Vampire Burials in Medieval Poland An Overview of Past Controversies and Recent Reevaluations BY LESZEK GARDEŁA Abstract This paper examines the history of research on medieval deviant burials discovered in the area of Poland. The problem of unusual funerary practices (e.g. decapitations, prone burials or covering the corpses with stones) was acknowledged by Polish archaeologists already in the early decades of the 20th century, but for a long time it remained on the fringes of mainstream academic debates. Considerable changes occurred in the 1970s when deviant burials started to be treated as a separate group and interpreted as representing “anti-vampire practices”. Over the next few years the tendency to perceive the dead buried in deviant graves as “vampires” dominated the academic discourse, with very few attempts at offering alternative explanations. Recently, the sensationalist interpretations of deviant burials have also permeated into (inter)national media, leading the general public to misinformation about Poland’s past and the mentalities of its medieval societies. The main objective of this paper is to critically explore the inspirations and contexts in which the “vampiric” interpretations first came to light. An attempt will also be made to propose alternative ways of understanding deviant burial phenomena in Polish medieval archaeology. Introduction Deviant burials from various cultural milieus […] the minimal definition of “deviant continue to attract increased attention from burials” that most archaeologists would historians, archaeologists and folklorists agree to is that they are burials different from worldwide (e.g. Murphy 2008; Reynolds 2009; the normative burial ritual of the respective Barber 2010; Gardeła & Kajkowski 2013a; period, region and/or cemetery. These differences may occur in body position or 2013b with further references). Depending on treatment, location or construction of the the region, cultural context or chronological grave or types of grave goods. period they acquire different forms and are variously defined, but as Edeltraud Aspöck Due to the rather sensational nature of such (2008, 17) has recently observed: phenomena – often linked with the fear of the LUND ARCHAEOLOGICAL REVIEW 21 | 2015 107  living dead – archaeological examples of deviant critical overview of these issues the previously burials have also been frequently presented in advocated one-sided views of Polish deviant various media such as the television, press and burials will be challenged and subject to internet. In 2013 the discovery of over a dozen considerable revisions. decapitated skeletons at a cemetery in Gliwice (Silesia, Poland) received unparalleled public attention. The visually striking photographs History of research on of headless human remains quickly appeared in mainstream (inter)national news all around deviant burials in Poland the world, spreading from Poland to as far as Funerary archaeology and various aspects South America. The highly problematic term of death and dying attracted the interest of “vampire” has been used in numerous media Polish ethnographers, antiquarians and early releases concerning this remarkable site and archaeologists already in the late 19th century ultimately led the general public to believe (see further details in Miśkiewicz 1969 with that medieval and early modern Poland was references). Nevertheless, as may be inferred utterly saturated with the fear of animated from the available archival materials and corpses rising from their graves to haunt academic literature, the first consciously and hurt the living. Although alternative recorded archaeological discoveries of the so- interpretations of deviant burials from called deviant burials in Poland occurred a Gliwice have been offered by some specialists, few decades later, at the beginning of the 20th they have all been overshadowed by the more century. Unfortunately, the early publications sensationalist views. The strong possibility from the 1930s and 1960s do not offer much that instead of being a “vampire cemetery” detail and there were practically no attempts the site could have served as a special place at placing such phenomena in a wider for the execution and subsequent interment comparative context. Usually, all we have of criminals appeared much less attractive to from those times is limited to rather laconic journalists commenting on the excavations free-text descriptions of the alignment of the (see critique in Gardeła forthcoming). It is bodies and accompanying grave goods. This remarkable that although nearly three years information is sometimes supplemented by have passed since its discovery, the materials very general anthropological details regarding from Gliwice still remain unpublished and the sex and age of the deceased. Despite the they are known only from press releases, various shortcomings, especially with regard most of which revolve around the highly to the quality of field documentation (e.g. lack problematic “vampire” theme. of plans or photographs) and interpretation, The interpretation of Polish deviant burials these early discoveries cannot be completely as belonging to “vampires” did not begin with neglected in the ongoing studies of unusual the excavations in Gliwice, however, and its funerary phenomena in early medieval Poland origin may be traced to the mid-20th century. (10th–13th century). Below, by adopting a This paper will explore the complicated and historiographical approach, we shall take a often controversial history of research and closer look at some of the major 20th-century reception of early and late medieval deviant publications that mentioned different types burials in Poland, with a particular focus of deviant burials and examine how they were on how and under what influences their initially described and interpreted. interpretations have developed over time. It It must be noted that the following is hoped that by providing a thorough and discussion will focus only on inhumation 108 LESZEK GARDEŁA graves, since these are the only types of burials Interestingly, the woman had three head in the area of medieval Poland that tend to adornments made of lead (so-called “temple- display deviant characteristics (on deviant rings”, a typical