Gift, Exchange and Trust

University of Warsaw Faculty of History Julia Maria Koszewska Student nr: 202 562 Gift, Exchange and Trust Information (its role, management and access to information) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks Master thesis in Information and Knowledge Management on the Faculty of Information Science and Book Studies. Research performed under direction of prof. Mieczysław Muraszkiewicz IINiSB, WH, UW Warsaw, June 2008 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to information) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks Declaration of research tutor I declare, that the present research was conducted under my supervision and I also hereby confirm that the presented dissertation fulfills the requirements of the Master of Art/Science thesis - necessary to be further admitted to this academic degree. Oświadczam, że niniejsza praca została przygotowana pod moim kierunkiem i stwierdzam, że spełnia ona warunki do przedstawienia jej w postępowaniu o nadanie tytułu naukowego. Date Signature of research tutor Declaration of research author Aware and conscious of legal responsibility, I declare that this thesis was written by me alone and does not contain content obtained in a manner inconsistent with the applicable rules. I also declare that hereby presented research paper has not been before subject in procedures for obtaining academic degree at university. I further declare that this version of the dissertation is identical with the enclosed electronic version. Świadoma odpowiedzialności prawnej oświadczam, że niniejsza praca dyplomowa została napisana przez mnie samodzielnie i nie zawiera treści uzyskanych w sposób niezgodny z obowiązującymi przepisami. Oświadczam również, że przedstawiona praca nie była wcześniej przedmiotem procedur związanych z uzyskaniem tytułu naukowego w wyższej uczelni. Oświadczam ponadto, że niniejsza wersja pracy jest identyczna z załączoną wersją elektroniczną. Date Signature of research author 3 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to information) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks Summary Vastly growing online free-hospitality networks are a phenomenon of modern times. They have been already subject of social and peace studies, here explored from the perspective of information science. The main focus in this research, author puts on the role of information in modern society, particularly on access to information and information management as prerequisites for participative and democratic society. Both theoretically and empirically, author explores first the changes in society that were caused by popular usage of Internet, secondly introduces the phenomenon of free-hospitality as an example of modern social network, lastly explores in details functioning of these networks and throughout whole text the role of information in here. Key words information, information management, hospitality, network, society, internet, democracy, exchange, peace, free, access. Subject area (Socrates-Erasmus code) 15.900 Other Communication and Information Science Thematic ranking Information Science Title of the thesis in Polish language Dar, Wymiana i Zaufanie: Informacja (jej rola, zarządzanie i dostęp do informacji) we Współczesnym Społeczeństwie na Przykładzie Sieci Wolnej i Darmowej Gościnności. 5 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to information) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks I would like to give great thanks to all people who... ....have supported me and offered great patience and love: my Parents, my Sister, and my Boyfriend, ...have inspired me by sharing own dissertations on free-hospitality networks: Attilio Altieri of Italy and Paula Bialski of Canada; ...all who have contributed widely to the data collection for this research by answering the survey and sharing with me their free-hospitality experience; And to prof. Mieczysław Muraszkiewicz for the supervision of this research. 7 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks INTRODUCTION In the modern society the influence of new technologies is high. Although scholars discuss in which form had the society changed, no one undermines it anymore that we are influenced especially by usage of Internet. This network is accessible in our stationary computers, laptops, but also cellular phones, and other electronic products. What is more connecting through Internet is an easy operation. Nevertheless as much as it facilitates the communication, it also divides people on privileged Internet access owners and unprivileged not connected people. Through Internet we have access to loads of news and information and the access is almost immediate. Thus today the highest good became information. When I first came across the free-hospitality concept, I though it's an amazing phenomenon. The main rule is to offer hospitality (usually interpreted as place to stay) for free to a stranger in own house, and there are numerous people in the world who indeed do it. Free-hospitality merges in a perfect way the values of counter-culture of 1970s and hacker culture together with often-spoken today peace building ideas and inter-cultural dialogue. Being now widely present in Internet (as web-based and web-supported networks) it shows the history of the widespread of Internet. Moreover, studying rules of free-hospitality networks, I realised that most probably access to evaluation information – which is used as security measure in many free accommodation networks – became a replacement of law in its traditional social regulatory role. Further on when I became familiar with history of these networks and especially with the case of the newest BeWelcome, which was created because activists of two biggest networks wanted to have access to information, democratic rules and access to the source code, I realized that in general speaking access to information is becoming a part of basic human rights' catalogue. Thus in this paper I decided to present the role of information (management of the dispersed information, access to information and also role of evaluation information as a security mean) in free-hospitality networks. This is accompanied by historical draw and sociological profile of this movement. As I believe on the example of free-hospitality network we can clearly see the current and past trends of modern society influenced by usage of Internet. The dissertation is composed of three parts (chapters). The first one presents how the society has changed since computers, especially connected in network(s), became popular. I have described here also the structure, and form of organization of modern society, together with the change of social relations within: their negative and positive aspects. In addition to that I have discussed other challenges, brought by this development, such as hierarchy and system of governing, and equity. In 9 last section of this chapter, the legal challenges in application to the new technologies were described. In the second chapter I present free-hospitality networks in general: its main concept and values, the role of gift and exchange in the network as operational aspect, together with peace-building and peace-keeping objectives. Third part is focused on more detailed study on free-hospitality networks. Here I present the history of free-hospitality: from the birth of the idea to the current stage of online networks, presenting general history but also short historical note on main Internet based or supported networks existing today. Furthermore I discuss rules of the accommodation exchange and membership in the network. This is followed by description of experience of users (members), their benefits and drawbacks from the networks and security means to protect them. And on the end I present the arguments which support the statement that these networks can be interpreted as a free-hospitality movement. In contrast to the third chapter, first two are based on literature studies mainly from the range of sociology (definition of information society, sociology of Internet, role of gift and exchange) which I analyse and compare with current trends in access to information and its role in reshaping of society. The books and articles were mainly by scholars and professional experts in the field and two were student’s dissertations in sociology and, the second one, in peace studies. The last chapter relies mainly on my own field research conducted together with this paper writing. In order to collect data I have studied websites of free-hospitality networks to obtain the official information published by the networks themselves. I have also used the wiki page (which means everyone got access to contribute) called HospitalityGuide.net, where Internet users create an encyclopaedia on hospitality exchange services. Nevertheless the main data collected were from the online surveys I made. They were posted online and advertised on forums at two biggest networks: Hospitality Club and CouchSurfing. The survey was performed only between users of these two networks. These networks are not only the biggest but also have one of the most deliberated offer of services of websites among free-hospitality networks and – as observed in website studying – often users are members in more than one network. Thus I believe that the group of responders was representative sample for the general group of members of this movement. Surveys were supported by interviews with users of HC, CS, BeWelcome and leaders of Servas and Pasporta Servo. I found it interesting that although the phenomenon of free-hospitality networks was 10 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks reviewed in the social and peace studies, I haven't came across any research paper from the information studies. Thus I hope my paper can contribute here. And I believe that this phenomenon seen in wider perspective it can serve as great example of the changes currently ongoing in modern society. 11 12 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks 1. New Form of Services – New Form of Societies The academics debate on the influence of development of communication tools – especially of Internet – upon the society and relations within. Although they disagree on the form of this influence, the non-discussable is fact that this impact was (and still is) very strong. The main aim to develop communication technologies, including creation and development of Internet was to enable and facilitate information sharing. Currently, the most rated good is an access to newest information. Consequently to its growing value, modern society was named “information society”. This chapter presents recent visions, presented by various scholars of international esteem, on the new form of society shaped by new technologies. 1.1. Boxes, break down and networks – structure of modern society Post-modern, post-industrial, mass society – all these names float in the air when the current society is being described. Often made mistake in researches on the definition of new form of society is that definitions of scholars from mid- 20th century are being used. Whereas some terms used in 1950s do not suit the actual state of development, mainly because since then Internet became extremely popular and influenced social ties and relations. The most relevant to the age of Internet analysis present quit large range of interpretation. The most pessimists state that the social bonds are breaking down. The others differ from the concepts of new forms of tribalism and social communities [11] to the concept of widely spread societies of loose ties: network(-ed) societies [6][14]. The theory of new form of society is represented by Manuel Castells and Barry Wellman, Michel Maffesoli and Howard Rheingold. 1.1.1. From material to immaterial goods In the analysis of new quality of society, Manuel Castells, underline the value of information that is shared through network. In previous decades and centuries, material goods were of the highest social esteem, while today this position was taken by information. Information is a value and there is a growing (developing) infrastructure around information sharing. Furthermore networks in society are not an invention of 20th century, but the network society today is supported by new means of technology [5]. 13 Castells describes various forms of networks which are in social sphere, global economy, and culture as well as in politics and observers that today society is dominated by egocentric personality and various aspects of life are individualized, which doesn't necessary mean social isolation, rather personalization of used services and tailored made goods. Internet usage shapes also the community of its users. Castells speaks about new social groups around Internet1. When Internet reached high popularity, many believed it will be a break down of class societies and that since then everyone will be equal in access to information. This belief was only partially true. Once the access to the international network is reached, there are uncounted possibilities to enrich by access to information through this technical facilitation, nevertheless it became also a mean for exclusion, as many operations and information flow are based and aimed to be in Internet only, those who do not have access to the network are strongly excluded from participation. Further description of this aspect of society around Internet is introduced in “E-quality” and “Social relations and Internet” sections. 1.1.2. From boxes to loosely-bounded ties Barry Wellman in order to describe form of organization of society from 1960s and some following years is using (after the song by Malvina Reynolds) a term of “little boxes”, which refers to the American suburbia houses. The description of modern society he bases on the antinomy to the “little boxes”. From the groups and communities based on geographical closeness, social ties have moved to the often long-distance relations, based on selection of people one want to keep in contact, mobility (geographical but also between the networks), and possibility to belong to more than one network. Groups in the past were also based on vertical hierarchy, while networks rely on horizontal structures in which roles can be easily changed. On the contrary to M. Castells, Barry Wellman proposes the term of “networked societies”. “Little boxes were the way sociologists thought of the world then and probably the way much of the world was: bounded work and residential units hierarchically linked in cities and regions, workplaces and organizations. I suspect that the world is now more loosely-coupled, whether it be personal community networks, management by matrix, or virtual organizations. Time and space matter less; people work and commune with multiple others, switching frequently between roles and tasks, opportunities and constraints. To some extent, advances in communication and 1 In the culture of Internet, M. Castells points different groups: techno-elites, hackers, virtual communitarian, and entrepreneurs [4]. 14 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks transportation have facilitated this transformation from hierarchical boxes to loosely-coupled networks.” [14] 1.1.3. From social classes to tribes While M. Castells and B. Wellman present the vision of changes from group to network(-ed) societies, M. Maffesoli and H. Rheingold opt for the new form of commonness. Michel Maffesoli believes that the analysis of modern societies should be performed with reference to archetypical values. Today this is not any more an i.e. class that define a social identity, but there are new tribal determinants. These might be an idea, slogan or different consumer goods. What differ from old form of social organization is also the easiness of moving from one to another tribe, while in past time social borders where closed and it was almost impossible to change group. 1.1.4. From insects to modern human society The vision presented by M. Maffesoli varies from the one presented by Howard Rheingold. In various papers H. Rheingold refers to the “social swarm” term. This describes the intelligence that insects such as bees or termites possess. Without a direct interaction, animals are able to coordinate their work only through the artefacts, which are consequences of their behaviour. This observation of insects has been implemented to the human communication with new technologies. Special softwares send signs to other users a special symbol or text notification informing on the current status, place of being or often mood of concrete user. In this sense, the term of “social swarm” refers to the form of communication. The hierarchy is not necessary in this model; membership depends on either usage of certain software, or just being in the network of somebody's contacts (“social swarming” can be performed also by email or text message through cellular phones). H. Rheingold has observed that this form of communication became very popular and is used often not only to notify others on what one is currently doing, but also to mobilize people, i.e. to come and participate in social events and acts such as demonstrations. Significant for this might be the sentence: "In revolutions people used to say, 'keep your powder dry.' Now they say, 'keep your cellphone charged” [26]. 