N AT I O N A L AC A D E M I E S O F S C I E N C E S,
E N G I N E E R I N G, A N D M E D I C I N E
T H E U N I V E R S I T Y O F T E XA S AT DA L L A S
A R I ZO N A S TAT E U N I V E R S I T Y
W I N T E R 2016
IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Climate and Energy:
The Outliers
The wisdom of experience
In defense of democracy
The nuclear option
Venture investment in fusion
Better mental health data
A schizophrenia gene?
Citizen engineers
USA $12.00 / CAN $13.00
Rep. Lamar Smith on research accountability
Global R&D for Latin America
How safe are e-cigarettes?
N I CO S T E H R
Exceptional
Circumstances
Does Climate Change
Trump Democracy?
T
Researchers who lirt
with the idea that more
authoritarian governance
would help us address
global warming are badly
mistaken. What’s really
needed is more democracy.
he threats to democracy in the modern era are many.
Not least is the risk posed by the widespread feeling
among diferent segments of the public in contempo-
rary democracies that no one from the political class
is listening. Such discontent reaches from the Tea
Party in the United States and the UK Independence
Party (UKIP) in the United Kingdom to the Alterna-
tive for Germany (AfD) Party in Germany and the
National Front in France. But worryingly, similar
sentiments can be found in the scientiic community.
he robustness of the consensus in the science
community about human-caused climate change has
in recent years not only increased in strength, but a
number of current studies point to far more dramatic
and long-lasting consequences of global warming
than previously thought. Moreover, it is highly likely
that the sophistication and depth of our knowledge
about global and regional climates will substantially
increase in the next couple of decades. Under such
circumstances, how is it possible, many scientists ask,
that such evidence does not motivate political action
and behavior change in all societies around the
world? Why are we waiting?
WINTER 2016 37
Sophie Guerrive for Captain Future, Camping Sauvage, 2015.
La Gaîté Lyrique, a modern art and music center in Paris, ofered programs
exploring climate and ecological issues during COP21 that were suitable
for all ages. Captain Future, its program for children, explored themes of
camping and nature through concerts, lectures, screenings, and workshops.
La Gaîté Lyrique served as the headquarters for ArtCOP21.
he well-known climate researcher James Hansen, state of lethargy, “nothing but blood, toil, tears, and
who has been publicly sounding the alarm on sweat” is urgently needed.
global warming since his inluential 1988 testimony Dale Jamieson, professor of environmental
before the U.S. Congress, summarized the general studies, philosophy, and law at New York University
frustration when he asserted in 2007 that “the and author of Reason in a Dark Time (2014),
democratic process does not work.” In his 2009 book, exempliies such a skeptical view about the obstacles
he Vanishing Face of Gaia, James Lovelock, another faced by our present political order in coping with
long-time scientiic voice of warning, compares the consequences of global warming. He warns
climate change to war, emphasizing that we need that climate change presents us “with the largest
to abandon democracy to meet the challenges of collective action problem that humanity has ever
climate change head on. To pull the world out of its faced, [but] evolution did not design us to deal with
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CLIMATE POLITICS
such problems, and we have not designed political might need to be suppressed in light of profound
institutions that are conducive to solving them.” He future environmental changes has not received much
adds: “Sadly, it is not entirely clear that democracy is systematic attention in social science, politics, or the
up to the challenge of climate change.” media.
I do not disagree with Jamieson about the I will bring this disenchantment into the spotlight.
enormous challenge global warming likely ofers. But I will insist that there is no contradiction between
I do disagree strongly about the implicit medicine, democratic governance and scientiic knowledge.
the rationale for which is beginning to come Rather than lamenting the inconvenience of
from scholars in diverse ields. he historian Eric democratic governance, the need is to enhance
Hobsbawm’s long-time skepticism toward democracy democracy, not despite, but especially in light of, the
extends in his 2008 book, Globalisation, Democracy, massive challenges of a changing climate. We need
and Terrorism, to strong doubts about the efec- to recognize our changing climate as an issue of
tiveness of democratic states in solving complex political governance and not as an environmental or
global problems such as global warming. And Nobel economic issue.