Slavic female ornament) as burials in other Slavic areas see, for example, well as a bronze finger-ring and a silver (?) Hanuliak 1995; 1999 with references). ring. Her grave also included a knife in a As regards cremation graves, there are no leather scabbard decorated with bronze foil. archaeologically identifiable traces that would Apart from black-and-white illustrations allow us today to distinguish among them any of the finds, no drawing or photograph of “deviant” characteristics, and therefore they this grave has ever been published. This will not be considered here at all. is very unfortunate, since the grave from Inhumation practices were introduced Gwiazdowo is one of very few prone burials in Poland in the late 10th century (after the of females discovered in the Polish lands and introduction of Christianity) and soon they also the only deviant burial with such lavish completely erased previously dominating furnishings (other female prone burials are funerary rites involving the cremation of known from Stary Zamek in Silesia and from the dead (for overviews of inhumation Świelubie in Pomerania – see Gardeła 2011a graves see Rajewski 1937; Miśkiewicz 1969; for detailed discussion). Despite the fact that Zoll-Adamikowa 1971; Wachowski 1975; the grave from Gwiazdowo displayed very on cremations see Kostrzewski 1960; Zoll- peculiar characteristics, Rajewski refrained Adamikowa 1975; 1979). Typical inhumation from providing any comments on why the practices in Poland involved burying the woman had been buried in such an unusual dead in a supine position with the heads to way. This approach reflects the general spirit the east or west. Some of the dead may have of early 20th-century Polish archaeology been interred in shrouds, others in boxes/ which, following the culture-historical trends, coffins or wooden chambers. The graves were focused predominantly on description and occasionally furnished with objects such as cultural classification of the discovered jewellery, weapons or various utensils, for material and almost completely ignored example clay and wooden vessels, whetstones, deeper considerations of ritual phenomena. spindles, needles and other things. With Wider interest in early medieval regard to their external structures, most of deviant burials and some attempts at their the inhumation graves were flat and very few interpretation began to appear nearly two instances of earthen mounds are known. In decades later in the 1950s. Of particular some regions, however, inhumation graves importance for our discussions are the may have been marked on the surface by publications of scholars such as Jerzy stones or various wooden constructions (e.g. Gąssowski (1950) and Bonifacy Zielonka fences). (1957; 1958). It is worth highlighting 1930s–1960s: First discoveries of that Gąssowski (1950) was the first Polish early medieval deviant burials in Poland archaeologist ever to use the word “vampire” in Among the earliest mentions of early medieval connection with an early medieval grave. The deviant burials is that of grave no. 2 from grave in question was discovered at an early Gwiazdowo in Greater Poland (Rajewski medieval cemetery in Radom in Masovia and 1937, 33, 54, 69). The grave included contained skeletal remains of an adult man skeletal remains of a young woman who who had been buried on his left side (almost was buried in a prone position and aligned in a prone position) with his face directed S-N with her face directed towards the west. towards the ground (Fig. 1). Upon burial the LUND ARCHAEOLOGICAL REVIEW 21 | 2015 109  and Adolfin in the region of Kuyavia in Central Poland. Among the graves discovered in Adofin was that of a man whose head had been decapitated and placed between his legs. Interestingly, Zielonka made a remark that upon excavation one of his physical workers called it the grave of a strzyga – this term has various meanings and may refer to a revenant or witch (for further details see, for example, Kolczyński 2003 with references). It should be highlighted that Zielonka was one of the first Polish archaeologists who not only described deviant burials in more detail, but also tried to interpret them in the context of ethnographic sources. In the article (Zielonka 1957, 21–22) he referred to an interesting and previously unknown textual account called Casus de strigis which describes an event that took place in 1674 in Lesser Poland (see also Stanaszek 1998, 24). According to Casus de strigis a local community was threatened by a man who rose from his grave and became a Fig. 1. Grave 47 from Radom: a man buried on revenant that drank human blood. In order to the side and covered with large stones. Redrawn defeat this creature, a priest told his people to after Gąssowski 1950, plate 76. reopen the grave and turn the body face-down. Unfortunately, this did not solve the problem body was additionally covered with as many as and the revenant continued to cause trouble. 16 mid-sized and large stones, each weighing The grave was therefore dug up again and the around 20–30 kg. In his discussion Gąssowski man’s head was cut off. In this context it is (1950, 322) speculated about the reasons that worth observing that similar textual accounts may have led to such an unusual form of about dealing with malevolent revenants are interment. He suggested that these complex also recorded in the works of various Polish and laborious burial rituals could have been folklorists (e.g. Moszyński 1967; Pełka 1987; intended to protect the living against a Bylina 1992; 1999). These accounts imply “vampire”. Alternatively, as Gąssowski (1950, that the belief in living dead prevailed in some 322) wrote, the grave may have contained the regions of Poland until as late as the 19th or remains of a convict. He did not expand these even 20th century. It should be emphasised, interpretations any further, however. however, that although Zielonka seems to Several years later, Bonifacy Zielonka (1957; have been vividly interested in the notion 1958) discussed a number of deviant burials of deviant burials and Slavic folklore, in his more extensively in two of his works, most articles he never labelled them as belonging to notably in a paper published in the popular- “vampires” specifically. archaeology journal Z Otchłani Wieków. In From the 1960s onwards, during the this article, Zielonka (1957) described a range intensified period of excavations of early of graves that he had excavated in Bodzanowo medieval sites (resulting from the so-called 110 LESZEK GARDEŁA  that contained several graves with unusual characteristics. Among them was grave no. 3 of an adult man who had been buried on his side with flexed legs and had a knife stuck in his spine (Miśkiewicz 1967, 96, 98, 129) (Fig. 2). Miśkiewicz suggested that the man may have been tied and that this practice could be “associated with the belief in revenants” (1967, 129; in her work Miśkiewicz used the Polish word upiory to refer to revenants). She also added that the manner of burial may reflect fear of the “revenge of the dead” (Miśkiewicz 1967, 138). 