15 1.2. Social relations and Internet Internet was created as a tool to facilitate and improve communication between people and to foster professional exchange of ideas and experience. As soon as it reached high popular level scientists started a debate on the influence of the network over social relations. In the first researches it was predicted that culmination point of the Internet development and influence over society would be the creation of virtual societies, which members would communicate over the Internet [13]. Today these networks are reality and the debate is still ongoing. Although Internet still fulfils its assumption: to foster intercommunication, it was observed that - if used very often - it can lead to decrease and loosening of social ties [22]. Results of Robert Kraut's experiment shows that “intensive usage of the Internet is connected with a fall in intensity of the communication in the family, with reduced participation in the own social range and with increased feeling the loneliness, stress and depression” [20]. First this observation was enthusiastically welcomed, but later, in further debate and by further researches performed by other scientists and by Kraut's team itself [23], it was proven that R. Kraut's first observations implies only to the group of people who haven't been using Internet before. This first contact is more intense, and later people got used to this facility, and also – as the network becomes popular – more of their family members and friends join the network. So thus in further stage, it can really be interpreted as tool to facilitate social relations and contacts: especially those, which are on long geographical distance [24]. Moreover, Internet is a space, where new social relations can be started. Social aspect of Internet is not only about supporting offline contacts, but also about starting new. The specificity of the Internet is that it is relatively easy to start contact with a stranger (especially over forums, groups and online networks). It's typical for the relations who come from online space to be of a loose and not very strong form [20]. In Internet (so-called “virtual world”) people feel more encouraged to socialize and for the social and professional reasons often join other users in forms of networks. Nevertheless group form of organization is still applied to the Internet society. Manuel Castells distinguished several groups of users that create culture of Internet [4]: Techno-elites' culture is to be rooted in techno-meritocratic culture, which comes from colleges and world of science. Like in academic milieu, the reputation depends on substantive quality of scientific work, peer review as well as making all the results available and mentioning authors. In the computer milieu this applies i.e. to the open source movement which makes results 16 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks available, open for reviews and mentions the further developers. Another techno-elites' culture's feature is a deep belief that a good lies in the scientific and technical progress. The representatives of this culture are characterised as equipped in technical knowledge and accepted by the society (techno-elite society). The second group described by M. Castells is hacker group. After Pekka Himmanen2, Castells calls this culture part of informationalism. He characterises it as culture as a “set of values and norms which were formed in the group of computer programmers, who were cooperating with each other with the use of the net while realizing their own defined projects related to creative use of computers” [4]. The highest value in this set is freedom. Freedom of creation, use and sharing of knowledge, and in form and by channels decided by hackers. Products (usually softwares) are the gift for the hacker society. According to M. Castells in this economy of the gift, proportional to the meaning of gift for the society is the prestige and esteem of the donator. Another special feature is also an internal happiness of the act of creation. Virtual communitarian culture is a bit more varied. In contrast to hacker culture which formed technical bases of Internet, this culture has shaped the social aspect of Internet. Castells root the virtual communitarian culture in post-1960s counter-cultural movements. Nevertheless today there is such a wide range of social groups in Internet that it's very difficult to describe them in one unifying definition. Despite that, Castells distinguished two facets, which apply to all: horizontal, free communication and networking directed on “I”. The first describes the global freedom of speech in the world dominated by big concerns, while the second the possibility and easiness to find own place in the cyberspace, and in case of unsuccessful, to create such and build a new network around. The last group of Internet culture, which M. Castells describes, is the entrepreneur culture. Thanks to them Internet has extended beyond the circle of technical developers and counter- cultural communities. Interest of business in the potential of Internet has turned out to the both way changes: while business has popularised Internet, Internet has re-shaped the rules and form of business. The moment when entrepreneurs has realised that they can make money on ideas, not necessary on material goods, has been that changing moment. In this culture the highest value is the amount of earned money together with speed with which they were earned. Capability of transforming technical knowledge and idea for business into the financial value, in order to make this vision come true, is the main operational rule in this culture. Fund and 2 Compare: Himanen P.: The Hacker Ethic and the Spirit of the Information Age. New York: Random House, 2001 after: [4], p. 52. 17 innovation are interpenetrating one another. Entrepreneur culture is mainly a culture of big money and hard work (often workaholic). In contrast to hacker culture, where the reward was esteem and pleasure of creation, entrepreneurs derives pleasure from immediate reward (amount of money) and transform it to the ostentatious consumption: purchase of sophisticated goods they might enjoy only in a very rare moments of free time. This is also a culture of individualists, there was observed a considerable negative difference of social life of Internet entrepreneurs, i.e. working in Silicon Valley, and other people. This groups functions in Internet-related world. The following section describes the hierarchal structure of Internet society. 1.3. E-quality In the section “Structure of Modern Society” it was described how the modern society is organized. In popularisation and development of Internet, people have been looking for revolution in the social hierarchy. Many enthusiasts have seen Internet as equality provider. In the modern society, information is the main good and Internet was to provide everyone equal access to this value and thus the society was to be not divided any more on privileged and none. Nevertheless the history has proven that this communication tool has not only not made everyone equal but in the same time introduced new division factors. First split was for the two main groups: those who have access to Internet (privileged) and those without Internet access (unprivileged). It is now not only to have access to information but many public institutions operates through Internet and handling bureaucracy became easy for those that have access to the network. Furthermore for the privileged, do they all indeed are equal as expected? Has Internet fulfilled these dreams? This chapter tempts to present a broad overview on democratic assets in cyberspace. 1.3.1. Criticism and competition Speaking about the democratic values in networks, H. Rheingold refers to the Prodigy[13] - the early network that was created by joint venture of CBS and IBM in USA in 1984. Prodigy aimed in providing videotext to subscribers and reaching them with advertisements, there was a network built that offered for a low and flat monthly fee and access to broad range of services such as news, games, shopping but also interaction between subscribers themselves. There was an option of public messaging (on forums), private messages and chat. When public messages became popular among users, they realised that the forums 18 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks were censored by Prodigy. It worked well as a protection from abusing racist and anti-Semitic speeches, but also prevented of public criticism of Prodigy policy. Therefore users moved the critical discussions to private messages. In order to limit it, Prodigy changed financial policy and since then only 30 private messages per month were included in fee, every email more was surcharged in extra fee. Rheingold sees a presence of competition a solution for such situations. “If you don't like Prodigy, you can go elsewhere--as long as there is an elsewhere.”[13] 1.3.2. Citizen contra government As presented, users can feel free and use new technologies to communicate but as soon as they start criticise systems (government's or services provider's policy) they realise that there is a form of censorship even in so-called free services. “The telecommunications industry is a business, viewed primarily as an economic player. But telecommunications gives certain people access to means of influencing certain other people's thoughts and perceptions, and that access- -who has it and who doesn't have it--is intimately connected with political power. The prospect of the technical capabilities of a near-ubiquitous high-bandwidth Net in the hands of a small number of commercial interests has dire political implications. Whoever gains the political edge on this technology will be able to use the technology to consolidate power.”[13] This description suits very well the recent story of a young lady from Cuba. In order to note down the description of her daily life and share comments on life in Cuba, she started a blog. Free-thinking is not very well seen in her country, so Yoani Sánchez started her blog on some external site. DesdeCuba.com where her blog “Generación Y”[38] is based, is registered in Germany, and operates under German not Cuban law rules[67]. In 2008, Yoani Sánchez was granted Ortega y Gasset prize for digital journalism by Spanish journal “El País”. Cuban government has not allowed her to leave island for the ceremony but her absence at the ceremony does not stop people to spread the news and read her blog. In March only (the month when she was granted the prize) her online journal received over four million hits[25]. This is a story that examples the interaction between democracy on the relation Internet – government. The relation inside networks was exampled by H. Rheingold's story about Prodigy. 1.3.3. Access Whereas these two stories treat about those who have access to Internet, the reality turned to be cruel for idealists, and Internet – as it was to be a mean to make people equal – became also a tool to divide people for privileged (those with access to Internet) and the group 19 of marginalised or even totally excluded (with limited or none Internet access)[10]. Now the inclusion-exclusion dichotomy based on modern technology is not only for those who have computer or not, but also for those who have access to Internet or not. Although several projects such as One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) – education project which aims “To create educational opportunities for the world's poorest children by providing each child with a rugged, low-cost, low-power, connected laptop with content and software designed for collaborative, joyful, self-empowered learning.”[57] - has developed there is also a wide net of Internet cafés and public spaces such as libraries which provide to many non-owners of computer possibility to use this machine and tune to Internet. This is also the way that mentioned above Yoani Sánchez is connecting to Internet. 1.3.4. Space Howard Rheingold is linking the two: free access and freedom to speech in new definition of public space. Defining “public sphere” he quotes Jurgen Habermas, who states: “By "public sphere," we mean first of all a domain of our social life in which such a thing as public opinion can be formed. Access to the public sphere is open in principle to all citizens. A portion of the public sphere is constituted in every conversation in which private persons come together to form a public. They are then acting neither as business or professional people conducting their private affairs, nor as legal consociates subject to the legal regulations of a state bureaucracy and obligated to obedience. Citizens act as a public when they deal with matters of general interest without being subject to coercion; thus with the guarantee that they may assemble and unite freely, and express and publicize their opinions freely.”3 Consequently, the Internet-based activities, including discussions, might be then recognized as discussions in public sphere. H. Rheingold underline that public sphere relies a lot of freedom of communication, exchange and discussion over various ideas. The new means of communication can enlarge public sphere and help to reach a larger audience, and consequently enlarge chances to gain a bigger influence. 1.3.5. States' and networks' governance H. Rheingold speaks mainly about the democratic governance with new technology facilities, when he says that “high-bandwidth interactive networks could be used in conjunction with other technologies as a means of surveillance, control, and disinformation as well as a 3 J. Habermas after: [13]. 20 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks conduit for useful information”[13]. However the same observation can be implemented in the governance inside the computer networks such as Internet based. Often the discussions over the networks are repeating the story of Prodigy network, but being censored not by administrators who work for big commercial companies, but often by individuals who overtook the leading role. The form of governance that exists in Internet public sphere, Rheingold names “disinformocracy”[13]. 1.4. Freedom and boundaries: rights and restrictions As described above, modern society faced new challenges when Internet was widely launched. Some of the dares led to widening of freedom in society, while others have built new restrictions. This section aims in describing new tendencies in dealing with rights to the products created and/or modified with the use of new technologies. 1.4.1. Intellectual Property Rights One of challenges, faced by society that uses new technologies, was the question of property of the creations. The term „intellectual property” was popularized, together with establishment of World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) – an agency of United Nations (UN) – in 1967. The „intellectual property rights” (IPR) are defined very broadly as „rights granted to creators and owners of works that are the result of human intellectual creativity. These works can be in the industrial, scientific, literary or artistic domains. They can be in the form of an invention, a manuscript, a suite of software, or a business name, as examples.”[56] The main objective of IPR and copyright was to grant creator of work certain control over the usage of her/his work's achievements. Nevertheless the term was often misused and wrongly interpreted. And instead of protecting the creator's rights it was exploited as market product and used for gaining money on the products – recently most often on music and softwares, as with today's technologies it became very easy to copy a printed text or share digital information and products. I.e. opening website, computer copies it automatically to the temporary memory folder and, as Richard Stallman observes, this can be already interpreted as stealing: unauthorised copying. Richard Stallman is one of the opponents of the IPR and in the same time one of the leading free values theorist and practitioners. He argues that: „The term (intellectual property – JMK) carries a bias that is not hard to see: it suggests thinking about copyright, patents and 21 trademarks by analogy with property rights for physical objects. (This analogy is at odds with the legal philosophies of copyright law, of patent law, and of trademark law, but only specialists know that.) These laws are in fact not much like physical property law, but use of this term leads legislators to change them to be more so. Since that is the change desired by the companies that exercises copyright, patent and trademark powers, the bias of “intellectual property” suits them” [42]. 1.4.2. Licences In contrast to the copyright a concept of copyleft licence [15] was created. Already its name plays and contrasts to its precursor in IPR. Copyright prohibits others from free distributing, adapting and reproducing the work, but not copyleft, which in contrast allows doing what copyright restricts, but under the condition that all adaptations or copies will also be published under same (copyleft) licence. On the wave of the discussion on the legal rights applied to the new technologies two big movements were created. One of them is the free software movement and the other is Creative Commons. The first movement was funded, popularised by R. Stallman and the it aims in popularising the free software concept. The free software idea builds on the hacker culture from 1970s and the copyleft idea. It provides users rights to access and modify the software, as well as freedom to redistribute it. In Free Software Foundation there are official freedoms covered by this licence which counts from freedom 0 to 3.  „The freedom to run the program, for any purpose (freedom 0).  The freedom to study how the program works, and adapt it to your needs (freedom 1). Access to the source code is a precondition for this.  The freedom to redistribute copies so you can help your neighbour (freedom 2).  The freedom to improve the program, and release your improvements to the public, so that the whole community benefits (freedom 3). Access to the source code is a precondition for this.”[41] This licence is known as free software licence and also under the name of GNU General Public Licence (GNU GPL, often shortened to only GPL). The second: Creative Commons (CC) – today a registered organization – promotes different forms of licences that protect authors but do not stop promoting and sharing the outcomes of 22 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks their work. They very from:  Attribution – allows to copy, distribute, display and perform copyrighted work – and derivative works based upon it – but only if it is credited according to the author's request;  Non-commercial – copying, distributing and displaying as well as performing is allowed (together with derivative works based upon) however only for non-commercial purposes;  No derivative works – copying, distributing, displaying together with performance of the work is allowed, but only in verbatim copies and not derivative works based upon the licensed property;  Share alike – distributing derivative works is allowed however only under a license that is identical to the one of the first object [37]. While some intellectual property rights require registration, and others automatically go under the copyright, with alternative licences it is important to mention under which licence the author is launching his/her creation. More of the alternative to copyright licences, especially in the hospitality exchange contexts, is described in the „Free values” section in next chapter. In this chapter it was described how the society has changed since the computers, especially in the form of network(s), became popular. Very significant example of the new form of society, including all the features mentioned above, is the network of free-hospitality. 