STUDIA PATZINAKA, 6, 2008, pp. 129-145 FOOLS, DEVILS, AND ALCHEMY SECULAR IMAGES IN THE MONASTERY Ana Maria GRUIA A rich stove tile material has been discovered during the years among the ruins of the Carthusian monastery in Klaštorisko (Northern Hungary).1 The monastery, dedicated to St. John the Baptist and established in 1307, is located in a remote place in today’s Slovak Paradise National Park in the Spiš region, Letanovce department. Due to its location, in accordance to the typical Carthusian place selection, on a hill fortified against the Mongol raids of the thirteenth century, the monastery was called Lapis Refugii in the Latin sources.2 Klaštorisko was reconstructed between 1478 and 1530 and this is when the decorated stoves were installed in each monk’s cell and in some of the common spaces. The tile collection from Klaštorisko is unique through its dimensions, variety, and the good archaeological context (the site was not re-used after the destruction of the monastery). Remains of more than 200 tiles and the bases of at least fourteen stoves have been discovered on the site. Several types of images can be found on these stove tiles: religious representations, especially related to the Virgin, but also symbols of the evangelists, the Agnus Dei, other saints and Old Testament scenes, heraldic representations, angels supporting coats of arms, knights, vegetal and animal decoration, but also a series of „strange“ images. The latter include tiles depicting combinations of signs and symbols, a wild man with a crab, a man working with retorts and containers in front of a character in orant position.3 One of these less frequent and unusual tile representations will be the focus of the present article. It depicts a fool and a burgher facing each other, both pounding in the same mortar, under an architectonic decorative border. The item under discussion is a flat, polychrome glazed tile (green and yellow).4 It depicts a man and a fool identifiable through his cap with bells, both churning or pounding in a mortar. The iconography is unique and calls for detailed analysis. The paper will take into consideration the general iconography of the fool in the late Middle Ages, the other (very few) depictions of fools on stove tiles elsewhere, 1 The archaeological material is still in the process of being catalogued and inventoried and I thank Dr. Michal Slivka for allowing me to study several of the tiles. 2 www.klastorisko.sk. 3 www.klastorisko.sk ; Slivka 1988; Slivka 1990; Slivka, 1991; Egyház-Jurovská 1993, cat. 207-248, fig. 31-40; 4 Egyház-Jurovská, 1993, cat. 222, fig. 36. ANA MARIA GRUIA presenting several possible interpretations of the image in its original context of use. Most probably the fool, having identical facial features and wearing the same clothes as the man, stands as his double, as an indication of his folly, having a commentary function. Fig. 1. Stove tile from the Carthusian monastery in Klaštorisko dated 1478-1530. 130  FOOLS, DEVILS, AND ALCHEMY. SECULAR IMAGES IN THE MONASTERY Fools in the Middle Ages The fool is one of the most popular and stable character types throughout cultures and times. This is especially true of medieval Europe. The fool, sometimes a jester, sometimes a clown or a trickster, is always recognizable through his abnormal appearance. The medieval iconographic way of representing fools originates in late antique patterns. Until the early Middle Ages, fools were depicted barefoot, bare- headed, and often holding a round object (sometimes interpreted as the stone of folly). The function of the image was didactic and fools were associated with disbelief, sin, and heresy. The iconographic type is based, as many others, on biblical texts. Psalm 53, beginning with dixit insipiens in corde suo non est Deus, makes the portrait of the fool as a person who lacks faith and doubts the existence of God. A new type appeared in the late Middle Ages, with the fool in variegated (two- or multi-colored) costume (the fools motley), wearing the typical hood with ass years and/or bells. He is holding the bauble (the fool’s stick), a parody of a king’s scepter and more likely to childish toys, which can end in another fool’s head. Most often he also wears a purse by the belt, indicating his lust for money and therefore his sinful nature. Fools became ubiquitous in late medieval decorative arts. They are represented on ornamental garden fountains, public town fountains, bronze candelabra, wooden towel rails, jewels, finials5, feet of precious vessels6, Tarot cards,7 cake and biscuit molds8, misericords, stall sculptures, paintings and very much i woodcuts and engravings. Examples of fools in art