1970s: Establishing the term “anti-vampire burial” A considerable interpretative breakthrough in the archaeological understanding of early medieval deviant burials occurred in the 1970s with the release of Helena Zoll-Adamikowa’s Fig. 2. Grave 3 from Złota Pińczowska: a man (1971) major monograph on inhumation buried on the side with an iron knife stuck in his graves in Lesser Poland. Her authoritative spine. Redrawn after Miśkiewicz 1967, 98. work introduced the attractive, yet highly problematic, term “anti-vampire burial” as a label for unusual mortuary practices that “Millennial Project” forming part of the occurred at Polish cemeteries from the studied celebrations of the millennium of the Polish area (Lesser Poland) in the period between the state – e.g. Kobyliński 2015, 226), Polish 11th and 13th centuries. However, a careful archaeologists found further traces of mortuary reading of Zoll-Adamikowa’s work shows that behaviour which deviated considerably from she was rather careful in applying this term the normative treatment of the dead. These and did not consider every single grave that practices involved interring the corpses in a displayed deviant characteristics as belonging prone position, laying or throwing stones on to a potential vampire. This nuanced and fairly them or cutting their heads off, but other critical approach is well exemplified in her variants have also been recorded (such as discussion of prone burials, where she argued covering the bodies with clay, piercing them that such instances may also be associated with with stakes or other sharp objects etc.). individuals who died in a plague and were Initially, such puzzling finds were very difficult thrown into the grave-pit during a quick and to interpret and early scholars only mentioned careless burial. Likewise, in Zoll-Adamikowa’s them briefly in their publications, without view, partial cremation of the bones need attempting to offer any detailed commentary not imply that someone wanted to burn a about their possible meanings (e.g. Wojtasik potential vampire, but could simply result 1968, 207). One example, including some from the buried individual’s tragic death in a attempts at preliminary interpretation, is the fire. Despite Zoll-Adamikowa’s reservations, publication of an early medieval cemetery the term “anti-vampire burial” (generally, from Złota Pińczowska in southern Poland but not necessarily correctly, regarded as LUND ARCHAEOLOGICAL REVIEW 21 | 2015 111  a synonym for what elsewhere in Europe is of unusual burials and tried to interpret each known as “atypical”, “unusual” or “deviant of them individually, instead of automatically burial”) has become widely accepted in early labelling them all as belonging to one group medieval funerary archaeology in Poland and of “anti-vampire” burials. has remained practically unchallenged for Despite the fact that since the 1950s over two decades. The reasons for this may deviant burials began to be noticed more be sought in the prominent position which frequently at early medieval sites in Poland, Zoll-Adamikowa had in Polish archaeology and also the fact that her monograph was one of the most extensive synthesizing works on early medieval funerary practices (albeit limited only to Lesser Poland) which quickly became a cornerstone for any further research into these matters. In this context it is noteworthy that in 1971 Eleonora and Zdzisław Kaszewscy published their report on the important early medieval cemetery in Brześć Kujawski. The site was dated to mid-11th to 12th century and located in Kuyavia in Central Poland – an area that lay outside the scope of Zoll- Adamikowa’s earlier analyses. The cemetery comprised 152 graves including several burials that displayed deviant characteristics. Of particular interest is grave no. 43 in which a wooden stake was found on the deceased person’s chest (Kaszewscy 1971, 425) (Fig. 3). The stake was interpreted as something that pierced the body and held down a potential vampire. Another grave (no. 164) belonged to an individual with tied limbs, and in the Kaszewscy (1971, 426) opinion such a peculiar treatment of the corpse reflects fear of the local community that the person would rise from the grave. Interestingly, in their discussion of another grave, which belonged to a woman whose left hand had been cut off, they suggested that this injury may have resulted from some form of punishment (Kaszewscy 1971, 368, 426). The Kaszewscy did not elaborate on these burials any further, and it is fair to say that most of their “interpretations” served simply as throwaway comments. What Fig. 3. Grave 43 from Brześć Kujawski: a man is interesting to observe, however, is that they with a stake on (or in) his chest. Redrawn after acknowledged the existence of different types Kaszewscy 1971, 405. 