Bishopstone, Sussex - A quiet, rural Anglo-Saxon village? What the human remains tell us Louise C. D. Schoss Biological Anthropology Research Group Department of Anthropology University of Kent, UK A Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Supervised by: Dr. S. Legge April 4, 2007 Abstract The main part of this thesis is the analysis of the human skeletal remains from the late Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Bishopstone, Sussex. During the preliminary stages of the skeletal analysis, it became apparent that the Bishopstone collection showed many incidents of trauma and disease. To establish just how high this pathology frequency is, the Bishopstone data was compared to that of two other populations, Raunds [13] and St. Nicholas Shambles [87]. This comparison did show a significantly higher pathology frequency for Bishopstone. Several possible explanations are explored, of which the most convincing, at this point in time, is that medical treatment was available in Bishopstone. This medical treatment may have been supplemented with the presence of reliquaries in the church. This text also includes the description and discussion of two cases of, to date, unique surgery to the leg, along with many other cases of pathology. In conclusion it is necessary to collect more data from the Bishopstone skeletal remains and to continue the comparison with more late Anglo-Saxon populations, in the hope to deny or confirm the presence of medical treatment in late Anglo-Saxon Bishopstone. i Acknowledgments • My Thanks go in first place to Dr. Scott Legge for supervising this project and helping me find my way into and around the vast subject of human osteology. • I would also like to thank Dr. Gabor Thomas for allowing me to work with the human remains from his excavation, but also for providing guidance and help with the historical and archaeological aspects of this project. Thanks must also go to the Bishopstone excavation team. • Further thanks go to Dr. Sarah Johns, Dr. Nicholas Newton-Fisher and Tara Chapman who complete our small but fine Biological Anthropology Research Group. • My thanks also go to my boyfriend Matthew Maylin for his support, espe- cially with problems involving a computer. • A very BIG thank you has to go to my parents Pamela and Hansjoerg Schoss who made it possible for me to continue my studies, and to my little siblings: Leonhard, Theodor and Mathilde for just simply being there. ii Contents 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Aims and objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 Anglo-Saxon History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.3 Bishopstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.4 Health and Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.5 Death and Burial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 2 Methods 12 2.1 Bone Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.2 Recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 2.3 Determination of Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.4 Age Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2.5 Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.6 Paleopathology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.7 Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.8 Sites for Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.9 Photos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 3 Results 21 3.1 Summary of the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 3.2 The Cemetery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 3.3 Demography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 3.4 Trauma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 3.5 Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3.6 Distribution of the Pathology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.7 Anomalies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.8 Dental Pathology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.9 Stature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 4 Discussion and Comparison 44 4.1 Cemetery and Burials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 4.2 Demography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 4.3 Trauma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 4.4 Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 4.5 Dental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 4.6 Stature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 iii CONTENTS CONTENTS 5 Conclusion 62 5.1 Why? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 5.2 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 5.3 Further studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 A Skeletal Remains 68 A.1 Skeleton 86 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 A.2 Skeleton 87 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 A.3 Skeleton 1102 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 A.4 Skeleton 1103 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 A.5 Skeleton 1104 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 A.6 Skeleton 1105 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 A.7 Skeleton 1106 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 A.8 Skeleton 1107 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 A.9 Skeleton 1108 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 A.10 Skeleton 1109 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 A.11 Skeleton 1145 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 A.12 Skeleton 1146 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 A.13 Skeleton 1171 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 A.14 Skeleton 1211 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 A.15 Skeleton 1294 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 A.16 Skeleton 1317 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 A.17 Skeleton 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 A.18 Skeleton 2019 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 A.19 Skeleton 2153 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 A.20 Skeleton 2173 A,B,C,D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 A.21 Skeleton 2232 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 A.22 Skeleton 2233 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 A.23 Skeleton 2556 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 A.24 Skeleton 2559 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 A.25 Skeleton 2562 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 A.26 Skeleton 2565 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 A.27 Skeleton 2573 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 A.28 Skeleton 2686 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 A.29 Skeleton 2693 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 A.30 Skeleton 2720 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 A.31 Skeleton 2790 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 A.32 Skeleton 2791 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 A.33 Skeleton 2792 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 A.34 Skeleton 2869 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 A.35 Skeleton 2924 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 A.36 Skeleton 3122 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 B Unstratified Bone 110 B.1 Foetal Remains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 B.1.1 Foetus 1364A,B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 B.1.2 Foetus 1344B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Louise C. D. Schoss iv CONTENTS CONTENTS B.1.3 Foetus 1344c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 B.1.4 Foetus 2645 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 B.1.5 Foetus 3069 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 B.2 Further Remains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 B.2.1 Other unstratified remains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 B.2.2 Pathology in Unstratified remains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 B.2.3 Tables of unstratified remains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 C Statistics and forms 118 C.1 Chi tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 C.2 Recording forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Bibliography 142 Louise C. D. Schoss v List of Figures 1.1 Satellite Photograph of Bishopstone (From Multimap.com) . . . . 6 2.1 Skeleton of 2693 in the lab during analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.2 Location of the graves at the Bishopstone site . . . . . . . . . . . 20 3.1 Child burial of 2693 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 3.2 Double burial of 2791 and 2869 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 3.3 Fractured metacarpal, atrophied phalanx and normal phalanx from the right hand of 1105 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 3.4 Dislocated hip joint (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 3.5 Healed, amputated medial hand phalanx (1105) . . . . . . . . . . 29 3.6 Surgery in the left femur of 1106 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 3.7 Surgery on the left femur of 2556 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 3.8 Stellate fracture of the skull (2153) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 3.9 Right, proximal ulna with weapon wound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3.10 Left and right tibiae with osteitis in 2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3.11 Osteophytosis with osseus ankylosis in 2565 . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 3.12 Left mastoid of 2720 with mastoiditis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3.13 Cranial fistula and fracture lines on parietal bones of 2693 . . . . 34 3.14 Close up of parietal fistula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.15 Cranial fistula on occipital bone of 2693 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.16 Close up of occipital fistula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 3.17 Hypertrophic bone development on the right femur of 1104 . . . . 36 3.18 Schmorl’s node in a lumbar vertebra of 2019 . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.19 Woven bone in right acetabulum of unknown cause (86) . . . . . . 40 3.20 Six segmented sacrum (2686) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.21 Dental caries in the mandible of 2790 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 4.1 Foetal twins found in a pit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 4.2 Left pisiform and hamate, where the hamulus has been detached from the hamate and fused to the pisiform, in 2790 . . . . . . . . 50 4.3 Both cases of surgery in 1106 and 2556 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 4.4 Cranial lesions on the frontal bone of 1146 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 4.5 Severe osteoarthritis on the femoral head of 1105 . . . . . . . . . 58 vi List of Tables 1.1 Age distribution of the human skeletal remains from Rookery Hill 8 2.1 Vertical diameter of the femoral head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.2 Vertical head diameter of the humerus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.3 Age categories used for the statistical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . 17 3.1 Bishopstone Data: Sex, Age and Stature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 3.2 Bishopstone Data: Trauma and Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 3.3 Completeness of skeletal remains in percent . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 3.4 Sex distribution in the Bishopstone sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 3.5 Age distribution in the Bishoptone sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 3.6 Frequencies of Disease in Bishopstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3.7 Location and frequency of Osteoarthritis in the males and females of Bishopstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.8 Distribution of trauma by sex in Bishopstone . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.9 Distribution of disease by sex in Bishopstone . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 3.10 Distribution of trauma by age in Bishopstone . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.11 Distribution of disease by age in Bishopstone . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.12 Caries frequencies by sex in Bishopstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 3.13 Average stature in the Bishopstone population . . . . . . . . . . . 43 4.1 Sex distribution in the three populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 4.2 Age distribution in the three populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 4.3 Frequencies of Trauma in the three populations . . . . . . . . . . 48 4.4 Location of Trauma in the three samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 4.5 Frequencies of Disease in the three populations . . . . . . . . . . . 53 4.6 Types and frequencies of Diseases in St. Nicholas Shambles [87] . 54 4.7 Types and frequencies of Diseases in Raunds [62] . . . . . . . . . 54 B.1 Unstratified human remains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 vii Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Aims and objectives The primary aim of this text is the analysis and report of the skeletal human remains from the excavation of the late Anglo-Saxon settlement and cemetery at Bishopstone, East Sussex. The analysis of the skeletal remains covered the basic data: sex, age, stature, palaeopathology and dental pathology. During the preparation of the skeletal remains for analysis it became apparent that there were many incidents of trauma and disease. The aim of this research thereby be- came not only to produce the basic data for the Bishopstone population, but also to establish whether there was a higher frequency of pathology by statistically comparing the data to that of other late Anglo-Saxon populations. If this com- parison does show a higher frequency for Bishopstone, then the question has to be asked why that is the case. Therefore the main null-hypothesis to be tested in this thesis is: ‘There is no difference in pathology frequency between Bishopstone and other late Anglo-Saxon samples’. Further hypotheses will be tested to see if there are other areas where the compared samples differ. For the demographic data, the null-hypothesis will be:’There is no demographic difference between the samples.’ Within the Bishopstone sample the relationship between sex, age and pathology will also be statistically analysed. To be able to understand the data collected and interpret it in the context of Anglo-Saxon life the following section gives a brief overview over the aspects of Anglo-Saxon life and culture neces- sary for this analysis. The Anglo-Saxon period has been very well studied and there is a lot of information, so the following sections only give a brief summary and are mainly to give the basic information to readers who are not experts on Anglo-Saxon history and lifestyle. Where possible primary sources were used, such as The Anglo-Saxon chronicle, Bede’s Ecclesiastical History and the Beyeux Tapestry. 1.2 Anglo-Saxon History The Anglo-Saxon period is one of the most exactly dated historical periods of British history, dating from AD 407 to the 14th of October 1066. The start of the Anglo-Saxon period is marked by the departure of Roman troops from Britain 1 1.2. ANGLO-SAXON HISTORY CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION in AD 407 and the abandonment of Britain as part of the Roman Empire. In The Anglo-Saxon chronicles the event is described as such: ‘410: Here the stronghold of the Romans was destroyed by the Goths, 11 hundred and 10 years after it was built. Afterwards, beyond that, the kings of the Romans no longer ruled in Britain; in all they had ruled there 4 hundred and seventy years since Julius Caesar first sought out the country.’ [75](Pages: 10/11) After the Romans left, the Romano-British were being attacked by the Picts from the north and the Irish from the west, and sent to Rome for help in AD 423, the Romans could not offer any support as they were fighting against Atilla and the Huns [7]. The Chronicle and Bede say that Vortigern invited Angles over to Britain as mercenaries in AD 449 to help defend England against the Picts. According to the Anglo-Saxon chronicle the Angles did fight for the Romano- British and won, and then they sent for more people and told them ‘...of the worthlessness of the Britons and of the excellence of the land.’ [75](Pages:12/13) Those who arrived stemmed from three populations on the continent the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes. The Jutes settled in Kent and the Isle of Wight, the Saxons formed the kingdoms Sussex (South Saxons), Essex (East Saxons) and Wessex (West Saxons) while the Angles settled in East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria [7][75]. This, however, was not a peaceful invasion and The Anglo- Saxon Chronicle reports of many battles between the Britons and the new arrivals. There has been some debate over when and how exactly this take over of Britain happened [36][59], a summary of these changes in views of the Adventus Saxonum is given by White [85]. Once settled the Anglo-Saxons formed a hep- tarchy, which consisted of the following seven kingdoms: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Wessex, Sussex and Kent [42]. However, Kirby [42] points out that at no one time were all seven of the kingdoms ruled by one king. Many of the smaller kingdoms were under the authority of the larger kingdoms, and often those large kingdoms were ruled by two kings, such as two brothers. When the Anglo-Saxons first arrived in Britain they retained their pagan religion. The conversion to Christianity started in AD 596, with the arrival of Augustine (later St. Augustine) in Kent. As Bede [7] tells us Augustine was sent to Britain by Pope Gregory. At first Augustine and the monks accompanying him did not want to go to a ‘...barbarous, fierce and unbelieving nations whose language they did not even understand.’ [7], but after receiving an encouraging letter from the Pope they travelled to Britain. They landed on the Isle of Thanet, Kent in AD 596 and were welcomed by King Æthelberht of Kent. Æthelberht’s wife Bertha was a Christian as she came from the Frankish Royal Family. Æthelberht allowed Augustine and his monks to live in Canterbury and try to convert as many peo- ple as they wanted, but he did not want to force the new religion onto anybody, even after his own conversion [7]. Over the following century all other kingdoms were converted to Christianity ending with the conversion of Sussex in the 680’s, which is described in more detail later. There were further problems for the Anglo-Saxons when the Vikings or the Norse started their raiding along the coasts of England at the end of the 8th Louise C. D. Schoss 2 1.2. ANGLO-SAXON HISTORY CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION century. According to Richards [66] there were four distinct phases in the Viking attacks on Britain. The first phase was that of sporadic raids and looting between 789 and 864 AD. The raids took place on monasteries and other wealthy places. The first attack by the Danes recorded in The Chronicles took place in 787 AD: ‘And in his days there came for the first time 3 ships; and then the reeve rode there and wanted to compel them to go to the king’s town, because he did not know what they were; and they killed him. Those were the first ships of the Danish men which sought out the land of the English race.’[75](Page: 54/55). From AD 835 the raids also increased in the south and in 851 the Danes stayed in Thanet over winter for the first time, before that they had always returned home. That same year they also stormed Canterbury. The second phase was the permanent colonisation. This phase started in AD 865 and lasted till AD 917. The Danes settled predominantly in the north east of England, York being the most important Viking town. The spread of Danish settlements can still be seen today in the place names. Those places with names ending in -by and -thorpe are of Scandinavian origin [41]. In AD 886 the boundary of the Danelaw was agreed between King Alfred of Wessex and Guthrum, who was baptised and incorporated into the Anglo-Saxon system of kingship [66]. Alfred used this time of relative peace to build up the defences of his kingdom. He built a system of defended towns, (burhs), an organised militia and 60 ships. In 890 the Danes attacked Wessex but the kingdom was defended and six years later they gave up. After Alfred’s death the Danelaw was re-conquered by his children and by 917-18 the Danelaw was back under Anglo-Saxon control. This, however, did not lead to the expulsion of the Danes, who continued living there [66]. The third phase started in AD 980 and was a time of renewed raiding, the only way to avoid the raids was to pay tribute to the Danes. This phase lasted until peace was made in 1011, although there was still some plundering and killing [66]. The fourth and final phase was that of political conquest between 1013 and 1066. This conquest started with the submission of Northumbria to Sveinn of Denmark in 1013. In 1016 Knutr, Sveinn’s son, became king of Mercia and the Danelaw, while Wessex was still in the hands of the Anglo-Saxons under king Edmund. Edmund left the entire kingdom to Knutr just before his death and the whole of England was under danish rule. The Viking age of Britain ended with the Norman Conquest in 1066. The end of the Anglo-Saxon period is marked by one of the best known battles and dates of British history: The Battle of Hastings, Saturday 14th October 1066. The battle took place between William Duke of Normandy and King Harold Godwineson. The battle itself is described in The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles: ‘Then Earl William came from Normandy into Pevensey, on the eve of the feast of St. Michael, and as soon as they were fit, made a castle at Hastings market-town. Then this became known to King Harold and he gathered a great raiding-army, and came against him at Louise C. D. Schoss 3 1.2. ANGLO-SAXON HISTORY CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION the grey apple-tree. And William came upon him by surprise before his people were marshalled. Nevertheless the king fought very hard against him with those men who wanted to support him, and there was a great slaughter on either side. ... And the French had possession of the place of slaughter, just as God granted them because of the people’s sins. ... This fight took place on Pope Calixtus Day. [14th Oct.]’[75] (Pages:199-200) The other source for the events surrounding the Norman Conquest is the Bayeux Tapestry. During a trip to Bayeux it was possible for me to look at the tapestry in the ‘Musee de la Tapisserie de Bayeux’ first hand. The tapestry was created between 1066 and 1082 and was probably made in England. It is 70 meters by 0.5 meters in size and depicts 58 scenes embroidered in wool. The events depicted on the tapestry start with Harold being sent to Normandy by Edward the Confessor in 1064 to tell William he would be the successor to Edward’s throne. It then shows all the events leading up to the battle of Hastings in 1066. The last scene depicts the victory of William over the Saxons. The History of Sussex ’...the kingdom of the South Saxons, which stretches south and west from Kent as far as the land of the West Saxons and contains 7,000 hides. At the time [680s] it was still in the bonds of heathen practices.’[7](Page:192) This is how Bede describes the kingdom of the South Saxons or Sussex. Sussex started as one of the more important kingdoms. According to Cunliffe [28] Sussex was home to some of the earliest Anglo-Saxon mercenary settlers in the 5th century. He believes there were three enclaves, which were occupied by the Anglo-Saxons. The first enclave furthest to the west is marked by a settle- ment at Porchester and an early 5th century cemetery at Droxford. The middle enclave has a settlement and cemetery at Highdown. The most eastern enclave contains five early cemeteries at Beddington, Selmston, South Malling, Alfre- ston and Bishopstone and one settlement also at Bishopstone. The Settlement at Bishopstone mentioned by Cunliffe [28] is the Rookery Hill site excavated by Martin Bell between 1970 and 1975. This site will be referred to as Rookery Hill in this text as not to confuse it with the late Anglo-Saxon site, which is primarily discussed in this text. Sussex is recorded as the landing place of Ælle, who went on to become the first Bretwalda (Ruler of Britain) and king of Sussex [7][30]. However, because of the isolation of Sussex from the rest for England through the Weald in the north and the coast in the south, there was a decrease of its importance and influence [36]. This isolation can also be seen in the lack of a northern boundary until 1086 [83]. One of the distinguishing features of Sussex as a kingdom was that it was last to convert to Christianity. Bede [7] describes the conversion of the South Saxons by Bishop Wilfrid (later St. Wilfrid) with some detail. Although Bede does not give a definite date for the conversion it must have taken place in the AD 680s. Louise C. D. Schoss 4 1.3. BISHOPSTONE CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION Wilfrid had been Bishop of York and all of Northumbria from 669 until he was exiled by King Ecgfrith in 678 [77]. After he returned from his travels to Rome Wilfrid went to, at that time still pagan, Sussex. King Æthelwealh of Sussex and his wife Eafe were already Christians at the time of Wilfrid’s arrival and therefore allowed Wilfrid to baptise the ealdormen and gesiths (the nobility) of Sussex. The common people were baptised by four priests: Eappa, Padda, Burghelm and Eddi. According to Bede, Sussex had suffered of three years without rain and the subsequent famine because they were pagans. This famine was so bad that people joined hands and jumped off cliffs to end the suffering. As soon as Wilfrid had baptised the people of Sussex it began to rain again. Bede also writes that Wilfrid showed the people how to fish in the sea, as they had no knowledge of fishing except for how to catch eels. These two events convinced the people of Sussex that their new Religion was the right one. King Æthelwealh gave Wilfrid land which was called Selsey (island of the seals), where he founded a monastery. Around 705-709 the Winchester diocese, to which Sussex belonged, was divided and a see was established at Selsey with Eadberht as the first bishop. The see remained in Selsey until it was re-located to Chichester in 1075 [11]. In 771 Sussex was incorporated into the kingdom of Mercia by Offa, king of the Mercians [83]. After this time the rulers of Sussex were titled ealdorman or dux instead of king or rex. In 825 Sussex moved under the control of Wessex after the battle of Ellendun [75], of which it remained a part until the Norman conquest in 1066. As all the other kingdoms, Sussex suffered under the Viking raids and the ensuing wars. The Anglo-Saxon chronicle reports of Viking activity in Sussex in the years 894, 994, 998, 1009 and 1011 [75]. However, the conflict with the Danes brought a blessing to Sussex in the form of defended towns or burhs. During Alfred’s development of his defence system he developed five burhs in Sussex: Hastings, Lewes, Burpham, Chichester and Eorepeburnan (on the border to Kent) [4][32]. Three of these burhs (Hastings, Chichester and Lewes) developed into towns which lead to an improvement in the economy and wealth of Sussex over the following centuries. This increasing wealth and importance of Sussex can be seen in the number of moneyers and mints in Sussex [29]. Sussex played a role in the end of the Anglo-Saxon period, just has it had in its beginning, as it hosted the battle between Harold Godwineson and William the Bastard (later the Conqueror) on Senlac Ridge at Hastings in 1066. 1.3 Bishopstone - History and Archaeology There is little documentary evidence for Bishopstone during the Anglo-Saxon period. The Domesday book for Sussex does have an entry for Bishopstone, and places it in the Flexborough hundred and in the Pevensey Rape. The entry for Bishopstone is such: ‘Bishop of Chichester holds Bishopstone in lordship. Before 1066 in answered for 25 hides, now the same land for...In lordship 3 ploughs, 30 villagers with 9 smallholders have 30 ploughs. Meadows, 40 acres, Louise C. D. Schoss 5 1.3. BISHOPSTONE CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION woodland, 3 pigs from pasturage, from grazing, 1 pig in 3. Value before 1066 26, later 11, now 20. Geoffrey holds 4 hides of this manor, Harold 2 hides, Richard 3 hides. In lordship 6 ploughs 13 smallholders. Vallue of all this 100s and 10.’ [58] This entry shows that Bishopstone was an agricultural village at the time of the survey. The evaluation however, shows that the value was higher at one point and then decreased. This may have been linked to the decrease in the size of the cemetery seen during the excavation. The Domesday entry and the place-name shows that Bishopstone belonged to the Bishop of Chichester. ‘Bishopstone’ derives from ‘Bishop’s tun’. ‘Tun’ is the Saxon word for a farmsted, village or estate, so that Bishopstone means ‘The Bishop’s farm/ village /estate’ [25]. It is believed that before the land was originally known as Deantone, and received a new name when it was given to the Bishop of Selsey sometime before 801 [24]. It was then passed to the see of Chischester, although when this took place is not known [33]. Figure 1.1: Satellite Photograph of Bishopstone (From Multimap.com) The church of Bishopstone is dedicated to St. Andrew and is believed to have been built in the 8th century [33], and may have been a minster church [24]. Some of its architecture and a sundial inscribed with the Saxon name ‘Eadric’ are the visible indications of the church’s early construction. The nave and the south porch are of Saxon origin [33]. The south porch was probably a side-chapel, as the door is off-centre leaving room for an altar [33], or possibly a reliquary shrine. It is possible that Bishopstone church was once the location of the skeletal remains of St. Lewinna. If they were kept there then the south porch is the most likely location. The story of St. Lewinna was recorded by a monk called Drogo. Little is known of Lewinna’s life, she was probably native to Sussex and lived at the end of the 7th century [9]. She is believed to have been killed as a virgin martyr by a heathen Saxon because of her faith. She was buried and ‘...her bones held in honour, at a monastery dedicated to St. Andrew, in Sussex, not far from the sea’ [9] Her remains stayed in that monastery for three and half centuries until they were stolen by the monk Balgerus in 1058 and taken to the Flemish monastery Louise C. D. Schoss 6 1.3. BISHOPSTONE CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION of Bergues. The story of this theft is what was recorded by Drogo. The monk Blagerus was on his way to England to obtain the relics of St. Oswald and St. Idaberga, when his ship got caught in a storm. He was miraculously saved by being blown into Seaford harbour and travelled to a nearby monastery, where he encountered the relics of St. Lewinna [9]. Blagerus stole the relics after failing to buy them, and took them back to Bergues where they remained until they were destroyed and burnt in 1522 during the religious upheavals of the time [9]. The resting place of St. Lewinna is believed to be either Beddingham, Lewes, Alfriston or Bishopstone. Blaauw [9] argues for Lewes being the resting place of Lewinna, Blair [10], however, is convinced that Bishopstone is most likely the place because of its location close to the sea and Seaford. The history of Bishopstone, as an archaeological site, is a long one, starting in the Neolithic and continuing to the present day with only short periods of interruption. The full scope of settlement was uncovered by Bell [8] during his excavations on Rookery Hill near Bishopstone. The excavations took place from 1970-75 and Bell’s findings are described in the Sussex Archaeological Collections Issue 115. The excavation revealed a settlement from the Neolithic period (4500- 3000 BC) along with pottery, flints and some animal bones. The next phase of settlement was that of the Bronze Age. For this period eight round barrows and some pottery were found. Bell believed the actual Bronze Age settlement lay further to the south. The presence of a Bronze Age settlement was also supported by the discovery of a Bronze Age crouched burial in the late Anglo- Saxon settlement in Bishopstone excavated in 2004, which was carbon dated to 1260 - 1000 BC. The Iron Age was an active period on Rookery Hill with three phases identified by Bell. The first was the primary unenclosed phase, the second had an enclosed settlement and the last phase was again unenclosed. The Iron age at Bishopstone is dated from 1500 BC to the Roman conquest. Again structures and pottery were found along with stone, bone and metal objects and three burials one of which was a baby. The Romano-British settlement continued in the same location as the Iron age settlement. For this phase there were again structures, pottery and objects made of clay, stone, chalk, bone, glass, lead and iron and also coins. During the early Anglo-Saxon period the settlement increased in size and covered approximately three hectares [8]. A cemetery was located to the south-west of the settlement and was placed around a Bronze Age round barrow. In total 118 inhumation burials and six cremations were found. The graves were in both a north-south and a east-west orientation. Some graves contained Roman artefacts, and the graveyard appears to have been in use until the early 6th century. An incomplete analysis of the skeletal remains was performed by Roderick Concannon who analysed 83 of the skeletons. Of those 31 were male, 33 female and 19 remained unsexed. The age distribution was as described in table 1.1. Apart from that, Concannon reported the usual fractures, no battle wounds and no major epidemics [8]. The settlement was built over all previous structures and overlooked the nat- ural habour at the mouth of the Ouse. The settlement was dated to the 5th − 6th century and may have started as early as 400 AD. It appears to have been an agri- Louise C. D. Schoss 7 1.4. HEALTH AND MEDICINE CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION Age Number <1 1 1-15 12 15-25 19 25-45 29 >45 14 Table 1.1: Age distribution of the human skeletal remains from Rookery Hill cultural settlement with some animal husbandry. Judging by the animal bones the early Anglo-Saxons were keeping sheep (39%), cattle (25%), pigs (17%), horses (2%) and geese, fowl and cats. There was little evidence for the hunting of deer, but there was evidence for fish and marine molluscs. The sheep were most likely kept for textile production, but there was also evidence for bone working and wood craft. Bell agrees with Cunliffe [28] that Bishopstone along with Alfriston, Selmston, Beddingham and South Malling is likely to have represented a treaty settlement for Anglo-Saxon mercenaries in the early 5th century. In 2002 Dr. Gabor Thomas resumed the excavations, this time in the valley in the village green of the modern village of Bishopstone, which is overlooked by Rookery Hill (Fig.1.1). This new excavation revealed a late Anglo-Saxon village. It is possible that this site was home to a high ranking individual based on the presence of a freestanding latrine and a timber bell- and gate tower. There is also a possibility that the site was an ecclesiastical centre based around the church. The earliest date for the settlement was provided by a coin dating from the time of Alfred at the end of the 8th century. During the excavation the remains of a 9th century industrial zone were found but also those of post-conquest buildings. In total 32 burials were discovered, in which 40 individuals were buried, who are the main focus of this study and text. One further burial was that of a late bronze-age individual which was carbon dated to 1260 - 1000 BC and was therefore not included in this analysis. The other burials were determined to be late Anglo-Saxon, as the foundations of a Saxo-Norman timber building were found above the burials. This date was supported by the carbon dating of one individual which gave a time frame of AD 855- 1020. A preliminary report on the 2003/2004 excavations can be found in the journal Current Archaeology issue 196. 1.4 Health and Medicine Just like any other population the Anglo-Saxons suffered from diseases and in- juries. What kind of illnesses and health problems they had to battle with can be inferred from two different sources. The first, and more problematic, are docu- ments and manuscripts. Even though there are descriptions of certain illnesses a diagnosis is often difficult and most descriptions only refer to outbreaks of pesti- lence, as does The Anglo-Saxon chronicle [75] and Bede [7] [50]. The second source is palaeopathology gained from the analysis of human skeletal remains. Although in many cases the diagnosis is clearer, many diseases would lead to Louise C. D. Schoss 8 1.4. HEALTH AND MEDICINE CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION the death of the individual before it becomes visible on the skeleton, which re- duces the number of diseases picked up on by palaeopathology [50]. According to Manchester [50] the most prevalent ailments among the Anglo-Saxons would have been degenerative arthritis, non-specific infection, dental caries and injury. Endemic diseases such as leprosy and tuberculosis were relatively new in Britain, first appearing at the end of the Roman period, but they spread and gained prevalence throughout the Anglo-Saxon time [50]. The fact that Anglo-Saxons who suffered from leprosy were buried together with the rest of the population shows that they did not suffer the segregation from society known from the later medieval period [49]. This compassion was not only given to the sufferers of leprosy, but also of other mutilating or incapacitating diseases and injuries [50]. One of the biggest threats to the health of the Anglo-Saxon people would have been famine. As Hagen [35] points out in her book, the most common cause for a famine was the weather. If the weather was bad in one year the population would be able to survive by eating more of their animals. If, however, the weather did not improve the following year they would not have been able to recover their livestock nor have enough plants to live on, at which point there would have been a dramatic famine. It would also be the women and the children who would bear the brunt of the lack of food [35]. The strong men were needed to perform the agricultural tasks, if they could not perform those tasks there would have been no way out of the famine. It is therefore believed that women and children would have had the second pickings of the food available. Whether this was the case in Bishopstone, may be resolved in the future by doing a diet reconstruction through stable isotope analysis and seeing if there is a difference in the diet of males and females. The Anglo-Saxon chronicles [75] report many famines, in total there are 53 famines dating from AD 439 to 1099. Some of these famines lasted for four years. Bede [7] reports of the famine in Sussex which lasted three years which is described above, during which people jumped off cliffs. The Chronicles also says for 695: ‘famine and pestilence, so that men ate each other’. This clearly indicates that people resorted to suicide and cannibalism when they were starving. The Chronicles also show that famine often occurred in combination with ‘pestilence’ or ‘plague’. This prevalence of infectious diseases was probably caused by the heightened susceptibility of starving people to pathogens, but also that they were more likely to eat food that had gone off because of the hunger. It is also likely that people would have left their homes in search of food, and would have thereby spread any infectious diseases they were carrying to other populations [35]. As Talbot [76] points out, the result of earlier work on Anglo-Saxon medicine was ‘to emphasize the superstitious element that occurs in these writings and to give the general impression that Anglo-Saxon medicine was nothing but a hotchpotch of incantations, charms, magic and old wives’ recipes.’[76](Page 156). Both Talbot [76] and Cameron [22] [23] [21] look closely at the Anglo-Saxon medical texts and try to determine how much was magical or superstitious and how much would have been medically and scientifically useful and effective in healing. Other texts, such as Aspects of Anglo-Saxon Magic [34], concentrate on the magical aspects, especially the use of charms. Overall, however, Anglo-Saxon medicine was not as bad as widely assumed. Cameron says: Louise C. D. Schoss 9 1.5. DEATH AND BURIAL CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ‘...that Anglo-Saxon medicine was no worse than any other of its day, and that at its best it was probably better than most.’ [21](Page 305) He further points out that magical practices were invoked only in those cases where the physician knew of no rational way to treat the ailment [21] Injuries and diseases with visible symptoms would have received, what would be today regarded as a rational, medical treatment, while other disease were treated with a more superstitious, magical approach, such as internal infections, which had no obvious cause without the knowledge of bacteria and viruses. A large amount of the medical knowledge the Anglo-Saxons had came from earlier Greek and Roman texts [22], which were rewritten in the vernacular in books such as Bald’s Leech- book. In a letter from Cyneheard, Bishop of Winchester, to Lull, Bishop of Mainz, written around 754 Cyneheard asks for books on medicine as the books they had only refer to foreign ingredients which were hard to obtain [22]. Even though the basic texts were copied from earlier manuscripts Anglo-Saxon physicians prob- ably supplemented them with their own treatments and replaced unknown, or hard to obtain, ingredients with plants and herbs native to Britain. Many of the plants used by the Anglo-Saxons are still known today and used to treat the same ailments [23]. Most of the medical treatments not based on charms were based on herbal remedies, although there is some evidence for surgical proce- dures. As Roberts [68] points out there is evidence for surgical procedures being performed in the Anglo-Saxon period, both from archaeology and historical doc- uments. Bede [7] reports of a leech named Cynefrith who removed a tumour from the jaw of Æthelthryth, the Abbess of Ely. Dissection of corpses was prohibited in Anglo-Saxon time on religious grounds and thereby hindered the development of anatomical and surgical knowledge [68]. Types of surgery known from skeletal remains include trephination [14] [53] [55] [56][84] and amputation [68]. Roberts [68] also says that the healing seen in most cases of trephination shows knowledge of how to treat the wound after the surgery and avoid infection, and therefore increase the chances of survival. This knowledge would also have been used to treat wounds to the soft tissue, which left no traces on the skeleton. Surgical procedures known from historical documentation are those to the soft tissue and the repair of a hare-or cleft-lip [3] [68]. 1.5 Death and Burial With the change of religion during the Anglo-Saxon period came a change in burial rituals. During the pagan time both cremation and inhumation burials were used [57]. In the southern Saxon and Jutish kingdoms cremation was only used in the earliest period and soon gave way to inhumation burials. This was also the case in Northumbria. In the Anglian kingdoms, however, cremation was used throughout the pagan period. In the central area such as Mercia, both inhumation and cremation were used up to the end of the pagan era [57]. With the conversion to Christianity came the use of inhumation as the sole mode of burial. The most basic distinguishing feature between pagan and Christian burials are the grave goods. During the pagan period it was common to place goods into the grave. Louise C. D. Schoss 10 1.5. DEATH AND BURIAL CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION The number, quality and also the type of items are indicative of sex, age and social status of the buried individual [27] [74]. In pagan cemeteries there is no standard orientation of the graves, which are also grouped rather than set in rows. Often pagan cemeteries are located around a prehistoric barrow or a prominent geographical feature [27]. After the conversion the use of grave goods ceased and graveyards were frequently located around a church [64]. There are cases where the cemetery pre-dates the church, but there is no indication that a pagan burial ground was continuously used into the Christian period [27] [64]. Christian cemeteries show a clear orientation of the graves in an east-west alignment, with the heads pointing west and the graves also tend to be set in rows [64]. There were, however, some differences in the ways in which the graves were cut [37]. Not only does the actual shape of the grave differ but some also have ledges or postholes around them, which may have been used to place a lid over the grave (ledges) or build a structure (postholes) over the grave. Some graves even had ditches around them in pen-annular shape or complete rings [37]. Further variation comes from the use of stones within the grave [13] [87]. White [87] identified 6 different types of burial in the cemetery of St. Nicholas Shambles, London. The first is a simple burial with or without coffin. The second type is characterized by the presence of stone pillows. The third group has a grave floor of crushed chalk and mortar. Type four contains cists formed of mortared stones or are lined with chalk and mortar. The fifth group consists of charcoal burials, and the final, sixth type, are graves lined with stone or tile [87]. The same types of burial were also found by Boddington [13] at Raunds. Louise C. D. Schoss 11 Chapter 2 Methods 2.1 Bone Preparation When the bones arrived at the lab from the excavation site, they were cleaned and re-packed into clear, plastic containers for their protection and storage. Because the bones were recovered from a Christian graveyard, they will be reburied in the future, which has been arranged between the archaeologist and the people of Bishopstone. Until that time they will remain in the Biological Anthropology Research Laboratory at the University of Kent and be available for scientific studies and analysis (Fig. 2.1). The bones were cleaned using brushes and other tools which did not damage the bone. Bones were only cleaned using purified water when there were signs of pathology which needed closer inspection, and on skull fragments to enable reconstruction. Reconstruction was done using acetone soluble glue, and a box of sand to stabilise the bone while the adhesive set. Some of the damaged remains will, in the future, be treated with a preservative to stabilise the bone so it can be studied without more damage occurring. The bones will also be labelled with the ID number of the individual to prevent remains from being misplaced during comparisons. 2.2 Recording An inventory was taken of all identifiable bones and fragments which were recorded on the sheets given by BABAO and IFA [16] for that purpose (see appendix C.2.). Different sheets were used for the recording of adult and juvenile remains. The reasoning for sex determination and age estimation was also written down along with all pathology observed. This information was then written into a report for every individual person, which can be found in the appendices (A1-A36) of this thesis. In this report I have described each individual separately as I felt that would emphasize the fact that these were once human beings and that what is written in this report is what the remains of these people could tell us about their life. I feel that this way of writing the report shows more respect to the fact that these were once living people, rather than giving a list of numbers and ticked boxes. 12 2.3. DETERMINATION OF SEX CHAPTER 2. METHODS Figure 2.1: Skeleton of 2693 in the lab during analysis 2.3 Determination of Sex Infants and Juveniles Because the sex determining features of the skeleton only develop during and after puberty, sexing immature individuals is not reliable. There are methods to sex children [20], none of which are very accurate. Therefore in this analysis children were not sexed and only teenagers displaying clear signs of either sex were categorised. For those post-pubescent individuals the same sexing criteria were used as for adults. Adults Pelvis The Pelvis is very useful for the determination of sex, as the female pelvis is adapted to giving birth which means there are many morphological differences. The main method used to sex the pelvis is the Phenice method [61]. This method looks at the presence or absence of a ventral arc, the sub-pubic concavity and the shape of the ischio-pubic ramus ridge. These three features are given scores from one to three, where one is female, two is given to ambiguous morphology and Louise C. D. Schoss 13 2.4. AGE ESTIMATION CHAPTER 2. METHODS three for a male structure. The angle of the greater sciatic notch is also used to determine the sex, as described by Buikstra and Ubelaker [19]. Another part of the pelvis that can be used for sexing is the pre-auricular sulcus, which is present in females and less pronounced or absent in males. If possible, and the sacrum was complete enough to allow an accurate analysis it was also used to sex the individual by looking at its curvature and size. Skull After the pelvis the skull is the best part of the skeleton to determine the sex of an individual as it presents many sexually dimorphic features, which are described by Krogman [43]. The nuchal crest located on the occipital bone, is larger and more pronounced in males than in females. The mastoid process is also larger in males, as is the glabella or brow-ridge. A further sex indicator is that in males the zygomatic arch extends as a visible ridge beyond the external auditory meatus. The supra-orbital margin the upper edge of the eye orbit, tends to be round in males and sharp in females. On the mandible the mental eminence is generally larger and more protuberant in males than in females. The shape of the mandible can also be used to distinguish the sexes. When viewed from the inferior side the male mandible is more angular, while the female mandible is rounded. All of these traits were scored as described by Buikstra and Ubelaker [19], which leads to the determination of sex based on those scores. Because all of these traits can be more or less pronounced they can sometimes be ambiguous or even indicate the opposite sex. In the Bishopstone sample it was the case that most females had large, male looking mental eminences. It was therefore decided not to use the mental eminence as a way to distinguish males from females in this population. 2.4 Age Estimation Infants and Juveniles Dental formation and eruption The formation and eruption of teeth follows a pattern which only varies minimally between people and populations and is therefore a very reliable ageing technique [81]. Development and fusion of epiphyses The development of the epiphyses and the order in which they fuse can be a good indicator of age in children and adolescents [70]. There are, however, problems with this method for adolescents, as the onset of puberty determines the fusion of the elbow. The onset of puberty in turn can be affected by diet and health in individuals, but also vary between populations [45]. Louise C. D. Schoss 14 2.5. MEASUREMENTS CHAPTER 2. METHODS Length of long bone diaphyses By measuring the diaphyseal length of the long bones the age can be determined. Scheuer and Black [70] give the age estimates for the long bone lengths as ex- trapolated from modern humans. These, however, underestimated the age of the Anglo-Saxon children because they were smaller for their age. Also the Anglo- Saxon children were likely to have died because of a disease, which, in turn, would have effected their growth. Because of these reasons, the graphs produced by Hoppa [38], based on the children from Raunds, were used to determine the age of young individuals using diaphyseal length. Adults Pubic Symphysis The pubic symphysis is where the two os coxae are connected by the Pubic ar- cuate ligament. This method of ageing is based on the metamorphosis of the symphyseal surface of the pubis. Young, adult individuals have a rugged surface with horizontal ridges and grooves. With increasing age the surface loses relief and develops a rim by the age of 35. From that age onwards there is further erosion and deterioration of the surface. This method of ageing was developed by Todd [78] and is also described in Byers [20], Buikstra & Ubelaker [19] and White [86]. Auricular Surface The auricular surface is the articulation point of the os coxae to the sacrum, and is located on the medial side of the ilium, just above the greater sciatic notch. In young individuals the surface has a fine grained texture with billowing. With increasing age the billowing reduces and the surface becomes coarser and with further increase in age the surface becomes dense. The method was devised by Lovejoy et. al [46] and is described in the books by Byers [20], Buikstra & Ubelaker [19] and White[86]. 2.5 Measurements Measurements for Sex Determination Vertical diameter of the femoral head This measurement is taken with a sliding calliper and measures the diameter of the femoral head. Byers [20] gives a table which shows what sex the measurement results indicate. Louise C. D. Schoss 15 2.6. PALEOPATHOLOGY CHAPTER 2. METHODS Female Female? Sex? Male? Male < 41.5 41.5-43.5 43.5-44.5 44.5-45.5 >45.5 Table 2.1: Sex estimation from the vertical diameter of the femoral head.[20] Vertical head diameter of the humerus The measurement taken for the vertical head diameter of the humerus is basically the same as for the femoral head. Female Female? Sex? Male? Male < 43 43-44 44-46 46-47 >47 Table 2.2: Sex estimation from the vertical head diameter of the humerus.[20] Complete bone length As shown by Trotter & Gleser [80] the length of the long bones can be used to determine the sex of an individual. Because of the overlap between male and female long bone lengths, only the measurements from the extreme ends of the range give reliable results. This method was mainly used to clarify the sex of individuals which showed some ambiguous traits. The complete long bone length was used as published by Byers [20]. Measurements for Stature Estimation The estimated stature can be calculated with the length of complete long bones. The measurements are taken with an osteometric board. The formulas used to calculate the stature from the long bone measurements were devised by Trotter [79] and Jantz [40] and were used as published by Byers [20]. Measurements were taken from all complete long bones available. If more than one stature estimation could be calculated because more than one complete long bone was present, the average stature was calculated from all measurements. This reduces the errors caused by different limb proportions and left and right asymmetry. There are problems with estimating the stature of past populations using formulas based on modern humans, however, the height has to be known to create the formula, so they have to be based on modern humans. By calculating the stature from as many measurements as possible should limit the variation in limb proportions and other factors that may have changed between Anglo-Saxons and modern humans. 2.6 Paleopathology Any signs of pathology are based on visual observations such as changes to shape, size or surface texture of the bone. In some cases a microscope was used to investigate in more detail. However, other techniques such as radiographs will have to be used to further clarify the cause and extent of the trauma or disease Louise C. D. Schoss 16 2.7. STATISTICS CHAPTER 2. METHODS in some individuals. The main books used to identify pathology were Ortner [60], Roberts & Manchester [67] and Aufderheide [6] Pathology was determined to be trauma if it involved injury to the bone or a dislocation of the joint [47]. Changes to the bone occurring through stress over a long period of time, such as Schmorl’s nodes, were not included in the trauma category. Pathology caused by non traumatic events were placed into the disease category. Osteoarthritis was not included, as it occurred in most adults, and would have resulted in a false frequency of disease. Dental Pathology When looking at the teeth the following things were noted. The overall wear of the teeth was used to support the estimate of age at death. The presence and severity of caries along with the location, and any signs of abscesses were also recorded. Further the build up of dental calculus was noted, as was any antemortem tooth loss. Any lines on the teeth caused by enamel hypoplasia were also recorded. The frequencies were calculated by dividing the number of teeth with pathology, e.g. caries, by the total number of teeth present in the sample. When looking at dental pathology only the teeth of individuals above the age of two years were included. Children would have been breastfed until the age of two [26] [35] which means the teeth would not have been affected by dental pathology. 2.7 Statistical Comparison For a statistical analysis of the Bishopstone data and the comparison to other sites, the skeletal data was entered into SPSS [15]. The data entered for all three sites, was the site, the ID number, sex, age, trauma, disease and caries. The age was entered twice, once as the exact age determined during the skeletal analysis, and once separated into seven age categories (Table 2.3). Category Age Unknown Age unknown Infant 0-4 Child 5-11 Adolescent 12-19 Adult 20-39 Old Adult 40+ Pre-/Neonate Foetal and newborn Table 2.3: Age categories used for the statistical analysis The sex of an individual was noted as either unknown (0), male (1) or female (2). Trauma, disease and caries were either present (1) or absent (0) and scored as one or the other. The average stature was calculated by hand and was not en- tered into SPSS. Frequencies were calculated using SPSS, which were then tested for significance using chi-square tests in 2x2 contingency tables. Significance was Louise C. D. Schoss 17 2.8. SITES FOR COMPARISON CHAPTER 2. METHODS established at the 95% confidence level, using Yates’ correction [31] to compen- sate for the small number of categories. If the test still showed no significant association after the Yate’s correction, then there really was a difference between the samples. The null hypothesis was that the two factors compared were inde- pendent from each other. The null hypothesis was rejected if Yate’s chi value was higher than the critical value for chi-square with 1 df at 95% which is 3.841 [31]. The chi-square tables can be found in the appendix C.1. When comparing age groups within a collection, the sample was split into non-adults who were 19 years of age or younger, and adults who were 20 years or older. This was used to test for association between pathology frequencies and age in the Bishopstone sample. 2.8 Sites for Comparison Finding sites to use as comparison was limited by several factors. Because of the time constraints it was limited to reports available in the University of Kent library. Also the data had to be published in a way so it could be used in the comparison. It was also difficult to find cemeteries, where the skeletal remains could confidently be dated to the late Anglo-Saxon period, or close enough to that time period. St. Nicholas Shambles, London The report on the cemetery and skeletal remains from St. Nicholas Shambles was published by William White [87]. The cemetery of St. Nicholas Shambles is located in London on the corner of King Edward Street and Newgate Street. The excavation took place between 1975 and 1979 after the demolition of the parts of the GPO Headquarters building which had survived World War II. The excavation revealed a large part of the church and the northern part of the cemetery. The church went though six phases which dated from the 11th century to 1548. The cemetery was dated to the 11th − 12th centuries. St. Nicholas Shambles was used as a comparison, because the data was pub- lished in way which made it easy to use for the comparison. Also as it is a urban site it had the potential of highlighting differences between urban and rural pop- ulations, especially with respect to infectious diseases. The only drawback is that the date of the cemetery, and therefore the people buried there, is just outside the Anglo-Saxon period. But at least it is not mixed with remains from the even later medieval period. Raunds The main report on the excavation of the church and churchyard at Raunds was published by Andy Boddington [13]. The report on the human skeletal remains was written by Faye Powell [62], and published as a chapter in Boddington’s book [13]. Raunds is located on the south side of the Nene Valley in East Northamp- tonshire. Excavations of the site started in 1977 when a new development was Louise C. D. Schoss 18 2.9. PHOTOS CHAPTER 2. METHODS planned for the area and continued till 1984. The quality of the data revealed lead to the establishment of the Raunds Area Project in 1985, to investigate the development of the Raunds landscape. The settlement itself was established in the sixth century and developed during the 7th and 8th centuries. A small church was built in the late 9th or early 10th century. Burials in the churchyard began around the time of construction of the church. In the late 11th or early 12th century the small church was replaced by a larger building. Shortly after the construction of the new church the churchyard appears to have been no longer in use. Later, in the 12th or 13th century, the church was converted into a manor house, which was also abandoned in the late fifteenth century. Since then the site remained under pasture until the recent housing development which lead to the excavation of the site. Although the dates for the Raunds cemetery extend beyond the Anglo-Saxon era by about half a century, the abandonment of the churchyard as a burial ground gives a fascinating view of a population over two centuries. The complete excavation of the burials and the analysis of the data provides the unique oppor- tunity to get as close as possible to studying a complete Anglo-Saxon population. Therefore, data concerning demography is the closest to reality available without the possibility of first hand study of living populations. Because of this, Raunds is the perfect site to use as comparison for other sites, such as Bishopstone. 