23 24 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks 2. Free-hospitality Networks „Hospitality is a profoundly evocative concept that reverberates with cultural, political and ethical undertones. It conjures up a jumbled collage of images and senses drawn from ancient mythology, cultural traditions, scriptural references, tourism metaphors, regional stereotypes, national narratives, and government policies.”[9] This great concept of hospitality has evolved especially in a form of exchanging hospitality services for free. This chapter describe the phenomenon of free-hospitality networks and discusses it as an exceptional example of modern society. Its form of organization: structure and hierarchy, aims, history of changes and membership. 2.1. Concept What is called “free-hospitality”, “hospitality exchange”, “accommodation sharing” or a “home stay network” is a same concept. Users interchange accommodation for free. The trade does not have to be between the two same people. One can offer free-accommodation, but other does not have to host back the same person. The main rule operating it is reciprocity, but not necessary direct, it is group reciprocity, where contribution and withdrawal are to and from the group account. Trading individuals are connected through the networks, which count a few to hundreds of thousands members. The size of the networks is continuously growing. Since 1990s the networks has moved from paper phone catalogues to the web-based form of networks and are using Internet to maintain and facilitate own operational sustainability. The concept is quit simple: to open own doors to fellow travellers, so when you travel, one will open his/her door to you. Together with accommodation, the great opportunity of learning the other place culture from first hand experience is offered. And not only travellers can learn, so do the hosts. It is advertised: “you don't need to leave your home to experience other cultures!” Travelling became more active, not passive, learning process. 2.2. Hosting peace 4 Hospitality is often being described as “a little commitment from you is a great gift for me”. As free-hospitality initiatives have started after 1st World War and developed after second, 4 The term “hosting peace” was introduced by Attilio Altieri, in his final dissertation of the Peace Studies at the University of Pisa, Italy: [17]. 25 we can imagine it might have been a big demand (probably often also a risk) to go to the citizen of former enemy country and be hosted in private house. However the world belong to people who take a risk, and soon the first travellers get to know that although there is a slice risk, there's so much they receive that's definitely worth doing. They have also spread the idea of free-hospitality. Today, we are far from World War, so thus in global perspective the challenge that first participants of free-hosting have taken might be hard to understand. Nevertheless world is unfortunately far from World Peace state, and this is a dream of leaders and founders of free- hospitality network to involve countries of conflict history to experience the opportunity of hospitality so this may be a little stone on the path to peace. Although slowly, the networks are making this dream come true. In only Hospitality Club there are already users from Palestine (47) and Israel (2289), Bosnia and Herzegovina (350), Serbia (3367), and Kosovo (101), Kenya (199) and Zimbabwe (46) as well as Myanmar (22) [47]. There is unfortunately no data provided whether these users visit each other, but at least there is already a chance they might. So the mission is not only a peace-keeping, but also of the peace-building character. When we analyse on what it means to host a stranger traveller at our home, we might make a list of benefits. They described in details in proper chapter, however it's worth mentioning here that opening our door is also an act to open and share for a short time our private (home) life with the stranger. Not only we contribute helping our guest to economise on accommodation, not only by providing tips on what's important to see in our city/village, some useful practical tips, etc. But we also share on daily habits of our culture, and learn the same from guest. This meeting help us to give a face (and name) to the anonymous group of people (i.e. nation) to which (s-)he belongs; it is an occasion to hear about other countries, traveller's stories. But also to exchange good practices on things such as our hobbies, house keeping methods (i.e. culinary recipes) and others. Eventually by this form of contact we also face stereotypes and prejudices we have on other groups. Thus potential and actual role of the free- hospitality networks in peace-building is really underestimated. One of the travellers shared from his experience of being hosted: “What we have received has enabled us to be willing to do likewise. And so our house has been transformed into a kind of hostel with a continuous flow of guests from all over the world. It was triggered, in other words, a virtuous circle. Think hours to the effects that a circle of this kind can have on society worldwide since point of view of peace.”[17] 26 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks 2.2.1. Stereotypes and prejudices Social sciences make a distinction between stereotype and prejudice. As stereotype is usually understood a generalized vision, which does not carry rational support in argumentation, and underlines supposed characteristics of given group. Prejudice in normal usage means a preconceived opinion or bias on certain topic. This can be either in favour or against. However this term is most often used in reference to the negative approach toward individual or a group. This attitude would be based on stereotyped beliefs that in vast majority deliver from other people's opinion than from reality-tested experience. As proved in the “blue-eyed/ brown eyed” exercise/experiment performed in primary school by American teacher Jane Elliot in 1968, the best way to overcome prejudices is to either experience the background milieu of “the other” and/or to meet the representative of subject group and “give face” to the general opinion. This opportunity is provided by hospitality networks. Their international and intercultural dimension enables user to explore other than their own milieus and face the prejudices they had. Another point is that it might happen also the opposite: people can confirm their a priori taken judgements, after meeting someone that either suits the imagination or by “we see what we want to see”. But still as the Sioux pray to be kept “from ever judging a man until they walked a mile in his moccasins”. The best way is to experience, and what could be better way to experience other place then by staying at locale's place? 2.3. Gift and exchange Concept of “gift” has been widely discussed in social science and anthropology. Some social science scholars talk about dichotomy: give-receive, however what they really mean might be described under trichotomy: give-receive-reciprocate. In traditional social science paradigm of the gift is understood, after Marcel Mauss, as part of the exchange process. „In Scandinavian civilization, and in a good number of others, exchanges and contracts take place in the form of presents; in theory these are voluntary, in reality they are given and reciprocated obligatorily.”[12] Zygmunt Bauman also supports the dichotomous concept, however the two he – like other classics as Bronisław Malinowski - would see rather as gift and equivalent exchange. But his understanding of the term “gift” is different than the one of many other sociologists. Z. Bauman interprets that, in donations, the donor does not expect anything in revenge, while in 27 equivalent exchanges the contributor expects receiver to give in (immediate or further) exchange some good of same or very similar value to the one received[2]. Tab. 1 presents the description of gift and equivalent exchange according to Zygmunt Bauman. gift equivalent exchange motivation of donor needs and rights of goods that are to be potential receiver received back (in exchange) type of relation personal impersonal factor influencing the size person and relation with achievements of receiver and type of donation receiver Table 1: Gift and equivalent exchange according to Z. Bauman; source: own, based on [2] How does then the concept of hospitality suit the gift-exchange model of relations? In free-hospitality networks there's no obligation to give, receive or reciprocate. It is all by voluntary wish. This is the way of achieving the objectives of the networks, that members/users will contribute (give), use (receive) and hopefully it will become a circle (reciprocity) as people would like to give back to society, what they received. So thus this trinity should be seen, in the light of free-hospitality networks, as voluntary for users, but obligatory - for the sake of operational existence – for system. Special case of the give-receive-reciprocate circle is the phenomenon called “potlatch” after the Native Americans' tradition from Northwest of the Northern American continent. “Potlatches were social occasions given by a host to establish or uphold his status position in society. (...) Potlatches are to be distinguished from feasts in that guests are invited to a potlatch to share food and receive gifts or payment.”[59] This Chinook term: “potlatch”, which means “to feed”, “to consume”, was adopted and popularised after American anthropologists by M. Mauss. He explains: “To give is to show one's superiority, to be more, to be higher in rank, magister. To accept without giving in return, or without giving more back, is to become client and servant, to become small, to fall lower (minister).”[12] For this reason potlatch exchanges were lasting long. As described by M. Mauss it was not only a social event with economical exchange but it had also religious and mythological aspect. This term is often referred in modern culture as – like described in hacker culture – the social position and access to privileges in a given community is bigger for the one who contributes the most to this group. In virtual communities high contribution can lead to obtain moderator's rights. In free-hospitality exchanges, what is asked from users is based on a group debt. One can be only a traveller and use what others are offering, the other can be only host proposing 28 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks own house as an accommodation venue. Of course it's also possible to be both: traveller once, and later the host for others – and this is the most encouraged way. This is all because it is not obligatory for hosts, when they are eventually to travel, to visit the houses of their previous guests. The contributions are to, and withdrawing from, the group account. This is all as group debt and payment back. Although on micro scale, this is (in majority of cases) an exchange: host is providing free accommodation, often with surplus in food and/or tips on what's worth seeing/doing. In return they are receiving various goods from stories of other places and adventures of traveller, contact with other culture, to – as in case of Homeshare International or WWOOF – concrete, and agreed in advance, help or assistance. Different form of gift and exchange is described by Paula Bialski [18]. She is using an “intimate tourism” term (which she has created herself) in order to describe a very special form of travelling, but also in the same time social relation and exchange. In the context of online hospitality networks she has realized that “individuals are placed into situations where they can be both verbally intimate (through conversation) and spatially intimate (through the lack of physical distance between each other). Through this network, the individual experiences a kind of relationship without physical or geographical borders – a post-friendship where the personal needs of the individual such as “personal growth”, direct dialog, and human closeness, is met instantly, without taking into account any time space continuum traditionally ingrained in the institution of friendship. Common approach to privacy, both physical and privacy of thought, is breached”[18]. This is a very special form of social exchange, since in “intimate tourism” people tremendously shorten a distance. In a few minutes they exchange feelings, personal observations or often also personal experience stories, which they would normally not share with people that are friends – in a traditional meaning of friendship - meeting on a regular basis. This openness is based on the safe feeling, that they would probably never again meet the interlocutor, and thus they can remain anonymous. Similar concept of short term exchange of information which is followed by intimate situation can be found in speed dating. Speed dating – started by rabbi Yaacov Deyo in Beverly Hills in 1998 – is a date selection system based on short exchange of a few loose information, that are to be base of the participant's decision on the selection of the interlocutors (s-)he wants to date[65]. This form of relations started during travel with free-hospitality, Paula Bialski calls “intimate tourism”, however referring to the speed dating I would like to call these relations and the way they are established a speed friendship. This form of relations is a bit similar to what is happening during potlatch ceremony. As 29 observed by M. Mauss in potlatch: people meet strangers, become nervous and excited about the encounter and “one fraternizes, yet one remains a stranger”[12]. This new form of tourism is possible thanks to the trust that people offer to each other, technical development which is facilitating getting in contact, and of course also fostered possibilities to travel around the world. 2.4. Mobility Important aspect of free-hospitality is also that it enables many people to travel to places, where they could normally (using other, paid, means for accommodation) not be able to visit mainly because of financial reasons. It’s often discussed that majority of travellers are still from Northern America, Western Europe and sometimes Australia – the regions from which citizens usually do not need visas to enter other states. Mobility is however not only an economy category value. Its social meaning was described by Zygmunt Bauman: “The mobility turns out to be the highest and desired value and freedom of moving - this unevenly divided good, which constantly is missing - quickly is becoming the main factor that shapes social divisions in late modernities or in post-modern times”[1]. In this feature, Bauman sees the new form of society. In the spiritual context, he quotes M. Benedikt: “It starts to question the general importance of geographic location, regardless of scale. We become nomads, who are constantly in touch”[3]. Z. Bauman goes forward in the discourse on modern society and observes a distinction on “tourists” and “tramps”. “Tourists” start travelling “because this is what they want, or because “in current situation” they find it being the best life strategy or eventually they were trapped by the real or imaginative “pleasures” and benefits of “hunter of impressions” life-style”[1]. In the same time “wanderer” starts goes on the track because in the tailored-for-”tourists” world, staying at home seems to be humiliating. Promoting freedom is their life-duty mission and as “tourist” travel because and when they want, “wanderers” move because they never and nowhere feel much welcome. “Wanderers” are the opportunists of the system and side effect of globalization which is – according to Z. Bauman - “driven with dreams and desires of “tourists”[1]. Free-hospitality networks enable both “tourist” and “wonderer” to explore new places and aim in making each of them feel welcome at the visited venue. The networks also foster social and culture mobility for those that never leave their home village, but welcome visitors and their culture at own home. 30 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks 2.5. Tourism: old and new form Traditional tourism was about going to a certain place and seeing/visiting the things (objects or venues) from the must-to-see list. As it was very expensive to travel, only a higher social class was able to afford it. The later stage was called by Mike Featherstone „post-tourism”[18]. Travellers demand more sensory experience: they want to not only see, but also smell, hear and taste the local culture specialities. As remarked by M. Featherstone[18], by mechanisms of globalisation this process became available now for middle-to-upper class. The third stage, which is the most recent form, in tourism evolution also consists on experiencing, though not only on trying, but on living a local culture for a short time. „The tourist yearned to not only experience the public sphere of drinking the coffee from a cafe, but also longed to observe the private sphere of how that coffee was harvested and served”5. New form of tourism also covers not just commercial tourism, but on contrary what is called “responsible” or “sustainable tourism”. In the post-tourism quite many offers were organized by international travel agencies which were arranging everything from transportation, accommodation to the local attractions. And the contact with local culture was very limited to the one allocated by travel organizers. What is offered as local culture taste is perfectly tailored to the limited expectations and imaginations of tourists. Thus this is not the true culture, the real life of locals. The local market adjust to the demands of tourists and in this way it becomes a closed circle with one element fostering other without the end. This form of tourism is not only disrespecting local culture and proves high ignorance of local reality (i.e. social policy of the government) but is also impeding the real development of local market while contributing to the economical earnings of big chain companies. A. Altieri[17] lists following problems:  production of cultural stereotypes: this form of tourism do not overcome, but contrary support the stereotypes on cultures and nationalities;  misuse of natural resources;  limited (if none) contacts with locals: tourist have free access mainly only to the tourist- zones and often are lacking (or not interest) in regional political and social context;  disruption of old commercial traffic: now the souvenirs are almost never really “local”, 5 E. Goffman, after: [18]. 