Laureate Daniel Kahneman says: “the bottom line
is that I’m extremely skeptical that we can cope The rise of exceptional circumstances
with climate change. To mobilize people, this has to In the past, warlike conditions and major disas-
become an emotional issue. It has to have immediacy ters typically were seen to justify the abolition of
and salience. A distant, abstract, and disputed threat democratic liberties, if only temporarily. he term
just doesn’t have the necessary characteristics for “exceptional circumstances” refers to conditions
seriously mobilizing public opinion.” oten invoked to grant governments additional
Al Gore’s famous “inconvenient truth” begins powers to avert or tackle unforeseen but threatening
now to imply the complements of an “inconvenient political, economic, or environmental problems. he
democracy” due to an “inconvenient mind,” that present appeal to exceptional circumstances echoes
is, the cognitive inability of ordinary citizens to this sentiment, demanding the elevation of a single
incorporate longer-term transformation demanded socio-political purpose—carbon emissions reduc-
by climate change into their thinking and decision tions—to ultimate political supremacy.
making, and “inconvenient social institutions” that We are confronted with an entirely novel situ-
systematically ignore the future. ation: Anthropogenic climate change is locked in.
Climate scientists, social scientists concerned Most of the scientiic discourse has been devoted to
with climate change, and the media refer to a future establishing the phenomenon. hat issue has been
of “exceptional circumstances.” However, the same settled. What is not settled in science is a range of
groups also assert that no one is listening to their important questions such as the speed of warming
diagnosis of potential incomparable dangers. An or the nature of the consequences of climate change
elite of climate scientists believes they are reading the on various signiicant attributes of human existence
evidence that others fail to acknowledge and know or, perhaps most importantly, what actually must be
truths that others lack the courage to fully confront. done, and how it can be done.
In light of the extraordinary dangers to human Except for reference to singular historical events
civilization posed by climate change, democracy such as war, there are no large-scale human expe-
quickly becomes in their eyes an inconvenient form riences, or models of success, to which the claims
of governing. of the climate science community can appeal as a
Although the context is new, there is nothing precedent for the course it is considering. Governing
new, as Cambridge University political scientist the consequences of climate change refers to a time
David Runciman has documented, “about this scale and to societal transformations that are clearly
outburst of disgust with the workings of democracy. beyond the ability of human imagination and current
Nor is it distinctly American. Europeans (with the political institutions to cope with.
possible exception of [contemporary] Germans) are hus do Lovelock, Hobsbawm, and others appeal
just as disenchanted with their elected politicians. to extraordinary circumstances or a warlike footing
Lamenting the failings of democracy is a permanent that necessitates the suspension of freedoms and
feature of democratic life, one that persists through the political ascent of climate scientists. A growing
governmental crises and successes alike.” Surpris- chorus of critical voices within the scientiic
ingly, however, scientists’ disenchantment with community, advocacy world, and the media seems
democracy and the implication that political liberties certain that democratic societies are unable to
WINTER 2016 39
slowness and inlexibility of democratic institutions
and expressed their preference for authoritarian solu-
tions. Dennis Meadows, the co-author of the original
Limits to Growth, reiterated some 40 years later his
strong suspicion about the barrier to needed action
and solutions in the face of growing environmental
threats to our civilization by virtue of the “slowness”
and “short-sightedness of governance.“
he implication of the position is that democratic
governance of society must be subordinated to the
defeat of the exceptional circumstances. he single
purpose of defeating the exceptional circumstances
legitimizes the suspension of political rights and
Rachel Whiteread, Embankment, 2005. liberties. But for how long can one defer liberties? At
least in the case of war, in democratic societies the
Rachel Whiteread’s Embankment installation was
a labyrinth-like structure exhibited at the Tate
answer is that, in economist Friedrich Hayek’s words,
Modern’s Turbine Hall in 2005. The work was made “it is sensible temporarily to sacriice freedom in
from 14,000 casts of the insides of boxes, stacked to order to make it more secure in the future.” However,
occupy the monumental space. Photographs of the is any massive absorption of powers in the hand of
installation toured with Cape Farewell’s Art & Climate the state and its representatives easily reversible? And,
Change exhibition from 2006 to 2010. Photograph are the potential consequences of climate change the
by Sjoerd ten Kate. equivalent of (abrupt) warlike conditions? How can
one pinpoint the onset of exceptional circumstances?