2.9 Photos The photos were taken using a Canon EOS 350 D Digital AF SLR camera on a copy stand with four lamps. The photos were then downloaded on to a Apple Mac PC and were, where needed, edited in Iphoto. The scale in the photos is in centimeters. Louise C. D. Schoss 19 2.9. PHOTOS CHAPTER 2. METHODS Figure 2.2: Location of the graves at the Bishopstone site Louise C. D. Schoss 20 Chapter 3 Results of the Skeletal Analysis 3.1 Summary of the Bishopstone Data ID Number Sex Age Estimated Stature 86 female 30-40 158cm 87 female 25-30 159.7cm 1102 female 30-40 155.5 1103 male adult 173.3cm 1104 male adult - 1105 male 45+ 174.8cm 1106 female 30-40 169.5cm 1107 male adult - 1108 female 25-35 155.5cm 1109 male adult - 1145 unknown 1.5 - 1146 male 25-30 171.3cm 1171 female adult - 1211 unknown 40-45 - 1294 female adult - 1317 unknown adult - 2004 male 16-20 - 2019 female 25-35 158.2cm 2153 unknown 9-11 - 2173A female adult - 2173B unknown 6-8 - 2173C unknown 11-13 - 2173D male adult - 2232 unknown 5 - 2233 unknown 1 - 2556 male 16-18 176.8cm 2559 female 45+ 163cm 21 3.1. SUMMARY OF THE DATA CHAPTER 3. RESULTS ID Number Sex Age Estimated Stature 1294 female adult - 2562 female 35-45 166cm 2565 male 45-50 179cm 2573 female 20-25 - 2573A unknown fetus 20 - 2686 female 30-35 162cm 2693 unknown 10-12 - 2720 male 25-35 173.1cm 2790 female 35-45 - 2791 male adult 177.7cm 2792 female 35-40 160cm 2869 male adult 179.7cm 2924 female 16 153.5cm 3122 male 30-40 164cm Table 3.1: Bishopstone Data: Sex, Age and Stature ID Number Disease Trauma 86 Internal cranial lesions absent 87 absent Trauma to foot herniated slipped disc T10-T11 1102 absent absent 1103 Mastoiditis, Fractured metatarsal Ostitis 2 amputated hand phalanges 1104 Infection Fracture in right femur Trauma to toe 1105 absent Fractured, atrophied left 5th finger 1106 absent Fractured sternum Surgery on left femur 1107 absent absent 1108 absent absent 1109 absent Fractured sternum 1145 Cranial lesions absent 1146 Cranial lesions Healed fracture in right femur 1171 absent Collapsed thoracic vertebra Trauma to the shoulder 1211 absent absent Louise C. D. Schoss 22 3.1. SUMMARY OF THE DATA CHAPTER 3. RESULTS ID Number Disease Trauma 1294 Osteitis trauma to toe cranial lesions collapsed vertebra fractured fibula 1317 absent absent 2004 Osteitis Fractured Tibia, dislocated right hip joint 2019 absent Atrophied right first rib 2153 absent Blunt force trauma to skull 2173A absent absent 2173B absent absent 2173C absent absent 2173D absent absent 2232 absent absent 2233 Cranial lesions absent 2556 Mastoiditis Trauma to right humerus Surgery on left femur 2559 absent absent 2562 absent absent 2565 Osteophytosis with osseous blunt force trauma to skull ankylosis, cranial lesions 2573 Mastoiditis absent 2573A absent absent 2686 absent Trauma to toe 2693 Cranial lesions Blunt force trauma to skull Cranial fistula 2720 Mastoiditis Healed fracture in left tibia 2790 absent Trauma to the right wrist 2791 absent absent 2792 Mastoiditis, absent Cranial lesions 2869 absent absent 2924 absent absent 3122 absent absent Table 3.2: Bishopstone Data: Trauma and Disease Louise C. D. Schoss 23 3.2. THE CEMETERY CHAPTER 3. RESULTS 3.2 The Cemetery The graves were orientated in the usual east-west direction with the head pointing west. The burials were located in a narrow strip of land adjacent to the boundary of the modern cemetery (Fig.2.2). It appears that the cemetery reduced in size towards the end of the Anglo-Saxon period and the area was incorporated into the village. Many of the burials were disturbed and damaged by the construction and occupation of later buildings, and medieval ploughing of the field. Table 3.3 shows the number of skeletons and their completeness in percent [54]. >75 75-50 50-25 25> Total N 9 8 12 11 40 Table 3.3: Completeness of skeletal remains in percent There were no stone coffins, however, small nails were recovered from some of the burials which would indicate that these people were buried in wooden coffins. Many of the burials were damaged and disturbed and the body position could therefore not always be recognised for all body parts. All burials were supine, and in a parallel body position. The only variation was in the position of the hands and lower arms. Body position could be determined for 21 graves, and four types of arm positioning was observed. The most common position was observed in nine graves, where both hands were over the pelvis (Type 1). Two skeletons had both arms outstretched at the side of the body (Type 2). In four graves the left arm was crossing the body while the right arm was at the side (Type 3). In three individuals the right arm was crossing the body, while the left arm was placed beside the body (Type 4). Three further individuals had one arm parallel to the body, but the other arm was incomplete, and it was therefore not possible to tell if they belonged to type 2 or 3/4. One exception was the burial of a young child (1145) which was lying on its side in a slightly crouched position. The graves were cut into the chalk bedrock, but many were shallow resulting in damage and fragmentation. No signs of any ledges or post holes were seen around the grave cuts, suggesting a simple burial. There were also no pillow stones or other stone arrangements in the graves nor any charcoal burials. Some of the graves were not fully excavated as they were either partially outside the excavation area or because of the lack of time. Those remains that were recovered from the grave cuts of these individuals are listed in the appendix along with the unstratified remains. One exception was made (3122), where enough bones were recovered from the grave cut to allow an analysis. Child burials The youngest child found buried in situ was 1 year old. Many fragments of juvenile bone were found in the grave cuts of other adult burials. Two of the four adolescents were in a double burial with an adult. Unlike the remains of the young children, the remains of foetuses were found in pits along with other household refuse. The remains of the foetuses recovered from the pits ranged Louise C. D. Schoss 24 3.2. THE CEMETERY CHAPTER 3. RESULTS from around 23 weeks to full term. The majority were around 36 weeks old. (See appendix B.1.1 to B.1.5) Figure 3.1: Child burial of 2693 Double burials There were six double burials and one burial containing the remains of four indi- viduals. Two of these double burials contained an adult female and a teenager: 2004 (A.17) male 16-20 buried with 2019 (A.18) adult female; 2559 (A.24) an adult female buried with 2924 (A.35) a female aged 16. The third double burial also contained an adult female (1294, A.15)), but the other remains (1317, A.16) were too fragmented to give sex, but they appeared to be from an adult. The fourth double burial contained two adult males (2791 A.32, 2869 A.34, Fig.3.2.). The other two double burials both contained an adult female and an adult male (1108 A.9 and 1146 A.12, 1105 A.6 and 1171 A.13). In three of these double buri- als (2791&2869, 2559&2924, 1108&1146) the bodies were placed directly on top of each other (Fig.3.2). In the other cases the remains of one of the individuals were fragmented and disarticulated. The grave 2173 (A.20) contained the remains of Figure 3.2: Double burial of 2791 and 2869 four individuals, two adults and two children. The children were around the age of 6-8 and 11-13. One of the adults was male the other one possibly female. Louise C. D. Schoss 25 3.3. DEMOGRAPHY CHAPTER 3. RESULTS 3.3 Demography Sex distribution The following sex distribution (Table 3.4) is based on the forty individuals recov- ered from insitu burials. The skeletal remains revealed sixteen females, fourteen males and ten unsexed individuals. Of the unsexed individuals only two were adults, the others were young teenagers and children. Sex Frequency Percent Unknown 10 25.0 Male 14 35.0 Female 16 40.0 Total 40 100.0 Table 3.4: Sex distribution in the Bishopstone sample Age Distribution This age distribution (Table 3.5) is also based on the forty individuals who were recovered from the insitu burials. The youngest individual was a foetus which was with a female burial. Two individuals were in the infant category (0-5), and four further individuals make up the child category, who were aged 5 to 12. The adolescent category (12-20) also consists of four individuals. The age distribution showed the largest proportion (23 individuals) of the skeletal remains were those of adults aged 20 to 40. Six skeletons were those of old adults over the age of 40. Age Frequency Percent Prenatal/neonate 1 2.5 Infant 2 5.0 Child 4 10.0 Adolescent 4 10.0 Adult 23 57.5 Old adult 6 15.0 Total 40 100.0 Table 3.5: Age distribution in the Bishoptone sample 3.4 Trauma In total 27 definite cases of trauma occurring in 19 individuals (47.5% of the population)were identified in remains from the insitu burials in the Bishopstone collection. The cases of trauma were as follows: Skull: - 3 cases of blunt force trauma (2565 A.26, 2693 A.29, 2153 A.19 Fig.3.8.) Louise C. D. Schoss 26 3.4. TRAUMA CHAPTER 3. RESULTS Vertebrae: - 2 cases of collapsed vertebral bodies (1294 A.15, 1171 A.13) - 1 case of herniated slipped disc (87 A.2) Shoulder: - 1 case of trauma to the shoulder (1171 A.13) Humerus: - 1 case of soft tissue injury (2556 A.23) Hand: - 1 case of trauma to the wrist (2790 A.31 Fig 4.2.) - 1 fractured, atrophied finger (1105 A.6 Fig. 3.3) - 1 case of amputated hand phalanges (1103 A.4 Fig. 3.5) Sternum: - 2 cases of fractures (1106 A.7, 1109 A.10) Ribs: - 1 case of an atrophied 1st rib (2019 A.18) Femur: - 2 cases of fractures (1104 A.5, 1146 A.12 Fig.3.17.) - 1 case of dislocated hip (2004 A.17 Fig. 3.4) - 2 cases of surgery (1106 A.7 Fig 3.6., 2556 A.23 Fig 3.7.) Tibia: - 2 fractures (2004 A.17, 2720 A.30) Fibula: - 1 fracture (1294 A.15) Foot: - 2 fractured medial phalanges (2686 A.28, 1104 A.5) - 1 fractured distal phalanx (1294 A.15) - 2 fractured metatarsals (1103 A.4, 87 A.2) Fractures All the fractures seen in the Bishopstone sample were well aligned, and none showed malformation of the bone, ankylosis or non-union due to bad healing. If Figure 3.3: Fractured metacarpal, atrophied phalanx and normal phalanx from the right hand of 1105 complications to the healing process occurred they were caused by infection (Fig. Louise C. D. Schoss 27 3.4. TRAUMA CHAPTER 3. RESULTS 3.17). In one individual (1105 A.6) a fractured metacarpal lead to a disruption to the blood supply or damaged the nerves or sinew as was visible through atrophy of the phalanges (Fig. 3.3). Dislocation One case of hip dislocation was observed (2004 A.17). The right acetabulum was shallow and inferiorly elongated which would indicate a dislocation of the hip joint (Fig. 3.4). The posterior side of the acetabulum was damaged and the right proximal femur was missing, so that the extent or the cause of the injury could not be determined. No other obvious dislocations were visible. The changes to the shoulder area in 2693 (A.29) may have been associated with a dislocation of the humerus, but the remains were too fragmented to be able to say for sure. Figure 3.4: Dislocated hip joint (2004) Amputation There was one case (1105 A.6) of amputation in the insitu burials and another among some unstratified bone (2168 B.2.2). Both occurred in the hand, in one case two medial hand phalanges were affected, in the other it was a proximal hand phalanx. In all of them the bone was atrophied and the distal end was malformed and missing the distal articulation (Fig.3.5). Louise C. D. Schoss 28 3.4. TRAUMA CHAPTER 3. RESULTS Figure 3.5: Healed, amputated medial hand phalanx (1105) Surgery Two cases of surgery were observed in two different individuals: 1106 and 2556. One occurred in an adult female (1106 A.7, Fig. 3.6) the other in an adolescent male (2556 A.23, Fig. 3.7.). In both cases the surgery is located on the ante- rior surface at the distal end of the left femur, and is rectangular in shape. In 1106 the lower edge of the wound is 5.2 cm from the intercondylar notch. Three cut marks can be distinguished surrounding the wound; one each along the su- perior (20.46mm) and inferior (28.96mm) margins, and one on the lateral side (25.92mm) connecting the other two cuts forming a square which is open on the medial side. The cut along the inferior margin is the deepest, passing completely through the cortical bone, whereas the one along the superior edge only scratches the surface. The cut along the lateral side starts as deep as the lower one but becomes shallower towards the top. A rectangular piece of bone was removed as a result of the three cuts, exposing the medullary cavity. The medial border of the wound does not appear to have been cut. Polishing of the bone along the cut margins is observable under magnification and none of the edges appear to show any signs of healing or infection. In 2556 there are also cuts on the superior, lateral and inferior margins but none on the medial side. The cuts are longer than the ones in 1106, measuring 20.39mm along the superior border, 40.17mm along the lateral, 48.17mm for the inferior and 52.67mm for the medial side. The surgery in this individual is larger and appears more crude compared to 1106. This bone was very unstable because of the exposure of the trabecular bone, so a more detailed analysis has to take place when the bone has been treated and stabilised. In both cases no signs of healing or infection were visible, indicating that these wounds were both sustained peri-mortem. Louise C. D. Schoss 29 3.4. TRAUMA CHAPTER 3. RESULTS Figure 3.6: Surgery in the left femur of 1106 Figure 3.7: Surgery on the left femur of 2556 Louise C. D. Schoss 30 3.4. TRAUMA CHAPTER 3. RESULTS Cranial trauma All three cases of trauma to the skull was determined to have been caused by blunt force. Two of these occurred in the skulls of children around the age of 9 to 12. One child (2153 A.19) displayed a stellate fracture with its centre located on lambda (Fig.3.8). The other child’s skull (2693 A.29) showed signs of lateral crushing rather than impact trauma (Fig.3.13). The one adult with cranial trauma (2565 A.26) showed radiating fractures from the left parietal and occipital bone. Figure 3.8: Stellate fracture of the skull (2153) Weapon trauma Only one definite case of sharp weapon trauma (Fig.3.9) was observed and it occurred on the posterior side of the proximal third of a right ulna, which was recovered from the topsoil. Even though this bone is not from an insitu burial and is not included in the trauma frequency, it is mentioned here in detail, as it is the only case of sharp force trauma observed in the Bishopstone sample. The entire bone fragment only measures 8.82cm, the cut is 5.4cm from the olecranon process. The cut extends from the medio-lateral side with a slight angle upwards towards the proximal end. The cut has a length (medial-lateral) of 11.7mm, a depth (frontal-posterior) of around 7mm and has a width (proximal-distal) of around 2mm. Louise C. D. Schoss 31 3.5. DISEASE CHAPTER 3. RESULTS Figure 3.9: Right, proximal ulna with weapon wound 3.5 Disease There were 19 cases of disease which occurred in 14 separate individuals, which is 35% of the sample. (Table 3.6) Disease Number Percentage Osteitis 3 15.8 Cranial lesions 7 36.8 Internal cranial lesions 1 5.3 Mastoidits 5 26.3 Cranial Fistula 1 5.3 Unspecific Infection 1 5.3 Osteophytosis with osseus ankylosis 1 5.3 Total 19 100.0 Table 3.6: Frequencies of Disease in Bishopstone Osteitis Osteitis occurred in three individuals (1294 A.15, 2004 A.17, 1103 A.4). In all three cases the osteitis affected the lower leg. In 2004 (Fig. 3.10) and 1103 the tibiae were affected and in 1294 it was the fibula. In two cases (2004 and 1294) the osteitis was most likely caused by a fracture in the affected bone. Figure 3.10: Left and right tibiae with osteitis in 2004 Louise C. D. Schoss 32 3.5. DISEASE CHAPTER 3. RESULTS Although the new bone development made it more difficult to identify the location of the fracture, a callus was still visible, but needs to be confirmed with radiography. Cranial Lesions The cranial lesions were the most common symptoms of disease found in the Bishopstone sample. In total seven (1294 A.15, 1145 A.11, 2233 A.22, 2792 A.33, 2693 A.29, 1146 A.12 (Fig.4.4), 2565 A.26) cases of external and one (86 A.1) case of internal cranial lesions were observed in the insitu burials. In most cases the lesions were located on the frontal bone, further lesions and porosity was also seen on the parietals and temporals. Osteophytosis with Osseous Ankylosis While osteophytosis occurred in the vertebrae of many individuals, in one case (2565 A.26) it led to the fusion of two sets of two vertebrae. The fused vertebrae were T9 and T10 and T12 with an additional vertebra (Fig.3.11) on the thoracic lumbar border. Figure 3.11: Osteophytosis with osseus ankylosis in 2565 Mastoiditis After cranial lesions, mastoiditis was the second most common sign of disease among the people of Bishopstone. Mastoiditis occurred in five individuals (2573 A.27, 2792 A.33, 2720 A.30 (Fig.3.12), 2556 A.23, 1103 A.4). In three cases (1103, 2556, 2573) only the right mastoid process was present, so it was not possible to tell whether both mastoids were affected or not. In the other two people (2720, 2792) both mastoids were affected. In some of the cases the infection had also spread to the surrounding bone, as visible through pitting. Louise C. D. Schoss 33 3.5. DISEASE CHAPTER 3. RESULTS Figure 3.12: Left mastoid of 2720 with mastoiditis Cranial Fistula One of the more intriguing cases of disease in the Bishopstone sample occurred in a child (2693 A.29) aged ten to twelve who had two small holes in its skull, which displayed rounded edges. These cranial fistula occurred on the left parietal (18mm from the sagital suture and 24mm from the coronal suture, Fig.3.13) and occipital bone (17mm from the right lambdoidal suture and 56mm from lambda Fig.3.15). The hole on the parietal measured approximately 10 x 4mm (Fig.3.14), the fistula on the occipital measured 6 x 4.9mm (Fig.3.16). The one located on the parietal bone appears to be more recent as it displays less rounded edges than the one on the occipital bone. Figure 3.13: Cranial fistula and fracture lines on parietal bones of 2693 Louise C. D. Schoss 34 3.5. DISEASE CHAPTER 3. RESULTS Figure 3.14: Close up of parietal fistula Figure 3.15: Cranial fistula on occipital bone of 2693 Figure 3.16: Close up of occipital fistula Louise C. D. Schoss 35 3.5. DISEASE CHAPTER 3. RESULTS Unspecific Infection The one case of an unspecific infection was seen in an adult male (1104 A.5). The symptoms were hypertrophic bone development surrounding a fractured right femur (Fig.3.17). This infection then spread to other parts of the body and lead to further bone development on ribs and vertebrae. Figure 3.17: Hypertrophic bone development on the right femur of 1104 Osteoarthritis Osteoarthritis was observed in most of the individuals who reached adulthood. In total, 16 of the 29 individuals over the age of 20 had osteoarthritis. Of these 16 individuals only five were male and eleven were female. The locations affected in each sex can be seen in table 3.7. The numbers suggest that females suffered from more arthritis than men, but a chi-square test showed no dependence of osteoarthritis on sex. Location Male Female Lumbar 3 8 Thoracic 1 7 Cervicle 1 3 Elbow 2 4 Wrist and hand 3 4 Hip 1 2 Knee 3 2 Ankle and foot 2 1 Shoulder 1 1 Ribs 0 5 Table 3.7: Location and frequency of Osteoarthritis in the males and females of Bishopstone Schmorl’s nodes Schmorl’s nodes were observed in four individuals and in a total of twelve verte- brae. Individual 1294 (A.15) had nodes in the superior and inferior side of T12, Louise C. D. Schoss 36 3.6. DISTRIBUTION OF THE PATHOLOGY CHAPTER 3. RESULTS L1, L2, L4 and L5. L3 was missing but it is likely that this vertebra would also have displayed Schmorl’s nodes. The lumbar and lower thoracic vertebrae of this female, who could only be determined to be an adult, also showed osteoarthritis and wedging of T12 which indicates that there had been a lot of stress placed on this individuals lower back. Individual 87 (A.2) had Schmorl’s nodes present in the superior and inferior surface of L2 and L3 and on the inferior side of L1. The eleventh thoracic of this woman also displayed a herniated slipped disc, visible through a depression on the side of the vertebral body. This again indicates a lot of stress to the back, despite the relatively young age of 25-30. Individual 2019 (A.18) is another woman aged 25-35 also displaying Schmorl’s nodes on the inferior and superior surfaces of L2 and L3 (Fig.3.18). The fourth Figure 3.18: Schmorl’s node in a lumbar vertebra of 2019 individual to display Schmorl’s nodes was 1106 (A.7). This is another female aged 35-40 who had a Schmorl’s node on the superior surface of L2. Cribra Orbitalia Only one child (2233) displayed Cribra Orbitalia. However, most other young individuals only had fragments of the orbits present. 3.6 Population Distribution of the Pathology The analysis of the frequencies of trauma and disease in the Bishopstone sam- ple shows a high number of cases of pathology. In total there were 46 cases of pathology of which 27 were traumatic and 19 were caused by disease. There were also further cases of changes to the bone, but the cause was not determinable and they were not included in this analysis. All 46 cases of pathology occur in 24 individuals which is 60% of the sample. The 27 cases of trauma were seen in 19 individuals which is 47.5%, 8 individuals had two cases of trauma. The 19 cases of disease occurred in 14 individuals which forms 35% of the collection. Four individuals show two different diseases. Of the complete sample nine individuals Louise C. D. Schoss 37 3.6. DISTRIBUTION OF THE PATHOLOGY CHAPTER 3. RESULTS (22.5%) had both trauma and disease present. One individual (2693 A.29), a 10-12 year old child, has two cases and disease and one case of trauma, which makes up 6.5% of the total number of pathology, plus one of the unconfirmed cases of trauma. Sex distribution of the pathology Of the ten unsexed individuals only two (20%) had trauma present (5% of total population). Most of the unsexed individuals are children, as were both individ- uals with trauma. Of the fourteen men from Bishopstone nine (64.3%) had signs of trauma, which is 22.5% of the total population. Half (50%) of the sixteen women had suffered trauma, which makes up 20% of the population (Table 3.8). Chi-square tests showed no significant relationship between trauma and sex. Sex Total Trauma absent Trauma present % with trauma male 14 5 9 22.5 female 16 8 8 50 unknown 10 8 2 20 Total 40 21 19 47.5 Table 3.8: Distribution of trauma by sex in Bishopstone The individuals with disease were three (30%) of the ten unsexed individuals, seven (50%) of the fourteen men and four (25%) of the sixteen women. Of the total population the unsexed individuals with disease make up 7.5%, the men with disease make up 17.5% of the population and the women with signs of disease make up 10% of the Bishopstone population (Table 3.9). Sex Total Disease absent Disease present % with disease male 14 7 7 50 female 16 12 4 31.3 unknown 10 7 3 30 Total 40 26 14 35 Table 3.9: Distribution of disease by sex in Bishopstone This shows that men have a higher frequency of both trauma and disease than either women or unsexed individuals or children. It does, however, have to be noted that children did display pathology, and in particular, cases of trauma, which were both blunt force trauma to the skull. However, none of these frequen- cies were significantly different, as shown by chi-square tests. Age distribution of the pathology The distribution of the 19 cases of trauma among the age groups (Table 3.10), shows that both of the two individuals in the infant category had no trauma (0%). In both the child and adolescent category half (50%) of the four individuals of Louise C. D. Schoss 38 3.6. DISTRIBUTION OF THE PATHOLOGY CHAPTER 3. RESULTS each group displayed signs of trauma (5% of the population each). Of the 23 adults eleven (47.8%) had trauma (27.5% of the population). The only group where the majority of individuals had trauma present was that of the old adults where four (66%) of the six individuals had suffered some trauma (10% of the population). A chi-square test, however, did not show any association between age (adults and non-adults) and trauma. Age Total Trauma absent Trauma present % with trauma prenatal/neonate 1 1 0 0 infant 2 2 0 0 child 4 2 2 50 adolescent 4 2 2 50 adult 23 12 11 47.8 old adult 6 2 4 66.7 Total 40 21 19 47.5 Table 3.10: Distribution of trauma by age in Bishopstone The distribution of disease by age group(Table 3.11), shows that both individ- uals in the infant category suffered from disease (100% of infants and 5% of the population). Of the four children only one had signs of disease (25% of children and 2.5% of the population). The adolescent group again showed that two of the four were affected (50% of adolescents and 5% of the population). Of the 23 adults eight suffered from disease (34.9% of adults and 20% of the population). In the old adult group only one of the six individuals showed signs of disease (16.7% of old adults and 2.5% of the population). A chi square test comparing adults and non-adults showed no dependence of age and disease. Age Total Disease absent Disease present % with disease prenatal/neonate 1 1 0 0 infant 2 0 2 100 child 4 3 1 25 adolescent 4 2 2 50 adult 23 15 8 34.8 old adult 6 5 1 16.7 Total 40 26 14 35 Table 3.11: Distribution of disease by age in Bishopstone Other Pathology In the Bishopstone sample there were eight further cases of pathology which are not listed above and are not included in the analysis or comparison. The reason for this is that the cases were not definite. Although there was some change to the bone, the cause was not clear nor was the diagnosis. In some cases this was due to the fragmentation and damage to the remains. Those eight extra cases of pathology were: Louise C. D. Schoss 39 3.6. DISTRIBUTION OF THE PATHOLOGY CHAPTER 3. RESULTS - Possible blunt force trauma to the skull (1146 A.12) - Possible trauma to the humerus (2693 A.29) - Light 5th lumbar vertebra with porosity (3122 A.36) - A nodule of bone on 1st proximal phalanx (2791 A.32) - Woven bone and foramen on the proximal end of a femur (1103 A.4) - Bone remodelling on acetabulum and ilium (1211 A.14) - Porosity in right acetabulum (2792 A.33) - Woven bone in acetabulum with perforations (86 A.1, Fig.3.19) Some of these cases, such as the light lumbar vertebra may still be explained once further studies i.e. radiographs have been performed. In most other cases the remains were too fragmentary to tell the extent or possible cause for the changes to the bone. The three cases affecting the acetabulum are especially interesting. It is therefore important to mention these cases even though they were not included in the analysis and calculation of frequencies. Figure 3.19: Woven bone in right acetabulum of unknown cause (86) Pathology in unstratified remains A further ten cases of pathology were found in the unstratified remains. They were not included in the main analysis, as the sex and age of the individuals displaying the pathology is unknown. These ten cases of pathology are: - Sword wound to a proximal right ulna - 5th metacarpal with healed fracture, stunted growth and hypertrophic bone development - One atrophied medial hand phalanx, probably caused by amputation of the finger tip. - Fusion of medial and distal foot phalanges, most likely the result of trauma. - Two cases of cranial fragments displayed porosity and possibly internal lesions. - A depression in the right first rib with arthritic change to the sternal end. Similar changes can be seen on the manubrium. - A left clavicle displayed pitting on the medial end. - A left mastoid process with possible mastoiditis. This mastoid did not display the exposure of air cavities seen in other cases but did have the groove extending Louise C. D. Schoss 40 3.7. ANOMALIES CHAPTER 3. RESULTS from the posterior of the process in a superior direction. Until the MNI has been established for the unstratified remains it will not be possible to determine the pathology frequency. However, even if a frequency is established from this information, the fragmentary nature of these unstratified remains would not give an accurate representation of the population’s overall pathology frequency. 3.7 Anomalies There were some cases of anomalies in the skeletal remains from Bishopstone cemetery. Individual 2565 (A.26) had 25 vertebrae with one extra on the lumbar thoracic border. The woman 2686 (A.28) had a six segmented sacrum (Fig.3.20). Another female (2792 A.33) had a large occipital bun. Finally 1109 (A.10) had rib articulations on his 1st lumbar vertebra. Figure 3.20: Six segmented sacrum (2686) 3.8 Dental Pathology Caries The frequency of dental caries (Table 3.12)in the Bishopstone population is 4.8%. The frequency calculated from the teeth associated with insitu burials is slightly lower at 4.4%, but rises to 4.8% with the inclusion of the teeth found in the pits and trenches. Of the eleven adult males only one individual had two teeth affected by caries giving the males a caries frequency of 1.5%. Of the ten adult females from Bishopstone nine individuals showed a total of 13 affected teeth giving a frequency of 8.4%. A chi-square test of these numbers showed that caries was dependent of sex, and that women had a significantly higher caries frequency (Yate’s chi value = 5.87). Louise C. D. Schoss 41 3.8. DENTAL PATHOLOGY CHAPTER 3. RESULTS Figure 3.21: Dental caries in the mandible of 2790 Sex Total No. of teeth Teeth with Caries % with Caries unknown 48 0 0 male 137 2 1.5 female 154 13 8.4 Total 339 15 4.4 Table 3.12: Caries frequencies by sex in Bishopstone Dental wear Dental wear was present in all individuals from the age of sixteen onwards. The two children who aged between nine and twelve did not show any dental wear. The wear on the teeth increased with age. Antemortem tooth loss Six individuals had antemortem tooth loss (86 A.1, 1105 A.6, 1211 A.14, 2562 A.25, 2565 A.26, 3122 A.36). Of these two were female, three were male and one individual was unsexed. Abscess Only one case (2559 A.24) of a small abscess was observed on the buccal side of the mandibular, right, second molar of a female aged 45+. Calculus Calculus was present in six individuals (1102 A.3, 1105 A.6, 1146 A.12, 2019 A.18, 2573 A.27, 2790 A.31). Of these six individuals four were female and two male. Louise C. D. Schoss 42 3.9. STATURE CHAPTER 3. RESULTS Enamel hypoplasia Only one case of one line of enamel hypoplasia was recorded on the lower right 2nd pre-molar in a 20-25 year old female (2573 A.27). Dental anomalies There was one case of congenital absence of the maxillary third molars and the same individual (1146 A.12) had a maxillary heterotopic supernumerary pre- molar. 3.9 Stature Measurements for stature estimation (Table 3.13) could be taken from nine adult males and ten adult females and one 16 year old girl. Sex Range Average Male 164cm - 179.9cm 174.4cm Female 153.5cm - 169.5cm 160.1cm Table 3.13: Average stature in the Bishopstone population With the exception of the one male (3122 A.36) all men were taller than the tallest woman. Louise C. D. Schoss 43 Chapter 4 Discussion and Comparison 4.1 Discussion of the Cemetery and Burials Because all three of the sites were late Anglo-Saxon Christian cemeteries, located around a church, one would expect them to show many similarities in burial rites. In all three cemeteries the bodies were aligned in an east-west direction with the head pointing west. Some of the graves were buried with a slight angle off the perfect orientation. There were, however, some differences. The biggest difference was the lack of stone arrangements in the graves in the Bishopstone cemetery. Both St. Nicholas Shambles [87] and Raunds [13] had graves with pillow stones or stones lining the grave. Six different types of stone arrangements were identified by White in St. Nicholas Shambles. In Raunds half the burials had stone arrangements in the graves. They also both had stone coffins, or grave coverings and marker stones. One of the stone coffins at Raunds is believed to possibly have been the grave of the founder of the church. Bishopstone had neither stone coffins nor any stone arrangements in the graves. In all three cemeteries the bodies were buried supine, but the Bishopstone sample showed more variation in the body position, as described in the results. St. Nicholas Shambles [87] records no body positioning, and Raunds [13] only distinguishes between parallel and non-parallel burials. One burial practice which was observed both in Raunds and St. Nicholas Shambles, but not in Bishopstone, was the placement of a pebble into the deceased’s mouth. In Raunds [13] 21% of the graves cut into earlier graves. This was not the case in Bishopstone, where burials were only disturbed by later building trenches and ploughing. The unusual disposal of the foetal bones is discussed below. 4.2 Discussion of the Demography Sex Distribution The main difference between the three populations is that Bishopstone is the only cemetery which displayed a higher number of females than males. This difference in numbers was shown to be significant by a chi-square test when compared to Raunds (Yates’ chi value=5.03), but not when compared to St. Nicolas Shambles. 