31  but rather imported;  neo-colonialism: western model of luxury becomes a reference point, also the system of calculation and profit is changing, majority of earnings goes to the travel companies and do not stay in the region;  economic inequity: a few rich people and big group of poor;  ecological imbalances: i.e. in special flora and fauna sights such as oases. Response to these challenges and problems is a concept of responsible tourism. The tourism of new times offers to beneficiaries experience of local culture but in a conscious way. It introduces and exposes traveller to the reality of local places, and foster understanding and responsibility in tourism. One of the forms of the sustainable tourism is not to stay over international chain hotels but to stay at local people and live their lives for a short period (usually 1-2 days). Free-hospitality is one of the alternative forms of travelling and signs under the “free-” features of modern times. 2.6. Free values “What we want is free” - says the title of a book on artists' use of the distribution of goods and services as a medium for artistic production[16]. In modern world prefix “free-” made a great carrier. Over free lunches, we enjoy free speeches while deliberating about the freeware development. The term “free” received two meanings. It can be interpreted either as “gratis” (free of charge), or as “open” (non-limited access and usage of certain goods). And in this “open” form it is often referred to like in “free software”, where it “is a matter of liberty, not price. To understand the concept you should think of free as in free speech, not as in free beer”[40][7]. The yet another concept of the term “free” refers to the meaning - “not censored”, or even “not being subjected to any censorship” as (roughly) does the freedom to express any viewpoint in the “Speakers Corner” of the London Hyde Park. In hospitality concept the term “free” was primarily used in “free of charge” meaning and by the objective of providing free accommodation to travellers aimed in enabling them the free access to the local culture of the visited region. Eventually, when Internet became popular, when computers gained smaller and smaller sizes and the number of their users multiplied, the concept of free-hospitality had also developed. It was more for including those that were “only” guests and/or hosts to get involved in the development of project and many of them became 32 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks volunteer programmers and coordinators of specific tasks. This was not enough. Demanding more and more, users wanted to improve the services and give the bigger impact on used tool to the users. The question has appeared: to who do the web-based projects of free-hospitality belong: to the volunteers who work on it and users, or to founders, which also are still active members of community? This was the case of two online projects, two currently the biggest: Hospitality Club and CouchSurfing. This conflict finally led through social campaigns such as the one on Open CouchSurfing[30][58] to the creation of new outstanding projects which accomplish the demands of “revolutionists”: there is an open flow of information inside the project and the system is an open source type 6. New project promotes own openness also by its name: BeWelcome. As it was mentioned in previous chapters frequently the access to Internet may be a barrier. In order to enable all people a truly free-access: some free-hospitality networks, such as Servas offer the access to documents (such as application form and/or database) in online and offline form. If one got problems with downloading and printing form, (s-)he can simply contact local leaders of network who will provide her/him the paper version. This same meaning of free is also in profile of members: i.e. Hospitality Club was created for (among other reasons) to enable people of different backgrounds and age to use free-hospitality services. In this sense, in the free-hospitality context, the prefix “free-” received a meaning of free access to services, information as well as goods from accommodation, and local culture to the codes of system. And the traditional “free of charges” meaning has remained. Another important concept of the free-values is an idea of Wiki – mechanism to create website, so anyone will have the access to modify its content. Started from encyclopaedia (Wikipedia) it was developed to many products coordinated now by Wikimedia Foundation. This is recognized as one of the concepts inherited after hacker culture. Wiki is widely used also in free-hospitality networks. Almost each network have own wiki pages (usually of different interface than main page) and used most often as a database of different information and practicalities on the given network[31][28]. Besides, there is a wiki of free-hospitality in general. This is called HospitalityGuide.net and can serve as a great resource of information on hospitality exchange networks[50][51][52][54]. However this source is - in case of some articles - still not finalised to the objective opinions[53]. 6 Other demand was to receive a legal status of non-profit organization which is also accomplished in the new project 33 34 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks 3. Security, Trust and Participation. Between CouchSurfing and Hospitality Club. In the previous chapter the theory behind free-hospitality networks was introduced. This chapter treats about practise: how do these networks really operate, their rules, membership criteria. In addition to that the challenges, that free-hospitality networks are facing, are also presented together with insiders' views. The information presented is based on the field research which was performed through exploration of networks' websites and through contacts with their users: by an online survey and by interviews. 3.1. Methodology The main methodology used in the research was based on interviews first with a few persons, and accomplished by surveys. The survey research, together with the link to online questionnaire forms, was advertised by messages posted on forums at Hospitality Club and CouchSurfing official websites and on the groups of HC and CS users on Facebook.com (popular international social networking website). The survey was not complicated and combined of two types of question. First group of questions was aimed to build a profile of user (metrical questions). The second part was aiming to get to know the role of user in the free-hospitality network and his/her feedback: only in key- words. The users were also asked about the reasons why they have joined the network and if they are members of other networks of similar aims. From users who answered the surveys the specific group was clarified of those who are members of CouchSurfing and in the same time also of Hospitality Club – sister concept projects. They have been contacted later on and asked to answer the same questions on their participation in the second network. The number of answers on CouchSurfing survey (50 surveys answers collected) was not equal to the number of surveys answered by Hospitality Club members (15 survey answers collected). Thus the conclusion upon profile of users was based on the joint (CouchSurfing and Hospitality Club) research and the other conclusions were built upon answers of the group of two networks users. Surveys were built and published on independent from CS and HC server. There were several technical restrictions which have limited the range of answers. They were such as in order to submit the survey, users had to have a computer-based email services set on. Comments from 35 some users were received informing that often people that are in travel (as much of CS and HC users might be) are accessing Internet in internet cafés thus don't have the computer-based mailboxes and that it may limit the range of answers. However important to note is also that some had ideas to copy filled in survey' and post it either to email address that was provided on website or as user-to-user message through CS or HC website. Further restriction was that surveys were in English language only, and in both investigated sites are operating in many languages (volunteers translating), so this has limited the number of answers to the amount of English speakers, but this feature (skill) was not object of question in survey. Other restriction was of course an access to Internet, but I pre-assumed that as the research is on communities that operate around website mainly, there should be an access to Internet between users. Interviews performed in the research and data collection process covered interviews with random users (members of free-hospitality networks), but also some activists: volunteers, ambassadors (in case of CouchSurfing) and developers. In case of organizations, the officers were interviewed for Pasporta Servo and Servas. For further information and other knowledge the official statistics and information from CouchSurfing and Hospitality Club websites were used. 3.2. History of free-hospitality The question might be asked on what was first: the free-hospitality networks or the web- based free-hospitality communities? The general (also based on chronology) answer might be that the concept of free-hospitality services and informal networks was at the beginning, however official answers very on the project and community. This chapter presents the history of wide range of networks in case-to-case basis. 3.2.1. From exchange organizations to free-hospitality First position in the history of free-hospitality definitely should have pioneer exchange organizations. In 1920s and 1930s (in peaceful 20 years period between two World Wars), several organizations took an initiative and started overseas exchanges for students. The exchanges aimed to build peace between nations, enable students to gain high educational qualifications (especially for students from after-war countries) and to study foreign language and culture. The first that organized such exchange was Rotary Club of Denmark already in 1929[70]. Students were going for usually one year period to study in other country and get to 36 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks know other culture. This was achieved by program which covered travel and living costs abroad. The accommodation was at local families, sharing their daily life: habits and duties. Parallel to this, AFS (American Field Service), which first activities in Europe were based on volunteer work of American drivers doing social services to the French army during First World War, adopted the French Fellowship Movement. The program allowed Americans to come to French universities. First exchange programs were for professors of the Harvard University from States, and followed by visit of French professors of the University de la Sorbonne. It was an exchange but was it a really free-hospitality? Yes, the costs of hosting were covered by local organization, but visitors were not hosted in families so it was rather a study visit official form. Although program became popular it was stopped by Great Depression in USA and which was followed by outbreak of Second World War[27]. Young people went for such exchanges not earlier than in second half of 1940s, after the end of war. Today AFS is organizing youth exchanges which are based on family hosting, which enables visitors to learn real local culture from first hand experience. Today, both Rotary International and AFS continue their exchange programs and broadened their offer for different forms of exchanges. There are also some other new exchange organizations, such as YFU (Youth for Understanding), although it claims to be “one of the world's oldest, largest, and most respected international exchange organizations”[77] it was funded in 1951 and by the same year organized first exchange for German students to come to USA. These organizations were often basis for free-hospitality networks and organizations. Important to underline is the time when ideas of such exchanges appear. It is repetitiously after big military conflicts (in the mentioned above cases: after World Wars) when people have very fresh memory of cruelty of war and where the hate among nations can lead. Then the idea of building peace by personal contacts and/or by learning other cultures appears. This concept was further developed in the age of computers. 3.2.2. Free-hospitality and Internet Free-hospitality services have been highly supported by new technologies. Popularised, facilitated in maintenance, or simply started over the Internet. This section presents the second, and modern, phase of free-hospitality history which is tightly connected to the new technologies of communication. It presents the historical note for selected 37 free-hospitality networks and their ties with Internet. Whereas some initiatives started to use websites in order to facilitate own work and overseas communication, quit few were initiated in Internet. From this second group, only a few of firsts, started in 1990s, have remained. Majority of the web-based networks that are operating now was created a decade later. A good example might be TravelHoo. Funded in 1997, it still existed in 2005. Whilst the number of users, in comparison to other networks, was not very big (over 6 000 members), the geographical distribution (114 countries by then[72]) was quit impressive. Today it seems not to exist any more (though its yahoo-based discussion group[76] still exists (since 2002)). 3.2.2.1. Servas Open Door It started in 1949 when young man, Preston (Bob) Luitweiler, an American living at that moment in Denmark, motivated by II WW cruelty and inspired by Mahatma Ghandi's teaching, as well as by Esperanto and Quakers' philosophy, with a group of friend started a Illustration 1: Servas Open Doors logo movement Peace Builders. The concept was simple and idealistic: targeted to college-age young adults, based on direct contacts and relations, aimed in building peace in the world. Luitweiler believed that if young people got to know their peers of different background (social, cultural, national etc.) they will better understand the world and having own friends in other milieus than the ones themselves are living, will prevent from the next World War. The belief of this movement became popular and movement has grown. Today the movement Peace Builders, renamed in 1952 to Servas Open Doors (informally called only: Servas, which in Esperanto stands for “serve”), is an international organization (since 1972 registered in Switzerland as Non-Governmental Organization), present in 129 countries 7 and represented to the UN as observer and member of ECOSOC (Economic and Social Council) and Commission on Human Rights of UN. 3.2.2.2. Hospex and HospitalityExchange There is an ambiguity situation of “hospex”. Two versions, as they are two organizations that use Hospex name. One is based on hospex.org website, other on hospex.net. The first was created in 1992 and on the website refers “Hospex was the first Internet based hospitality club, established back in 1992. It is no longer active. Take a look at its successor at: 7 Hosts in 129 countries [63], but only 81 official member countries [64]. 38 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks www.hospitalityclub.org. The page below is kept for historical reason only”[45] and below we can see very simple, with limited interaction, quite old-school website. Nevertheless the second (hospex.net) calls itself HospitalityExchange (“hospex” being a short form) and states “Our roots date to 1965 when John Wilcock set up the Traveller's Directory, a listing of his friends willing to host each other when travelling. The idea worked well and the concept has prospered. The name was changed to Hospitality Exchange in 1988 when Joy Lily rescued the organization from imminent demise.”[49] 3.2.2.3. Hospitality Club As mentioned above, Hospitality Club is a successor of one of the first web-based hospitality networks: Hospex (hospex.org). In the year 2000, a 22-year-old German: Veit Kühne has registered a website Illustration 2: of Hospitality Club (HC). His concept to provide people an online tool to Hospitality Club logo facilitate hospitality exchange was based on his experience from AFS (one of the biggest and oldest international exchange organization). Veit Kühne has believed that Internet can help avoiding problems such as printing host lists, collecting member fees, spreading the idea. Indeed it has worked for some time, though in order to avoid costs of keeping up the domain, founder has started to use Google AdSense Advertisements on the Hospitality Club website. This has been widely criticised by HC members. The amount of money raised by this mean is not shared with network members, but on the website one can still read: “The Hospitality Club is a non-commercial project. We founded it, because we truly believe in the idea that bringing people together and fostering international friendships will increase intercultural understanding and strengthen peace. We do not want to make a profit with the site.”[46] Today Veit Kühne is still active in HC as administrator of the domain and website but also as host and guest. 