112 LESZEK GARDEŁA wider debates on their possible meanings the well-known dissertation on ghosts, (with the exception of Zoll-Adamikowa’s vampires and demons by Dom Augustin work) were practically non-existent in Polish Calmet and displayed some awareness of archaeological publications. This is not only a other international works on the notion of matter of sweeping an uneasy topic under the the living dead and unusual funerary practices carpet, but also a reflection of the current trends in different cultural milieus. It is noteworthy, in archaeological research. Before the 1990s however, that he did not reference any of in Poland there was little interest in aspects the classic studies by, for example, Dudley of ritual, cult and religion in past societies Wright (2001[1914]), Montague Summers (but see Urbańczyk 1947; Łowmiański 1979; (2005[1929]; 2001[1961]) or Jan Louis Brückner 1980; Gieysztor 1982), and these Perkowski (1976; 1989; 2006) which are issues remained on the fringes of mainstream regarded as important cornerstones in debates which focused predominantly on vampire research. Despite these shortcomings, “grand topics” such as ethnicity, migration, Stanaszek’s works instigated a considerable settlement or typological and functional breakthrough in Polish early medieval classifications of artefacts. It is undoubted that archaeology and they are still frequently for some scholars (especially archaeologists) of quoted today. that time discussing the problem of revenants In addition to an unpublished MA thesis in the early Middle Ages would simply have (Stanaszek 2000), wholly devoted to the been regarded as unscientific. This situation problem of “vampirism” in medieval Poland, began to improve in later years along with among Stanaszek’s more detailed studies the gradual development of processual and of deviant burials was a paper concerning post-processual approaches and the wider “anti-vampire” practices observed at the acknowledgement of anthropological theory 11th-century cemetery in Sandomierz in and history of religions in archaeological Lesser Poland. In this work Stanaszek (1998) studies. discussed each of the unusual graves in detail 1990s–2000: First syntheses of and provided a range of references to antique early medieval deviant burials in Poland and late medieval sources that relate different After over sixty years since the first recorded encounters with the living dead. Moreover, discoveries of early medieval deviant burials like some of his predecessors (e.g. Miśkiewicz in Poland, and various initial attempts at 1969), throughout the article he also drew interpreting their meanings, the first scholar on examples from Slavic ethnography. who sought to embrace the problem in its Most importantly, however, Stanaszek totality was Łukasz Maurycy Stanaszek (1998; took under his scrutiny anthropological 1999; 2000; 2001). In a series of articles and palaeopathological analyses of skeletal Stanaszek aimed at presenting unusual funerary materials from the site and paid attention practices in the light of the internationally to more details than merely the sex and age known phenomenon of “vampirism”, and in of the deceased as was usually done before. his works we may find a much broader scope Altogether, this was the first comprehensive and more nuanced understanding of the topic and multidisciplinary attempt to examine than that demonstrated by his predecessors, early medieval deviant burials from the area who used the label “vampire” merely as a of Poland. According to Stanaszek (1998, 21) throwaway interpretation. While discussing among the deviant graves from Sandomierz the different deviant burials from Poland, were, for example, two graves (nos. 10 and 26) on several occasions Stanaszek referred to with missing heads/skulls and sharp objects LUND ARCHAEOLOGICAL REVIEW 21 | 2015 113  in close contact with the skeletal remains Variants of deviant burials in (knife between the ribs in grave no. 10 and an arrowhead stuck in the spine in grave no. early medieval Poland 26), a grave of a “dwarf ” (no. 44) and three Despite the fact that Stanaszek’s main study cases of men buried in a prone position of anti-vampire burials (in the form of an MA (graves no. 9 and 90). With regard to grave thesis written in the year 2000) was never no. 9, which contained three individuals (two officially published, very similar views to those of which lay in a prone position), Stanaszek expressed therein were soon presented in an (1998, 23; following earlier arguments of article by Przemysław Żydok (2004). In this Zoll-Adamikowa 1971, 53) argued that it study Żydok provided a comprehensive list may have belonged to people who died in a of different types of graves that past scholars plague, but he also considered it probable that regarded as belonging to potential vampires. the grave expressed fear of revenants. The most frequently discovered variants of Although it may be inferred from deviant burials in early medieval Poland Stanaszek’s works that he favoured the (i.e. dating from late 10th to 13th centuries) “vampiric” interpretation of deviant burials include prone burials, decapitated burials and above all other possibilities (e.g. seeing burials with stones on the deceased. Among them as belonging to criminals, suicides or other examples of deviant burials Żydok victims of plagues, for example), his works (2004, 44) has also included: have certainly shown the scale and diversity of these practices in early medieval Poland. • Perforated/pierced skulls (with a sharp By collecting and assessing a large body of instrument, perhaps an iron nail) material he provided a good starting point • Knives, stakes or other sharp objects stuck for further diligent inquiries into the subject. in the body Altogether, Stanaszek’s publications certainly • Stones, clay or coins in the mouth of the play an important role in the studies of deviant deceased burials in this part of Europe, but nonetheless • Flexed burials some of his proposed interpretations must be • Burials of individuals with cut-off or taken with caution. broken limbs Having now reviewed the major • Burials in marginal areas developments in the approaches to unusual • Burials lacking grave goods funerary phenomena, the next section will • Burials with an unusual orientation demonstrate and comment on different • Partly cremated burials variants of deviant burials in Polish • Reopened burials archaeology. We shall begin by summarizing some of the latest discussions on deviant Over the last several years prone burials and burials at early medieval cemeteries dated stoned burials have been extensively discussed between the 10th and the 13th centuries. This in several of my papers (Gardeła 2011a; will be followed by a brief presentation of how 2011b; 2012a). The problem of decapitation similar practices continued in late medieval has recently been explored in a