie in the field of international law and human rights. She graduated with a Bachelor of law in France at the University of Toulouse; spent a year at Queen’s University Belfast and then graduated with a Master of International and European comparative law in Toulouse. Dorothée also followed the program of International and European legal studies at Antwerp University in 2010. 126 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) NGENDE, Genny South Africa / Belgium Genny Ngende is a master-graduate from the University of Kent, UK, with a major in International Law and International Relations. She has a Bachelor in International Relations and a Law degree, both of which she obtained from the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa. Currently, she is a PhD researcher at the Free University of Brussels, Belgium. Her research focuses on International Human Rights Law and International Law. PUTHUMATTATHIL, Antony India / Belgium Antony Puthumattathil has a masters In Sociology from Annamalai University, Tamil Nadu (India); as well as an advanced masters in Cultures and Development Studies (CADES) from KU Leuven. Currently, he is in his third year of PhD in political science at the University of Ghent, focusing on the Ho Community. Prior to coming to Belgium, Antony was working with Ho Adivasi community in West Singhbhum district Jharkhand India. Second module (Children’s Rights) ABBASI, Sohail Saeed Pakistan Mr. Abbasi is a development professional with over ten years of experience in working with academia, non-profit sector, public sector (government of Pakistan), the World Bank and the United Nations. Mr. Abbasi has done his MBA in finance from Pakistan and MS in Public Administration from the USA. Mr. Abbasi’s professional experiences include, among others, teaching at graduate level; planning, designing, executing and monitoring large scale public sector infrastructure projects; policy research and analysis, program design, planning, monitoring and evaluation and advocacy for social and child protection programs. BHALLA, Anju India Anju Bhalla joined the Government of India in 1990. Since November 2007, she has been working in the Ministry of Women and Child Development, currently holding charge as a Director in Child Welfare. Anju was actively involved in finalizing India’s Third and Fourth Combined Periodic Reports on the UNCRC and the Initial Reports to the two Optional Protocols; in drafting and piloting the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Bill in 2012; in reviewing the National Policy for Children; and as a convener of the Sub-Group on Child Rights for preparation of the XII Five Year Plan. Appendix – 127 CHEN, Jingrong China / Belgium Dr. Jingrong Chen is a researcher at the faculty of law of Antwerp University in the area of human rights law. Her main research interests lie in constitutional theory, human rights law, Chinese legal history and thought. After she got the bachelor degree, she was a police supervisor of Class Ⅲ in Nanan district of Chongqing in China from 1986 to 1996. She holds her LLM in Legal thoughts of Chinese history from Southwest Political Science and Law University of China in 1999, and a PhD in modern China constitutionalism from Chongqing University in 2008. DE GOEDE, Irene Netherlands Irene de Goede obtained a master’s degrees in Psychology and International Development Studies and a PhD in Adolescent Development from Utrecht University in the Netherlands. Currently, she works as a senior researcher at NCDO, the Dutch expertise and advisory centre for citizenship and international cooperation. Previously, Irene worked as a researcher at the Dutch Council for Child Protection, at Utrecht University, and at the Netherlands Institute for Social Research. Furthermore, she conducted independent research in the municipality of León in Nicaragua. Her research interests include children’s rights, youth development, civic engagement, and international comparative education. MAERTENS, Annelies Belgium Annelies Maertens has a Master in Latin American Studies from Leiden University, the Netherlands, and a Master of Anthropology and Amazon Studies from the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Peru. Her masterthesis is titled ‘El imaginario colectivo de los jóvenes huambinos ante la ciudad de Lima’ and deals with the collective imagination of adolescents from a small village in Lima, Peru. Since 2009, Annelies works for the VIC NGO for Children’s Rights in Brussels, Belgium, where she first worked for 3 years as Program Manager Brazil-Philippines, and where she is since January 2012 the Program Manager for sensibilisation, education and advocacy. MANNAN, Rana Pakistan Rana Mannan has a Master Degree in Business Administration. He has 33 years of work experience, 9 of which he spent in the private sector and 24 in social development. Mr. Mannan has been working with UNICEF since 1992. For the last 12 years, he has been a child protection specialist. His work responsibilities