Or, perhaps even more troubling, their endpoint?
he deiciencies of, and the short-term as well as
efectively and speedily attack global environmental long-term challenges faced by, democratic govern-
problems. he American political theorist and ments are many and go far beyond the problem of
historian Timothy Mitchell, who has written some climate change and its societal consequences. What
exceptional empirically based relections on what he alternatives do these impatient scholars have in mind?
calls “carbon democracy,” is equally pessimistic when Ater all, authoritarian and totalitarian governments
he states, “faced with the threats of oil depletion and do not have a record of environmental accomplish-
catastrophic climate change, the democratic machin- ments; nations that have followed the path of “author-
eries that emerged to govern the age of carbon itarian modernization” such as China and Russia
energy seem to be unable to address the processes cannot claim to have a better record, despite the high
that may end it.” status of scientists and engineers in their societies.
And the alternative? We are let with the central Nonetheless, the disenchantment with democracies
state, guided by scientists, as the source of security continues to be advanced, perhaps becoming even
in the face of radical risk. Only an appeal to extraor- more vocal as entrenched climate policy regimes such
dinary circumstances—that is, to a threat to the very as the United Nations Framework Convention fail
existence of humankind—“might be able to give to live up to their promise and as one ater another
capacity and . . . energy back to a failing or hampered international conference on climate change fails to
[political] will,” the French political scientist Pierre achieve the goals of a substantial global reduction of
Rosanvallon argues. greenhouse gas emissions.
But how does one govern well under exceptional
circumstances? Doing so is allied to two assertions: The erosion of democracy
that an “inconvenient mind” justiies imposing one’s he argument about upcoming exceptional circum-
(superior) ideas on citizens and that “inconvenient stances due to climate change and the concomitant
social institutions” justify a strong state in the form implication of an inconvenient democracy derives its
of a command society. intellectual sustenance from a range of considerations:
Here one may note how history repeats itself. In a deep-seated pessimism about the psychological
the 1970s, a similar kind of skepticism arose around make-up of human beings; the speciic temporality—
the question of limits to growth and the survival of that is, short-term perspective—of human thought;
humankind. Scientists warned about the essential the failure to mobilize populations to support the
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CLIMATE POLITICS
cause of efective climate policies; the inability of racies “prioritize immediate over future experiences,
government, given constitutional constraints, to simplicity over complexity, gut instinct over science.”
attend to long-term goals; the fragility of political he discussion in the climate science and policy
order, which depends for survival on mobilizing community about the shortcomings of democratic
consensus around incremental change; the inlu- governance resonates, at least supericially, with
ence of vested interests on the political agendas of assessments coming from the social sciences of the
the day; the widespread social addiction to fossil present and future state of democracy, which have
fuel; and last but not least, the climate science reached similar discouraging conclusions about the
community’s sense that its message of evidence and eicacy of democratic governance in many nations.
rationality is not stimulating action. So, for example, political scientist and former UK
he mass of citizens, it seems, simply cannot be Member of Parliament David Marquand sees “a
won over to endorse and follow the course of policy hollowing out of citizenship; the marketization of the
options that scientists support. he large majority public sector; the soul-destroying targets and audits
of citizens are basically inclined to act irrationally; that go with it; the denigration of professionalism and
people just do not appear to be able to comprehend the professional ethic; and the erosion of public trust.”
what is good for them. As the German climate Many social science observers see contemporary
scientist Hans Joachim Schellnhuber complains, democracy—whether by design of self-interested
“… my own experience and everyday knowledge actors such as large corporations, or as an unintended
illustrate that comfort and ignorance are the biggest outcome of structural economic, political, and moral
laws of human character. his is a potentially changes—as tending toward increasingly autocratic
deadly mix.” Here Schellnhuber rehabilitates a forms of governance.
sentiment from Immanuel Kant’s 1784 essay “What But social scientists and climate scientists diverge
is Enlightenment?” in which Kant notes: “Laziness profoundly in their analyses of the necessary remedy.