range of and early modern times. works by Kamil Kajkowski (2013; 2014) and atypical burials of children (belonging to different categories) have been discussed in a separate study by Gardeła and Duma (2013). While the different categories of deviant 114 LESZEK GARDEŁA burials listed above certainly display some practices or the desire to “send” the dead to special characteristics, caution is advised the otherworld more quickly, but traces of in interpreting all of them as belonging to burning on the skeletal remains can also result potential revenants. The finding of sharp from death in a fire or other (not necessarily objects stuck in the skeletal remains may not ritual) acts conducted at the cemetery. necessarily result from attempts at holding Therefore, as in other cases discussed above, the dead down in their graves, but also caution is advised in interpreting them. from wounds that they may have suffered Reopened burials in early medieval Poland in combat. This alternative interpretation is have only recently received increased scholarly especially valid for cases of arrowheads stuck attention and it is clear that they are a very in the skeleton. Cut-off or broken limbs can complex funerary phenomenon (Gardeła et also relate to some circumstances that occurred al. 2014). The meanings behind reopened during the life of a certain individual, as a burials may relate to the fear of revenants, result of an unfortunate accident or perhaps and this is indeed attested in various medieval some form of punishment (e.g. theft) and need and later ethnographic accounts (e.g. Wright not represent an attempt at “immobilizing” (2001[1914]); Summers (2005[1929]; the dead in their graves, as has sometimes 2001[1961]), but different interpretational been suggested in discussions of anti-vampire variants are also possible – for example adding practices. Burials in marginal areas may indeed other individuals to the same grave (e.g. point to some form of social exclusion, but members of the family), making space for they can likewise simply reflect the gradual subsequent burials at the same site, (re)using development of the cemetery and the filling parts of the deceased persons bodies/skeletons of its space. Quite naturally, each cemetery in magic or cult and other. will have graves on its margins, but they do As can be seen from the discussion above, not have to convey any special meanings. the different variants of deviant burials can be The lack of grave goods, although sometimes interpreted in various ways, especially if we regarded as deviant, is hardly unusual in early start to look at them from a broader perspective medieval Poland. Numerous early medieval and with the employment of comparative graves from this area do not contain any grave evidence. Early medieval deviant burials from goods at all and there are so many of them Poland can clearly be divided into a range of that regarding them as belonging to revenants groups as has been done before, but it does is a serious methodological mistake. Unusual not mean that they all held the same meaning orientation of graves can indeed imply a and only represented fear of revenants. The special status of the deceased or perhaps that practices reviewed herewith did not cease they came from a different social, religious or in the 13th century and continued in later ethnic background. Alternatively, aligning the centuries. In order to provide a wider scope dead in an unusual way (i.e. along the N-S for the present debates we shall also devote axis, where most burials are aligned W-E) some space to discussing their nature, context may in some instances reflect lack of other and possible meanings. possibilities of digging the grave at a particular site. This may result, for example, from clusters of other graves in the same spot, trees, roots, stones and other obstructive natural features. Partial cremation of the bodies can perhaps suggest some form of apotropaic LUND ARCHAEOLOGICAL REVIEW 21 | 2015 115  Remarks on deviant burials regarded as very numinous places where one could encounter the supernatural (Wojtucki in late medieval Poland 2009; Duma 2010 with references). Unfortunately, late medieval burials from In this context it must also be noted the area of Poland, which date from the 14th that over the last decade or so a new sub- century onwards, have not received as much discipline, which may be labelled as “legal attention as those from the early Middle Ages. archaeology”, has begun to develop in The vast majority of late medieval graves are Poland. A special research society called found at churchyard cemeteries and they very “Stowarzyszenie Ochrony i Badań Zabytków sporadically contain any grave goods (e.g. Prawa” (Society for Protection and Research Pytlak 2009). Moreover, at such sites, very of Legal Monuments) orchestrates various few of them display deviant characteristics. excavations at execution sites and publishes However, as the studies of Paweł Duma its own journal entitled Pomniki Dawnego (2010) and Daniel Wojtucki (2009; 2014) Prawa (Monuments of Past Law) which have shown, the late Middle Ages was a discusses various aspects of medieval and early period when special and official places of modern judicial practices (e.g. methods and public execution began to emerge on a wider instruments of punishment), folkloristic beliefs scale (a case which is generally not attested for associated with criminals and places related to the early Middle Ages in Poland, i.e. before the broadly understood legal culture. All these the 13th century). This was associated with developments are also having a considerable the development of towns and the gradual impact on the academic perception of early sophistication of legal culture. Individuals medieval funerary practices and especially who committed serious crimes were punished burials which have previously been regarded at especially designated execution sites (e.g. as representing fear of “vampires”. Today, an gallows), often located in well-exposed areas, increasing number of scholars seek to interpret clearly visible in the landscape (for example some of these burials as resulting from the on hilltops or close to main roads). Upon exercise of law. At the same time, however, entering the medieval