3.2.2.4. CouchSurfing Although similar to other hospitality networks, CouchSurfing claims to be original idea of its founder, Cassey Illustration 3: CouchSurfing Fenton of USA. Once upon a time Cassey bought a cheap ticket Project 2.0 logo from USA to Iceland and having such discount was not eager to spend a lot of money for a hotel plus he dreamed of discovering “real” Iceland. His solution to 39 the challenge was to email Icelanders which he could found through internet (first owners of website, later 1500 students of local university). He wrote them all personalised emails asking if they can host him. Website owners were rather quiet, but quite many students replied positively. On the way back home, Cassey promised to himself to use only such form of travelling for future. When he arrived home, he shared idea with friends and the network worked first through friends, and already in the year 1999 bought a domain couchsurfing.com (since 2004 working also on .org address)[68][69] with the idea of free-hospitality exchange. However eventually not earlier than at the beginning of year 2003, Cassey supported by his friends and other volunteers, has created a beta version of website. One year later the official version 1.0 was published. CouchSurfing become quite popular, but when it experienced serious crash of system in summer 2006, it was announced permanent. However the response of different users and volunteers was so positive and big, that the system was restored same year (as version 2.0) and on the Montreal Collective (users meeting) it was planned how to avoid such crushes again. Eventually the website codes were not lost, but about 11 000 of profiles data were lost[32]. Users share different tips how to restore own profile and CS community is still vivid. Since 2003 CouchSurfing is operating as a non-profit organization under the name CouchSurfing International, Inc. 3.2.2.5. BeWelcome Listed as last position in described general networks of free- hospitality, BeWelcome might have been mentioned also right after Illustration 4: Hospitality Club. This is probably the newest web-based network of BeWelcome logo hospitality exchange, and its history (even very short) shows very important values for the web- based society. History of BeWelcome starts as part of Hospitality Club history. The last network was founded and till now is led under leadership of one person. Some of the volunteers of HC, during work started to question the form of management that Veit Kühne (HC founder) was performing, and made a list of things to improve, such as legal registration, transparency in management of finances as well as democratic processes. As the suggestions were not welcomed by founder, the group of committed volunteers has registered a non-profit organization called HCvol in late 2006. After several more attempts to still contribute to Hospitality Club and offer new values to its members, and continued neglecting from Veit 40 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks Kühne (his vision of legal status was more a company-like), member of HCvol8 took a decision to create a totally new project, based on new domain. In January 2007 HCvol was renamed to BeVolunteer, and started own project called BeWelcome. Half year later BeVolunteer – composed until then by former volunteers of HC – were joined by a group of developers of CouchSurfing, which - for the same reason as first BeVolunteer members – have left CS (even CS 2.0 was meant to be a democratic and transparent organization). Since October 2007 – by an unanimous decision of its developers, BeWelcome became the fist open source hospitality network[30]. 3.2.2.6. Pasporta Servo International cooperation and making world smaller is a concept of the Esperanto – one of the most popular of the constructed international auxiliary languages. The name of the network in translation from Esperanto into English will be “passport service”. Service is not totally web-based. It's more a database of people able to host, which is published annually by TEJO Illustration 5: Pasporta Servo (World Organization of Young Esperantists). 2008 cover 3.2.2.7. Warm Showers Another specialised service is offering hospitality for cyclists on tour. The network was started by two people: Terry Zmrhal and Geoff Cashman[51]. Three years later the list became under supervision of Roger Gravel, who has dedicated lot of passion to maintenance of the travelling cyclists' society. The network entered Internet 10 years after (in 2006) as a database and map of hosts. Still operating on web, database is updated regularly and include postal and email addresses of hosts. Illustration 6: Warm Showers: Hospitality for Cyclists logo 3.2.2.8. WWOOF The mysterious abbreviation stands for World Wide Opportunities on Organic Farms (known also as Willing Workers on Organic Farms). The Illustration 7: network is supporting organic farms: their maintenance and improvement as WWOOF logo 8 [50] - the text is subjective, not a real objective encyclopaedia text. 41 well as good practices exchange. In 1971, a secretary from London: Sue Coppard[73][74][75], discovered organic philosophy. Being a typical capital city citizen she was very keen on supporting the development of organic ideas implementation. She has also found that the organic creed should be performed by people who believe it rather than professional workers as the working force. The problem was only that many supporters of the organic belief where people like her: not qualified in farming, and often with no contacts at the countryside. Through friend of friends she has found a farm that was growing organic food and arranged a weekend trial. This was a small event for 4 volunteers only, but it worked pretty well, so she decided to share this experience and provide such opportunity with other supporters of organic farming and other people who want to spend weekend on farm. At the beginning she has advertised the weekend in journal and WWOF stood by that time for Working Weekends on Organic Farms. Farmers – at the beginning – very sceptic to this non-qualified work force – found eventually great support in work and free workers but also enjoyed time with new friends. The idea has spread on and through personal contacts, followed by travels, the first UK WWOOFers created international cooperation which led to establishment of WWOOF in many countries and as international organization. Today WWOOF is facilitated by Internet website where all information is gathered. 3.2.2.9. L/GHEI L/GHEI is an abbreviation of the name Lesbian and Gay Hospitality Exchange International. It is a registered non-profit organization operating since 1991 (first under GHEI name, 2 years after registration renamed to L/GHEI). The organization was firstly registered in Montreal, later moved its main office to Berlin. The office location is similar to the world coverage by members: mainly Northern America and Western Europe, but all together 30 countries are to be represented[19]. L/GHEI is the only existing organization and network of free-hospitality for lesbians and gay men, however on some big general networks of free-hospitality (such as CouchSurfing and Hospitality Club) there are some LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender) groups (existing mainly on forum basis). 42 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks 3.3. “There's no such thing as a free lunch” – Rules in free- hospitality Milton Friedman – Nobel-prize winning economist of the Chicago-school – is famous (among many other things) for sentence: “There is no such thing as a free lunch”[8]. What is meant by this sentence is that everything that seems to be “free” got a cost. Therefore it should be paid by somebody in some way and that economical reality should be hidden. In social aspect it is similar to the M. Mauss' concept of “gift” which in some way is being refunded to the donor. 3.3.1. Exchange Procedure characterized from economical aspect by M. Friedman and in social aspect by M. Mauss describes very well also the reality of free-hospitality. In network called “GlobalFreeloaders”, the rule of exchange (payment) has been described by Adam Staines, young Australian who has created this network, in a following way: “There are two sides to being a GlobalFreeloader. The Host and the Guest. This site is about give and take. Therefore, you can't be one without the other. By registering as a GlobalFreeloader, you can become a Guest and gain access to this network of free accommodation and friendly people. All that is asked in return is that you also become a GlobalFreeloader Host, willing to accommodate other travellers, completely free of charge, whenever it is convenient for you. I also ask to give back to the site whatever you take from it. If you visit 20 other members then you're expected to accommodate 20 other members, over whatever period you're comfortable with”[39]. Other form of exchange exists in Homeshare International. For the free accommodation guests/travellers are expected to provide companionship and independent living assistance to seniors[44] - who are usually the hosts. Also under wide free-hospitality category is a concept of house swapping. Exchanging house for shorter or longer period is based on immediate form of “payment”. Two sides of this transaction-without-money are moving for an agreed period to the other houses. This concept is today probably the most known from “The Holiday”[43][55]- romantic comedy film. Nevertheless, apart of holiday and romance aspect, this swapping can also be interpreted as conflict avoiding mean[21]. Nevertheless, money is often used in free-hospitality as well: either in order to pay for registration (like in L/GHEI), to receive hosts' list (like in Servas), or in order to pass verification process (as it is in CouchSurfing). 43 3.3.2. Free-culture and hospitality exchange As introduced already in “Freedom and boundaries” together with “Free values” section, the modern society is partially represented by (counter-) culture that is a descendant of 1970s hacker culture values. Also free-hospitality seems to be influenced by the 1970s freedoms culture. But taken a closer look, one may realise that there are quite many restrictions in this “free-” movement. All (except only one) free-hospitality websites are under copyright, not any of the modern copyleft or share alike licences. And the exceptional one under these licences is the newest BeWelcome that is GPL and open source product. And struggle for these values of freedom was actually the main reason why its founders and first developers have left previous networks: HC and CS. 3.4. Membership In this chapter the aspect of membership is described. Presented below wide range of free-hospitality networks is divided by the audience. Some of the societies are open for everyone who agrees with general aims of the network, but some are more restricted to the people of same sexual orientation, profession or belief & skill such as Esperanto speaking. 3.4.1. General networks In this chapter a fine selection of general networks of hospitality exchange is presented. These do not restrict membership by interests or belief, but are open for all people despite their language, belief, cultural background and others. Often age is also not restricted, though some require from members to be over 18. 3.4.1.1. Servas Open Door Following the idea of its founder, Preston (Bob) Luitweiler, Servas is not limiting much the target group. At the beginning, Peace Builders movement targeted to college age young adults, today Servas is a multi-generational organization. However in order to be an official member, one has be 18-up year-old. For youngers, the opportunity of being a Servas volunteer is open (but not limited to youngers). In order to become Servas traveller, one should be also responsible and trustworthy, open-minded and flexible, as well as (s-)he should enjoy meeting other people. Hosts differ only in that they should be able to provide a bed (or couch) and be comfortable opening own home doors to people of different cultures and backgrounds or if unable to provide accommodation, be able to meet travellers during the day (Day Host). 44 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks In order to verify high qualities, every candidate for Servas traveller and/or host is being interviewed by Interviewer - member of national leaders’ team. Upon the positive interview, the candidate is granted Servas passport (Letter of Introduction), which is dated, signed and stamped and valid for the period of one year. In the year 2006, there were 77 countries (membership in organization is by country not by individual) of full member rights: M status, 4 of limited (difficult to correspond with the leaders of the country or “unreliable, inexistent or outdated Host List”): (m) status: Nigeria, Senegal, Togo, Zambia, and 2 countries: Cuba and Sudan recognized as potential candidates: [m] status[64]. 45  Illustration 8: Structure of Servas; source: http://www.servas.org/siexco/index.php/Image:Volunteer_Information.doc 3.4.1.2. Hospitality Club One of the main aims of creating Hospitality Club was to enable everyone to use the free home stay advantages. Founder has experienced such feature in youth exchange organization already. On the website everyone can register. For the security reasons after filling in the 46 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks registration form where one need to enter data such as passport number, the volunteers of HC are confirming the name and the passport number of each new user-to-be. After the data were confirmed one is granted membership, which is (together with registration) free of charges. Today Hospitality Club counts over 350 000 users all around the world[47]. Founders of the network are still active as administrators, hosts and guests. 3.4.1.2.1. CouchSurfing Registered in 2003 as a non-profit organization, CouchSurfing was funded, registered by Casey Fenton, who is CEO and only member of the board[51] of the registered organization. However in the informal Leadership Team there is also Jess Fenton (Casey's brother) and 9 more people. CouchSurfing is open for all people despite their age, sex, ethnic background etc. In order to become a member one need to only fill a registration form. No verification is performed in order to nominate person a member of CS, however, users are encouraged to pass different steps of verifications which is based on authentication of the data of bank cards. It is said that it is safer to host/surf verified users, as confirmation of their data make them more traceable. Membership is structured on different levels from casual user, volunteer, donors, ambassadors, and members of Leadership Team 47  . Illustration 9: CS Org Structure 1.2; source: http://www.couchsurfing.com/organization.html 3.4.1.2.2. BeWelcome As explained in a history chapter, BeWelcome was funded by un-satisfied volunteers of Hospitality Club looking for transparency, democracy as well as legal non-profit organization status. Soon they were joined by similar group of former developers of CouchSurfing. Thus the first members were the developers of the website, people of the “hacker culture”[4]. However – as the founders wanted to maintain aims and values of free-hospitality networks and reason of leaving previous communities was openness (in various forms) – the service is open for everyone who agree with terms of use and accept privacy policy. New members after filling a registration form are being verified by volunteers. In order to shorten the verification time (which usually take 1-2 days), new users are encouraged to provide many information while registering. Number of passport is not required, only name, address, and birthday are required. Additional information on interests, occupancy as well as photo can be also added. 48 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks The network is still growing, in June 2008 the number of users exceeded 3 500. 3.4.2. Specialized The networks called in this paper “specialized” are created to facilitate communication and good practices sharing between people of common identity components being defined by i.e. same hobby, profession or skills. Mentioned in the below chapter are only the exchange organizations/societies. There are more organizations of certain groups that, in their quite wide offer, include exchange of free hospitality services for its members. These are i.e. IPA (International Police Association) – one profession, or 5W (Women Welcome Women World Wide) – one sex group. Listed and described in this chapter are only networks in which exchange and hospitality are the main (and often the only one) offers. With whole bonus package, that comes after hospitality exchange usage. Nevertheless these are not the only networks of this general profile. There are much more such as TeachersTravelWeb.com (for all sorts of educators) and many others, listed below are the representatives of different specialisations: per language skills (Pasporta Servo), sexual orientation (L/GHEI), mean of transport (WarmShowers.org) or profession (WWOOF). 3.4.2.1. Pasporta Servo Powered by TEJO (World Organization of Young Esperantists), Pasporta Servo is more a database of members than a web-based network. In order to be listed (which means in this case also: being a member of this network) one need to be an Esperanto speaker. It's worth mentioning that quite few of Pasporta Servo members have learned the language in order to be part of the network. Learn new language in order to use services that are available in other (more widely spoken) international languages? “No, wait! It's not as bad as it seems. Esperanto is an easy language. Easy grammar, no exceptions, recognizable words, everything you always wanted in a language. You can learn it in six months. If you're a bright language student, one month may be enough for a basic conversation level.”[66] - TEJO is trying to convince. One of the members of TEJO's International Board is assigned only for the task of collecting data and publishing the Pasporta Servo book. The database is in Esperanto and all hosts speak Esperanto. One of the sub-aims of this society is to get Esperanto speakers connected. 3.4.2.2. Warm Showers This is also not very interactive form of web-based network. Warm showers users are 49 cyclists on tour and cyclist-friendly people. The website operates on a list. People can register on the website and create a profile there, where there are to describe own hosting conditions. Using one's hospitality, users are encouraged to leave a reference on the profile of host. The database of hosts is downloadable in form of spreadsheet file form from the website. 