and cowardice are the reasons why such a large Social scientists such as political historian Rosanvallon
proportion of men, even when nature has long and sociologist Colin Crouch see the need to restore
freed them from external guidance, gladly remain the vitality of the core function of democracy through
immature all their lives.” more active participation of large numbers of citizens
Not just citizens, but their democratically elected in shaping the agenda of public life. Climate scientists
politicians, seem unlikely to implement satisfactory and others whose chief concern is climate change
policy: activist climate scientists, journalists, and seem instead to believe democratic governance to be
many other observers agree that the recent climate inherently incapable of coping efectively with large-
summits in Copenhagen, Cancun, Durban, and scale environmental problems. From this perspective,
Warsaw (and perhaps now Paris) were failures. he the very abolition of democracy would be a virtue
summits did not result in a new global agreement and the establishment, for example, of “benevolent
to cope with the emissions of greenhouse gases. despotism” would be desirable. In some of the images
Existing agreements seem to have no impact. of “post-democracy,” a return to aristocratic society
he typical short-term temporal perspectives has already been achieved: self-appointed elites
in democracy apparently justify doubts about the claim to carry out the wishes of the masses. A direct,
efectiveness of democratic governance in the unequivocal commitment to authoritarian rule can
face of future risks and dangers of climate change. rarely be found in scholarly communication. But
Problems of timeliness are central to the conditions the implicit message is clear when Dale Jamison, for
of democratic governance. On the one hand, demo- example, suggests that it is diicult to see “how to
cratic governance is captivated by the immediacy get populist democracies to accept constraints on the
of frequently changing “events,” such as economic popular will that might help make climate stability
crises or terrorist attacks, which attract the attention possible.”
of voters and the media. On the other hand, it is To those who see climate change as a uniquely
constrained by constitutional rules of represen- overwhelming threat to human well-being, democracy
tation, like election and budget cycles, that prescribe itself seems inappropriate, its slow procedures for
relatively short time horizons for action. David implementation and management of speciic, poli-
Runciman in he Conidence Trap, his 2013 study cy-relevant scientiic knowledge leading to massive
of the history of democracy in crisis since World risks and dangers. he democratic system designed
War I, sums up these oten-noted deiciencies of to balance divergent interests has failed in the face of
democratic governance by observing that democ- these threats.
WINTER 2016 41
The idea
Enlightened leadership? that science particular task of getting beyond our current
Until recently, open and explicit expression of impasse, I also suggest that climate scientists
doubt about the virtues of democracy has been rare and scientiic may be the only ones in a position to take the
among intellectuals and politicians, with the obvious lead…. [G]iven the tacit contract between
exception of certain leaders of decidedly undemo- leadership scientists and the state which supports them…
cratic nations. In particular, scientists rarely have I will also argue that climate scientists are not
raised serious misgivings in public about democracy ofer some only in a position to take the lead, but also that
as a political system, most surely not in post-war they are obliged to do so.
Germany. sort of
But times are changing. he irritation with Complementing the expectation that scientists
democracy and the shiting understanding of the role alternative must lead is the conviction that citizens are unpre-
of scientists goes hand-in-hand with a change in the pared to act. We have already seen how some leading
function of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate to democracy academics believe that the public is not cognitively
Change (IPCC). Increasingly, the IPCC behaves capable of coming to the right conclusions about
not like a scientiic organization with the mandate has, to put climate change’s urgency. Robert Stavins, director
to ofer alternative policy options for political of Harvard’s Environmental Economics Program
discussion and decision, but as a body prescribing it mildly, and an IPCC lead author, notes that a “bottom-up
actions that are essentially political in nature, such demand, which normally we always want to have
as limiting warming to no more than two degrees major and rely on in a representative democracy, is in my
Celsius, as if such actions follow directly and unam- view unlikely to work in the case of climate change
biguously from the science. weaknesses. policy as it has for other environmental problems....
Leading climate scientists insist that humanity is It’s going to take enlightened leadership, leaders that
at a crossroads. A continuation of present economic take the lead.”
and political trends could lead to disaster, if not a But the idea that science and scientiic leadership
collapse of human civilization. To create a globally ofer some sort of alternative to democracy has, to
sustainable way of life, we immediately need, in the put it mildly, major weaknesses. To begin with, scien-
words of Schellnhuber, a “great transformation.” tiic knowledge does not and cannot dictate what to
What that statement exactly means is vague. Part, if do. One of the fundamental laws in the portrait of
not the core, of the required great transformation is a an inconvenient democracy is the failure to recognize
new political regime. Hansen, Mitchell, and Lovelock that knowledge of nature must always enter
seem, in quotations I cited earlier, to be voicing society through politics (whether democratic or
similar sentiments. authoritarian)—through decisions about, as Harold
Laswell famously put it, “who gets what, when, how.”