44 4.2. DEMOGRAPHY CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON Site Sex Frequency Percent Bishopstone unknown 10 25.0 male 14 35.0 female 16 40.0 Total 40 100.0 St. Nicholas Shambles unknown 61 26.0 male 97 41.3 female 77 32.8 Total 235 100.0 Raunds unknown 181 49.9 male 100 27.5 female 82 22.6 Total 363 100.0 Table 4.1: Sex distribution in the three populations There was no significant difference for the male category between Bishopstone and Raunds or St. Nicholas Shambles. The unsexed group showed a significant difference in frequencies for Bishopstone and Raunds (Yates’ chi value=7.96), but not for Bishopstone and St. Nicholas Shambles. Raunds and St. Nicholas Shambles were significantly different in all three sex categories, unsexed (Yates’ chi value=32.85), males (Yates’ chi value=11.56) and females (Yates’ chi value=7.06). All together, Bishopstone and St. Nicholas Shambles were never significantly different. Bishopstone and Raunds were signifi- cantly different for the unsexed individuals and females, but not for the males. St. Nicholas Shambles and Raunds were significantly different for all three categories. One explanation for the slightly higher number of females in the Bishop- stone sample could be that only a part of the original Anglo-Saxon cemetery was excavated. As Raunds [62] has shown, different parts of the cemetery can have different frequencies of males and females. The other unusual aspect is the high frequency of unsexed individuals in the Raunds population, which is most likely because 47.1% of the Raunds populations are adolescents or younger, which should explain the high number of unsexed individuals. Age distribution The age at death distribution does not indicate any kind of selective burial for the area excavated. The comparison to Raunds and St. Nicholas Shambles shows a similar age distribution between Bishopstone and St. Nicholas Shambles. A chi-square test confirms that there is no significant difference in frequencies for any of the age categories between Bishopstone and St. Nicholas Shambles. Bish- opstone and Raunds are only significantly different for the adult category (Yates’ chi value=9.06), as Raunds has a much lower frequency of adults. In all other categories, no significant difference was found. Raunds and St. Nicholas Sham- bles on the other had were significantly different for all categories except the old adults (prenatal/neonates Yates’ value=8.10, infants Yates’ value=5.97, children Louise C. D. Schoss 45 4.2. DEMOGRAPHY CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON Site Age Frequency Percent Bishopstone prenatal/neonate 1 2.5 infant 2 5.0 child 4 10.0 adolescent 4 10.0 adult 23 57.5 old adult 6 15.0 Total 40 100.0 St. Nicholas prenatal/neonate 2 0.9 hambles infant 21 8.9 child 18 7.7 adolescent 18 7.7 adult 138 58.7 old adult 38 16.2 Total 235 100.0 Raunds unknown 2 0.6 prenatal/neonate 21 5.8 infant 59 16.3 child 78 21.5 adolescent 11 3.0 adult 117 32.2 old adult 75 20.7 Total 363 100.0 Table 4.2: Age distribution in the three populations Yates’ value=19.23, adolescent Yates’ value=5.66, adult Yates’ value=39.86). In fact, the old adults group was the only one where none of the collections varied significantly from one another. As with the sex distribution, it is Raunds and St. Nicholas Shambles which are significantly different from each other, while Bishopstone is never significantly different from St. Nicholas Shambles and only occasionally from Raunds. The high number of young individuals in the Raunds sample would account for the differences observed. This may be explained with the fact that Raunds is one of the most completely excavated Anglo-Saxon cemeteries in Britain. Also, because of its abandonment in the early 13th century and the lack of later occupation on the site means the burials would have been less disturbed. The burials of children suffer more from such disturbances, as the bones are more delicate and smaller and are therefore more easily lost or scattered and subsequently not excavated as identifiable child burials. In Bishopstone the grave fill of adult burials often contained small parts of infant and child remains which were most likely redeposited there after the child burials were destroyed by ploughing. These fragments of child remains will have to be analysed along with those recovered from pits and trenches, which may allow the revision of the number of infants and children in Bishopstone. The proportion of old adults was similar in all three populations and would indicate that this represents close to the actual survival rate into old age. The small number of Louise C. D. Schoss 46 4.2. DEMOGRAPHY CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON adolescents present in the skeletal record would indicate a better survival chance for children once they reached the age of twelve. This age also coincides with the age at which, according to Anglo-Saxon law, children legally became adults [26]. Which may indicate that once this age was reached burial was deeper. Data from the archaeology recording the depth of burials from Bishopstone and other sites is required to test whether this is the case, or if the better survival of older children observed in Bishopstone is just a coincidence. The Foetal Remains In the Bishopstone settlement all the foetal remains were found in pits, with just one exception. The only foetal remains not found in a pit were associated with a female burial (2573), which makes it likely that the mother died while pregnant. Whether her death was related to the pregnancy or other causes is not discernible. One possible explanation for the ‘disposal’ of the foetal remains in pits could be the issue about child burial indicated by Crawford [26]. Crawford says that there was some ambiguity in the burial of children with regard to religion. It appears that some children were buried in a Christian graveyard but with some pagan amulets. Crawford argues that this was done to secure the afterlife of the child by covering all the bases. Figure 4.1: Foetal twins found in a pit However, the Bishopstone cemetery was in use some two centuries after the conversion to Christianity, so paganism is unlikely to have played a role in the burial of these foetuses. Christianity, however, may offer an explanation. The death of a person who had not been baptised would without doubt result in that person going to hell. This was obviously not desirable, and children were the most likely individuals to die before baptism. Live births generally had a good chance at being baptised as soon as possible after birth. Still births, however, would have no chance, and if treated like full human beings would without doubt go to hell. Therefore, the different treatment of still born foetuses and the denial Louise C. D. Schoss 47 4.3. TRAUMA CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON of normal human burial rites could be seen as a way to save them from eternal damnation. They may not go to heaven but they would also not go to hell, which must have been some consolation for the parents who had just lost a baby. In the Raunds cemetery the recorded foetal remains were all those of neonates, and appear to have been buried on their own. It is possible that further, younger foetal remains will be found in the refuse pits of the settlement. The St. Nicholas Shambles [87] only records two foetuses, one of which was a case of death in childbirth and the other a neonate. Again, the lack of domestic pits could explain the absence of younger foetal remains, if the people of Raunds and St. Nicholas Shambles treated the bodies of miscarried foetuses in the same way as those from Bishopstone. 4.3 Discussion of the Pathology: Trauma Site Trauma Frequency Percentage Bishopstone absent 21 52.5 present 19 47.5 Total 40 100.0 St. Nicholas absent 222 94.5 Shambles present 13 5.5 Total 235 100.0 Raunds Valid absent 338 93.1 present 25 6.9 Total 363 100.0 Table 4.3: Frequencies of Trauma in the three populations The most striking aspect is the high frequency of trauma observed in Bishop- stone of 47.5% compared to the 5.5% of St. Nicholas Shambles [87] and the 6.9% of Raunds [62] (Table 4.3.). A chi-square tests shows that Bishopstone has got a sig- nificantly higher frequency of trauma than Raunds (Yates’ chi value=56.99) and St. Nicholas Shambles (Yates’ chi value=54.54), while Raunds and St. Nicholas Shambles are not significantly different. A possible explanation for the lower fre- quency of trauma in the St. Nicholas Shambles population is given by White [87], who says that because this is an urban site, life would have contained less high risk activities. In Bishopstone the 19 individuals displayed 27 separate incidents of trauma. In St. Nicholas Shambles every individual with trauma only displayed one occurrence, leading to 13 cases in 13 people. Raunds [62] also displayed 27 cases of trauma but distributed over 25 individuals. The frequencies of Raunds and St. Nicholas Shambles are similar which indicates that Bishopstone is the exceptional site in this respect. It also has to be noted that the Bishopstone site shows a higher number of individuals (8) with multiple trauma, while in Raunds only two individuals had two incidents of trauma, and in St. Nicholas Shambles nobody had multiple trauma [87]. The distribution of the trauma over the body was also slightly different in the three populations. Louise C. D. Schoss 48 4.3. TRAUMA CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON Site Location of Trauma Number Percentage Bishopstone Lower extremities 13 48.1 Upper extremities 5 18.5 Torso 6 22.2 Skull 3 11.1 Total 27 100.0 St.Nicholas Lower extremities 3 23.1 Shambles Upper extremities 7 53.8 Torso 2 15.4 Skull 1 7.7 Total 13 100.0 Raunds Lower extremities 13 48.2 Upper extremities 12 44.4 Torso 2 7.4 Skull 0 0 Total 27 100.0 Table 4.4: Location of Trauma in the three samples The Bishopstone sample shows a distribution of the trauma over the entire body (Table 4.4), while the other two populations have more localized trauma. In St. Nicholas Shambles the upper extremities were the most affected, while the Raunds population had similar frequencies for upper and lower extremities, but hardly any trauma in other body parts. The frequency with which the lower extremities were fractured or injured is similar in Raunds and Bishopstone but St. Nicholas Shambles [87] shows a much lower frequency for leg trauma. In the Bishopstone sample the majority of the trauma was in the femur and the foot with five cases each, while only one case affected the fibula and two the tibia. In the Raunds [62] sample the fibula was the most affected bone with six instances, followed by four in the femur, two in the foot and one case occurring in the tibia. The St. Nicholas Shambles population showed one fractured lower leg, and one tibia and also one fractured femur. The upper extremities show a high frequency for St. Nicholas Shambles and the Raunds population while Bishopstone has a comparatively low frequency. The remains from Bishopstone showed the majority of upper extremity trauma in the hands with three of the five cases. The other two both occurred in the humerus. No fractures were found in either the radius or ulna. In the Raunds [62] sample on the other hand the radius and ulna were the second most affected bones with three recorded cases each. The hand showed four cases of trauma, and the humerus two. St. Nicholas Shambles [87] had no recorded trauma to the hands, but did have four cases where the forearm was affected, the humerus showed two further cases and one incident was just recorded as the arm being involved. The torso category again shows a higher frequency in Bishopstone than St. Nicholas Shambles [87] and Raunds [62] which has the lowest frequency of trauma to the torso. In Bishopstone three of the cases were located in the vertebrae, Louise C. D. Schoss 49 4.3. TRAUMA CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON Figure 4.2: Left pisiform and hamate, where the hamulus has been detached from the hamate and fused to the pisiform, in 2790 two were fractured sterna and one was an atrophied rib. In Raunds one of the two cases was a fractured clavicle, the other a fractured vertebra. St. Nicholas Shambles [87] also displayed two incidents of trauma to the torso, one affecting the clavicle the other being a fractured scapula. The trauma to the skull again shows Raunds [62] having the lowest number with zero, St. Nicholas Shambles [87] having a higher frequency with one affected skull, and Bishopstone having the highest number with three. The unusual point is Bishopstone’s complete lack of fractures in the lower arms which are generally associated with breaking a fall [47]. The other two populations show a high number of these kinds of fractures, which is to be expected. Although Bishopstone had a large number of fractured bones, all of them had healed nicely. None were misaligned or had fused to other bones. Some of the trauma to the foot had lead to the fusion of medial and distal phalanges, but that, most likely, would not have impeded the person greatly. The only other cases were fractures did lead to further problems was due to infection or atrophy. In the other two samples many of the fractures were misaligned or had fused to other bones. In the Raunds sample [62] one case showed a fractured fibula fused to the tibia, and other cases showed ankylosis of the elbow joint and a fractured femur or tibia which had healed misaligned, leading to the formation of two separate medulary cavities. It also showed the fusion of phalanges as observed in Bishopstone. St, Nicholas Shambles [87] records one case where trauma to the forearm had lead to the fusion of the bones. This lack of badly healed fractures in Bishopstone may be due to access to medical knowledge or treatment which was absent in the other populations. Surgery The two individuals who had been subject to surgery had nothing in common which could be readily identified. One was an adult woman around the age of 30 to 40 (1106 A.7) and the other was a teenage boy aged 16 to 20 (2556 A.23). Their burials were also some distance from each other, which may suggest that the individual surgeries took place at different times. The number and position of the cuts around the wound can not have been caused by an accident and were Louise C. D. Schoss 50 4.3. TRAUMA CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON identical in both cases, which makes surgery the only plausible explanation. The open rectangle formed by the cuts suggests that the surgeon was attempting to remove a square part of the bone, which broke leaving a triangular opening to the medulary cavity. The premature end to the procedure is also supported by the lack of a fourth cut along the right side. This may indicate that the bone was weakened by whatever was removed, leading to the fracturing of the bone in places not intended by the surgeon, particularly along the medial margin of the wound. Further, the difference of depth in the cut marks seen in 1106 suggest that the bottom cut was performed first, as it is the deepest. The lesser depth of the top incision through only half of the cortical bone could mean that the bone split off while the surgery, and possibly that particular cut were being performed. The polishing on the bone along the margins, as seen under the microscope in 1106, was probably caused by the sawing of the bone and also confirms that the surgery was performed on living bone, and was not a postmortem modification. The lack of healing or bone remodelling, in both cases, also indicates that the surgery took place at or near the time of death. As described by Ortner [60] in his chapter on trepanation it was not common in Europe to cut the bone during surgical procedures on the skull. Cutting was mainly used in the New World. In Europe however, including Anglo-Saxon England, scraping the bone was the common technique. This surgery on the knee shows clear signs of cutting and not scraping. After the discovery of the first case of surgery (1106) the most plausible explanation seemed to be a weapon injury caused by an arrow, with the removal of the arrow head being the reason for the surgery. If this was the cause of the injury then it may have been either caused during a Viking raid [66] on the village or during a hunting accident [51]. However, this explanation appeared far less likely after the discovery of the second case (2556), because the surgery is located in the exact same location on the same side of the leg with the same cut pattern. Therefore, the explanation of an accidental weapon injury becomes very unlikely. The probability of two people being injured by an arrow in the exact same location and both needing an apparently unique, and at the time new surgical procedure to remove the arrowhead, which results in exactly the same cut mark pattern, is minimal. A further explanation for the surgery would be the removal of a bone growth such as an osteoma or osteosarcoma [60]. However, considering the size of the wound, the bone growth can not have been very large. It would have been difficult to feel or notice a bone growth of such a small size under the thick layer of muscles [73]. The bone surrounding the surgery did not show any abnormal bone growth or signs of infection in either of the two individuals. And it again seems unlikely that two individuals would have had a bone growth in the same location, which were both detected and removed with the exact same surgery. Although it is known from Bede [7], that soft tissue tumours were removed, other Anglo-Saxon skeletons displaying osteosarcoma or osteoma show no signs of these being removed through surgery [3]. Altogether, this explanation is also unlikely. The last and most plausible explanation, for the moment, is that this surgery had some kind of cultural significance and meaning. A cultural ritual would explain the identical location and cut pattern. The drawbacks about this theory Louise C. D. Schoss 51 4.3. TRAUMA CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON Figure 4.3: Both cases of surgery in 1106 and 2556 are the lack of reasons and motive behind this surgery and why it has not been seen in any other Anglo-Saxon people. If this was a cultural ritual it, so far, appears to be one unique to Bishopstone. Although it is clear from the polished, smooth surface on the edges of the cuts that the bone was not dry when it was cut, it is not clear whether the surgery was performed on a living person, or shortly after death. If it was performed shortly after the death of the person, then the cultural explanation becomes even more likely, as no medical procedure would be necessary after a person’s death. Carbon dating of the two individuals will hopefully indicate, whether the surgery took place close together, and could therefore have been performed by one medical practitioner, or if they lay further apart, which would indicate that this was a cultural ritual performed over several generations. Stable isotope analysis could also potentially show differences between these two individuals and the rest of the population, which may help explain this surgery. Neither of the other two populations showed any kind of surgery. Raunds [62] did have two unstratified skulls with cut marks, it is, however, unclear whether these were caused by weapons or postmortem modification. Weapon Trauma Various weapons were in use during the Anglo-Saxon period, which included knives (seax ), spears and javelins and swords which are listed by Alcock [1], the Bayeux tapestry also shows large dane axes and smaller hand axes as well as maces in use. Bows and arrows were also used, although they were utilized for hunting rather than as a weapon in battle [51][1]. All of these weapons were capable of inflicting serious injuries and kill individuals. As shown by Boylston [14] the majority of weapon trauma seen in archaeological remains is visible on the skull [63][2]. This is also visible on the Bayeux tapestry which shows many decapitated bodies. Louise C. D. Schoss 52 4.4. DISEASE CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON Only one definite case of sharp weapon trauma was found in the Bishopstone sample, and was on an unstratified right, proximal ulna fragment. The angle and depth of the cut suggest that the victim was on the ground and trying to protect their head from the sword blow. As the wound displayed no signs of healing it is likely that this person died shortly after having sustained this blow to the arm. Given the nature of this wound the person probably died from a further blow by the sword. However, because of the lack of other remains, as this bone fragment was recovered from the top soil, it can not be confirmed. It is also unclear whether this individual was male or female as the ulna fragment was neither large and robust, nor small and gracile, and could therefore not give any clues to the sex of this person. St. Nicholas Shambles [87] showed a male, 17-25 years old with a sword wound to the cranium and the unstratified skulls of two women, one also with a cut to the skull, the other with a missile wound in the cranium. Raunds [62] had two skulls which both had cut marks on the occipital in one case and the temporal in the other. They are assumed to be postmortem, and it is not clear if they were caused by weapons. The St. Nicholas Shambles continues the pattern of the majority of weapon trauma occurring in the skull noted above, as does the Bishopstone wound, providing it was a defence wound stopping a blow to the head. The three cases of blunt force trauma to the skull in the Bishopstone sample, could also have been caused by a violent attack. The wounds could, however, just as well have been received during an accident. The biggest argument for the accident is the fact that two of the three cases occurred in children. According to Crawford [26] Anglo-Saxon parents looked after their children as best they could, and violence towards them was rare, as the low trauma rate in children in the other two populations show. It is therefore more likely, though not certain, that these injuries were the result of accidents rather than interpersonal violence. 4.4 Discussion of the Pathology: Disease Site Disease Frequency Percentage Bishopstone absent 26 65.0 present 14 35.0 Total 40 100.0 St. Nicholas absent 217 92.3 Shambles present 18 7.7 Total 235 100.0 Raunds absent 331 91.2 present 32 8.8 Total 363 100.0 Table 4.5: Frequencies of Disease in the three populations The overall frequency of disease (Table 4.5) shows Bishopstone with the high- est frequency (35%), followed by Raunds (8.8%) and then St. Nicholas Shambles Louise C. D. Schoss 53 4.4. DISEASE CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON (7.7%). Chi-square tests show that Bishopstone has got a significantly higher frequency of disease than Raunds (Yates’ chi value=21.91) and St. Nicholas Shambles (Yates’ chi value=22.26), while Raunds and St. Nicholas Shambles are not significantly different. For the types of diseases and their frequencies in the Bishopstone collection see Table 3.6. In the Bishopstone sample 14 in- dividuals had a total of 19 cases of disease. Nine individuals had trauma and disease present, in three cases these were most likely linked to one another as de- scribed below. In the St. Nicholas Shambles[87] population there were 18 cases of disease recorded in 18 individuals (Table 4.5). None of the remains from St. Nicholas Shambles displayed multiple diseases or trauma, or both. The Raunds population [62] had more cases of disease (35) than the other two populations in 32 individuals (Table 4.5). Three individuals showed multiple diseases, which were leprosy and osteitis in two cases and tuberculosis and/or poliomyelitis and osteitis. In these cases the two diseases may have been linked. Six individuals in the Raunds sample displayed both trauma and disease. It has to be noted that Bishopstone shows more individuals with multiple trauma and disease than the other two collections. Disease Number Percentage Periosteitis 9 50 Parietal osteoporosis 3 16.7 Skull osteomata 2 11.1 Diaphyseal aclasia 1 5.5 Gall stone 1 5.5 Coxa Vara 1 5.5 Osteoma 1 5.5 Total 18 100.0 Table 4.6: Types and frequencies of Diseases in St. Nicholas Shambles [87] Disease Number Percentage Osteitis 27 77.1 Button osteoma 2 5.7 Cranial tumor 1 2.9 Ossified haematoma 2 5.7 Leprosy 2 5.7 Tuberculosis and/or poliomyelitis 1 2.9 Total 35 100.0 Table 4.7: Types and frequencies of Diseases in Raunds [62] This break-up of the diseases shows that a large number were associated with infection. This would fit an unhygienic lifestyle in a small village, although in- fectious diseases are generally more associated with an urban life where a large number of people live in close proximity. The St. Nicholas Shambles site, how- ever, gives the lowest frequency of disease. Other types of infection seen in the Louise C. D. Schoss 54 4.4. DISEASE CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON Bishopstone collection were apparently caused by fractured bones. In two cases this lead to osteitis, and in one case to hypertrophic bone development surround- ing the fracture, and also in other parts of the skeleton. In the Raunds [62] sample five incidents of osteitis were associated with trauma to the affected bone. This was also the case for two of the three osteitis cases observed at Bishopstone. Osteomyelitis due to staphylococcus was evident in two individuals from Raunds, and two further individuals were diagnosed as having leprosy. A third individual from Raunds showed evidence for being in the early stages of tuberculosis or po- liomyelitis. In all three populations the osteitis occurred most frequently in the tibia followed by the fibula, and the femur. Cranial Lesions The most common symptoms of infections in the Bishopstone sample were cranial lesions (Fig.4.4). The cranial lesions were mainly on the frontal bone, the pari- etals, and the temporals. In one case lesions and depressions were visible on the interior surface of the cranial bones. Similar lesions have been seen in other pop- ulations [72] and were attributed to an unspecific infection. At the same time the Bishopstone individuals show no other symptoms associated with diseases which cause lesions to the skull, such as leprosy or other treponemal infections [18] [39]. The internal lesions could potentially be explained by meningitis. However, it seems unlikely that an Anglo-Saxon person could have survived long enough for the infection to affect the bone [67]. Also meningitis would result in new bone being formed, the Bishopstone individual, however, shows pitting and destruction of bone. Neither of the other two populations showed such cranial lesions. Figure 4.4: Cranial lesions on the frontal bone of 1146 Mastoiditis In the mastoiditis cases the infection had exposed the air cavities under the surface of the mastoid process. This symptom occurs rarely, and only in very severe cases of mastoiditis [60]. The more common symptom is a hole in the temporal bone, Louise C. D. Schoss 55 4.4. DISEASE CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON where the infection bursts through the bone to discharge [44][52] [71]. In some of the Bishopstone cases both mastoids were affected. In many cases the infection had also affected the surrounding bone as indicated by porosity and bone remod- elling on the temporal bones and the basi-cranium. In one case the infection had also affected the condyles of the mandible. One in situ burial and one unstratified mastoid process displayed a groove which went in a superior-posterior direction away from the process. This may have been a drainage canal for the infection. The lack of ear ossicles made it more difficult to determine whether these infec- tions did start as an inner ear infection. One possible explanation for the unusual symptoms, may be that treatment took place. If Bishopstone was the location of a doctor as argued below, treatment is likely to have taken place. Treatments for ear infections were known in both the Greek and Roman times [67], and medical texts from those time periods were the basis of Anglo-Saxon medicine [22]. It is therefore possible that some of this knowledge was used to treat ear infections in Bishopstone. If the eardrum was perforated and thereby allowed the puss to discharge without having to break through the bone would explain the absence of this hole observed in other cases [52] [71]. If this was prevented, but the infection of the soft tissue had already established itself, this would explain the changes to the mastoid process and the surrounding bone. This, however, is an unproven theory and needs further research and the consultation of a medical doctor to discuss if this is a possible scenario. Further studies on radiographs may show signs of change to the internal parts of the ear, which may help determine the cause of the infections. Cranial Fistula Aufderheide and Rodrigues-Martin [6] describes a cranial fistula similar to those observed in 2693, however, in the case that they discuss the fistula was located on the frontal bone and was believed to have been a drainage point for an infected sinus. A similar case was described by Slater [71]. In this case it was located on the temporal bone and associated with the drainage of an inner ear infection. Another case of cranial aperture was described by Blau [12] which was located at bregma, and may have been caused either by an infection or a problem during the development and fusion of the sagital and coronal sutures. A further explanation could be congenital herniation of the skull as presented by Ortner [60]. However, in these cases the resulting hole is located on the frontal bone and is surrounded by an area of porous reactive bone. Although all of these cases resemble the two fistulae observed in the Bishopstone child, none are similar enough to explain the cause of these holes. The internal surface of the skull shows no change to its surface and has no signs of any infection. At the moment the most likely explanation is that these are drainage points. Unspecific Infection The one case of unspecific infection observed in 1104 (A.5), was probably caused by the fracture in the right femur, which then spread to other parts of the body leading to further hypertrophic bone development on ribs and vertebrae. The Louise C. D. Schoss 56 4.4. DISEASE CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON infection of this wound may indicate that this was a compound or open fracture, which are more likely to lead to an infection because of the exposure to the outside and the likely introduction to the pathogen Staphylococcus aureus [47]. The femur displaying the fracture was incomplete, so that it was not clear if the fracture had shortened the bone when healing or not. The area of the fracture and the bone proximal to the fracture was straight and displayed no signs of misalignment of the bone during healing. The bone did display a large callus, mainly on the medial and posterior side of the bone, with hypertrophic bone development forming ridges, which could be ossified muscle attachment sites [73]. Despite the, possibly compound, fracture and the following infection the bone healed nicely, which would indicate that treatment took place. The spread of the infection highlights the main problem of Anglo-Saxon medicine, the treatment of internal infections. While they were capable of straightening fractured bones and treating external infections to some degree, they had no way of treating an internal infection spreading through the body. Osteoarthritis In all three populations osteoarthritis was a very common affliction, as would be expected in people who spend their life performing heavy, manual labour. In the Bishopstone sample 16 individual (40% of the population or 55.2% of adults) showed signs of osteoarthritis. Of those, five were male and eleven were female. The most affected area was the vertebral column, with the lumbar vertebrae (11 individuals) being the most common area followed by the thoracic (8) and then the cervicle vertebrae (4). Of the other joints, the wrist and hands were the most affected with 7 individuals, followed by the elbow (6), the knee (5), the hip and ankle with three cases each and the shoulder with only two cases. The ribs also showed arthritis on the articular facets in five individuals. The majority of these cases (37) occurred in women and only 17 were seen in men. The most severe case with many joints affected was a male (1105 A.6) (Fig.4.5). The arthritic changes in the skeleton may have been caused by rheumatoid arhtritis, however, the metacarpals and carpals only showed little involvement compared to other joints. In rheumatiod arthritis those are they areas affected first and most severely [5][67], it is therefore unlikely that this individual suffered from rheumatoid arthritis. In the St. Nicolas Shambles [87] sample 40% of adults were affected by os- teoarthritis, with most joints being affected to some extent, but the vertebral column being the most affected. The amount of arthritis in the vertebrae was evenly divided between the sexes. The thoracics were the most affected, followed by the lumbars and then the cervicles. The hip joint was less affected than the shoulder, and the peripheral joints showed even less arthritic change. In the ma- jority of cases the changes to the shoulder were slight eburnation of the distal end of the clavicle, which is associated with manual labour [87]. These changes on the clavicle were more frequent in males, indicating division of labour between the sexes. For Raunds [62] it was reported that nearly every one of the 197 adults over Louise C. D. Schoss 57 4.4. DISEASE CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON Figure 4.5: Severe osteoarthritis on the femoral head of 1105 the age of 17 showed some signs of osteoarthritic changes. The most affected area was the lower vertebral column. The hip and shoulder were the next most frequently affected areas. In the upper extremities the shoulder and elbow were the most affected joint with very few cases of osteoarthritis in the hands. Of the lower extremities it was the hip that was most affected with few cases seen in the knee or the ankle. It is not clear why the women from Bishopstone suffered from more os- teoarthritis than the men did, as this in not in keeping with the division of labour, and subsequent skeletal changes observed in the other two populations. The distribution of the osteoarthritis is also different in the Bishopstone sample, especially with