town, the sight of certain acts (such as covering the bodies with such execution places would have served as large stones, burying the corpses face-down or a grim reminder and a preventive measure placing the head between the legs) may have against committing unlawful deeds. It is alluded to more archaic beliefs in the living at these execution sites that we often find dead. Given the various methodological and traces of deviant funerary behaviour – e.g. interpretational problems and in order to decapitations, prone burials or burials covered avoid simplifications, it is clear that each case with stones. The human remains discovered at of a deviant burial (early or late medieval) has such places are often incomplete, which may to be approached individually and analysed result from animal activity, theft of body parts from as many angles as possible. All of (for example to use them in magic practices) these new perspectives are gradually being or other post-depositional processes. In many introduced in the latest studies that we shall cases deviant burials at execution sites have briefly review below. little to do with the fear of revenants and they simply reflect the manner of killing the convict and their rather careless burial. However, we should also remember that in the medieval imagination execution sites were 116 LESZEK GARDEŁA Latest advances in the studies the fear of revenants, but also in a judicial perspective, for example as belonging to of deviant burials in Poland criminals, suicides or other social deviants. In the first decade of the 21st century the Increased attention has also been devoted problem of deviant burials was discussed to exploring the meanings of gestures and on several occasions by a number of Polish positions in which the deceased were laid to archaeologists (e.g. Wrzesiński 2000; rest (e.g. Koperkiewicz 2010). It has been Żydok 2004; Porzeziński 2008; Wyrwa suggested, for example, that some of the 2008), some of whom gradually began to graves previously regarded as belonging to question the previously proposed “vampire” revenants or vampires may have in fact been interpretations. It is noteworthy that the burials of people who expressed post-mortem problem of unusual funerary practices was atonement through an unusual form of also the subject of several international interment. Let us take a closer look at some of symposia organized in Poland over the last 15 the major changes that have begun to occur in years. The first conference completely devoted Polish studies on deviant burials over the last to deviant burials was organized by Jacek several years. Wrzesiński (2000) as part of archaeological Deviant burials in a judicial perspective and anthropological workshops Funeralia Among the cornerstones of currently ongoing Lednickie that take place annually in Lednica. studies on deviant burials as well as medieval Deviant burials have also been the topic and early modern execution sites in Poland is of a special volume of the journal Acta the work of Daniel Wojtucki (2009) entitled Archaeologica Lodziensia (Skóra & Kurasiński “Publiczne miejsca straceń na Dolnym 2010) entitled “Wymiary inności. Nietypowe Śląsku od XV do połowy XIX wieku” (Public zjawiska w obrzędowości pogrzebowej od Execution Sites in Lower Silesia from the pradziejów po czasy nowożytne” (Facets of 15th to mid-19th Century). Although the Otherness. Unusual Funerary Practices from chronological scope of the book concerns the Prehistory to Modern Times). Similar issues late Middle Ages and early modern times in are also regularly discussed at the International Poland, the material presented by Wojtucki Interdisciplinary Meetings: Motifs through the has important implications for analyses of Ages held at the West-Cassubian Museum in deviant burials from other cultural milieus. Bytów, Poland (Gardeła & Kajkowski 2013b; Based on archival materials and folkloristic Gardeła et al. 2014). accounts, but also recent excavations of Inspired by these revisionist approaches, execution sites, Wojtucki (2009, 211–213) today’s scholars who examine the notion of has convincingly demonstrated that the deviant burials certainly approach them in unusual manner of burying the dead need a more critical and open-minded way and not only result from fear of revenants, but their latest studies apply a broad spectrum simply from careless funerary practices of interdisciplinary methods and theories. and various acts intended to humiliate and As noted above, particularly valuable in such condemn the convicts. Embracing the wider endeavours are the ongoing excavations at late judicial context of such burial practices and medieval and early modern execution sites as the veracity of their possible interpretations well as studies on legal records kept in Polish can also be very refreshing in the studies of archives. As a result, unusual burials are now earlier historical periods. For example, these beginning to be interpreted not only in the inspiring ideas have recently been employed light of apotropaic practices associated with in an article published by Gardeła and LUND ARCHAEOLOGICAL REVIEW 21 | 2015 117  Fig. 4. Artistic reconstruction of grave 146 from the cemetery in Cedynia. Illustration by Mirosław Kuźma. Commissioned by Leszek Gardeła. © Leszek Gardeła and Mirosław Kuźma. 118 LESZEK GARDEŁA Kajkowski (2013a). Their study has shown large stones lying directly on the cadavers that despite the scarcity of textual sources (Gardeła 2011b; 2012b). In these studies I about the treatment of criminals in early argued for the multivalence of such practices medieval Poland (e.g. Maisel 1982; Gołdyn and refrained from perceiving them only as 2006), much information can still be inferred methods of preventing the dead from rising. by reassessing the archaeological evidence and In my analyses, I have also made extensive through the application of comparative and use of comparative materials, especially from retrospective methods of academic inquiry. Viking Age Scandinavia (e.g. Gardeła 2012b; Another important work dealing 2013a; 2013b) and Anglo-Saxon England specifically with deviant burials from the (Reynolds 2009). late Middle Ages and early modern times It is worth noting that over the last several was published by Paweł Duma (2010) years in a range of my works I have also and entitled “Grób alienata. Pochówki explored new methods of presenting past dzieci nieochrzczonych, samobójców i burials with the use of visual art (e.g. Gardeła skazańców w późnym średniowieczu i dobie & Kuźma 2012; Gardeła & Kajkowski wczesnonowożytnej” (Grave of the Alienated. 