3.4.2.3. WWOOF World Wide Opportunities on Organic Farms operates for farm owners (hosts) and volunteer workers (guests). In general this is for people over 18 years old, however in some countries like Israel 16 is the minimum age. There are no limits on maximum. People need to register (depending on country: can be online registration or need to send paper version of registration form by post). People need to contact hosts with at least 2-3 weeks time of advance. The general rule is that the work is for free, however hosts are obliged to provide “clean dry accommodation and adequate food for their volunteers.”[73] Often insurance is demanded, but no work visa is needed, people – if they need visa to enter foreign country can work with WWOOF on tourist visa as this is not considered as work, but as learning process and work on volunteer basis. 3.4.2.4. L/GHEI This organization is an opportunity of free hospitality for lesbians and gay men. Officially, there are no age restrictions, and the number of members is calculated as 500, though only 10% of them are women. In order to become a member, one need to follow the registration process (filling in the form) and then is listed in directory as an associate member. This is enough to host other members. However in order to be hosted, one need to become a full member and for this purpose pay the annual membership fee of the equivalent of $40 USA or €30. The fee is per householder, so couples or flat-mates pay only once, but can travel individually. The accommodation is for free. 3.4.3. Average member “The average user is a young white person who speaks English and lives in a developed nation. While there are many users who do not fit this description, the more different they are, the less likely they will be involved. This is especially true for persons living in the developing world who likely do not have easy access to the fundamental prerequisite for using these services: computers and the Internet. Thus, the sample population found in searches of these databases are really much less diverse than a geographical representation of worldwide users 50 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks might suggest”[71] - states the authors of Wikipedia entry on hospitality services. Is that true? When we compare statistics of the websites, and the data collected in the survey it seems that an average user is indeed from big city, from developed countries: most often Western Europe, Northern America (USA, Canada) and sometimes Australia. Nevertheless this does not necessary imply to the member of network to be white young person. In order to check the colour of skin and origin the best would be to check profile-by-profile, though quite numerous users do not upload pictures to their profile page. In today's age to be from one country does not have to mean to be originally from there. One of the survey answerers has underlined being “ethnic Korean, nationality American” and it was an answer to the simple question field named “place of origin”. As quite many networks do not publish statistics I will describe briefly for the picture of average user the one of CouchSurfing as this network publishes official data numbers[36] and it's one of the biggest and most popular networks, thus I believe this profile will be somehow representative for all users of general networks. A typical CouchSurfer will probably be a man (M 51.6%, F 40.2%, other: 6.3% several people 9, sex not specified 1.9%) in the college student age (18-24 years old: 48.2%). He would be from Europe (49%) and speak English (84.1%) and on his profile he might have at least one photo (users with photos on profile page: 60%). According to the data I have collected through surveys, a typical hospitality network (HC or CS) user is a girl (F 52.38%, M 47.61%; 0.01% couple 10) in the age 18-24 (47.36%) already graduated from secondary school/college. She would have European origin (62.5%). Although these two profiles differ in the gender (but the difference between two groups in both cases was quite small) of an average user they are the same in the continent of origin and age category. I have not asked users if they have photos on the website, although from links that they provided to own profile it seems that quite few of them do. Despite asking for ethnicity in the user profile, CouchSurfing has policy of not taking this under consideration when publishing official statistics. 3.5. Aims Several networks have different aims, depending a lot on whether they are of general profile or specified for a certain specific target group. Apparently all of them agree to aspire in 9 In CouchSurfing a couple can have one joined user profile 10 On several networks (among them CS, but not HC) several users can have one joint user profile. This feature is used mostly by couples. 51 building or keeping peace in the world, and reach this aim through the objectives as facilitating people to travel around the world and learn other cultures through first-hand experience. 3.5.1. Declared aims and objectives CS declared to seek “internationally network people and places, create educational exchanges, raise collective consciousness, spread tolerance and facilitate cultural understanding”[34]. Hospitality Club's „aim is to bring people together - hosts and guests, travellers and locals”[46]. Servas also put a great emphasis on the exchanges and the aspect of multi-cultural experience. Other networks have very similar or the same aims. Only specialized networks differs in connecting and bringing together people that share same passion, hobbies or interests and/or identities. In this form the exchange of experience is more specified objective. 3.5.2. Reasons of joining Mentioned above are the official reasons why the networks where formed and what do they aim in achieving. Nevertheless people who join networks might have a bit different reasons and not always the same as the aims that they “click” as a sign of agreement. In my research I have asked users to describe in one key-word the reason for which they joined network. Their answers might be combined into several bigger categories, such as:  social (34% of answers):  “meeting locals while travelling”  “making friends”  “social tolerance”  “friendship without boundaries”  “kindness”  “recommendation by friends who are already CS/ HC members”  culture (9%)  “cross-cultural”  “show others my place of living (city/village)”  economy (6%) 52 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks  “free-hospitality (accommodation)”  “more places are available to visit if accommodation is for free”  exchange (16%)  “connections”  “international contacts”  curiosity (3%)  “Interested in Hospitality Exchange concept and in international volunteering”  fun (3%)  “fun travels”  “CS parties”  philosophy (6%)  “belief”  language (2%)  “improve my English”  travel (15%)  other (6%)  “trust”  “explorer's need” An interesting observation might be also that the economical reasons are often more important in summertime (most people travel during summer holidays rather than in a “school year”). In the summer months, the number of people joining free-hospitality networks is highly growing[36]. Although the responders were members of Hospitality Club and/or CouchSurfing (this was the criteria), I believe that these answers would represent a wider range of free-hospitality networks' members. The answers were also in the line of official aims and objectives of the networks, however a few where showing more individual approach, as to enjoy parties organized by CouchSurfing network, or the personal interest in international volunteering and hospitality exchange concept. 53 3.6. Experience Apart of reasons of joining, also the later clash of the expectations and reality was analysed. First, responders were asked to rate the general estimation of the networks. The results are presented in tab.2. extremely good good neutral bad extremely bad CS 79% 21% 0% 0% 0% HC 56% 12% 25% 6% 0% % of total nr: 73% 19% 6% 1% 0% Table 2: overall estimation of the HC and CS networks (in %); Source: own research Although majority of responders, confirmed their enthusiastic approach, it is important to underline that there was also a little number of those who found the networks being neutral or bad. As the history of BeWelcome project proves, those who might have rated the networks as “extremely bad”, have most probably already left the networks. One of the interviewed persons has described: “I was receiving too many dating offers, and this number was highly bigger than the number of times when I received request to surf my couch or the times I needed an accommodation, that I decided to leave the network. I have mentioned the romance offers as the reason of leaving network, in a special form of feedback”. Later on the detailed rating of the experience of users as hosts or guests was analysed. Positive experience was claimed by 67% of answers, negative by 5%, and 18% neutral, 9% of non answer provided. Here the difference appeared. The percentages differed a bit from overall estimation, but this should be interpreted as overall estimation was not only an opinion on experience but also on functioning of the service, its features, graphic of the website etc. Responders were also provided an opportunity to give extra comments. 3.6.1. Positive Positive experience shared by survey responders could be classified under:  personal growth (16% of positive experience answers)  “enriching”, “inspiring”, “life-changing”, “learning” (including: getting to know different cultures), “heart”  received (8%)  “amazing generosity and hospitality” 54 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks  non-repeatable (8%)  “unique”, “incomparable”  exchange (8%)  “sharing”  expected (3%)  fun (3%)  social (5%)  “good, open-minded connections”  other (49%)  description of activities: ■ “good website with many groups, occasionally hosting”  positive adjectives: ■ “amazing”, “awesome”, “fantastic”, “great”, “colourful”, “gratifying” It is also remarkable that many of people, who either hosted or surfed has rated their host/ guest experience as “extremely good” and of those of positive (“extremely good” or “good”) opinion are still willing to be host or guest again. Important to mention is also a story shared by one of the interview people. One girl has been travelling alone for one of the network's parties. She was unlucky with host, who turned out to be interested in sexual services as payment back for hospitality. In this situation, many other members of the network, whom she met at the party, immediately organized help for her and provided with new and safe accommodation. She has rated her experience as in general positive, since more meaningful for her was the group approach then one individual member. “It'll change your life, if you're ready for it” - says one of the young traveller's, who answered the survey. Other ads: “it's a beautiful thing to trust fellow travellers and to only keep strengthening that human connection”. 3.6.2. Negative Nevertheless free-hospitality, although it sounds very attractive is not devoid of negative features. Some has been mentioned in previous chapters, such as struggles of the power and 55 influence on the shape of the network, discussion on democracy and openness. From users, who answered survey, only a few 11 (5%) has described their experience as “disappointing” and “lost hopes”. It's true that whole free-hospitality concept at its basis has the risky element of trust. Exactly because of this reason, it brings a great potential of negative experience while hosting or being hosted. It might be from the less hard as mentioned in “comments” section in one of the surveys: “Some people abuse the rules of hospitality; they do not show up or wish to stay longer than agreed.” More unpleasant might be part of the experience of individually travelling girl (described in “Positive” chapter). She has experienced it in Middle East, but also in other places such story takes place: “Beware of hosts in Lima, Peru. Most might be okay, but at least one, who offers to come and pick you up from the bus terminal, is known to actually keep you in his house before you are allowed to leave.”[52] - GlobalFreeloaders' members are warning. These clashes usually are in the air around the conflict of expectations. It is natural that arranging a meeting, both sides have some imagination on how this should happen include the scenario – or rules – that the other side should play. Nevertheless, especially in multi-cultural context, what one side expects it's not the same as the other do. This is a common a background for bad experience, even it's often not meant to end as conflict. Some users also complain that not everyone they hosted left a reference on the host's profile on the network's website. A few had also shared mixed feelings with overall negative experience: “members are good people, but management (censorship, illegal activity towards people's privacy, secret money) is a shame, as a volunteer I can say I have been abused”. One has also recommended visiting the website with the history of BeWelcome and BeVolunteer as a comment to his experience. 3.6.3. Neutral From the results of survey: ticked boxes, but also comments, it seems that quit few of those who rated their experience being neutral were actually delicate in words they used. Nevertheless there was a group who – despite rating positive their overall experience - in one key word in a form that is either difficult to classify as “positive” or “negative”, such as “wow”, “challenge” or “remarkable”. These words might proof either bad adventures which transformed to positive lesson, as the “challenge” word, or contrary: might be remarkably 11 1,5% of responders in overall estimation, but 5% in the question on one key-word description of own experience. 56 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks negative exposure. Some have described what they are doing (listed how many times they have hosted and/or were hosted). In general, in a vast majority the opinions were very positive and people were excited about the possibilities that the networks provide, thus ambivalent opinions where a few only. 3.7. Benefits From what was shared by responders to surveys, the benefits could be classified under following categories:  emotions (5% of responders)  good feelings, happiness, love, satisfaction  social (30%)  meeting nice people, (international) friends, having fun, discussing over forums  culture (13%)  cultural understanding, shared cultures  education (1.3%)  learning from other people  experience (7%)  life experience  exchange (7%)  personal growth (9%)  self-improvement, horizon widening  economical (1.3%)  free accommodation  ongoing (7%)  growing, still searching, expanding  other (11%)  a lot, peace, BeWelcome (met people who later founded together BeWelcome) 57   none (1.3%) Important to underline might be the fact that 7% of responders have not provided answer to this question. These benefits' categories correspond with the key words used by responders on the question about their experience. A very special form of social benefit is the concept opposite to the traditional historical chronology of free-hospitality networks. Traditional over-Internet communication was in the direction from (offline) life to Internet. Today, what often happens is that users who live in same place gather together with all who are – on their way – currently in the city/village. If the “chemistry” is working, they repeat the meetings. These parties can create an offline local community. One of the best examples is the French CouchSurfers community. They met once mainly “for curiosity reason: to meet others, who are the followers of this crazy concept of welcoming strangers, and to exchange experience with each other” - as described by a member of this group. They had a lot of fun, and started weekly meetings in Paris. Eventually they have integrated so well that today they are organizing annual (in 2008 will be the third) bike tours in the south of France, in summertime. Apart of the personal and social benefits, it will be important not to forget about the other side benefits of accommodation sharing, such as i.e. supporting local infrastructure. Tourists, who stay in big hotels and travel on the whole package basis (transport, accommodation, and attractions organized by one big travel company), are supporting big chains of hotels and restaurants. On the contrary the target group of free-accommodation is more interested in sights they might miss when travelling in such totally organized way. They would usually not go to the international chain restaurant but rather go to the bar where locals usually eat. This alternative travelling is supporting the development of local economy. The main aim of travelling was to see other places and meet people living there. Such an explorer's experience is hard to gain while staying in big, guarded hotels which has beach inside the fence and exposures are offered by buses that bring tourists from and to the gate of the hotel. A real exposure is possible while experiencing and living (even for a short while) other cultures. And this benefit is being offered by free-hospitality. One of the responders commented: “CouchSurfing revolutionizes the concept of travel by welcoming people on the basis of preventive friendship and trust, meeting the culture of the place visited through the contact with the human beings that live in it, extending the possibilities of travel to more people (even those who stay still!)”. 58 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks 3.8. Drawbacks All the benefits definitely are a positive aspect of free-hospitality travelling. But what take people out of certain network or whole concept is usually either negative personal experience or rules (official and informal) in the network, with which they do not agree. One of the biggest networks: Hospitality Club has lost a remarkable number of volunteers who didn't agree for the unchangeable rules and one person-leadership. Another reason to take people away is related to security and satisfaction. There is no written agreement (contract) which can be referred to and be a base for a legal case – if needed. It is all about trust and risk. If someone does not feel comfortable with services given by other user, (s-)he can only inform others: the administrators of website/network and other users. In many networks it is possible to leave a reference on user profile, so this is meant to be a recommendation or warning for other users. What is also often happening on social utility websites is that users (most often men from Mediterranean Sea area) contact others (usually girls, most often of Eastern Europe and Russia) with flirting purposes. In order to prevent from such use of websites, CS requests upon registration from new users to agree (among other such as that they commit themselves not to send spam and agreeing with website guidelines) that they “understand CouchSurfing Is NOT A Dating Site” and explains that “The purpose of the network is to foster cross-cultural connections; it is not to be used to romantically pursue other members.”