regard to the high number of elbows and hands affected, which showed very little arthritic change in Raunds and St. Nicholas Shambles. Schmorl’s Nodes In the Bishopstone sample four individuals displayed 12 affected vertebrae. All of these individuals were women. In the St. Nicholas Shamble population Schmorl’s nodes were observed in 8.6% of the thoracic vertebrae, with men being four times as likely of being afflicted than women. According to White [87] this sex distribution is due to differences in occupation and men fulfilling more weight- bearing tasks. The report on the analysis of the skeletal remains from Raunds did not include any numbers of Schmorl’s nodes occurring. Between the Bishopstone and St. Nicholas Shambles populations the most striking difference is that in Bishopstone it was the females displaying Schmorl’s nodes, while in St. Nicholas Shambles it was the men. White’s argument does make sense and is what one would expect to find when looking at pathology caused by stress on the spine. It is therefore again the Bishopstone sample that is the odd one out. Louise C. D. Schoss 58 4.5. DENTAL CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON 4.5 Dental Pathology The dental pathology in the Bishopstone population was as expected, with lots of dental wear and calculus build up, caries and tooth loss. One dental disease missing in the Bishopstone sample but present in both Raunds and St. Nicholas Shambles was periodontal disease. For the Bishopstone population this analysis does show that the men had better oral health than the women. Dental wear In all three samples the dental wear increased with the age of the individual, and seemed consistent with a rough, gritty diet. Further studies have to be conducted looking more closely at the amount of dental wear, the pattern of wear and in which individuals it occurs. This may give further insights into diet variations among adults and the possibility of teeth being used as tools in daily activities. Dental Caries The caries frequency for the entire collection from Bishopstone (4.8%) was close to those of the other populations. The unusual aspect of the Bishopstone caries frequency was the high number of affected teeth in women, while the men had a very low frequency. In this comparison chi-square tests could only be used for Raunds [62] and Bishopstone, as the report for St. Nicholas Shambles [87] only gave frequencies and not total numbers. The dental caries frequency for the early medieval period given by Roberts & Manchester [67] lies at 4.2%. The Bish- opstone sample (4.8%) lies only slightly above that average. The St. Nicholas Shambles population had a caries frequency of 5.5%, which is a slightly higher than the Bishopstone frequency. The people of Raunds had a dental caries fre- quency of 4.4% but did not show such a large difference between males (4.2%) and females (4.6%), a chi-square test confirmed that the difference is not significant. The Bishopstone population does have an overall caries frequency which com- pares to the other two populations and the frequency of the period. A chi-square test comparing the total caries frequencies of Bishopstone and Raunds shows no significant difference. The high frequency of caries among the Bishopstone women is only significantly higher when compared to the males from Bishopstone, but there is no significance when compared to the women from Raunds. It is common for modern agricultural societies, as well as pre-historic and historic populations, to show the pattern of women having a higher dental caries frequency than males [44][67]. The reasons for this are differences in behaviour and diet. One dietary reason mentioned by Larsen [44], is that men may have eaten more meat, while women would have had a larger proportion of plant foods, high in carbohydrates, which allows caries to develop more easily. In the Bishopstone sample it should then be possible to detect this difference in diet, suggest by Larsen, once the stable isotope analysis has been completed. Louise C. D. Schoss 59 4.5. DENTAL CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON Antemortem tooth loss Six individuals (15% of the sample or 28.6% of jaws) in the Bishopstone sample had antemortem tooth loss. Of these two were female and three male, one individ- ual (1211) could not be sexed. All individuals who displayed antemortem tooth loss were 30 years of age or older. One young individual (2556) showed signs of antemortem tooth loss of one of his 3rd molars, but it was decided that this was most likely due to dentistry and is therefore discussed in a later section. White [87] recorded antemortem tooth loss in 44.4% of jaws or 41 of 235 individuals (17.4%) for St. Nicholas Shambles. The Raunds [62] sample had 448 lost teeth giving a frequency of 11.7% of total teeth and sockets present. The differences in how the frequencies were calculated makes a comparison more difficult, but it would appear that Bishopstone lies between the other two samples. Abscess Only one woman from Bishopstone displayed a small abscess, which gives ab- scesses a frequency of 0.2% of the total number of teeth and 4.8% of present jaws. St. Nicholas Shambles had abscesses present in six cases which were 6.6% of all present jaws, which is slightly higher than the Bishopstone sample. Raunds showed a total number of 140 abscesses in a total of 3250 teeth, giving a fre- quency of 4.3%. The frequency of dental abscess for early medieval Britain given by Roberts & Manchester [67] is 2.8% of tooth sockets. The different ways of calculating the frequency, makes a comparison more difficult, but it does seem that Bishopstone had a lower frequency of abscesses then either of the other two populations or the overall frequency given by Roberts & Manchester. Calculus According to Roberts & Manchester [67] calculus builds up more easily in indi- viduals with a high protein and/or carbohydrate diet. Of the six individuals from Bishopstone with calculus, four were female and two were male. The Bishopstone collection had a frequency of 15%, as 6 of the 40 individuals or 28.6% of the jaws had calculus build up. In the Raunds [62] sample a total of 164 individuals had calculus giving a frequency of 45.2%. In the St. Nicholas Shambles [87] sam- ple 60% of all jaws were affected by calculus. This shows that the Bishopstone sample had a lower number of individuals with calculus then either of the other two populations, but because of the differences in calculating the frequencies a chi-square test for significance could not be done. Dentistry In the Bishopstone sample there was only one case where it seems fairly certain that some kind of dentistry was performed. A male teenager of about 16-18 year old (2556 A.23) showed signs of bone remodelling and healing around the socket of the mandibular left 3rd molar. As third molars are not known for coming out easily, the most likely explanation is that the tooth was removed on purpose. Louise C. D. Schoss 60 4.6. STATURE CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON Although there is a fair amount of antemortem tooth loss, as shown above, there is no indication whether any of those teeth were pulled or not. Raunds [62] had no recorded cases of dentistry. The report on the St. Nicholas Shambles [87] population recorded one possible case of dentistry, but no details were given, making a comparison difficult. 4.6 Stature Roberts & Manchester [67] give an average stature during the early medieval period for males as 172cm and for females as 161cm. The average stature for St. Nicholas Shambles [87] was 172.75cm (159cm - 187.4cm) for males and 157.5cm (150cm-173.7cm) for females. At Raunds [62] the average stature for males was 167cm and 162cm for females. The Bishopstone population (males: 174.4cm, females: 160.1cm ) were therefore not too different from other people of their time, with the males being slightly above, and the females slightly under the total average. The fact that the stature of these individuals is normal is the unusual part. Because of the amount of disease observed at Bishopstone one may have expected to find a below average stature caused by interruptions to growth during bouts of childhood illness. The normal stature of the people from Bishopstone may indicate that the diseases observed only affected adults, or if it did occur in childhood, had no impact on growth or was fatal. Future research will have to include radiographs of juvenile long bones to establish the presence of Harris lines, which are associated with interruptions to the growth process [70][44] [67]. Louise C. D. Schoss 61 Chapter 5 Conclusion Based on the data available to date, regarding the human skeletal remains, there does seem to have been something happening at Bishopstone in the late Anglo- Saxon period. So, to answer the question asked by the title of this thesis: No, Bishopstone was not a quiet rural Anglo-Saxon village. The null-hypothesis posed at the beginning of this thesis has to be rejected. There is a significantly higher frequency of pathology in the Bishopstone sample. One question however, still has to be answered: 5.1 Why is there so much Pathology in the Bish- opstone sample? As the comparison of the Bishopstone collection to those of Raunds and St. Nicholas Shambles show, there is a significant difference in the frequencies of trauma and disease. Not only is the overall frequency of pathology, especially trauma, higher than in the other two samples, the distribution of trauma, and the symptoms of the diseases are also different. Despite the high trauma fre- quency, the fractures observed had all healed nicely with no ankylosis, non-union or misalignment of the bones. The oral health was similar if not even slightly better in Bishopstone than in the other two collections. Although the women did generally have more dental pathology then the men, as a population they were average for their time. The stature of the people from Bishopstone was also average for the Anglo-Saxon period, and showed no significant differences to the other two samples. The null-hypothesis regarding the demography had to be accepted, as there was no difference between Bishopstone and St. Nicholas Shambles, and it was Raunds that was significantly different. The difference in Raunds can be explained by the better preservation of juvenile remains. There was a slightly higher, but not significantly higher, percentage of females in the Bishopstone sample, but that may have been because only a small area of the Anglo-Saxon cemetery could be excavated. So, why then is there so much trauma and disease in a population which, in all other aspects, is not that different from other contemporary populations? 62 5.1. WHY? CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION Medical treatment The lack of any records of hospitals in the Anglo-Saxon period would indicate that these did not exist. However, medical practitioners, so called Leeches, were present in the Anglo-Saxon period. If there were any specialised places for the care of sick and injured people it would have been located within an ecclesiastical centre or monastery. Cameron [22] does say that the physicians were not members of monasteries but were called in from outside. If Bishopstone was the location of an ecclesiastical centre, it may be possible that a medical practitioner did join, and treated people and possibly even trained other individuals to continue the medical treatment after his death. However, many of the injuries seen in the remains would not have required any specialist attention, and most people would have had the basic medical knowledge to deal with them. But, then again, the fractures which were present had all healed nicely as pointed out above, which does indicate medical treatment. This would support the idea that somebody within the community had better medical knowledge than other populations who displayed some badly healed and misaligned fractures. The two cases of so far unexplained and unique surgery would also support the idea that somebody in Bishopstone had some special knowledge in medicine and possibly some interest in developing new treatments. The presence of the superior medical treatment available in Bishopstone would have attracted people from the surrounding area to bring their sick and injured family members. If these people died while in Bishopstone receiving treatment, the families would have taken the body back to be buried with their own family and people. However, if some were not taken back but buried in Bishopstone, then this would explain the higher frequency of pathology. If there was medical expertise available at Bishopstone, which did attract people from the surrounding area, then the skeletal remains of late Anglo- Saxon date around Bishopstone, should also show signs of this medical treatment, if to a lesser extent than the inhabitants of Bishopstone. If some of the people from another area died and were buried in Bishopstone, then that may be detectable through oxygen isotope analysis. Carbon dates of those individuals most likely to have received medical treatment, may show whether all the treatment took place in the life time of one individual, or over a longer period of time, which would indicate a more established medical centre where the knowledge and skills were passed on. Further research into these three points should either confirm or deny the theory of the presence of medical treatment in Bishopstone. At the moment it does fit the evidence available. Reliquaries Next to medical treatment, the other reason ill and injured people would travel to one place would be that there were reliquaries in the church. Reliquaries of Saints have always been believed to have healing powers, and many people travel to them to pray for help. Rollason [69] only gives one Saint with a known resting place in Sussex. This saint was St. Cuthman who’s resting place is in Steyning. The other, more likely, possibility is that St. Lewinna was buried in Bishopstone until her remains were stolen in 1058 [9], as described in the introduction. If this was Louise C. D. Schoss 63 5.1. WHY? CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION the case then the removal of the reliquaries in 1058, may have been associated with the reduction in size of the cemetery, indicating a decline in population. However, more carbon dates are required to prove this was the case. One argument against reliquaries being present is the large number of small injuries which would have required neither medical attention nor divine intervention. Although they may be the injuries of people who lived in Bishopstone rather than people who went there to visit the reliquaries, or may have been old injuries and not the reason for the visit. The lack of any very serious illnesses such as leprosy, disabilities or children with birth defects also disagrees with the idea of reliquaries being an attraction point for ill and injured people. The number of healed fractures does not agree with reliquaries, as it would be unnecessary to stay in Bishopstone for such a long time, and the way they healed indicates actual medical treatment. Further, if people did transport their sick and injured relatives to visit holy reliquaries, and the person did die during that visit, they would have taken the body back to be buried with his or her family. If there was medical treatment available in Bishopstone, as argued above, the presence of reliquaries would only have made it more alluring to travel there to receive both medical attention and divine healing. Because of the way the fractures have healed, it is unlikely that only reliquaries were present, as actual treatment would have been needed to ensure those fractures to heal without complications. War or Conflict The main argument against war or conflict being the source of the large amount of trauma, is the simple fact that only one case has clearly been caused by a weapon, which was recovered from the top soil and can therefore not be put into context. Some of the other injuries, such as the cranial trauma could have been caused in a combat situation, but as it was blunt force trauma it is not consistent with the weapons used [17]. Also some of the cranial trauma occurred in young children, which are very unlikely to have been caused by war. Also, there is no significant correlation between sex and trauma, which would be expected if the trauma was caused in combat, as men would have a higher frequency than women. However, even if there was no actual war between two or more populations, there could always have been interpersonal violence between individual people. Although the whole wergild system [65] was set up to avoid this kind of violence and blood feuding, this would still have occurred. However, with the exception of the one sword wound on the ulna, all other injuries could have been caused by accidents. Quarantine One theory which would potentially explain the high frequency of infection in the Bishopstone population would be a quarantine situation. However, there is no evidence for quarantine being used to stop epidemics. Without knowledge of bacteria and viruses it would have been difficult to recognise that separation and isolation would help prevent the spread of an infectious disease. Also, as Anglo- Saxons did not even separate leprosy sufferers from the rest of the population Louise C. D. Schoss 64 5.2. CONCLUSION CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION [49][62], it seems unlikely they would place an entire village under a quarantine situation. Also, this would not explain the healthy individuals who were buried with the diseased people, nor the high frequency of trauma. Edge of the Graveyard In some cemeteries there have been indications of injured and diseased people be- ing buried on the edges and on the boundary of the cemetery [48]. In the cemetery of North Elmham (Norfolk) the burial of an adult male with multiple cuts to the head and neck was discovered on the boundary of the cemetery[82]. A second individual was buried just outside the boundary and displayed a chronically dis- torted left knee with a thickened femur and tibia. However, the orientation of the body was reversed with the head pointing east rather than the usual west. On the other hand, Raunds [62] shows that disabled individuals are not always buried outside the cemetery as demonstrated by an individual suffering from tubercu- losis/ poliomyelitis and although this individual was buried close to the north boundary, the grave was still within the cemetery. These examples of individuals being buried near, on or beyond the boundary of the cemeteries may lead to the conclusion that the high frequency of pathology in the Bishopstone population could be explained by pointing out that only the edge of the cemetery was ex- cavated. However, the examples above were victims of violence or had serious debilitating illnesses, while the majority of the Bishopstone individuals had no such problems. It seems unlikely that every individual who suffered some kind of trauma, which had healed since, would warrant separate burial. And, if for some reason, they would have been so diligent in separating their ‘special’ individuals, then that would not explain the healthy individuals. 5.2 Conclusion Further studies into this question will have to include comparisons to more late Anglo-Saxon populations, but also to different types of settlement. In this study the comparison was between Bishopstone, another rural site (Raunds) and an urban population (St. Nicholas Shambles). Additional comparisons should in- clude more rural settlements, some thegnly residences and ecclesiastical sites. If there is some particular reason for this high frequency of pathology which has to do with a certain type of settlement or cultural meaning of that site, then some other settlement with a similar or the same function should show similar frequencies of pathology. Finding other sites with this high number of pathol- ogy should help clarify this phenomenon. If there was indeed medical treatment available in Bishopstone, then the people of the surrounding villages would also have benefited, and should show signs of treatment, like the well healed fractures seen in Bishopstone. It is therefore important to, if possible, examine skeletal remains from that area dating to the late Anglo-Saxon period. If however, this high pathology frequency is unique to Bishopstone then the only way to find an answer is to hope that the archaeological data, and further data from the skeletal remains, such as carbon dating and isotope analysis will help to explain Louise C. D. Schoss 65 5.3. FURTHER STUDIES CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION this question in more detail or more certainty. Stable Isotope analysis may show whether people travelled from other areas to Bishopstone. If they did then this would support the local healer or reliquaries theory. Without the possibility of ever analysing the rest of the population it will never be possible to determine whether the pathology frequency found in this analysis is the actual frequency of the entire population, or if the excavation and the sample were skewed in that respect. At the moment with the data available, the most likely explanation is that medical care was available in Bishopstone. This may have been in conjunction with an ecclesiastical centre or an individual person who lived in Bishopstone and practiced medicine. It is also possible that this medical care was further supplemented by the presence of the remains of St. Lewinna, if she was indeed buried in Bishopstone 5.3 Further studies As mentioned throughout this text more data, and more focused analysis is needed. The hope is, that with more data from carbon dating, isotope analysis, radiographs, but also more in depth studies of certain areas as well as data from the archaeology may help us to better understand the people from Bishopstone, and further clarify their unusual disease and trauma. • Carbon Dating: This is important to establish the time frame during which this cemetery was in use. It may also help with the interpretation of the two cases of surgery. • Stable isotope analysis: This will help with the reconstruction of diet and may help distinguish individuals or groups from one another. This in turn may possibly highlight social status, or confirm the possibility of the pres- ence of an ecclesiastical centre. It may also show whether people moved to Bishopstone from another area. • Dental wear pattern: Further studies into the dental wear pattern may show differences in the use of teeth between males and females. • Osteoarthritis: By looking more closely at the affected joints, it may be possible to establish differences between groups or even individuals, and indicate occupation of these individuals. This may also help in determining whether this was an agricultural village or an ecclesiastical centre. • Radiographs: These are needed to further investigate some of the trauma and other pathology, but also to look at the presence of Harris lines in juvenile bones. • Comparison: It is also important to compare the Bishopstone sample to more late Anglo-Saxon populations. If another site is found with a similarly high frequency of pathology, then the chances of finding the reason for this may also increase. Louise C. D. Schoss 66 5.3. FURTHER STUDIES CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION • Non-metric traits: While some were recorded during this analysis such as the presence of a septal aperture, many more still have to be recorded. This study may highlight possible population, or family traits, which can also be compared to other Anglo-Saxon collections. • Archaeological data: Once all the data from the excavation has been analysed it may also give further indications as to why these people suffered from so much pathology. Louise C. D. Schoss 67 Appendix A Description of the Skeletal Remains This section gives the detailed reports on all the human remains excavated. The literature used for the analysis is given in the Methods section of this text. A.1 Skeleton Number 86 Sex: Female Age: 30-40 Stature: 158cm General Description This skeleton was in good condition and relatively complete. The long bones were in good condition, though most were damaged. Both the left and right femur were complete, as were both tibiae and in both fibulae the proximal ends were missing. The arm bones were not as complete as the leg bones. The left humerus had its proximal half missing and the distal end was fragmented. The right humerus only had the distal end missing. The left radius consisted of proximal end and the right missed its distal end. Both the ulnae were missing their distal ends. The lumbar vertebrae was complete, however, only three fragmented cervical and five or six thoracics were there. The ribs were also very fragmented with forty fragments and four left ribs including the first, and three right ribs. The pelvis is relatively complete although fragmented, the sacrum, however, was very fragmented. Fragments of both clavicles and scapulae were available, but there was no sternum. The patellae were also absent. The left foot had both the talus and calcaneus present and nine other bones. The right foot only had a talus and no further bones. The hands consisted of eleven bones on the left side and 18 on the right side. The cranium was very fragmentary with parts of the frontal, occipital and temporal bones present. There were also fragments of both zygomatics, the maxilla and the mandible. 68 A.2. SKELETON 87 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS Determination of Sex The determination of the sex of this person as female is based both on the pelvis and the skull. The right os coxa displayed a ventral arc, subpubic concavity, a sharp ischio-pubic ramus ridge and a wide greater sciatic notch. Both the left and right ilia displayed a pre-auricular sulcus. In the skull the right mastoid process and the right supraorbital margin both indicated female sex. The right femoral head (43.2mm) is intermediate, but the head of the right humerus (40.5mm) is female. Age Estimation The age estimation of 30-40 years is based on left and right auricular surfaces (35-40) and the left pubic symphysis (30-34). The dental wear also supports this age estimation. Stature The stature estimation was calculated from the measurements of the left and right femora (420mm and 419mm) and the right tibia (333mm). These measurements gave an average estimated stature of 158cm. Pathology Osteoarthritis was present in the tarsals and phalanges of the left foot, and also in the phalanges of both hands. There was also some arthritis in the lumbar, thoracic and cervical vertebrae. However, the vertebrae were very fragmented so it was impossible to tell how severe the arthritis was. The osteoarthritis of the spine is also visible on the tubercles of the ribs. The left and right ulnae also showed arthritis in the elbow joint. The interior surface of acetabulum on both os coxa showed woven bone and perforations, the cause of which is unknown. The internal surface of the cranium displayed lesions and pitting, caused by an unknown infection. Dental Pathology There was one severe case of caries on the distal surface of the lower right first molar. The lower right second molar was lost antemortem. A.2 Skeleton Number 87 Sex: Female Age: 25-30 Stature: 159.7cm Louise C. D. Schoss 69 A.2. SKELETON 87 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS General Description Both femora and tibiae are complete including the right patella, the left fibula is completely missing except for a small fragment of the proximal end, and only the distal end of right fibula is there. The arms are not as complete as the legs with only the right radius and left humerus being complete. Of both ulnae only the proximal ends are available. Of the right humerus and left radius the distal ends are present. The vertebral column is complete although many of the neural arches are separate from their bodies. There were also 52 rib fragments plus both first ribs. The pelvis and the sacrum are fragmented with more parts of the right side present. The sternum was complete and both clavicles are present as are fragments of both scapulae. The feet are represented by both tali and calcaneus and fourteen bones in the left foot and 13 in the right foot. The hands consist of ten bones on the left side and seventeen on the right side. The skull consists of the frontal and both parietal bones, and some fragments of the temporal and zygomatic bones. The mandible is complete, there are also some maxillary teeth but no maxilla. Determination of Sex The sex of this individual was determined to be female based on the morphology of the skull and pelvis. The skull displayed ambiguous traits with an intermediately sized right mastoid process and a slight browridge. The shape of the mandible, however, was female. In the pelvis the left pubic bone had a sharp ramus ridge, while the left and right greater sciatic notches were both wide. The sacrum was flat further indicating the female sex. The long bones were gracile and other measurements also support the female sex. The left and right femoral head (39.65mm and 40.02mm) indicates that this individual was female. Age Estimation The age at death of 25-30 for this individual was based on the left pubic symphysis (20-25), the left and right auricular surfaces (both 25-29). The 3rd molars had erupted but were not worn, and the medial clavicle was not fully fused which also indicates that this woman died in her twenties. Stature The stature was calculated from measurements taken from the left femur (430mm), the left tibia (345mm) and the left humerus (297.5mm), which gave a calculated stature estimation of 159.7cm Pathology The vertebral column showed the signs of a herniated slipped disc on the superior surface of the 11th thoracic vertebra. The superior surfaces of the lumbar verte- brae 2 and 3 displayed Schmorl’s nodes, as did the inferior surfaces of the lumbars Louise C. D. Schoss 70 A.3. SKELETON 1102 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS 1, 2 and 3. The left 5th metatarsal shows bone remodelling on the proximal end, which was probably caused by a fracture. A.3 Skeleton Number 1102 Sex: Female Age: 30-40 Stature: 155.5cm General Description These remains were fairly complete, though most bones were damaged. All of the long bones were present, though some like the left ulna and radius only consisted of fragments. The vertebral column was also fragmentary, the fifth lumbar vertebra could be identified as could the first four cervical vertebrae. Additionally there were four lumbar, and ten thoracic fragments. The ribs were equally fragmented, but seven right and three left ribs could be identified. Both os coxa were damaged, while the sacrum was fairly complete. Both scapulae were fragmentary and neither of the patellae were recovered. The right clavicle was missing but the left was near complete, as was the sternum. The hands were badly represented by the right scaphoid, one right and two left metacarpals and three phalanges. The feet were more complete, consisting of ten tarsals, four right and three left metatarsals and three phalanges. The skull was damaged, but fragments of the right parietal, temporal and zygomatic were recovered as were the right halves of the maxilla and mandible. Fragments of the occipital bone were also present. Sex Determination The sex of this individual was determined to be female based on the left ventral arc, the right ischiopubic ramus ridge and the angle of the right greater sciatic notch. The right mastoid process was also available, but the size was intermediate. Measurements of the left and right femoral head (41.6mm and 41.5mm) indicate female sex. Age Estimation The age of this woman was based on the right pubic symphysis and both auricular surfaces. They all gave an age estimate of 30 to 40 years. Stature The only long bone which was in good enough condition to be measured was the left tibia (332mm) which gave and estimated stature of 155.5cm. Louise C. D. Schoss 71 A.3. SKELETON 1102 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS Dental Pathology The teeth with the most wear were the upper and lower right first molars. Many of the teeth had calculus build up. In the mandible calculus was visible on the second premolar and all three molars. In the maxilla the second premolar and the first two molars were affected. The lower right third molar also displayed a small cavity. Pathology This woman suffered from osteoarthritis in her right wrist and elbow. The com- plete vertebral column showed signs of osteoarthritis and some osteophytosis, but the worst affected vertebra was L5. Louise C. D. Schoss 72 A.4. SKELETON 1103 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS A.4 Skeleton Number: 1103 