2015). By collaborating with the Polish Burials of Unbaptized Children, Suicides and artist Mirosław Kuźma I have commissioned Convicts in the Late Middle Ages and Early a range of full-colour reconstructions Modern Times). The methods employed of early medieval graves that display in Duma’s monograph, involving a skilful deviant characteristics. Among the Polish combination of textual and archaeological reconstructions is, for example, grave no. 146 material, enable us to throw new light on discovered at an early medieval cemetery in previously disregarded or understudied Cedynia in Western Pomerania (Malinowska- problems in Polish funerary archaeology. Łazarczyk 1982, 38; Porzeziński 2008, 28) Duma is critical of earlier studies on the so- (Fig. 4). According to the cemetery report, called anti-vampire burials and rightly argues the deceased buried in this grave had his head that they may have resulted from various placed between his feet and above the man’s circumstances, not necessarily fear of the dead. neck (where the head would normally be) lay An important innovation in Duma’s work is three mid-sized stones. The interpretation of the wider acknowledgment and interpretation this grave is difficult and several variants are of unusual burials of children, for example in possible. It may be regarded as belonging to a ceramic vessels, a topic which has previously criminal or perhaps an individual whom the received little interest in this part of Europe. local community considered as a potential The notion of atypical child burials in early revenant. It is also worth noting that this is not and late medieval Poland has been further the only grave from this site where the head explored in a recent article by Gardeła and was substituted by stones (Fig. 5), which may Duma (2013). imply some local practice. Perhaps the heads Contextualizing and were removed and attached to some external visualizing deviant burials structures (posts?) which stood on the surface My interest in early medieval funerary of the cemetery, serving as a form of warning archaeology has recently led me to conduct against committing crimes for anyone passing detailed analyses of selected categories of by? The Cedynia cemetery was located on deviant burials from early medieval Poland. one of the highest hills in the area, which In particular, I have discussed prone burials would make the decapitated heads perfectly (Gardeła 2011a; 2012a) and burials with visible from afar. Unfortunately, the original LUND ARCHAEOLOGICAL REVIEW 21 | 2015 119  Fig. 5. Selection of graves from Cedynia with stones placed directly on the deceased or where stones substitute for the head. Reproduced after Porzeziński 2008, 24, 27–28, 30–32, 35. 120 LESZEK GARDEŁA documentation from excavations conducted in a normative way (e.g. with leprosy, at this site, including the discussed grave, is far trepanation, amputation). The study has also from perfect and the available photographs as shown that within the spatial arrangement of well as descriptions of particular graves do not the cemetery it is impossible to distinguish allow for very sophisticated interpretations – any clear concentrations of anti-vampire many of them are incomplete, imprecise or graves or of normative graves containing even inaccurate, which significantly hampers individuals with various pathologies. It may future debates. be highlighted, however, that one of the so- Pathological analyses of deviant burials called anti-vampire graves (grave 256/01) In addition to the above it is also worth noting was located in the marginal area of the that some deviant burials from Poland have cemetery (Matczak 2014, 442–444). This recently been subject to detailed pathological grave included two individuals, a male and a analyses. A number of scholars have observed female, both of which were decapitated (pre- that in medieval societies various mental or post-mortem). In conclusion, it is clear or physical characteristics may have been from Matczak’s study that the non-normative important factors leading to perceiving treatment of the dead did not result from the certain individuals as potentially dangerous in different pathologies these individuals had life and/or after death (see papers in Murphy suffered from. Of course we cannot exclude 2008). With regard to Poland among such the possibility that they had some other characteristics Łukasz Maurycy Stanaszek special characteristics or mental impairments, (1999; 2007) listed, for example, various but at present these cannot be inferred from mental impairments, kyphosis (hunchback), the available osteological materials (Matczak gigantism, dwarfism, having two rows of 2014, 450). teeth, hairy palms or joined eyebrows. Despite considerable advancements in In her recent study Magdalena Domicela the understanding of deviant burials among Matczak (2014) speculated as to whether some Polish archaeologists and historians, it various illnesses which early medieval people still remains difficult to overcome the deeply had suffered from may have led to their rooted stereotype of such burials as belonging special post-mortem treatment. Her analysis to “vampires” (this also applies to discussions was based on sites 1 and 4 from Kałdus about similar issues with journalists). As we (Pomerania, Poland) where the typical shall see below, not only the interpretation of treatment of the dead involved inhumation in deviant burials as reflecting fear of revenants a supine position along the W-E axis. From can be called into question, but also the very among 790 graves Matczak (2014, 439–440) label “anti-vampire” burial appears to be distinguished 15 graves which, following highly problematic. earlier classifications, have been labelled as Contesting “vampires” in early medieval Poland anti-vampire graves. They are dated between As we have seen in the previous sections of the fourth quarter of the 10th century and the this paper, deviant