[35] One has to agree with this statement in order to be accepted as member of the network. In the same time the administrators declare: “We don't tolerate harassment”. Nevertheless it does not mean that real love affairs do not start over free-hospitality networks. But more as side-effect and not objective of these social networks they are not banned. More about security is described in the following chapter. 3.9. Security Explaining the phenomenon of home stay networks I like to ask listener if (s-)he would agree if some stranger on a street approach her/him and ask to stay at her/his place over a night. The vast majority, if not even all, responds: “of course not!”. This is actually a main phenomenon of hospitality networks. Most probably we would not trust that much the stranger from the street, but a stranger from the network (often not more than just registered user) we do trust and invite to stay at our place over one or more nights. 59  This is all about big trust to other humans. Trust not only to guests but also the trust that guests are offering to their hosts. Some interviewed users has shared that for the first time they hosted someone, they were not sure who risks more: themselves of not being robbed or killed over a night – like in classical crime stories – or their guest as (s-)he was so much dependant on the host's will. Actually both risk and the only form of protection is a common sense. It's like in the hitch-hiking. There is not written contract/ agreement. However there is a set of tips of precaution. These are prepared often by administrators[33] in a FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions) section, or shared by users over a forum. If something goes wrong it is advised to contact police, despite in some places (countries, cultures) it can take the longer to explain the policeman what one was actually doing in a stranger's house, as the officers are usually not much familiar with the hospitality exchange concept. And, of course, reporting it later to the administrators of the network is highly recommended. Some time ago it happens that one of CS members in Germany was overusing people's hospitality and was stealing something from their place. Country (Germany) Ambassador has described it as “Kurt doesn't write ordinary requests. I think he instead calls member. people who post their mobile number on the couch-info or in any groups. He tells people he is kind in a need, his money or passport got stolen etc and if he can crush on your couch short noticed. (...) So please check out the photo, be suspicious if you get a call like this. There is not much CS can do. We aren't police. The victim should contact the police. I never heard something hard like this happening before. So we all have to be cautious to keep CS clean of thief's”12 and posted this message on many CS forums to warn other users. As a precaution mean victims has posted the picture of Kurt (this guy was changing names) on MySpace.com and spread the warning message in community of CS. However if the bad experience is not a serious harassment, but only a “chemistry” between host and guest was not working, or one turned to be unreliable, then the only thing to do is to write a negative opinion (reference) on her/his user profile. Or – in case of paper list instead of online databases, like it is in Servas or Pasporta Servo – report managers of the database. Only in the organizations which are using Internet but are not web-based only (like Servas, but not like CouchSurfing which first was a web-community which registered upon the time) it is also possible to exclude members on which many complains have been reported. In 12 CS warning post: Attention/ Caution: Thief on CS Across Germany/Europe!!! [on-line]. CouchSurfing [access 15.07.2008]. Available in Internet: http://www.couchsurfing.com/group_read.html?gid=1236&post=822111#gpid822111. 60 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks specific cases, web-based networks also delete profiles of, more than once, reported users. It was a case of user that was sending out to the girls from Eastern Europe messages like the one quoted below: “Hello ... (name of receiver-JMK)! This is...... (artificial name-JMK) I gather from CS TRACKER that you around.... (name of place where receiver was supposed to be recently-JMK). If yes, you are invited to be my guest. It would be nice to know you. I am married. This CS profile is a new one but I am an old member with rich CS experience. I have lived in Russia & my room-mate & friend was from Poland with who I am not in touch anymore. I have had under my old profile wonderful travellers from Poland (... (here was a Polish female name-JMK)), Slovenia & other parts of the world. Please do check my profile for more information on me. I hope for your reply. All the best! (sign with artificial name-JMK) DIRECTIONS: Call me & I will explain or write in the e-mail. If you are coming from (nearest big town to the place where the receiver was to be around- JMK) or any other place on the bus I will come & pick you up. ADDRESS: (full postal address-JMK) PHONE: (phone number-JMK)” 13 This case was reported several times by the receivers of such messages, and today, when one click in the link that used to lead to the profile of sender of this message, all that can be found is the information left by administrators: “Sorry but this profile has been deleted”. Another recent case was a user travelling through Europe, who was registered to the network and used to send to other users urgent messages asking to be hosted because of some special reasons, that either his hostel reservation was unexpectedly cancelled or someone he arranged to 13 Text of this letter was presented by one of the interviewed persons. 61 be hosted by has cancelled and he already arrived to some city and is in an urgent need for place to sleep. People used to react, and those who did were regretting later on, as after this unexpected guest has left their place, they have realised many objects missing. After this was reported to administrators of the network, profile of this user was cancelled. So he has created new one, and repeated the story. As this procedure happened several times, the administrators have decided to send a mass mail to all users informing about this precedence story and reminding about different precaution means to undertake before opening own door to anyone. These rules include i.e. checking reference on user's profile, take under consideration only users who request hospitality not over user-to-user message but over special couch-surf request method of communication14 and it is encouraged to be more favourable for verified users. In CouchSurfing the verification process is made over financial contribution to the network and/or only checking the data provided by user with data of the credit card. Hospitality Club is verifying users by the number of passport or other ID (with photo) document. Only after this verification is completed, users can get full access to the network. For this reason validation takes a bit longer than just registration as it is in CS. And it is highly recommended to ask guests to show their ID in order to check if person that requested hospitality is really the same who arrived. Also in order to send a direct message to other user, one has to type first the passport number. In the same time other networks, that are not totally web-based, such as Servas, have a long tradition of face-to-face meetings for interview with candidates for members of the organization (potential hosts). In the surveys, users were also asked about the reasons that make them to accept request for hospitality. Big number of responders replied, that they care of references left by other users on the profile of person that is requesting accommodation, or that the guest is in a “friend of friend” relation to the host15. However some have mentioned - either together or as the only reason – other reasons that important is also that the future guest has similar interests as they do, or the “general feeling”. Many claim to host everyone who ask, or - as one shared - “depends on my mood, I can choose every option (this refers to the reference-friend of friend- beauty contest-other choice given in survey – JMK) you have listed depending on my mood”. Nevertheless some of responders underlined, that important is also form of request: properly written email, the first impression (“first few emails”) or - in case of CS - proper form of surf 14 On CouchSurfing it is possible to request hospitality by a special form, and these requests are recorded by administrators for the so-called “security reasons”. 15 On CouchSurfing on each user profile one can see the relation based on „six handshakes” theory, which says that everyone is connected to any other person by maximum six friend-of-friend relation distance. 62 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks request. One person has shared hosting “girls only”, while another (in interview) claims to host “boys only, not to make my girlfriend jealous”. Sex is important often and beauty contest sometimes is also a criterion for guests. An exchange factor seems to be important as well: “anyone can surf my couch, I look if the host is in the region I need to go”, “location and need”. To sum up it seems that although many precaution means are undertaken in order to make the exchanges safe, numerous users are so enthusiastic about the idea that they accept almost everyone who asks. Maybe they are naïve and trust so much to other humans, or they have such a big trust to the security measurements in the network that they believe that if someone already is there have to be a reliable and trustworthy person. An interesting observation might also be that in the answers for surveys some responders hasn't mentioned either username (3% of responders) with/or link to own profile (33% of responders), or age (6%). It might be interpreted as protection for own data and security reasons. Although if one provides username but not link to the profile and is responding to the survey on a given network it's not very difficult to find profile page of this member in a given network. In terms of personal data protection in free-hospitality, private information are kept secure with the choice given to the users on which of their private details they wish to share with strangers and how much available they want the information to be. There are two options: by public (for everyone and available through search engines) or limited access (only for registered users and with i.e. address still only as optional information being published only after user's acceptance). Different is the situation in printed lists where hospitality exchange is either announced or supported, but not totally run through website or other online system. There the information is totally available for members, and often request some fee of membership. In networks such as Servas, the member that is to be guest, is requested to give the list back after staying at somebody's place and also to provide reference (same – reference – is requested from host of such person). In these cases we are facing a completely new, revolutionary social phenomenon, which was made real and possible due to internet and information availability. Namely we are experiencing the process of replacement of “traditional” legal regulations with a new social regulatory/control mechanism – public availability of evaluation results. Thus, we may conclude, that the free access to evaluation results (the assessment information transparency) is becoming to play a role of a new “law equivalent”. 63 3.10. Movement The phenomenon of free-hospitality I would like to classify as a movement. It relies on informal groups (in the Internet age should be called rather networks) and organizations which carry out a social change. The free-hospitality movement has a global range: involve and target people from all over the globe, and aim in changes on global level, however as means to achieve this, really grass-root actions (meetings of individuals) are undertaken. Nevertheless some of free- hospitality initiatives work as organizations and should be treated as multi-level movements, as they have structure that cover local, regional, national and international scope. But the general free-hosting should be treated as global movement. The idea is also not new, while first exchanges started in early 20 th century, the real popularity the idea reached after the end of Second World War. Some of the networks have been started in Internet more recently; however general birth of the networks should probably be dated c.a. 1946. In the light of this free- hosting will be a rather old movement. The initiative can be also defined as peaceful and group- focus. It does not only aim in making world's peace, but also through peaceful means such as exchanges of individuals and exchanges of services. Difficult to define might be the scope of this movement and type of changes the movement want to achieve. On global scale it might be treated as radical movement which want to change system of values and promote peace, however some of the movement representatives such as an organization Servas International, which is represented also at UN, might be treated as a reform movement as its activities apart of exchanges, cover lobbying and campaigning for peace-aimed legislation. Is it an innovation movement or rather a conservative one? Today we might describe it as conservative as it aim in remaining world in international peace, but when many of the movement initiatives were started (after the second World War) they were often declaring to aim in “prevent world from the third World War”, and as many countries were recovering after this conflict and still going through long reconciliation process, this free- hosting movement might have been seen as innovative. 64 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks RECAPITULATION Free-hospitality has been studied in social and peace studies, however it has not yet been subject of information studies. When observed closer, these networks reveal a great spectrum of tendencies present also in modern society. Moreover here we can observe the role that information plays in public. This analysis evokes some sociological as well as technological implications, since the free access to information, as described on the above mentioned example, affects and changes many aspects of human activity, having an impact onto so remote fields as the (non-equivalent) exchange of goods and services, (changing) role of law, and also the (more direct) type of democracy, as well as the new kind of criteria of stratification of the contemporary society, and the new type of (non geographical, neither blood supported) tribalism. New social values are probably being added to the catalogue of basic human rights: the free access to information and probably the right and possibility to move and travel freely (the latter may be regarded as a part of more generally defined right, as being expressed in American Constitution – the pursuit of happiness of every human being). The controlled and limited access to information management as illustrated in the case of some networks - may be regarded as a new source of power and authority. This power of network’ administrator - may become very easily transformed in mass scale of future information based society into the political power. In these terms the story about Prodigy and the story about Hospitality Club may be the archetypes of city myths and legends anticipating the Empire to be born. As predicted, new technologies, especially computers connected to the Internet have revolutionised today's life and society, although not in the expected forms. In traditional form, we have been a society of property. Today we have a new type of goods to which we have access to but not necessarily we possess them. These might be goods of common usage, i.e. public library, or access to information. Modern society is indeed ruled by new rules and mechanisms, but not as it was expected. Today's society might then be defined as the society of access. Access was also expected to ensure the equality among people. Neither have we been unified nor became equal. On the contrary, the society has been divided by access or lack of it, and among those privileged with access new groups have appeared. There are different interpretations of the structure of modern society, which vary from breaking down social ties, through new form of tribalism to network(-ed) society. In this paper I have presented the mechanisms of modern society on the example of Internet networks of free-hospitality. The aim of this thesis was to present and analyse a role which information plays in modern 65 society on the example of free-hospitality networks. Information in free-hospitality is crucial not only for the operational sake of the system: users need information about others that they are to host or stay at, but also information plays an important role in reference system. This is being used as security measure, although I would say that free, public access (passive and active: as reader and as author) to the evaluation information in free-hospitality networks has replaced traditional legal regulations and became a new equivalent for law. Information is also a tool of power: shared or not, describes the borders of democracy in a given network. As the most matching this concept, I find the example of BeWelcome network which was created by members of two big networks which have stood against the limited manager privileges they had despite their high participation and contribution to the development of the networks. Free-hospitality networks perfectly picture the main trends in global culture of last half-century. It pictures also social changes from post-war peace movements, through counter-culture of 1970s, to professional Internet-based communities. And also trends in management of information in Internet: from html-code static websites (like Hospex.org), through interactive but not graphically attractive pages (like HospitalityClub.org) to the open source systems accompanied by wiki library and blog written by volunteers (like BeWelcome.org). From the organizational culture point of view, the flow of information in majority of free- hospitality networks reassures the power culture, where a few individuals (intentionally or not: usually founder and his/her close friends) have the main decision-making power. Here unique is again BeWelcome and some not web-based but web-supported networks which started operating as organizations and now their work is only supported by Internet. These remained in democratic procedures and role culture. In conclusion, information management and access to information have become new prerequisites of participative and democratic society and new law equivalent. Personally, I would even risk a statement that free access to information should be listed as a new human right. 