Sex: Male Age: Adult Stature: 173.3cm General Description This specimen was worn and fragmentary. The long bones were all present but damaged, with exception of the right humerus which was complete. The vertebral column was completely missing and very few rib fragments were present. The pelvis was partially present but also fragmented. Both clavicles and patellae, the sternum and the sacrum were missing and the only one fragment of the left scapula was available. The hands were fragmentary consisting of one right and one left metacarpal, a fragmented triquetral and eight phalanges. The feet were also very incomplete also with one left and one right metatarsal, the right talus and the left 1st cuneiform but no phalanges. The skull was relatively complete compared to the rest of the skeleton, with both parietals present and fragments of the frontal and occipital bones as well as the right temporal, nasal, zygomatic, mandible and orbit and the left part of the maxilla. More bones were recovered from the grave cut which included the axis and atlas, the left clavicle and scapula, some teeth and some carpals and tarsals. There were also some remains of a child, including some fragments from the femur and tibia and some epiphyses. But it seems unlikely that this was a double burial. The child remains are more likely to be redeposited bone fragments. Sex Determination Determining the sex for this individual was a bit unclear, but as all of the in- dicatiors present were intermediate or possibly male, it was decided this person was most likely male. The left greater sciatic notch and the right mastoid process both fall into the intermediate range. However, the zygomatic arch extended over the external auditory meatus, which suggested male sex as did the presence of a slight glabella. The measurement of the left humerus (333mm) and the cal- culated estimated stature also falls into the male range. The diameter of the humeral head (45.75mm) falls into the male? range. The fibula displayed large muscle attachments which further supports that this person was male. Age Estimation The age of this individual could only be determined to be adult, because of lack of pubic symphyses or auricular surfaces. All of the long bone epiphyses were fused, but as neither the vertebrae nor the clavicles were present it was not possible to say whether this individual was nearer to 25 or older. The degree of dental wear and the eruption of the third molar would indicate that this person was a young adult. Louise C. D. Schoss 73 A.5. SKELETON 1104 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS Stature In this individual only the left humerus was complete and could be measured. The total length of the humerus was 334mm, which gives a calculated stature of 173.3cm. Pathology This man suffered from mastoiditis, as the right mastoid process showed bone resorption and pitting. There also appears to have been some trauma to a metatarsal which displayed thickening of the bone. The tibiae show possible signs of osteitis although it is hard to say for sure because of the weathering of the bone surface. The left femur displays woven bone and small foramen on the neck and the greater trochanter, the cause of which is unknown. Two of the me- dial hand phalanges are atrophied, and the distal ends are malformed, this may have been caused by amputation. A.5 Skeleton Number 1104 Sex: Male Age: Adult General Description This specimen was very fragmentary and weathered. Most long bones were frag- mented but present apart form the left humerus, radius, ulna and femur which were missing. The Vertebral column was extremely fragmented and only two lumbar vertebra could be identified. The ribs were also very fragmentary. The left os coxa was partially present as was the sacrum. The left patella was present, the right patella, both scapulae and clavicles were absent. The hands consist of one metacarpal, both capitates and one sesmoid and 14 phalanges. The feet were more complete with four left and three right metatarsals, five left and five right tarsals and both sesmoid bones and 16 phalanges. There were no cranial fragments or teeth at all. This skeleton also had further skeletal fragments recovered form the gravecut. These included two tarsals, some hand phalanges, some cranial fragments, long bone fragments, vertebrae, sternum and scapula. There was also a femoral head epiphysis from a child and a cranial fragment that may also have belonged to a child. Again it is more likely that these child remains were redeposited by ploughing. Sex Determination The absence of the cranium and the fragmentary pelvis affected the determination of the sex. The male sex is based on overall size and robusticity and the curvature of the sacrum. Louise C. D. Schoss 74 A.6. SKELETON 1105 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS Age Estimation Because of the lack of areas such as the pubic symphyses, the auricular surfaces or teeth the age of this person could again only be determined to be adult, based on the fusion of all epiphyses present. Pathology This individual had a healed fracture in the right femur. This fracture shows thickening of the cortical bone, and also hypertrophic bone development. This infection is likely to have spread through the body, as there was also some bone remodelling on the neural arches of a lumbar vertebra and also on the ribs. How- ever, as the skeletal material was very fragmentary and incomplete the severity or spread of the infection could not be determined. There was also some trauma in the feet as on of the medial phalanges was malformed. This individual also had some slight osteoarthritis in both hands and feet. A.6 Skeleton Number 1105 Sex: Male Age: 45+ Stature: 174.2cm General description The long bones were all present with the leg bones being more complete then those of the arms. The vertebral column was partially present, the lumbar ver- tebrae were all present, but only six thoracic vertebrae and four cervicals were there. The ribs were also very fragmentary, however, both first ribs were present and complete, as were the clavicles and both patellae. Fragments of both the left and right scapulae were also available. The pelvis, especially the right side, was nearly complete and the sacrum consisted of fragments. Of the sternum only the body was present. The hands were in good condition, consisting of four right and five left metacarpals, and five right and four left carpals and a total of 22 phalanges. The feet were less complete with four right and three left metatarsals, six right and four left tarsals and one sesmoid bone and six phalanges. The skull consisted of parts of the left and right maxillae, palatines and mandible. Frag- ments of the left zygomatic and orbit were also present as were fragments of the frontal, occipital and hyoid. For this individual there were also bones recovered from the grave cut. These in- cluded some ribs and vertebrae, long bone fragments, metatarsals and metacarpals, hand and foot phalanges, scapula and manubrium, and some cranial fragments. All of these bones were from an adult, although some like the tibia and radius fragments were probably from another individual as those bones were fairly com- plete in 1105. The pathology observed in these additional remains (1105B) are Louise C. D. Schoss 75 A.6. SKELETON 1105 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS described in the section on pathology observed in unstratified remains, as these bones can not be positively associated with 1105. Sex Determination The sex determination is based on the pelvis and some fragments of the skull. In the pelvis the absence of a ventral arc, the round, straight ischio-pubic ramus ridge and the narrow greater sciatic notches from both the left and right os coxae all indicated male sex. The skull fragments provided a left supra-orbital margin and the mental eminence on the mandible. All of these sex markers indicate that this individual was male. Also the measurement of the right femoral head (47.18mm) supports the male sex of this individual. Age Estimation The age of this individual could be determined by looking at the auricular surface of the ilium, the pubic symphysis as well as the dental wear pattern, and was estimated to be 45+. Stature The complete length of the left and right femur (left: 471mm, right: 464mm), tibia (377mm) and radius (265mm) could be measured and used to calculate the estimated stature of 174.8cm. Dental Pathology Both upper second molars were worn down to the roots and the second bottom left pre-molar had some chipped enamel. The upper right lateral incisor was broken off peri-mortem and the bottom left lateral incisor was broken off ante-mortem. The teeth showed some dental calculus but no caries. Pathology This individual had a fracture in the meta-carpel of the left little finger, which lead to atrophy of the phalanx. This individual suffered from severe osteoarthritis. The left femoral head and acetabulum had large amounts of bone remodelling and lipping. There was also eburnation where the bone of the femoral head had been rubbing directly against the bone of the acetabulum. The right acetabulum shows some slight bone remodeling but it is far from as severe as the arthritis on the left side. The left patella also showed arthritic lipping on the lateral auricular surface. On the right side the patella, the proximal end of both tibia and fibula and the distal end of the femur all show bone remodelling and lipping due to osteoarthritis. Both hands also had osteoarthritis in the carpals, metacarpals and phalanges. Also the ankle of the right foot showed arthritis in the metatarsals. In the vertebrae Louise C. D. Schoss 76 A.7. SKELETON 1106 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS osteoarthritis was present throughout the complete column. Osteophytes were also present especially in the lumbar vertebrae. A.7 Skeleton Number 1106 Sex: Female Age: 30-40 Stature: 169.5cm General description The long bones from the left side of the body were all present and complete except for the tibia and fibula. The long bones from the right body side were missing apart from one midshaft fragment of the fibula. The vertebral column was complete from the fifth thoracic vertebra downwards all of the vertebrae above were missing. The ribs were fragmentary but the left first rib was present. Some fragments of both clavicles and both scapulae were there but both patellae were missing. The pelvis and the sacrum were also fragmented. The body of the sternum was complete and the manubrium was also partially available. The hands consist of two matacarpals and two right carpals and eight phalanges. There were also no feet bones at all except for the left calcaneus. No cranial fragments were available for examination in this specimen. Sex Determination The sex determination is based on the left greater sciatic notch and the flatness of the sacrum. This individual also had a large septal aperture in the left humerus, a trait that only occurs in women. The female sex is further supported by the measurements of the left femoral head (42.11mm). Age Estimation The left auricular surface was the only age indicator present and gave and age estimate of 30-40. Stature The measurements for the stature estimation were taken from the left humerus (325mm), left radius (253mm) and the left femur (452.5mm). These measure- ments give a calculated stature of 169.5cm. Pathology This individual had a partially healed fracture in the body of the sternum. An- other wound is located on the anterior side at the distal end of the left femur, Louise C. D. Schoss 77 A.8. SKELETON 1107 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS and is triangular in shape. The lower edge of the wound is 5.2 cm from the inter- condylar notch. Three cut marks can be distinguished surrounding the wound; one each along the superior (20.46mm) and inferior (28.96mm) margins, and one on the lateral side (25.92mm) connecting the other two cuts forming a square which is open on the medial side. The cut along the inferior margin is the deep- est, passing completely through the cortical bone, whereas the one along the superior edge only scratches the surface. The cut along the lateral side starts as deep as the lower one but becomes shallower towards the top. A rectangular piece of bone was removed as a result of the three cuts, exposing the medulary cavity. The medial border of the wound does not appear to have been cut. Pol- ishing of the bone along the cut margins is observable under magnification and none of the edges appear to show any signs of healing or infection. There was some osteoarthritis in both the lumbar and thoracic vertebrae which also showed some slight osteophytes. The right hand also showed signs of osteoarthritis in the carpals. A Schmorl’s node was present in the superior surface of the second lumbar vertebra. A.8 Skeleton Number 1107 Sex: Male Age: Adult General Description The remains of this individual were very fragmentary and damaged and consisted of just the left leg with none of the bones being complete. One small fragment of ilium was also present, as was a fragment of the right 3rd metacarpal and the right 3rd metatarsal and two proximal foot phalanges. The only complete bone was the left calcaneus. The right calcaneus was damaged but present. A number of other bones were given the same ID number as this individual. But it was clear that these were the remains of more than one individual. How many and which of them did belong to this individual (1107) is not clear, if any at all. For this reason the bones are listed under 1107B in the section on unstratified remains. Sex Determination The sex of this individual as male was based solely on the size and robusticity of the bones present. Age Estimation The age of this man could only be determined to be adult based on the fusion of all epiphyses available. Louise C. D. Schoss 78 A.9. SKELETON 1108 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS Pathology No pathology was visible on the bones present. A.9 Skeleton number 1108 Sex: Female Age: 25-35 Stature: 155.5cm General Description This specimen was fairly incomplete, with most of the top half of the skeleton missing. All the long bones from both arms were absent except for a few fragments of the left radius. The leg bones and both patellae were present and mostly complete. The vertebral column was only represented by the lower four lumbar vertebrae. The cervical and thoracic vertebrae were completely missing, as were all the ribs, only six rib fragments were present. The clavicles, scapulae and the sternum were also missing. The pelvis and the sacrum were fragmentary but present. This specimen had one metacarpal, the left hamate and two phalanges present. The feet consisted of four metatarsals, five right and two left tarsals and six phalanges. Only one cranial fragment was present. Sex Determination The determination of this individual being female is based on the size of the greater sciatic notches which were both present. Also the overall size and gracility indicate the female sex, which is supported by the measurement of the right femoral head (39.48mm). Age Estimation The age determination is based on the recent fusion of the medial clavicle giving an age estimate of 25-35. Stature For the estimation of the stature the total length of the left femur was measured. The femur had a length of 408mm which calculates into an estimated stature of 155.5cm. Pathology This individual shows compressed vertebral bodies in the lumbar vertebra with some slight lipping which is probably due to stress. Louise C. D. Schoss 79 A.10. SKELETON 1109 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS A.10 Skeleton Number 1109 Sex: Male Age: Adult General Description The long bones of the arms were mainly missing except for some fragments of both humeri and the right ulna. The long bones of the legs were fragmented but present apart form the left fibula which was completely missing. The vertebral column was complete from the sixth cervical vertebra downwards plus some fragments of the atlas. The ribs were very fragmentary, but three right and six left ribs could be identified. The clavicles were absent, the sternum, however, was complete and there were also some fragments of the left scapula. The pelvis was partially there but damaged, and the superior part of the sacrum was present. The hands were mostly present with all five right and three left metacarpals, two right carpals and 17 phalanges. The feet, however, were only represented by one metatarsal. From the cranium only one fragment of the occipital bone was recovered. Further remains were recovered from the grave cut. These remains included parts of the mandible, two hand phalanges, a metatarsal and fragments from the tibia, ribs, ilium and vertebrae. All were from an adult and are likely to belong to the individual 1109. Sex Determination The determination of the sex was made difficult by the absence of a skull and the fragmentary pelvis. The determination of this specimen being male is based on measurements of the femoral heads (left: 51.97 mm, right:50.59 mm) and general size and robusticity of the bones and muscle attachments. Age Estimation The age of this specimen could only be determined to be adult, based on the fact that all available epiphyses were completely fused, including the vertebral bodies. Pathology This individual had a fractured sternum. The body of the sternum was further to the right of the manubrium and the bone was also thickened in that area, which suggests a healed fracture. There was some osteophytosis on the first lumbar vertebra, and the left patella also showed some lipping caused by osteoarthritis on the lateral auricular facet. Other The first lumbar vertebra had rib articulations. Louise C. D. Schoss 80 A.11. SKELETON 1145 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS A.11 Skeleton Number 1145 Sex: ? Age: 1.5 General Description These were the skeletal remains of an infant. On the right side all long bones were present although none were complete. On the left side only the humerus, tibia and fibula were present but they were also damaged. The vertebral column consisted of fragments of the atlas and axis, one cervical body and three arches and nine thoracic arches. Fourteen ribs were present. Five damaged metatarsals were also recovered. The skull consisted of fragments of the parietal, the temporal, the frontal and occipital bones. The mandible was damaged but present. Sex As with all pre-pubescent children the determination of sex was not attempted. Age The age of this individual was estimated to be 1.5 years based on dental formation and eruption. Pathology Porosity of the bone was observed on the frontal bone and both parietal bones. A.12 Skeleton number 1146 Sex: Male Age: 25-35 Stature: 171.3cm General Description This skeleton was in good condition. All the long bones were present and complete except for both fibulae which were missing the distal ends. The vertebral column was missing the cervical vertebrae three and four but all other vertebrae were present. There were also many rib fragments including both first ribs. Both clavicles were present as were both the left and right scapulae and left patella. The pelvis and the sacrum were also nearly complete and included the coccyx. The hands were nearly complete consisting of all ten metacarpals seven right and eight left carpals and 21 phalanges. The feet were also in good condition, with all five right metatarsals but only one left one, but all tarsals including the sesmoid bones and 13 phalanges. The skull could be partially reconstructed, and was only Louise C. D. Schoss 81 A.12. SKELETON 1146 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS missing the facial bones, though the mandible was also present. Further remains were recovered but do not belong to this individual. Most of these bones were cranial fragments which could not belong to 1146, as his skull has been reconstructed. The only other bone recovered was a sternum and may or may not belong to 1146. Sex Determination The sex is based on the absence of a left ventral arc, the right subpubic concavity and both greater sciatic notches which were all clearly male. The skull fragments provided a left mastoid process, two supraorbital margins which all indicated male sex. The glabella was intermediate. Altogether the individual was male which is further supported by the measurements of the vertical diameter of the left and right femoral heads (left: 47.5mm, right: 50.5mm). Age Estimation The age of this individual is based on both auricular surfaces of the ilia which gave an age of 25-30. The pattern of dental wear gives an age range of 25-35. Also the fused vertebra and clavicles support the age of late twenties to early thirties. Stature For the stature estimation the following long bones were available: the left tibia (369mm) and right tibia (366mm), the left humerus (321mm ) and the left and right radius (left: 251.mm, right: 247.5mm), the right ulna (272.5mm) and the left femur (439mm). The stature calculated from these seven measurements give a height of 171.3cm. Dental pathology Apart from the bottom left medial incisor which was lost post-mortem, all teeth were present and in good condition except for the upper left second premolar which had caries on the distal surface which also affected the mesial surface of the first molar. This individual also had a congenital absence of the upper third molars, and had a heterotopic supernumerary pre-molar in the maxilla. There was also calculus build up on the lingual surface of the lower incisors, canines, pre-molars and 1st molar. More calculus was visible on the labial surface of the upper left incisors and canine. Pathology This individual had a completely healed fracture in the right femur midshaft. The cortical bone was thickened and the bone bowed. The fracture itself was healed, there were, however, many foramina, and pitting in the area of the fracture which indicate that the bone was still remodelling and healing. There were also some Louise C. D. Schoss 82 A.13. SKELETON 1171 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS lesions on the skull especially on the frontal bone. There may have been some blunt force trauma to the skull, as there are radiating fractures on the left parietal bone. Two of the fractures cross the sagital suture. There was some slight osteoarthritis in the carpals of both hands. A.13 Skeleton Number 1171 Sex: Female Age: Adult General Description This specimen was incomplete and fragmented. The long bones were very frag- mentary and none were complete. The left humerus, both radii, left femur and left tibia were completely missing. The vertebral column consisted of two fragmented lumbar vertebrae, three thoracic vertebrae and one cervical vertebra. There were also some rib fragments. The right clavicle was present and some fragments of both scapulae. There was no pelvis and only some fragments of the sacrum. The hands consisted of one right metacarpal and the feet of the left calcaneus. Only two cranial fragments were recovered, the left temporal and the right zygomatic. Sex Determination This individual was determined to be female based on the left mastoid process and the measurement of the right femoral head (42.94mm) and the head of the right humerus (40.6mm). Age Estimation This individual’s age could only be determined to be adult, based on the fusion of the vertebrae and the clavicles. Pathology This individual had two collapsed thoracic vertebral bodies with osteophytosis. More signs of osteoarthritis were seen on the left calcaneus, the right femoral head, the left and right ulnae, the articulation facets of all vertebrae, in the metacarpals, on the medial clavicle and in both shoulders. The right shoulder also showed signs of trauma with bone growth on the acromion, humeral head and lateral clavicle. A.14 Skeleton Number 1211 Sex: ? Age: 40-45 Louise C. D. Schoss 83 A.15. SKELETON 1294 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS General Description The remains of this individual were very fragmentary and damaged. They con- sisted mainly of the right leg of which the femur and fibula were near complete the tibia, however, consisted only of a proximal fragment. Other long bones present were the proximal half of the right radius and midshaft fragments of a radius and ulna. Only one fragment of a thoracic vertebra was recovered along with three rib fragments. The pelvis was made up of a few fragments of the ilium and pubis. Both patellae were damaged but present, as was the right clavicle. The right hand consisted of three metacarpals and seven phalanges but no carpals. The right foot was represented by the talus, calcaneus and the first and second cuneiform and one phalanx. There were no identifiable bones from the left hand or foot. There were some skull fragments from the parietals, the frontal and occipital bones and the left half of the mandible. Sex Determination The sex of this individual could not be determined because of the fragmentation of the remains. Age Estimation The presence of a fragment of the pubic bone with the pubic symphysis allowed the age of this individual to be determined. The age of 40-45 given by the pubic symphysis was supported by the amount of antemortem tooth loss in the mandible. Dental Pathology Only three teeth were present (medial incisor, canine and 1st premolar), which were all from the left side of the maxilla. None of the teeth showed signs of caries or calculus. The mandible was toothless and completely healed indicating tooth loss some time before death. Pathology There was some bone remodelling on the fragments of the acetabulum and the il- ium. The fragmentary nature of the remains, however, did not allow to determine the cause. There was some arthritis in the proximal phalanx of the thumb. A.15 Skeleton Number 1294 Sex: Female Age: Adult Louise C. D. Schoss 84 A.15. SKELETON 1294 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS General Description These remains were recovered from a double burial with 1317. The long bones of the right body side were more complete than those of the left side. The right humerus was damaged distally but other wise complete. Only the proximal half of the ulna was present and the radius was completely absent. The femur of the right leg was complete except for the distal end, the tibia and fibula consisted mainly of midshaft fragments. The left body side only had parts of the tibia and fibula present, which were both damaged. Both patellae were damaged but present. The lumbar vertebrae were present with exception of L3; the lowest three thoracic vertebrae were also available as were fragments of T9 and T8, no other vertebrae were present. The only other available parts of the torso were two right and five left ribs. Of the pelvis only four unsided fragments were present. The hands were fairly complete considering the fragmentary nature of these remains. Three right and all five left metacarpals were recovered, as were three right and six left carpals along with twenty-five hand phalanges. The feet were less complete, consisting of all five right and one left metatarsal, five right and one left tarsal and sixteen foot phalanges. Only two small cranial fragments were recovered. Sex Determination The sex was difficult to determine because of the lack of pelvis and skull. The slender femur and the lack of any large muscle attachments would indicate female sex. Age Estimation The age of this individual could only be determined to be adult based on the complete fusion of all epiphysis. Pathology: Osteoarthritis with osteophytosis was present in the lumbar vertebrae. Schmorl’s nodes were also visible on the superior and inferior surfaces of L5, L4, L2, L1 and T12. T12 also displayed wedging and bone remodelling on the superior surface. There were also signs of trauma to one of the toes, as one of the distal phalanges was malformed. The right femur showed massive pitting and bone remodelling on the femoral head, the neck and the lesser trochanter. Similar pitting and remodelling was observed on the proximal right humerus. The right fibula displayed signs of osteitis, as did the right tibia and the left fibula, although less severe. The infection leading to osteitis may have started after a fracture in the right fibula. It is also possible that this infection lead to rheumatoid arthritis, which would explain the remodelling on the femur and humerus. The absence of any other joints means that this can not be proven to be the case. The two cranial fragments also display lesions consistent with an infection. Louise C. D. Schoss 85 A.16. SKELETON 1317 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS A.16 Skeleton Number 1317 Sex: ? Age: Adult General Description These remains were very fragmented and damaged, they were also from a double burial with individual 1294. The long bones of the legs were very damaged and consisted of many small fragments. Some damaged metacarpals and metatarsals were also recovered, as were three carpals and fragments of the right talus. Five hand phalanges and two foot phalanges were also present. The only complete bone was the right patella. No other bones were recovered for this individual. Sex Determination Because of the fragmentary nature of these remains, the sex could not be deter- mined. Age Estimation The size of some of the fragments and the presence of arthritis on the patella would indicate that this individual reached adulthood before death. Pathology As mentioned above some lipping on the anterior surface of the right patella indicates the presence of osteoarthritis. A.17 Skeleton Number 2004 Sex: Male Age: 16-20 General Description This teenage individual is from a double burial with 2019. The remains were fragmentary and consisted mainly of the leg bones and pelvis. The right leg was missing the fibula and the distal tibia was damaged and the proximal epiphysis was absent. The right femur was damaged with only the distal half remaining. The left femur was also damaged with parts of the midshaft and the distal epi- physis missing, the tibia was complete with exception of the epiphyses and there was also a small fragment of fibula present. The only piece of the arms was the right head of the humerus. The vertebral column consisted of only two fragments of thoracic vertebrae. Only four rib fragments were recovered. The right os coxa was missing the ischium, but pubis and ilium were present. On the left it was the Louise C. D. Schoss 86 A.18. SKELETON 2019 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS pubis that was absent. The sacrum consisted of three fragments. There was also a part of the right scapula present. No hand or feet bones were recovered. The skull consisted of a few fragments from the parietal bones, the right temporal, the occipital and the mandible. Sex Determination The sex of this individual is based on the angle of the left greater sciatic notch and the diameter of the left femoral head (45.1mm), which both indicate this person to probably have been male. Age Estimation The age of this individual is based on the non-fusion of most of the long bone epiphyses, which suggest an age at death between 16 and 20. Pathology The right acetabulum was shallow and inferiorly elongated, which may suggest that the hip joint had been dislocated. The posterior side of the acetabulum was damaged and the right proximal femur was missing, so that the extent of the injury could not be determined. There was also a healed fracture in the proximal half of the left tibia. This fracture is likely to have been the cause of an infection, which lead to periostitis in the proximal half of the left tibia and the entire right tibia. The damaged end of the right tibia shows a constricted medulary cavity, which could indicate endostitis. However, x-rays would have to be taken to confirm this. A.18 Skeleton Number 2019 Sex: Female Age: 25-35 Stature: 158cm General Description This skeleton is from a double burial with 2004. All of the long bones on the right side were damaged, but all were present, and the femur could be reconstructed. On the left side the bones were complete with exception of the tibia, which was damaged at the distal end. The vertebral column was incomplete, C1 was missing, but C2 down to C6 was complete. Most of the thoracic vertebrae were absent with exception of three fragments. T10 was present again as was the remaining column down to L4, L5 was also missing. Of the ribs nine belonged to the right side and two to the left. On both sides the ilium and ischium were complete, the pubic bones, however, were absent, as was the sacrum and coccyx. The patellae were both present as were the clavicles although they were damaged. The right Louise C. D. Schoss 87 A.18. SKELETON 2019 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS scapula was missing, the left one incomplete but present. The sternum was not recovered either. The right hand was less complete than the left with only one carpal and metacarpal, while the left had four carpals and four metacarpals there were also only seven phalanges. No foot bones were recovered. Of the skull only the mandible was recovered. Sex Determination The left and right greater sciatic notches both suggested the female sex for this individual. Measurements of the femoral heads (left: 41.42mm, right: 41.57mm) also indicated female sex. As there were no large muscle attachments and the bones were rather gracile, this individual was most likely female. Age Estimation The age was also slightly tricky with this individual. Both of the auricular surfaces gave an estimated age of 30-35. The third molars had erupted but showed no signs of wear, indicating an age of 20-25. Also there was still a visible line along the femoral head, as if the epiphysis had only recently fused, also indicting a maximum age of 25. An age range of 25-35 therefore covers most of the age estimations. Stature Measurements of the right femur (415mm), the left femur (418.5mm), the left humerus (294.5mm) and the left radius (223mm) give and estimated stature of 158cm. This estimated stature also further supports the female sex. Dental Pathology There was sever calculus present on the lingual surface of the lower right 2nd and 3rd molar and lower left canine. There was also calculus on the labial surface of the lower right medial incisor and lower left canine. The upper right 2nd molar displayed a large cavity on the distal-lingual surface. Pathology There was some osteoarthritis on the articulation facets of the ribs and in the lumbar vertebrae, which had also developed osteophytosis. The inferior and su- perior surfaces of L2 and L3 displayed Schmorl’s nodes. The right first rib was atrophied, the cause of this could not be determined at there was no sign of trauma on the rib itself and the clavicle was too fragmentary to tell if the trauma affected that bone or not. Louise C. D. Schoss 88 A.19. SKELETON 2153 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS A.19 Skeleton number 2153 Sex: ? Age: 9-11 General Description The remains of this child were near complete and in good condition. The long bones were all complete with only a few epiphysis missing. The vertebral column was also almost complete with one lumbar missing and only the arches present of all other lumbar, thoracic and lower two cervical vertebrae, both the axis and the atlas were available. Both os coxa were complete and four of the sacral segments were available. 