burials in early and late first half of the 13th century. Matczak (2014, medieval Poland have usually been labelled 441) conclude that although the so-called as belonging to vampires. Although the term anti-vampire graves from Kałdus contained “vampire” has been enthusiastically used by individuals with various pathological changes different scholars, a wider examination of its (i.e. broken bones or decapitations, cancer etymology suggests that it may not necessarily and tumours) these pathologies were not as be an appropriate label for revenants in the severe as in the case of individuals interred early medieval period (on the meaning of LUND ARCHAEOLOGICAL REVIEW 21 | 2015 121  the word “vampire” see, for example, Wilson differed considerably and they may have 1985; Dundes 1998). become revenants as a result of various According to Kolczyński (2003, 222) the circumstances. Therefore, labelling Polish etymology of the Polish word upiór (or upir, deviant burials, especially from the early upier, upierzyca) as well as wampir (wąpir, medieval period, as belonging to “vampires” wąpierz, wypiór, łupirz) remains unclear. specifically is not only a terminological, but Similar variants occur in Belarussian (upar, also a factual mistake. In the current state of vupar), Ukrainian (upir, upyr, opyr, vopyr) research we simply do not know under which and Russian (upir, upyr). Some scholars, like name (if any at all) the revenants functioned Brückner (1980, 280–284), suggested that in the language and imagination of the early the etymology of the word upiór is Slavic medieval Slavs. What we can argue for, (originating somewhere in the Balkans) and however, is that some (but not all) of these that its initial variant was wąpir, which in deviant burials indeed expressed popular fear later times transformed to upir among the that the dead would rise from the graves to Serbs, Russians and Czechs (Kolczyński cause some form of physical or mental harm 2003, 222). In Brückner’s view the suffix to the living society. ‑pir or ‑pyr could be connected with the act of “flying”. An alternative interpretation sees the word *opir as being associated with the Conclusions and word piriti which among Serbo-Croatians is supposed to refer to blowing or bloating future research perspectives (Moszyński 1967, 616–617). In the context This article serves as an overview of past of our discussions, it must be explicitly stated and present studies of deviant burials in that until the 18th century the word upiór medieval Poland. As I have shown, this topic was unknown in Poland, and revenants were has been present in Polish archaeology since known under the names strzyga or wieszczyca the early 20th century, but for a long time (Simonides 1984, 71; 1989, 272; Kolczyński deviant burials have been interpreted in a 2003, 223). The word wampir and its variants very simplistic way and predominantly seen does, however, appear in place names such as in the context of “vampirism”. Only recently, Wąpierz, Wyąpyrz and Wampior which date with the application of new methods of to late medieval times (Kolczyński 2003, academic enquiry and increased willingness 223). Interestingly, Kolczyński also argued to collaborate with representatives of that in some academic works the word wampir other disciplines (e.g. history, cultural and is believed to come from Turkish uber, which physical anthropology, religious studies and means sorcerer. The word wampir was adopted folkloristics) are we beginning to embrace in a range of Western and Northern European the multiplicity of meanings which similar languages in the 17th and 18th centuries and funerary practices may have held. As has been remained in use until present times in forms shown, particularly valuable are comparative such as vampir, vampyr, vampire, vampiro etc. studies in the field of legal archaeology and In general, the available ethnographic especially the ongoing excavations at medieval sources imply that the living dead in Slavic or early modern execution sites coupled with beliefs could have had a plethora of forms detailed examinations of archival legal records and names (e.g. latawiec, utopiec, topielec, and folklore. These previously disregarded wodnik – see Kolczyński 2003, 226–227). sources hold great and exciting potential for The physical appearance of such beings also nuancing our understanding of the medieval 122 LESZEK GARDEŁA world and the mentalities of its inhabitants, February 2015: Magdalena Felis (Muzeum both in Poland and beyond. Archeologiczne w Poznaniu), Magdalena No comprehensive study of early and late Jakołcewicz (Muzeum Regionalne w Cedyni), medieval deviant burials has been published Dr Andrzej Janowski (Instytut Archeologii so far, but I am currently working on a major i Etnologii PAN, Szczecin), Dr Tomasz research project that will seek to fill this gap. Kurasiński (Instytut Archeologii i Etnologii The project will re-examine and contextualize PAN, Łódź), Dr Jerzy Sikora (Instytut all categories of burials previously regarded as Archeologii, Uniwersytet Łódzki), Dr Łukasz “deviant” (or anti-vampire) from the territory Maurycy Stanaszek (Państwowe Muzeum of Poland that date between the late 10th Archeologiczne, Warszawa) and Robert and the 13th century. It will draw on already Zelmachowicz. I also thank Mira Fricke for published cemetery reports, archival materials her valuable comments that helped me to (photographs, drawings, excavation reports improve this article. and diaries) and personal communication with the excavators of important sites where such graves have recently been found. References Moreover, the project will also incorporate Aspöck, E. 2008. What Actually is a “Deviant results of new osteological analyses and Burial”? Comparing German-Language and include a range of specially commissioned Anglophone Research on “Deviant Burials”. artistic reconstructions of selected graves. In Murphy, E. M. (ed.), Deviant Burial in the Simultaneously, a video documentary and a Archaeological Record. Oxford. radio story on the subject of Polish deviant Barber, P. 2010. Vampires, Burial and Death: Folk- lore and Reality. New Haven, CT. burials are also being prepared. The full results Brückner, A. 1980. 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