Science, knowledge, and democracy Knowledge about how such decisions are best made
What should be the role of climate science knowl- is not particularly available to scientists. Indeed, such
edge and climate scientists in political deliberations knowledge is inherently and necessarily contestable.
about climate policy? Can science, and thus should he vision of a scientiically rational and benef-
scientists, tell us what to do? For the Massachusetts icent authoritarian regime is thus incoherent because
Institute of Technology historian and philosopher it treats a simple technical goal—the reduction of
of science Evelyn Fox Keller, the answer is clear: greenhouse gas emissions—as if the very fact of
“where the results of scientiic research have a direct its articulation should automatically illuminate an
impact on the society in which they live, it becomes optimal pathway for transforming the complex global
efectively impossible for scientists to separate their energy system on which modern societies depend
scientiic analysis from the likely consequences of for their survival. But as stressed by Mike Hulme, a
that analysis.” To Keller, this seems to then add up climate scientist who has come down clearly on the
to a compelling case for an immediately efective, side of democracy, such notions may be favored by
practical political role of climate science, given the those “who are more likely to conceive of the planet
seriousness of the problem of global warming: as a machine amendable to control engineering.”
he pessimistic assessment of the ability of
here is no escaping our dependence on democratic governance to cope with and control
experts; we have no choice but to call on those exceptional circumstances seems to bring with it an
(in this case, our climate scientists) who have optimistic assessment of the potential of large-scale
the necessary expertise.… Furthermore, for the social planning. Yet all evidence suggests that the
42 ISSUES IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
CLIMATE POLITICS
capacity not only of governments, but societies, the experimental adaptability and they have the
to plan their future is rather limited, perhaps collective resilience under duress.” But Runciman
non-existent. he problem is not one of democracy, ofers a cautionary note, because “the knowledge
but of the complexity of social change. From this that democracies have of their long-term strengths
perspective, the claims that the key uncertainties does not tell them how to access those strengths at
about the behavior of the natural climate processes the right moment. hat is why climate change is so
have been eliminated does nothing whatsoever to dangerous for democracies.” Dangerous because the
address the uncertainties associated with the social impatience of the climate science community leads
and political processes for taking efective action. it to imagine that other, less open forms of gover-
Consensus on the evidence of natural science, it is nance might do better than democracy.
argued, should motivate a consensus on political
action. he uncertainties of social, political, and Enhancing democracy
economic events, the diiculty of anticipating the What is good governance? And what is good gover-
future, are treated as minor obstacles that can be nance under exceptional circumstances? Is good
managed by the experts. But contemporary societies governance democratic governance?
show no evidence that these uncertainties are even he impatient scientists’ disenchantment with
comprehensible, let alone manageable. democracy risks placing excessive power in the
Indeed, this is precisely why democracy, incon- hands of states, transnational organizations, and
venient as it may be, is not only necessary but, for multinational corporations. Participatory strat-
a challenge of the magnitude and complexity of egies are only rarely in evidence. Likewise, global
climate change, essential. To a far greater extent mitigation has precedence over local adaptation.
than authoritarian governance, democratic gover- Global knowledge triumphs over local knowledge.
nance is lexible and capable of learning from policy However, societal trends appear to be moving in the
mistakes, which are inevitable when trying to deal opposite direction. he ability of large institutions,
with something as complex as climate change. powerful as they may be, to impose their will on
Democratic governments’ ability to learn allows citizens is declining. People are mobilizing around
them, as Runciman explains in he Conidence local concerns and eforts, including responses to
Trap, “to keep experimenting and adapting to climate change. Opportunities for enhanced demo-
the challenge they encounter, so that no danger cratic governance are even now being created.
becomes overwhelming.” Democracies “have he reigning discussion of options for future
climate policies seems grounded on the idea that
ater 25 years of failed international climate policy
efort, the same failed climate policy regime must
remain in place and is the only correct approach.
he problem is not the proposed and still imaginary
governance regime, but the actual politics that
prevent its realization. It follows that international
negotiations must lead to a new agreement for
concrete, but much deeper emission-reduction
targets. Only a super-Kyoto can help us. But how the
noble goals of comprehensive emission reduction
Ackroyd & Harvey, visualization of Radical
can be practically and politically enforced at the
Action Reaction, 2015.
international level remains in the fog of general
Ackroyd & Harvey’s Radical Action Reaction was declarations of intent. he more the international
on view December 3–7, 2015, in the Jardin des negotiations fail to lead to meaningful global
Plantes, Paris. A majestic tree framed by drapes
emissions reductions, the more skeptical scientists
made of live grass, this installation inaugurated
the UN climate talks in Paris and celebrated the
seem to become of democratic governance at the
role of trees in enabling cities to adapt to and national level.