include assisting the Government of Pakistan in developing child protection systems, systematically monitoring the violation of children’s rights, developing UNCRC reports, monitoring revisions in the legislative framework, conducting 128 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) studies, and setting up cascade models to generate knowledge for evidence- based advocacy. Recently, he has also managed a national project following an integrated approach for the delivery of social services with a focus on equity in cotton farming areas of Pakistan, to promote child rights and to address exclusion-based root causes of child labour. MASQUILLIER, Caroline Belgium Caroline Masquillier obtained her Master in Sociology at the University of Antwerp in 2010. Immediately after graduating she joined the Research Centre for Longitudinal and Life Course Studies (CELLO), where she did, among others, research on health-related quality of life of HIV-positive adolescents in Kenya and Uganda in collaboration with the Institute of Tropical Medicine. Currently, she is working on her PhD “The concept of ‘child vulnerability’ in South Africa – A theoretical study with empirical validation”. MATSHAKAILE, Thabani Zimbawe / South Africa Thabani Matshakaile is a researcher and studying towards a Master’s degree in Human Rights law at the University of Stellenbosch. His area of research is the rights of non-citizens under the South African Constitution. Previously, Thabani worked as a legal counselor at Lawyers for Human Rights (South Africa), one of the implementing partners of the UNHCR in South Africa, providing legal services to asylum seekers and refugees as well as unaccompanied minors. He has a Law (LLB) degree and Bachelor of Arts (Psychology), both from the University of Cape Town, South Africa. PINA JUSTE, Silvia Spain / Fiji Islands Silvia Pina Juste has a BA in Sociology; a MA in International Cooperation for Development, Humanitarian Aid, Migration and Asylum Studies; and a Diploma in Child Rights Programming. She has six years of experience in designing, implementing, monitoring and coordinating development programmes and strategies in the area of child protection, social policy, education and gender equality in the Philippines, Timor-Leste, Pacific Island Countries, Guinea Bissau and Honduras. SHYAM, Radhey India Radhey Shyam joined the Government of India in October 1986 as an assistant in the Department of Agriculture & Cooperation. Since April 2011, he has been working as under-secretary in the Ministry of Women and Child Development, dealing with issues of child rights and child policy. His other assignments include National Child Awards and National Commission for Protection of Child Rights. Appendix – 129 SLAVINSKAYA, Anna Russia / Germany Since the year 2003, Anna Slavinskaya has participated as a social worker and project coordinator in the development projects addressing the needs of disadvantaged children in Russia, Ukraine, Romania, South Korea, and Kyrgyzstan. In 2009, she has obtained a Master degree in Marketing and Strategic Management at the Russian State University for Humanities, Moscow. Currently, Anna is enrolled in the Joint European Master Programme in International Humanitarian Action at Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany. Her professional interest is child protection in emergencies with a focus on assistance of psychologically traumatized children. SPRONK, Sarah Netherlands Sarah Spronk is specialized in international health and human rights, international health and medical anthropology, all with a focus on children and families. Empowering people is a central part of both her academic and programme-related work to enhance health, protection and well-being. In her PhD research, Spronk focuses on realizing children’s right to ‘the highest attainable standard of health’. In addition, she is involved in community projects for children in The Hague, integrating sports activities, health assessments and children’s rights training. Spronk obtained an MSc in Medical Anthropology and Public Health (Leiden University, 2009) and an LL.M in International Law (Leiden University, 2007). VANOVERSCHELDE, Anthony Belgium Anthony Vanoverschelde works as a Research & Advocacy Advisor with the NGO Plan Belgium. Before taking up this post, he has worked for the same organsiation as the Advocacy, Campaign and Development Education Manager (2008-2012). In addition, he was the Head of Staff at the University Centre for Development Cooperation, UCOS vzw (1999- 2008), as well as an Academic Assistant at the Faculty of Educational Sciences, Free University of Brussels, VUB (1999-2003). 130 – Human Rights for Development (HR4DEV) The International Interdisciplinary Course was made possible thanks to the financial support of : VLIR-UOS University Development Cooperation UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation Antwerp Doctoral School (ADS) Unicef Chair in Children's Rights The Flemish Authorities