10 ribs could be sided for each side leaving a further 27 fragments which could not be attributed to either side. Both patellae were complete and present as were both clavicles the scapulae were damaged but there. Both the hands and feet were well represented with 22 bones for the hands and 29 bones for the feet. The skull consisted of the calvarium which was damaged but could be reconstructed. A fragment of frontal bone with the right orbit was the only piece of the face available apart from the mandible which was also complete. Sex Determination As with all pre-pubescent children determining the sex was not attempted because of the lack of sex indicators and the unreliability of current methods. Age Estimation The age of 9-11 is based on the dental eruption and the length of the long bone diaphysis. The dental eruption gave an age of 10 years 6 months. The ages for the diaphyseal length of the long bones ranged from 8 to 11. Pathology The reconstruction of the skull showed a depressed stellate fracture with the centre on Lambda. It is likely that this injury was the cause of death. No other signs of illness or trauma could be observed. A.20 Skeleton Numbers 2173 A,B,C,D General Description These remains were co-mingled and fragmented. It soon became cleat that these were mixed remains of adults and children. However, none of the bones were present more then once, so that MNI would have only been 1. Because of dif- ferences in size among both the mature and immature remains it was concluded that these fragmented remains represent a minimum of 4 individuals. Louise C. D. Schoss 89 A.21. SKELETON 2232 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS 2173 A & D These are the remains of the two adults, of which one was possibly female and one probably a male. A lumbar vertebra had osteoarthritis with osteophytosis which may indicate that one of the two adults was slightly older. It seems likely that one was a male as one left navicular was larger than the other smaller right navicular. The right proximal ulna present was also large and robust also indicating male sex. The other bones were smaller, but whether they belonged to a female or a less robust male can not be determined. 2173 B & C These were the remains of two children. The younger and most complete of all in this mixed lot, was aged to be around 6-8 years old. The older of the two was probably aged between 10-13. These age estimates are mainly based on the diaphyseal length of the long bones. The younger child (2173B) consisted of a complete left femur without its epiphyses, fragments of the right humerus and radius and the left ulna, and a fragment of an unsided clavicle one sacral segment, a lumbar vertebra and the arches of a thoracic. The left os coxa, which was near complete, and a fragment of the right ischium were also used to age this individual. The older child (2173C) was far less complete consisting only of the damaged right tibia and fibula and fragments of the left tibia and fibula. A calcaneus and two metatarsals were also determined to be immature, but it was not clear to which individual they belonged. A.21 Skeleton Number 2232 Sex: ? Age: 5-6 General Description These were the remains of a young child, which were very worn. This skeleton consisted mainly of midshaft long bone fragments. On the right side all long bones except the fibula were present. On the left the radius and the humerus were missing. The vertebral column was damaged and only seven right and eight left thoracic arches survived, as did thirteen rib fragments. There was also a fragment of an ilium present. Sex Determination As with all immature individuals determination of sex was not attempted. Age Estimation The age for this individual is an estimate based on the diaphyseal length of the left femur. Although this bone was damaged it was the most complete. The Louise C. D. Schoss 90 A.22. SKELETON 2233 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS length of the damaged bone was 200mm, which would give and age estimate of 4.5 years. However, because the bone was not complete the length would be longer, the individual older. Therefore the age of this child was estimated to be somewhere around 5-6 years at the time of death. Pathology No signs of disease or trauma were observed. A.22 Skeleton Number 2233 Sex: ? Age: 1 General Description These were the skeletal remains of an infant. The long bones of the right side of the body consisted only of a midshaft fragment of the femur. The left side, however, consisted of fragments of all long bones, although none were complete or undamaged. The vertebral column consisted of nineteen fragments of which seven were cervical, eleven were thoracic and one was lumbar. Fragments of the axis were also present. Also ten ribs were identified. There were some fragments of metacarpals and metatarsals and one phalanx. There were quiet a few cranial fragments from the parietal bones, the right temporal, the frontal and occipital bones and the sphenoid. Fragments of the right maxilla and the right half of the mandible were also available. Sex Determination Because of the young age of this individual the determination of the sex was not attempted. Age Estimation The age of 1 year is based on the formation and eruption of the teeth. Pathology There were signs of Cribra Orbitalia visible in the eye orbits. There were also lesions and some porosity visible on the frontal and parietal bones. A.23 Skeleton Number 2556 Sex: Male Age: 16-18 Stature: 177cm Louise C. D. Schoss 91 A.23. SKELETON 2556 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS General Description This skeleton was also near complete and in good condition. The long bones of the legs were complete except for the proximal epiphysis of both fibulae. The right arm was missing most of the ulna the rest was complete. The left arm only consisted of the proximal half of the humerus. The vertebral column was miss- ing all the lumbar vertebrae but was other wise complete including the axis and fragments of the atlas. Ten right and seven left ribs were identified. The sacrum and the pelvis were complete except for the left ilium which was missing. Both of the clavicles and patellae were complete and both scapulae were damaged but present. The sternum consisted of the manubrium and two unfused sternebrae. The feet and especially the hands were also well represented with ten carpals and eleven tarsals a full set of metacarpals and metatarsals and fifteen hand- and nine foot phalanges. The skull was damaged and incomplete, the fragments included a complete mandible and maxilla, fragments of both parietal bones, the right temporal and fragments of the frontal and occipital bones. Further bones were recovered from the grave cut. They included three rib frag- ments, two proximal and one medial hand phalanges. All of these belonged to an immature individual as the epiphyses were not fused, so they probably belonged to this young male. Sex Determination This individual was determined to be male based on the small angle of the right greater sciatic notch, and also the straight, round sub-pubic ridge. The right mas- toid process was of intermediate size and could therefore not be used to determine the sex. The overall size and robusticity of the skeleton and the measurements of the femoral heads (left: 50.19mm, right: 51.92mm) also suggested male sex. Age Estimation The age of this individual was based on dental eruption and the fusion of the epiphysis. The dental eruption suggested an age of 18+ as the third molars had already erupted. The fusion of the epiphysis, however, suggested an age closer to 16. Most of the long bone epiphysis were on the brink of fusing. This individual seemed to be ahead of his age with regard to dental eruption but slightly behind with the fusion of the epiphysis. Therefore the age was estimated to be between 16 and 18. Dental Pathology The teeth were overall in good condition with no cavities and little wear. There was some crowding of the incisors in the mandible. This teenager also had his left mandibular 3rd molar removed. The socket was still present but the surrounding bone showed signs of bone remodelling consistent with antemortem tooth. Al- though there are no signs of an abscess or any other dental problems, he must have had some problems with that tooth so that it had to be removed. Louise C. D. Schoss 92 A.24. SKELETON 2559 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS Pathology On the frontal, medial surface on the distal 1/3 of the right humerus was a small spicule of bone which was most likely caused by an injury to the soft tissue such as a pulled muscle or tendon. This individual also suffered from mastoiditis which was visible through pitting of the right mastoid process and the surrounding bone and a grove, probably a drainage canal, going in a superior, posterior direction behind the right mastoid process. Further this individual was also subject to the same surgery as observed in the 1106 individual. This surgery was again located on the frontal surface of the distal end of the left femur. Although the surgery in this individual is larger and more crude, it shows the same cut-mark pattern as 1106. There is a cut on the superior, lateral and inferior margin but none on the medial side. The cuts are also longer than the ones in 1106, measuring 20.39mm along the superior border, 40.17mm along the lateral, 48.17mm for the inferior and 52.67mm for the medial side. Stature The stature was calculated from the length of the right femur, which was 485mm long, giving an estimated stature of around 177cm. A.24 Skeleton Number 2559 Sex: Female Age: 40-50 Stature: 163cm General Description This individual was in a double burial with 2924, some of the hand and feet bones may have therefore been mixed up between the two individuals. The right arm of this skeleton consisted only of a fragment of the distal humerus. The tibia and fibula of the right leg were complete, of the femur only the distal third was present. On the left side all long bones were present but damaged. The vertebral column was complete although most of the lumbar vertebrae had some damage. Of the ribs three were determined to be right and seven left. The left os coxa was more complete though missing the pubic bone. On the right side only the pubic bone was present. The sacrum was damaged but present including the coccyx. Both clavicles were complete and parts of both scapulae were present, but only the left patella was recovered. Of the hand bones three right and three left metacarpals were recovered along with one carpal and nineteen phalanges. Four right and five left metatarsals, two right and four left tarsals and seven phalanges represented the feet. The skull consisted of the left temporal, maxilla and zygomatic bones and a fragment of the left orbit. Fragments of the frontal bone were also recovered, as was the mandible. Louise C. D. Schoss 93 A.25. SKELETON 2562 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS Sex Determination The female sex for this individual is based on the left greater sciatic notch and the right pubic bone, which displayed a sharp, concave ramus ridge and a ventral arc. The small size of the left mastoid process and measurements of the left femoral head (41.98mm) and the head of the left humerus (40.26mm) also indicate the female sex. Age Estimation The age at death estimation is based on the left auricular surface which indicated an age of 45-50, and the right pubic symphysis (35-45). The dental wear pattern suggests an age of 45+. The most likely age range for this individual at the time of death is therefore 40-50. Stature Three long bones were complete enough to give measurements: The left femur (437.5mm), the left tibia (355mm) and the right tibia (360mm), which give an estimated stature of 163cm. Dental Pathology The teeth of this individual were very worn. There was one case of caries, where a cavity had formed on the occlusal-lingual surface of the lower, right second molar. This tooth also displayed a small abscess at its root. Pathology This woman suffered of osteoarthritis in the lumbar, thoracic and cervical ver- tebrae. There was also arthritis present on the articulation facets of the ribs, in the metacarpals and some lipping was present on the left patella. There was also some bone growth on the dens of the axis and also on the atlas where the bone was lipping over the dens of the atlas. This may have been caused by trauma although there were no visible signs of trauma on the bone. A.25 Skeleton Number 2562 Sex: Female Age: 35-45 Stature: 166cm General Description This skeleton was damaged and incomplete. The long bones were all present but most of them, apart from the right femur and left ulna and radius, were damaged and missing parts. The vertebrae were present from the 7th cervicle downwards. Louise C. D. Schoss 94 A.25. SKELETON 2562 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS Only four right and seven left ribs could be sided. The right os coxa was more complete than the left and the sacrum was fragmentary. The right clavicle and patella were both complete, on the left side, however, the clavicle was completely missing and the patella was only partially present. Both the left and right scapu- lae were fragmentary and the sternum was also not available. The feet were also completely missing. The hands were in better condition with four right and two left metacarpals, two right and one left carpal and seventeen phalanges in total. The right side of the mandible was the only part of the skull recovered. Further remains recovered from the grave cut included a midshaft femur frag- ments, a part of the right scapula, some skull and maxilla fragments a metatarsal and two vertebrae fragments. However, the femora were in quite good condition in this individual, so it is possible that some of these bones belong to another grave. Sex Determination The female sex of this individual is based on the large angle of the left and right greater sciatic notches and the presence of a pre-auricular sulcus on the left ilium. The pubic bones were too damaged to be used for sex determination. Measurements of the right femoral head (41.85mm) also indicate female sex. Age Estimation The age is mainly base on the left and right auricular surface, as neither of the pubic symphysis were present. Both auricular surfaces gave an age of 35-45. The dental wear pattern and the amount of ante-mortem tooth loss also indicated that this was an older woman. Stature The calculation of the stature is based on measurements of the left ulna (255.5mm) and radius (232.5mm). These measurements gave an estimated stature of 166cm. Dental Pathology As only about half of the mandible was recovered there were not many teeth to look at. Of the 13 teeth that should have been in the available mandible 6 teeth were missing with their sockets present (left 1st premolar, left canine, both medial and right lateral incisor, 1st right premolar). Four teeth had been lost ante-mortem (1st and 2nd right molars, 2nd right premolar and the 2nd left premolar). The right 3rd molar was present, worn and had caries. The right canine and the left lateral incisor were present and worn. Pathology This woman suffered from osteoarthritis in her lumbar vertebrae and lower tho- racics. The lumbar vertebrae also showed signs of osteophytosis. She also had Louise C. D. Schoss 95 A.26. SKELETON 2565 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS osteoarthritis in her left and right elbow mainly on the ulna and in her right knee on the femur and patella. A.26 Skeleton Number 2565 Sex: Male Age: 45-50 Stature: 179cm General Description The remains of this individual were in good condition. All long bones were present although some were damaged they were all complete except the right fibula which was missing its proximal end. The vertebral column was complete revealing and extra 25th vertebra. The ribs were very fragmentary so that only nine of either side could be identified. The pelvis was damaged but apart from the right pubis fairly complete. The sacrum was damaged but the coccyx was present. The scapulae were both fragmented, the clavicles and patellae were all complete. The sternum was also near complete. The hands had all of the right and three left carpals and all ten metacarpals and twenty phalanges available. The feet were not in such a great state with just two right tarsals a fragment of the first right metatarsal and two phalanges. The skull was missing most of the face, but the calvarium was reconstructable. Some further skull fragments were recovered from the gravecut along with a vertebra fragment, the body of the hyoid and some skull fragments and a mandible from and infant. The infant remains are likely to have been redeposited, the adult remains may belong to this individual. Sex Determination Male sex was established through the right greater sciatic notch and the left pubic bone. The pubic bone had a straight, round ischio-pubic ramus ridge. The right mastoid process also indicated male sex. Measurements of both femoral heads (left: 48.81mm, right: 48.88mm) and the head of the humerus (left: 62.95mm, right: 63.25mm) also all indicate male sex. Age Estimation The age of this individual is based on the left and right pubic symphysis and the auricular surfaces. All four gave an age estimate of 45-50. The amount of ante-mortem tooth loss also indicates a slightly older individual. Stature Seven of the long bones could be measured to give a stature estimation. Those were both femora (left: 482mm, right: 487mm), both humeri (left: 344mm, right: Louise C. D. Schoss 96 A.27. SKELETON 2573 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS 358mm), both ulnae (left: 287mm, right: 292mm) and the left radius (270mm). All of these measurements give an estimated stature of 179cm. Dental Pathology Only six teeth were still present in the mandible and all were worn but no cavities were present. The left canine was missing but the socket was present so it was probably lost post-mortem. All other sockets show signs of healing indicating ante-mortem tooth loss of all four incisors, the left second pre-molar, the right canine, the right first and second premolar and the right first molar. Pathology Arthritis was present in the left and right elbow, especially on the ulna, both patellae, the articular facets of the ribs, in both shoulders on the humeral heads and in both wrists on the ulna, radius, carpals and metacarpals. There was also arthritis in the vertebrae, which lead to severe osteophytosis which in turn lead to osseous ankylosis where two sets of two vertebrae were fused together. The fused vertebrae were thoracics nine and ten and the twelfth thoracic and the additional thoracic/ lumbar vertebra. There was also extensive lipping in all lumbar vertebrae and the thoracics up to T6. The cervical vertebrae showed few signs of arthritis although there was some lipping on the dens of C2. The additional vertebra is on the border between the lumbar and thoracics. Because the arch is damaged and the articular facets are missing it is impossible to tell for sure whether it is an extra lumbar or thoracic. It has, however, got no rib articulation facets, which would indicate that it is an additional lumbar vertebra. This man also had lesions on his skull, the largest of which was located on the left side of the frontal bone crossing over the coronal suture onto the left parietal. Further smaller lesions and porosity were located on the left and right parietal. This individual suffered from blunt force trauma to the head. The point of impact is indicated by a stellate fracture on the posterior, right parietal just above the lambdoidal suture. Radiating fractures extend from this point into the right parietal, across the lambdoidal suture into the occipital bone and across the sagital suture into the left parietal bone. There were no signs of healing which may suggest that this trauma to the skull was the cause of death. A.27 Skeleton Number 2573 Sex: Female Age: 20-25 General Description These remains were damaged by a later building trench, which extended though the middle of this burial. The long bones on the right side of the body were Louise C. D. Schoss 97 A.27. SKELETON 2573 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS all damaged, and the ulna and radius were missing completely. The femur only consisted of the distal end as did the fibula, the tibia on the other hand was missing its proximal half. The right humerus was the most complete long bone of this skeleton. On the left body side the fibula was missing its proximal end and the tibia only consisted of the distal third. Apart from a small midshaft fragment of the ulna all other long bones were missing. The vertebral column was complete from C1 all the way down to T7, T12 was also present but all other vertebrae were missing. Six right ribs and two left ribs could be identified. No pelvic fragments were recovered. The right clavicle was complete and parts of the right scapula were present. Two unsided metacarpals were recovered along with one hand phalanx. The feet consisted of three left metatarsals, and seven foot phalanges. A damaged but complete mandible, the right temporal bone, fragments of both parietals and the frontal and occipital bones represented the skull. There were also two foetal bones present, a right radius and a damaged tibia. For this individual there were also further remains from the grave cut. These included the right talus, fragments of the femur and tibia and some foot and hand phalanges. These remains probably belonged to this individual. Sex Determination The sex of this individual was determined to be female based on the presence of a septal aperture in the right humerus and the size of the right mastoid process. Finally the presence of foetal bones would also suggest that this individual was a woman. Age Estimation The age of this individual is based on the fusion of epiphysis. All the long bones had already fused, the vertebrae and the ribs, however, were just in the process of fusing indicating an age of just under 25. The medial clavicle had also not fused. Dental Pathology Of the teeth present none showed any signs of caries. There was sever calculus formation of the lingual surfaces of the lower left and lower right first molars. There was also a line of enamel hypoplasia on the lower right second pre-molar. Pathology This individual suffered from an infection, which affected the right mastoid process and the surrounding area of the temporal and occipital bone. Pitting and bone remodelling was observed in these areas. This infection may have started as mas- toiditis as the air cavities of the mastoid process are exposed. The infection then seems to have spread to C1, as there is pitting and bone growth on the superior Louise C. D. Schoss 98 A.28. SKELETON 2686 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS left facet. Further there is some hypertrophic bone development on the internal surface of the neural arch. The Foetal Bones Because of the destruction of the pelvic area by the building trench only two of the foetal bones were recovered. The right radius was complete so that the length could be measured to allow an age estimation of the foetus. The radius was 26.5mm long indicating an age of 20 weeks for the foetus. The right tibia was too damaged to give any measurements. A.28 Skeleton Number 2686 Sex: Female Age: 30-35 Stature: 162cm General Description This skeleton is again in very good condition and nearly complete. All of the long bones were complete except for the left fibula which was missing its proximal end. The vertebral column was complete from the second thoracic downwards and some fragments of the second cervical vertebra were present all other vertebrae were missing. Of the ribs 10 could be identified to be from the right side and 11 from the left. Both the left and right os coxa were complete and in very good condition as was the sacrum although the coccyx was missing. The sternum, the clavicles and both patellae were also there, the scapulae were present but damaged and incomplete. The hands were also well represented with all metacarpals present, seven left and two right carpals and nineteen phalanges. The feet consisted of four metatarsals on each foot with the right second and left fifth missing, and five tarsals on each side but only six phalanges. The skull was damaged but it was possible to reconstruct the calvarium, the face, however, was completely missing. The mandible was complete and a few fragments of the maxilla were also present. Sex Determination Female sex was determined using the pelvis and the mastoid processes. In the pelvis the greater sciatic notch, sub-pubic concavity, the sharp ischio-pubic ra- mus ridge and the presence of the pre-auricular sulcus all suggested female sex. The mastoid processes were also very small. The measurements of the femoral heads (left: 46.33mm, right: 45.23mm) were not determinate of sex and the mea- surements for the head of the humerus (right: 43.79mm) also only gave a ‘F?’. However, with the very clear female morphology of the pelvis it is clear that these are the remains of a woman. Louise C. D. Schoss 99 A.29. SKELETON 2693 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS Age Estimation The age of this individual is based on the pubic symphyses and the auricular surfaces. Both the left and right side of the os coxa could be used for age deter- mination. The pubic symphyses gave and age of 25-35 while the auricular surface gave an age of 30-40. Therefore an age range of 30-35 fits both the age estimates. Dental pathology There was some slight dental crowding among the incisors in the mandible. There was also a cavity in the upper left second premolar. Pathology There was some arthritis on the articular facets of the ribs. This woman also had some trauma to one of her toes as one of the medial phalanges was malformed. Stature The stature was calculated using measurements of both tibiae (let: 347mm , right: 345mm ), femora (left: 439mm, right: 439mm), ulnae (left: 239mm, right: 247.5mm), humeri (left: 314.5mm, right: 324mm), and the right radius (228mm). These measurements gave and estimated stature of 162cm. Other This woman had a six segment sacrum, which also lead to an extra articulation between the right ilium and the sacrum. A.29 Skeleton Number 2693 Sex: ? Age: 10-12 General Description These were the skeletal remains of a child and were in good condition. The long bones were all present although some were damaged and some of the epiphyses were missing. The lumbar vertebrae were complete, but only eight thoracic arches and one body were recovered, of the cervical vertebrae only fragments of the atlas and axis were present. Of the present ribs nine were right and six were left. The pelvis was missing the left pubis and the right ilium was damaged the rest was complete and the sacrum consisted of five sacral segments. The scapulae were fragmentary, the clavicles were also damaged and neither of the patellae were present nor was the sternum. The hands consisted of eight carpals, eight metacarpals and ten phalanges. The feet were represented by four tarsals, one metatarsal and three phalanges. The skull was almost complete. Louise C. D. Schoss 100 A.30. SKELETON 2720 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS Further hand phalanges were recovered from the grave cut. All were immature and are therefore likely to belong to this individual. Sex Determination As with the other immature individuals determining the sex was not attempted. Age Estimation The age of this individual is based on dental eruption and the diaphyseal length of the long bones. The dental eruption pattern gave an age range of 9-12 years. The measurements of the long bones gave a range of 9-13 years. Dental Pathology The teeth of this individual were in good condition. The noticeable characteristic was a large diastema between the upper medial incisors. Pathology There was possibly some trauma to the right shoulder but the area was to dam- aged and weathered to tell for sure. But there was twisting of the proximal humerus diaphysis and some bone growth on humeral head epiphysis. The skull of this child was crushed, there were green bone fractures originating on the right parietal and crossing the sagital suture there were also fractures on the left side of the occipital bone. There were also lesions on the skull on the right parietal and frontal bone. Additional to the lesions there were holes in the left parietal and occipital bones. The edges of the holes were smooth and rounded indicat- ing healing. The one on the parietal bone appeared to be the more recent as it showed less healing. The holes were most likely cranial fistula formed to facilitate the drainage of brain abscesses. A.30 Skeleton Number 2720 Sex: Male Age: 25-35 Stature: 173cm General Description This skeleton was in good condition although the right side was more damaged than the left. The left long bones were all present with minor damage, on the right side the radius was completely missing and the ulna was only represented by its proximal end. All other right long bones were present but damaged. The vertebral column was complete from the second thoracic downwards plus the atlas and some fragments of the axis. Eleven right ribs and six left ribs were identified. Louise C. D. Schoss 101 A.31. SKELETON 2790 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS Of the os coxa only the left one was present and complete as was the sacrum. The scapulae were equally damaged on both sides, the patellae and clavicles were all complete and the sternum consisted of the manubrium. The left hand was again more complete than the right. On the left side all five metacarpals and six carpals were present, whereas on the right side there were only three metacarpals and three carpals. The feet were also in very good condition with all ten metatarsals present and five right and six left tarsals. The hands also presented seven phalanges and the feet sixteen. The skull was in very good condition it was possible to reconstruct it. Sex Determination Sex determination for this individual is based on skull morphology and the left os