66 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks 4. Appendices 4.1. Print screens of mentioned free-hospitality networks websites: 4.1.1. CouchSurfing www.couchsurfing.com 4.1.2. Hospitality Club www.hospitalityclub.org 67  4.1.3. BeWelcome www.bewelcome.org 4.1.4. Servas www.joomla.servas.org 68 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks 4.1.5. Warm Showers www.warmshowers.org 4.1.6. Pasporta Servo www.tejo.org/eo/ps_lingv_en 69  4.1.7. L/GHEI www.lghei.org 4.1.8. WWOOF www.wwoof.org 70 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks 4.2. Overview of selected free-hospitality networks by HospitalityGuide.net www.hospitalityguide.net/hg/site/?sid0=networks 71 72 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks 4.3. Survey model 4.3.1. CouchSurfing [61] Research on CouchSurfing (CS)If you are CouchSurfer (hosting or surfing or both), please, dedicate a few minutes to fill this form. Just a few minutes and your contribution to the world's science will be unbelievably big ;) Thanx in advance! /Julitxu About you CS nickname: link to your CS profile: age: sex: F M education: elementary school college/secondary school university currently studying already graduated place of origin (country, continent): place of residence: city with population > 1 mln city with population 100 000 - 1 mln city with population < 100 000 village Your overall CS estimation extremely good good neutral bad extremely bad Your role in Couch Surfing I am/was host I am/was surfer (guest) I am donor (contributed with money to CS) I am volonteer translator other: Your CS experience if you were/are hosting... overall rating: extremely good good neutral bad extremely bad Do you plan to host in future? yes no maybe if you were/are surfing... overall rating: 73  extremely good good neutral bad extremely bad do you plan to surf in future? yes no maybe Describe in ONE key-word: the reason of joining CS: your CS experience: your benefit from CS: How do you choose a person to host you/ surf your couch? I check the references on his/her CS profile I am choosing people with similar interests to mine I am hosting/ surfing only my friends and friends of my friends only handsome guys/ beautiful girls other: Are you member of other hospitality exchange organizations/ networks? no yes If yes... Hospitality Club (if you select "Hospitality Club" then, after submitting survey, click here) Servas other: If you wish to add some more on your CS experience, please, write below: Thank you! Thank you very much for your time and contribution. If you wish to receive a copy of the outcomes of this research, please write your email address in the field below. Thanx! /Julitxu your email: Submit data 74 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to infor mation) in modern society on the example of free-hospitality networks 4.3.2. Hospitality Club [62] Research on Hospitality Club (HC). If you are member of Hospitality Club (as host, guest or both), please, dedicate a few minutes to fill this form. Just a few minutes and your contribution to the world's science will be unbelievably big ;) Thanx in advance! /Julitxu About you HC nickname: link to your HC profile: age: sex: F M education: elementary school college/secondary school university currently studying already graduated place of origin (country, continent): place of residence: city with population > 1 mln city with population 100 000 - 1 mln city with population < 100 000 village Your overall HC estimation extremely good good neutral bad extremely bad Your role in Hospitality Club I am/was host I am/was guest I am donor (contributed with money to HC) I am volunteer translator other: Your HC experience if you were/are host... overall rating: extremely good good neutral bad extremely bad do you plan to host in future? yes no maybe 75 if you were/are guest... overall rating: extremely good good neutral bad extremely bad do you plan to be guest in future? yes no maybe Describe in ONE key-word: the reason of joining HC: your HC experience: your benefit from HC: How do you choose a person to host you/ visit you? I check the references on his/her HC profile I am choosing people with confirmed passport details I am choosing people with similar interests to mine I am hosting/staying at only my friends and friends of my friends only handsome guys/ beautiful girls other: Are you member of other hospitality exchange organizations/ networks? no yes If yes... CouchSurfing (if you select "CouchSurfing" then, after submitting survey, click here) Servas other: If you wish to add some more on your HC experience, please, write below: Thank you! Thank you very much for your time and contribution. If you wish to receive a copy of the outcomes of this research, please write your email address in the field below. Thanx! /Julitxu your email: Submit data 76 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to information) in modern soc iety on the example of free-hospitality networks Bibliography Books [1]. Bauman Z.: Globalizacja: I Co z Tego Dla Ludzi Wynika. Ed. 1. 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Bauman; source: own, based on [2] ...............................................................................................28 Table 2: overall estimation of the HC and CS networks (in %); Source: own research......................................................................................................54 Index of illustrations Illustration 1: Servas Open Doors logo ...........................................................................38 Illustration 2: Hospitality Club logo................................................................................39 Illustration 3: CouchSurfing Project 2.0 logo ..................................................................39 Illustration 4: BeWelcome logo.......................................................................................40 Illustration 5: Pasporta Servo 2008 cover........................................................................41 Illustration 6: Warm Showers: Hospitality for Cyclists logo............................................41 Illustration 7: WWOOF logo .........................................................................................41 Illustration 8: Structure of Servas....................................................................................46 Illustration 9: CS Org Structure 1.2................................................................................48 85 86 Gift, Exchange and Trust: Information (its role, management and access to information) in modern soc iety on the example of free-hospitality networks Table of content: INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................9 1. New Form of Services – New Form of Societies .................................................................13 1.1. Boxes, break down and networks – structure of modern society...............................13 1.1.1. From material to immaterial goods .......................................................................13 1.1.2. From boxes to loosely-bounded ties ......................................................................14 1.1.3. From social classes to tribes ..................................................................................15 1.1.4. From insects to modern human society .................................................................15 1.2. Social relations and Internet.......................................................................................16 1.3. E-quality.....................................................................................................................18 1.3.1. Criticism and competition .....................................................................................18 1.3.2. Citizen contra government.....................................................................................19 1.3.3. Access ....................................................................................................................19 1.3.4. Space......................................................................................................................20 1.3.5. States' and networks' governance ..........................................................................20 1.4. Freedom and boundaries: rights and restrictions .......................................................21 1.4.1. Intellectual Property Rights...................................................................................21 1.4.2. Licences .................................................................................................................22 2. Free-hospitality Networks ....................................................................................................25 2.1. Concept ......................................................................................................................25 2.2. Hosting peace .............................................................................................................25 2.2.1. Stereotypes and prejudices ....................................................................................27 2.3. Gift and exchange ......................................................................................................27 2.4. Mobility......................................................................................................................30 2.5. Tourism: old and new form ........................................................................................31 2.6. Free values .................................................................................................................32 3. Security, Trust and Participation. Between CouchSurfing and Hospitality Club. ................35 3.1. Methodology ..............................................................................................................35 3.2. History of free-hospitality..........................................................................................36 3.2.1. From exchange organizations to free-hospitality ..................................................36 3.2.2. Free-hospitality and Internet..................................................................................37 3.2.2.1. Servas Open Door ..............................................................................................38 3.2.2.2. Hospex and HospitalityExchange.................................................................38 3.2.2.3. Hospitality Club .................................................................................................39 3.2.2.4. CouchSurfing .....................................................................................................39 3.2.2.5. BeWelcome ........................................................................................................40 3.2.2.6. Pasporta Servo ...................................................................................................41 3.2.2.7. Warm Showers..............................................................................................41 3.2.2.8. WWOOF............................................................................................................41 3.2.2.9. L/GHEI .........................................................................................................42 3.3. “There's no such thing as a free lunch” – Rules in free-hospitality...........................43 3.3.1. Exchange ...............................................................................................................43 3.3.2. Free-culture and hospitality exchange .....................................................................44 3.4. Membership................................................................................................................44 3.4.1. General networks...................................................................................................44 3.4.1.1. Servas Open Door.........................................................................................44 3.4.1.2. Hospitality Club............................................................................................46 3.4.1.2.1. CouchSurfing ..........................................................................................47 3.4.1.2.2. BeWelcome .............................................................................................48 87  3.4.2. Specialized .............................................................................................................49 3.4.2.1. Pasporta Servo ..............................................................................................49 3.4.2.2. Warm Showers..............................................................................................49 3.4.2.3. WWOOF .......................................................................................................50 3.4.2.4. L/GHEI .........................................................................................................50 3.4.3. Average member ....................................................................................................50 3.5. Aims ...........................................................................................................................51 3.5.1. Declared aims and objectives ................................................................................52 3.5.2. Reasons of joining .................................................................................................52 3.6. Experience ..................................................................................................................54 3.6.1. Positive ..................................................................................................................54 3.6.2. Negative .................................................................................................................55 3.6.3. Neutral ...................................................................................................................56 3.7. Benefits ......................................................................................................................57 3.8. Drawbacks ..................................................................................................................59 3.9. Security ......................................................................................................................59 3.10. Movement...................................................................................................................64 RECAPITULATION ....................................................................................................................65 4. Appendices ............................................................................................................................67 4.1. Print screens of mentioned free-hospitality networks websites:....................................67 4.1.1. CouchSurfing..........................................................................................................67 4.1.2. Hospitality Club......................................................................................................67 4.1.3. BeWelcome.............................................................................................................68 4.1.4. Servas .....................................................................................................................68 4.1.5. Warm Showers........................................................................................................69 4.1.6. Pasporta Servo ........................................................................................................69 4.1.7. L/GHEI...................................................................................................................70 4.1.8. WWOOF ................................................................................................................70 4.2. Overview of selected free-hospitality networks by HospitalityGuide.net......................71 4.3. Survey model ..............................................................................................................73 4.3.1. CouchSurfing [61] ..................................................................................................73 4.3.2. Hospitality Club [62] ..............................................................................................75 Bibliography..................................................................................................................................77 Books........................................................................................................................................77 Dissertations ..........................................................................................................................78 Articles .....................................................................................................................................78 Websites....................................................................................................................................79 88