mitigate climate change. A strong repudiation and falsiication of the
current line of attack for climate policy occurred
during the recent global recession, which
contributed to an unintended and unprecedented
reduction in the growth rate of carbon dioxide
WINTER 2016 43
emissions. he worldwide reaction to the economic change through a single international governance
crisis, most recently during the November 2014 G20 regime have failed. Now is the time to commit to
meeting in Australia, however, shows very clearly democratic complexiication that fosters creativity
that no government conceives of a reduction in the and experimentation in the pursuit of multiple
growth of the wealth of its population as a useful desired goals. For those who think that there can
mechanism to achieve a reduction in emissions. be only one global pathway to addressing climate
On the contrary, all eforts worldwide aim at a change, the erosion of democracy might seem to
resumption of economic growth. Apparently not a be “convenient.” History, of both recent decades
single nation believes that the political and social and centuries, tells us that suppression of social
consequences of economic decline are worth complexity undermines the capacity of societies
trading for emissions reductions. to solve problems. Friedrich Hayek points out a
Proponents of the inconvenient democracy paradoxical development: As science advances, it
perspective draw the wrong conclusion from these tends to strengthen the observation shared by many
developments, namely that only authoritarian scientists that we should “aim at more deliberate
political states, preferably guided by scientists, and comprehensive control of all human activities.”
would be able to make efective and correct deci- Hayek pessimistically adds, “It is for this reason that
sions on the climate issue. No evidence supports those intoxicated by the advance of knowledge so
this view. Certainly today’s China cannot serve as a oten become the enemies of freedom.”
model. On the contrary, the authoritarian Chinese
government that has delivered enormous growth of Recommended reading
both wealth and carbon emissions is also delivering James Hansen, Storms of My Grandchildren: he
an ever more educated and aluent population Truth About the Coming Climate Catastrophe and
that, in turn, will demand participation in political Our Last Chance to Save Humanity (London, UK:
decision making, including environmental policies. Bloomsbury, 2009).
An alternative model is therefore needed, and Eric Hobsbawm, Globalisation, Democracy, and
I submit that it will be found only through revi- Terrorism (London, UK: Abacus, 2007).
talized democratic interaction in which alternative Mike Hulme, Can Science Fix Climate Change? A
perspectives can be presented and tested. A warlike Case Against Climate Engineering (Oxford, UK:
footing has exactly the opposite efect, reducing the Polity Press, 2014).
complexity of social and political life to focus on Dale Jamieson, Reason in a Dark Time: Why the
one outcome. As Rosanvallon explains, war “nation- Struggle Against Climate Change Failed—and
alizes people’s life. Private activities [are] largely What It Means for Our Future (New York, NY:
shaped by collective constraints.” Oxford University Press, 2014).
Climate policy needs to do the opposite. It must Evelyn Fox Keller, “What are Climate Scientists to
be compatible with democracy; otherwise the threat Do?” Spontaneous Generations: A Journal for the
to civilization will be much more than just changes History and Philosophy of Science 5, no. 1 (2011):
to our physical environment. he alternative to 19-26.
the abolition of democratic governance is more David Marquand, he Decline of the Public: he
democracy—making not only democracy and Hollowing Out of Citizenship (Cambridge, UK:
solutions more complex, but also enhancing the Polity Press, 2004).
worldwide empowerment and knowledgeability George Marshall, Don’t Even hink About It: Why
of individuals, groups, and movements who work Our Brains Are Wired To Ignore Climate Change
on environmental issues. As the world gradually (New York, NY: Bloomsbury, 2014).
transitions toward further denationalization of Timothy Mitchell, “Ecomentality: How the Future
governance, democracies will produce new, multiple Entered Government,” Critical Inquiry 40 (2014):
forms of social solidarity and obligations, strength- 479-507.
ening local and regional capacities to respond Pierre Rasonvallon, he Society of Equals
to climate change, and enhancing the awareness (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,
of social interdependence. Examples include the 2013).
widespread community and regional support of
renewable energy in Germany—and the success of Nico Stehr (nico.stehr@zu.de) is the Karl Mannheim
wind energy in Texas. Professor of Cultural Studies at Zeppelin University in
Eforts to simplify the global approach to climate Lake Constance, Germany.
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