coxa. The glabella and the supra-orbital margin were intermediate the mastoid processes and the nuchal crest were all clearly male. The greater sciatic notch and the straight sub-pubic ramus plus the curved sacrum also indicated male sex. This was further supported by the measurements of the left femoral head (52.5mm) and the head of the right humerus (51.19mm). Age Estimation The age for this individual is based on the left auricular surface, which gave an estimated age of 25-35. The third molars had erupted but showed hardly any wear. Also on the medial end of the left clavicle a line was still visible where the epiphysis had just fused. This gives and age estimation of 25-35. Pathology This individual suffered from mastoiditis on both sides, which lead to exposure of the air cavities in both mastoid processes and porosity of the surrounding bone. This man also suffered a fracture to the distal half of the midshaft of his left tibia. The fracture healed nicely and was only visible through slight thickening of the bone in that area. Stature The stature was calculated from measurements of the left femur (467mm), left tibia (379mm) and the right humerus (331mm). These measurements give an estimated stature of 173cm. A.31 Skeleton Number 2790 Sex: Female Age: 35-45 Louise C. D. Schoss 102 A.32. SKELETON 2791 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS General Description These skeletal remains were fragmentary and damaged. All long bones were damaged and the left radius and femur were completely missing. The right side of the body was generally more complete than the left. The vertebral column was in fairly good condition with only C1, C3, C4 and T2 missing. The ribs were also very fragmentary but eight right and five left ribs could be sided. The left os coxa was not present and the right one was damaged and missing the pubic bone, the sacrum was present though damaged. The scapulae were fragmentary, the left clavicle damaged the right one complete. The right patella was present the left one missing. The right hand had all five metacarpals but all were damaged, no left metacarpals were recovered. There were seven right and four left carpals and a total of nine phalanges. The feet were in a worse state with just a fragment of a fifth metatarsal, two right and four left tarsals and no phalanges. Of the skull only the right half of the mandible was recovered. Sex Determination The female sex for this individual is based on just the right greater sciatic notch and the measurement of the right femoral head (40.41mm). Age Estimation The age for this woman is based on the right auricular surface, which gave and estimate of 35-45 years of age. Dental Pathology Of the few teeth present four had dental calculus. The lower right medial incisor and the lower right canine had calculus on the labial surface. The lower right first and second molars had severe dental calculus on the lingual surface. The lower right second premolar broke off antemortem this tooth also showed signs of caries, which had spread from a severe cavity on the lower right first and second molars. This cavity was located at the base the teeth and had penetrated the two teeth to far that the buccal root was visible. Pathology There was some arthritis on the right transverse processes of the eighth and tenth thoracic vertebrae. There had also been some trauma to the right wrist whereby the hamulus had been detached from the hamate and fused onto the pisiform. A.32 Skeleton Number 2791 Sex: Male? Age: Adult Stature: 178cm Louise C. D. Schoss 103 A.33. SKELETON 2792 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS General Description These remains were very fragmentary and incomplete. The left leg was the most complete of all body parts with femur, tibia and fibula present but all damaged. Only a distal fragment was present of the right femur, the tibia was present in fragments and the right fibula was completely missing. The only arm bone was a mid-shaft fragment of a humerus. A fragment of a lumbar vertebra was the only piece of the vertebral column, and only one left rib could be identified. The pelvis only consisted of fragments of the left ilium, ischium and sacrum. The left patella was complete, the right one just a fragment. Neither of the scapulae nor the clavicles were present. The hands consisted of three right and two left metacarpals, four right and three left carpals and eight phalanges. The feet were represented by three right and four left metatarsals, five right and five left tarsals and two phalanges. No skull fragments were recovered for this individual. Sex Determination Because of the fragmentation of these remains, the sex determination is based on the size of those bones available. The bones of the feet in particular were very large and robust. It was therefore concluded that these were most likely the remains of a man. Age Estimation Again the determination of age was difficult because of the incompleteness. Based on the fusion of all available epiphysis it was concluded that this was an adult individual, no more exact age estimation could be made. Stature The stature for this individual is based on the measurements of the metatarsals and metacarpals. These measurements gave and estimated stature of 178cm. Pathology A nodule of bone was located on the distal, dorsal side of the first phalanx of the right thumb, which may have been caused by trauma. A.33 Skeleton Number 2792 Sex: Female Age: 35-40 Stature: 160cm Louise C. D. Schoss 104 A.33. SKELETON 2792 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS General Description This skeleton had the most complete skull of all, and although the post-cranium was not in as good a condition as the skull it was still fairly complete. All long bones were present but most had sustained some damage. The vertebral column was missing all vertebrae from T12 downwards and also C7. C3 and C4 were fragmentary as was T11. Only six rib fragments could be sided, four were right and two were left. The pelvis was quite fragmentary especially the ilium of both sides. The left pubis was missing but the right one was complete, as was the right ischium. The sacrum was also very damaged. Both scapulae and clavicles were damaged but present and the sternum was very fragmentary. The patellae were present and complete. The hands were in fairly good condition, consisting of one right and three left carpals, three right and four left metacarpals and a total of twenty-four phalanges. The feet on the other hand were surprisingly complete with a full set of fourteen tarsals and ten metatarsals and nineteen phalanges. As mentioned before the skull was the most complete and in very good condition. Sex Determination The sex for this individual was determined using pelvis and skull morphology. In the pelvis the left greater sciatic notch and the right pubic bone suggested female sex. The pubic bone had a ventral arc, sub-pubic concavity and a sharp ischio-pubic ramus ridge. The left ilium also had a pre-auricular sulcus. The skull gave a more mixed picture of the sex with large mastoid processes and a large mental eminence and a large occipital bun. There was, however, no glabella and a sharp supra-orbital margin. Despite the mixed messages from the skull, the clear female morphology of the pelvis indicates that this individual was a woman. Age Estimation The age for this individual is based on the right pubic symphysis and the left auricular surface, both of which give and age of 35-40. Although the amount of dental wear may suggest that the age was more towards the end of this age estimate. Stature The stature was calculated using measurements of the left and right tibia (left: 345mm, right: 351.5mm) and the left humerus (310mm). These measurements give and estimated stature of 160cm. Dental Pathology The teeth of this individual were very worn especially in the maxilla. There was also a very large cavity in the occlusal surface of the upper left second and third molar, which extended all the way down through the tooth to the roots. Louise C. D. Schoss 105 A.34. SKELETON 2869 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS Pathology This woman suffered from mastoiditis in both mastoids. The infection was also affecting the surrounding bone including the condyles of the mandible. The infection had resorbed most of the bone in the mastoid processes, especially the left one. There were also some small lesions on the right and left parietal bones and some porosity on the inside of the right parietal. Other This individual had a very large occipital bun. Also the sagital and the coronal suture were almost obliterated, despite the relatively young age of the individual. A.34 Skeleton Number 2869 Sex: Male Age: Adult Stature: 180cm General Description This individual was not very complete but those bones present were in good con- dition. The left humerus was the only long bone missing, and only the right femur and left fibula were damaged. All other long bones were in perfect condi- tion. The vertebral column was missing the 3rd cervical vertebra all others were present. Nine right and five left ribs could be identified. The pelvis and sacrum were very fragmentary consisting of parts of the left ilium and ischium. The left clavicle was also partially present, the right clavicle both scapulae and patellae were missing. The sternum, however, was near complete only the manubrium was absent. The hands were represented by two right and one left metacarpals, three right and two left carpals and fourteen phalanges. The feet on the other hand were surprisingly complete with all ten metatarsals, six right and six left tarsals and fifteen phalanges. The skull only consisted of fragments of the occipital, the left parietal and the left half of the mandible. Sex Determination Because of the lack of skull and the fragmentation of the pelvis the sex of this individual could only be determined through measurements. The left femoral head (46.22mm) indicates male sex. The measurement of the right humerus head (44.19mm) is intermediate. The complete lengths of the long bones and the calculated stature (180cm) all indicate male sex. It seems that this man was tall, but not very robust. Louise C. D. Schoss 106 A.35. SKELETON 2924 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS Age Estimation Because of the lack of the pubic symphysis or the auricular surfaces the age could only be determined to be adult. Stature The good condition of most of the long bones meant that nine bones could be measured for stature estimation. The right humerus (345mm), the right (272mm) and left (270mm) radius, both ulnae (right: 293.5mm, left: 293mm), the right (405.5mm) and left (405mm) tibiae, the left femur (472mm) and the right fibula (392.5mm). All together they gave an average stature of 179.7cm. Pathology There was arthritis in the left and right elbow on the articulation surface of the ulnae. The transverse processes of the thoracic vertebrae were enlarged which lead to the flaring of the rib ends and some extra bone development. The cause of this is unknown. The lumbar vertebrae also had concavity of the superior surface in L5, L4, L3 and L2. Additional to that there were also Schmorl’s nodes present on the superior surface of T11 and on the inferior surface of T7. A.35 Skeleton Number 2924 Sex: Female Age: 16 Stature: 153.5cm General Description This teenage individual was in a double burial with 2559. The arm bones of both sides were complete apart from the left humerus, which was missing, as were the distal epiphyses of the right radius and ulna. The legs were more fragmentary the complete left leg and the right tibia were not available and the right femur was missing its distal epiphysis and the fibula was missing both the distal and proximal epiphyses. The cervical vertebrae were completely missing, but all twelve thoracic and five lumbar vertebral bodies were recovered along with fifteen fragments of the thoracic arches and eight fragments of the lumbar arches. Only four right ribs could be identified. The sacrum consisted of three bodies and one arch. The os coxa was more complete on the right side, with only the pubis being incomplete. On the left side only the pubic bone was present. The scapulae were both incomplete but present, the clavicles were both absent, as was the left patella the right one was damaged. The sternum consisted of one sternebrae. The hands were represented by five carpals and four metacarpals and seven phalanges. The feet were not so well preserved with only two tarsals and metatarsals and no phalanges. No skull fragments were recovered for this individual. Louise C. D. Schoss 107 A.36. SKELETON 3122 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS Sex Determination Because this individual had just gone through puberty the determination of sex was attempted. The right greater sciatic notch suggested the female sex. Also the pattern of epiphysis fusion matched that of a girl. Although this individual was likely to still grow, the size and length of the long bones also supported the female sex for this individual. Age Estimation The age for this individual is based solely on the fusion of the epiphyses, which all matched the age estimate of 16 at the time of death. Stature Although this girl was still young and was likely to continue growing had it not been for her death, a stature estimation was still attempted. Measurements were taken from the right humerus (292mm) and the right radius (215mm), which gave and estimated stature of 153.5cm. Pathology There were no signs of disease or trauma in this skeleton. A.36 Skeleton Number 3122 Sex: Male Age: 30-40 Stature: 164cm General Description These remains came from a grave that was not fully excavated, but as there was still a fair amount of material available, so an analysis was performed. On the right side all the long bones, except the humerus, were present though many were damaged. Of the left side only midshaft fragments of the radius and femur were present. The vertebral column was very incomplete and consisted of one cervical fragment and L5. Only three rib fragments were recovered. The pelvis consisted of the right pubic bone and the left ilium and ischium, while the sacrum was missing. The right clavicle and the left scapula were partially present while the sternum and both patellae were absent. There were two unsided, and one right metacarpal and two proximal hand phalanges. The feet consisted of one right metatarsal and the left navicular. The skull consisted of the right temporal and maxilla. Louise C. D. Schoss 108 A.36. SKELETON 3122 APPENDIX A. SKELETAL REMAINS Sex Determination The sex determination was a bit ambiguous for this individual.The right mastoid process was small, indicating female sex. The right pubic bone, however, was rounded and showed no ventral arc, which would suggest male sex. The measure- ment of the right femoral head (49.2mm) is very clearly male. The measurement of the total length of the right femur and radius, again suggest female sex as they are rather short, which is reflected in the calculated stature (see below). Because of the pelvic morphology and the robusticity of the bones and size of the linea aspera all indicate male sex, he just seems to have been small in stature. Age Estimation The age of this individual is based on the right pubic symphysis which gave an estimate of 30 to 40 years. The teeth are very worn which may suggest an age towards the higher end of the estimate. Stature The stature was calculated from measurements taken from the right femur (422.5mm) and the right radius (230mm) which give a height of 164cm. Dental Pathology Only the right part of the maxilla survived from the canine onwards. Only the canine and the first pre-molar were present and were both very worn. The first molar had been lost antemortem. All other teeth were missing but their sockets were present. Pathology The only pathology noticed in the available remains for this individual was the lightness of the fifth lumbar vertebra and some porosity on its surface. Further examination and x-rays will be needed to discern the cause. Louise C. D. Schoss 109 Appendix B Description of the Unstratified Bone Because of time constraints, the unstratified bone has not yet been analysed in detail. An inventory of all identifiable bones and fragments has been taken which is listed in the following section. Those bones displaying trauma and disease have been noted. Also the teeth were included in the calculation of the dental caries frequency. However, the minimum number of individuals (MNI) still has to be established. It may also be possible to reunite some of these fragments with their original grave, if the lines of ploughing can be established, and which trenches truncated which burials. B.1 Foetal Remains All of the foetal remains described in the following section were recovered from pits, the possible reasons for this are explored in the discussion. The foetal bones are the only bones of the unstratified bone which have been analysed because of their importance to the demography of the population. B.1.1 Foetal Remains: 1364A & 1364B Age: 22-24 weeks These are the remains of two foetuses which were found in a domestic pit. The bones that were recovered were in very good condition and only two of the bones were damaged. The skeletons consisted of three humeri, two right and one left, one right ulna and a right scapula, two femora also a left and a right and two tibiae also one of each side. Because of the three humeri and the size difference of the two tibiae and because they were buried together, it was concluded that these remains are those of twins. Measurements of the bones gave a pre-natal age of 22-24 weeks. It seems likely that the mother had a miscarriage towards the end of her fifth month of pregnancy, possibly because she was pregnant with twins. Whether the mother survived or not is unclear, although the fact that the 110 B.1. FOETAL REMAINS APPENDIX B. UNSTRATIFIED BONE foetal bones were not associated with a female grave but disposed of in a pit may indicate that the mother survived. Measurements Humerus left: 36.45mm Distal width: 9.3mm Humerus right: 35.94mm Distal width: 9.46mm Humerus right: 31.91mm Ulna right: 32.8mm Femur right: 37.51mm Distal width: 9.57mm Femur left: 37.91mm Distal width: 9.86mm Tibia right: 32.57 Tibia left: damaged Scapula right: Length: 19.41mm Width: 15.64mm Length of spine: 16.67mm B.1.2 Foetal Remains 1344B Age: 36-37 weeks These remains were also recovered from a pit, but only consist of a right humerus. The length of the humerus (49.8mm) gives an age of 37-38 weeks. This would indicate that it was possibly a near full-term still birth. The distal end of the bone was slightly damaged so that the measurement of the distal width could not be taken. B.1.3 Foetal Remains 1344C Age: 36-37 weeks These remains consist of a left and right femur. The measurements of the left (66.5mm) and right (65.9mm) femur, as well as the distal width of the left (16.7mm) and right (16.4)mm femur give an age of 36 to 37 weeks. This would again suggest a near full-term still birth. B.1.4 Foetal Remains 2645 Age: 36 weeks These foetal remains were represented by the distal half of a humerus and the proximal half of a femur. The width of the distal humerus (14.46mm) gave an age of 36 weeks. This foetus appears to be another near full-term still birth. Louise C. D. Schoss 111 B.2. FURTHER REMAINS APPENDIX B. UNSTRATIFIED BONE B.1.5 Foetal Remains 3069 Age: 39 - 40 weeks The remains of this foetus consisted only of the proximal end of a femur. Because there is no measurement for estimating age from the proximal femur, it was compared to other foetal remains to give a rough estimate of age. The proximal width of the 3069 femur is 15.59mm and the 1344C proximal femur 14.6mm. This would indicate that the 3069 foetus was older than the others and probably full term. B.2 Further Remains The following tables and sections describe the bones and fragments recovered from trenches and pits or the top soil and which were not associated with any insitu burials. B.2.1 Other unstratified remains 2168: Articulated Foot Along with the other unarticulated bone listed below under 2168, came an artic- ulated left foot. This foot consisted of the talus, cuboid and first cuneiform all metatarsals except for the first and two medial phalanges. These remains were from and adult. Which of the bones listed below belonged to the foot is not clear. 1107B All of these remains were those of adults. The MNI established for these co- mingled remains was three, based on three mandible fragments, all with the mental eminence present. The other bones present were fragments from the femora, tibiae, humeri, radii, ulnae and fibulae. Fragments of sternum, clavi- cles and scapulae were also there. Further fragments included cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, pelvis, sacrum and coccyx. Metatarsals, tarsals and foot phalanges were also present as were metacarpals, carpals and hand phalanges. Some rib fragments were also available, as were nineteen cranial fragments plus the three mandibles mentioned above. Some of the bones were those of a male based on size, others could not be sexed. One of the mandibles and a fragment of maxilla displayed complete antemortem tooth loss, indicating that this was an older individual. A midshaft part of a femur displayed extensive rodent gnawing. B.2.2 Pathology in Unstratified remains 2168 These remains displayed an atrophied medial hand phalanx, probably caused by amputation of the finger tip. A medial and a distal foot phalanges were fused together, most likely the result of trauma. One thoracic vertebra displayed Louise C. D. Schoss 112 B.2. FURTHER REMAINS APPENDIX B. UNSTRATIFIED BONE Schmorl’s nodes in the superior and inferior surfaces. Some of the cranial frag- ments displayed porosity and possibly internal lesions. 1105B There was a depression in the right first rib with arthritic change to the frontal articular surface. Similar changes can be seen on the manubrium. The cause of the depression on the rib is unknown, although it may be related to the arthritic changes. More osteoarthritis was visible in the thoracic vertebrae and rib artic- ulation facets as well as the first distal foot phalanx. There were also internal cranial lesions visible on some of the cranial fragments. 1107 A left clavicle displayed pitting on the medial surface. A pisiform displayed serious osteoarthritis with osteophytosis. Because of the fragmented and mixed nature of the remains no more exact diagnosis to the cause or extent of the pathology could be made. From top soil A fragment of a proximal right ulna with a cut, caused by a sharp edged weapon, such as a sword. 3 A 5th metacarpal with a fracture which lead to a shortening of the bone and hypertrophic bone development. 2040 Two thoracic vertebrae with Schmorl’s nodes. 2370 One thoracic vertebra with a Schmorl’s node. 2673 A left mastoid process with possible mastoiditis. This mastoid did not display the exposure of air cavities seen in other cases but did have the groove extending from the posterior of the process in a superior direction. B.2.3 Tables of unstratified remains Louise C. D. Schoss 113 B.2. FURTHER REMAINS APPENDIX B. UNSTRATIFIED BONE Year ID Bones B04 1344a infant femur B04 1344b right calcaneus B04 1111 Molar B04 1734 1st metacarpal fragment B04 3 2 ribs, 5th metacarpal with healed fracture and hypertrhophic bone development, proximal hand phalanx B04 1212 lumbar vertebra B04 1156 occipital bone fragment B04 1734 patella fragment B04 1168 occipital bone fragment B04 1344c thoracic vertebra B04 1114 proximal hand phalanx (new, not A-S) B04 1363 right mandible B04 1779 1st proximal foot phalanx B04 3 dens of axis BH03 121 molar B04 1260 pre-molar BH03 34 medial hand phalanx B04 1110 medial hand phalanx B04 1168a body of lumbar vertebra B04 1212 right talus B04 1184 lumbar vertebra B04 1168 proximal hand phalanx B04 1224 right scapula B04 518 midshaft fragment ulna B04 1116 femoral head B04 1720 fragment of acetabulum Louise C. D. Schoss 114 B.2. FURTHER REMAINS APPENDIX B. UNSTRATIFIED BONE Year ID Bones B04 582 distal tibia, canine, axis B04 1156 right mandible BH03 3 child: 2 lumbar vertebrae, ilium, Adult: right ulna, proximal hand phalanx, atlas, 3 thoracic vertebrae BH03 2 right mandible with antemortem tooth loss B04 1156 left patella, body thoracic vertebra, molar, femoral head frag., proximal & 2 medial hand phalanges, midshaft frag. fibula, scapula B04 1156 2 thoracic vertebrae, right maxilla, 2 ribs BH03 260 juvenile humerus and radius B04 1156 right temporal, left mandible, frontal bone, midshaft fragment femur B04 1156 left calcaneus, frag. Occipital, rib, 3 fibula frag., cervical vertebra, B04 1198 incisor, pre-molar, 2 thoracic vertebrae, cranial frag., proximal hand phalanx, metatarsal (burnt), long bone fragment B04 539 distal femur BH03 8 left patella, midshaft frag. femur, ilium B04 1260 humerus B04 1156 acromion, canine, distal hand phalanx, 2 metatarsals, long bone frag. BH03 6 mandible +12 teeth, left patella, 2x left calcaneus, 3 thoracic vertebrae,6 ribs, proximal hand phalanx, metatarsal, midshaft frag. Ulna, juvenile proximal radius B04 1145 remains of infant: 3 vertebrae, ribs, incisor B04 1156 2x clavicle, left calcaneus, maxilla, juvenile mandible, 6 adult cranial frag.,13 juvenile cranial frag., 3 juvenile teeth, 6 adult teeth, mandibular condyle,4 vertebrae, metatarsal, cuboid, 14 long bone fragments, rib, petrous portion B05 3141 midshaft fragment fibula B05 2818 fragment of occipital bone B05 2873 left patella B05 2812 Medial hand phalanx B05 2874 right talus B04 1344 right calcaneus B05 3093 fragment right mandible B05 3087 lumbar vertebra B05 2805 fragment of body of vertebra B05 2577 proximal right ulna B05 2147 left talus B05 2995 right talus B05 2040 proximal foot phalanx B05 2894 Medial hand phalanx (new, not A-S) Louise C. D. Schoss 115 B.2. FURTHER REMAINS APPENDIX B. UNSTRATIFIED BONE Year ID Bones B05 3069 proximal hand phalanx B05 2100 medial foot phalanx B05 2760 lumbar vertebra B05 2040 2 thoracic vertebrae with Schmorl’s nodes B05 2028 thoracic vertebra B05 2575 vertebra fragment B05 2239 midshaft fragment radius B05 2102 midshaft fragment fibula, medial hand phalanx B05 2899 3rd molar, canine B05 2899 medial hand phalanx, infant proximal ulna B05 2900 proximal fibula B05 2370 thoracic vertebra with Schmorl’s nodes B05 2900 canine, 3 proximal hand phalanges, right mandible condyle, 2 vertebra frag., distal humerus, right calcaneus, cuboid frag. B05 2579 right patella, 1st metacarpal, 2 metatarsal frag., clavicle frag., left prox.ulna, distal humerus B05 2010 distal hand phalanx B05 2683 metatarsal fragment B05 2012 molar BH03 92 left scapula B05 2166 molar B05 2167 juvenile ilium B05 4039 proximal tibia, premolar, proximal ulna B05 2024 juvenile humerus B05 2167 frontal bone, tibia fragment B05 2679 rib, distal ulna, proximal ulna 2 frag., right ilium B05 2001 mandible B05 2295 right talus B05 2237 1st metatarsal (medieval) B05 2854 left patella, proximal hand phalanx BH03 96 proximal hand phalanx B05 3091 distal foot phalanx BH03 89 molar, distal & proximal humerus, midshaft fragments ulna B05 2896 distal femur, proximal hand phalanx B05 2962 molar BH03 89 molar, right clavicle, right patella, 2 midshaft frag. Tibia, medial hand phalanx, midshaft fragment ulna, long bone frag., fragment ilium BH03 224 canine, proximal left ulna, midshaft fragment ulna Louise C. D. Schoss 116 B.2. FURTHER REMAINS APPENDIX B. UNSTRATIFIED BONE Year ID Bones BH03 89 right patella, mandible frag., molar, medial & proximal hand phalanges,femur midshaft frag.,2 rib frag, 4 long bone frag. BH03 69 incisor, right clavicle, metatarsal, proximal humerus, humerus midshaft fragment, rib B05 2997 6 cranial fragments from occipital and left parietal B05 2688 adolescent proximal radius , 8 cranial frag. ,ilium fragment, midshaft frag. ulna, frag. proximal radius, top soil infant fibula top soil right proximal ulna with weapon wound top soil talus top soil right talus B05 2107 2 proximal hand phalanges B05 2104 cranial fragment, metatarsal B05 2230 canine, metacarpal, 3 unidentified fragments B05 2569 molar, incisor, canine B05 2104 proximal & medial hand phalanges, midshaft fragment tibia B05 2104 4 metatarsals, 3 proximal foot phalanges, 1 proximal hand phalanx, right calcaneus, 8 long bone fragments B05 2231 left patella, medial hand phalanx, cranial fragment B05 2230 rib, cranial frag., 2 navicular frag., 3 longbone frag., humerus frag., 2 metatarsals, 4 prox. hand phalanges, 9 cranial frag. B05 2570 child: left femur with epiphyses (231mm = 6 years) maxilla (7 years), left & right orbits with cribra orbitalia, 11 cranial frag., incisor, metacarpal, sacral segment. adult: fragment of distal humerus, 2 cranial frag. adult or child: 3 cranial frag., 3 long bone frag. B05 2673 5 rib fragments, left mastoid process canal posterior to the mastoid process, 2 cranial frag., long bone frag. distal 1st hand phalanx, incisor B05 2168 Maxillae, zygomatic, temporals, molar, sphenoid, occipital, parietal, scapulae, lumbar, thoracic, ulna, radius, tibia, carpals, metacarpals, hand phalnages, ribs, fibula humerus, calcaneus, ischium Table B.1: Unstratified human remains Louise C. D. Schoss 117 Appendix C Statistics and Recording Forms C.1 Chi-square tables The following section gives all the chi-square tables used to determine whether the differences between the samples were significant or not. Demography Sex Statistical comparison of the males, females and unsexed individuals of the three samples. 118 C.1. CHI TABLES APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS Louise C. D. Schoss 119 C.1. CHI TABLES APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS Louise C. D. Schoss 120 C.1. CHI TABLES APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS Louise C. D. Schoss 121 C.1. CHI TABLES APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS Louise C. D. Schoss 122 C.1. CHI TABLES APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS Age Statistical comparison of the age groups between the three samples. Louise C. D. Schoss 123 C.1. CHI TABLES APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS Louise C. D. Schoss 124 C.1. CHI TABLES APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS Louise C. D. Schoss 125 C.1. CHI TABLES APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS Louise C. D. Schoss 126 C.1. CHI TABLES APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS Louise C. D. Schoss 127 C.1. CHI TABLES APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS Louise C. D. Schoss 128 C.1. CHI TABLES APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS Louise C. D. Schoss 129 C.1. CHI TABLES APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS Louise C. D. Schoss 130 C.1. CHI TABLES APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS Louise C. D. Schoss 131 C.1. CHI TABLES APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS Pathology Disease Statistical comparison of the disease frequencies between the three samples. Louise C. D. Schoss 132 C.1. CHI TABLES APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS Louise C. D. Schoss 133 C.1. CHI TABLES APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS Trauma Statistical comparison of the trauma frequencies between the three samples. Louise C. D. Schoss 134 C.1. CHI TABLES APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS Louise C. D. Schoss 135 C.1. CHI TABLES APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS Bishopstone Louise C. D. Schoss 136 C.1. CHI TABLES APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS Louise C. D. Schoss 137 C.1. CHI TABLES APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS Louise C. D. Schoss 138 C.2. RECORDING FORMS APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS C.2 Recording forms These are the forms used to record the skeletal elements present for each individ- ual. They are taken from the report provided by the BABAO and IFA [16]. Louise C. D. Schoss 139 C.2. RECORDING FORMS APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS Louise C. D. Schoss 140 C.2. RECORDING FORMS APPENDIX C. STATISTICS AND FORMS Louise C. D. Schoss 141 Bibliography [1] Leslie Alcock. Economy, Society and Warfare among the Britons and Saxons. University of Wales Press, 1987. [2] T. Anderson. Cranial weapon injuries from anglo-saxon dover. International Jour- nal of Osteoarchaeology, 6:10–14, 1996. [3] T. Anderson. Congenital conditions and neoplastic disease in british palaeopathol- ogy. In M Cox and S. Mays, editors, Human Osteology in Archaeology and Forensic Science, pages 199–226. Greenwich Medical Media Ltd., 2000. [4] J.R. Armstrong. A history of Sussex. Philimore&Co. Ltd., 1974. [5] Bernardo T. Arriaza. 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