and literature multiply after 1500. Some of the representations of fools on cake molds were inspired by or imitated the woodcuts of the extremely influential Das Narrenschiff, printed by Sebastian Brant in 1494 in Basel. The book rapidly became a European bestseller, translated into Latin in 1497, then in several vernaculars. It presented fools as illustrations of vices in a series of images accompanied by verses.9 During the Renaissance, the fool’s mail role was a moralizing one and the accent was placed on his sexual promiscuity. Despite its popularity, the character of the fool remained just as ambiguous in art as it was in real life. Several symbolisms overlap in the figure of the medieval fool, debating his sanity or insanity, his sinful or pure nature, his wisdom or his madness. Court and household fools had appeared in the twelfth century, but they became very fashionable between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries. Domestic 5 Gaignebet, Lajoux 1985, pp. 164-191. 6 Medieval Folklore 2000, p. 364. 7 “The Fool” is one of the major arcane in Tarot games, but he can also figure on other cards from Tarot and in other card games: Biedermann 1994, p.303; d’Allemagne 1906, pp. 11, 43- 45, 49, 56, 64. 8 Arens 1971, plate 31, fig. 31, plate 32, fig. 31b, plate 45, fig. 62, 64; Medieval Folklore 2000, p. 507. 9 Sébastien Brant 1994. 131 ANA MARIA GRUIA fools were kept at royal courts and in the entourage of rich prelates.10 Besides them, there were also independent fools, following the courts or living in towns, performing during festivities and processions, in taverns or brothels.11 To make things even more complicated, the positive valorization of fools and folly reaches a maximum in the hagiographical figure of the holy fool. In this case folly is assimilated with simplicity and wisdom. A popular Feast of Fools started to be held sometime in the end of the twelfth century as a feast of the sub-deacons. It was an occasion for misrule and role reversal among clergy, set during the Christmas season, with a maximum of popularity in the thirteenth and fourteenth century in Northern France, the German area, Bohemia, Italy, and England.12 Fools also featured as folk characters, in the carnival plays of the fifteenth and sixteenth century, especially in Germany. The fool was either the narrator, a herald, a servant of Lady Venus (Dame Folly), or the one who points to the stupidity of others.13 His costume was used as a badge of madness, as carnival costume but also as a public punishment.14 Fools on stove tiles On stove tiles, fools are surprisingly rare in the entire area of tile use. The existing examples come from Alsace15, Tyrol16, the Swiss territory17, Austria (Vienna)18, Bohemia19, and Hungary. The tile from Vienna follows the “older” iconography, depicting the fool with the round object. Sometimes, the fool is a heraldic supporter, recognizable through his typical late medieval costume. Other times, he stands as an allegory of lust, a character dominated by vice and instinct, involved in sexually licentious gestures, touching or uncovering female figures. These images are usually taken over from prints. He can also appear as a musician-entertainer, possibly pointing to the religious condemnation of lay music as vain and inciting to sin. Fools playing the bagpipes, but this time as court jesters, standing besides crowned characters, figure on tiles from Bohemia.20 Tiles depicting a fool between two knights in tournament (pointing to the folly of the defeated competitor?) have been discovered in the same area.21 On stove tiles influenced by the spirit of the Reformation, fools were sometimes used as means of propaganda, denigrating Catholicism or the Pope. 10 Roberts 1998, pp. 331-332. 11 Welsford 1935, p. 119; 12 Grössinger 1997, p. 106; Medieval Folklore 2000, p. 365. 13 Grössinger, 1997, 104-108. 14 Welsford, 1935, 113-127. 15 Minne 1977, pp. 197-198, fig. 129, 149, p. 216. 16 Ringler 1965, table VI, fig. 11. 17 Schnyder 1992, p. 19, fig. 12; Ziegler 2006, p. 214, fig. 10. 18 Holl, Voit 1956, p. 121, fig. 48. 19 Richterová 1982, plates 56.1, 56.4, 6.a-b, 61/1, 61/3. 20 Richterová 1982, plates 61/1, 61/3. 21 Richterová 1982, plates 56.1, 56.4, 6.a-b. 132  FOOLS, DEVILS, AND ALCHEMY. SECULAR IMAGES IN THE MONASTERY One sixteen-century example from Strasburg, showing a half pope – half fool figure, imitated contemporary medals.22 Only four examples of medieval tiles decorated with fools are known from the Kingdom of Hungary to the best of my knowledge. One comes from the bishop’s palace in Esztergom, where a fool wearing a pointed hood and a typical collar springs from an acorn branch with leafs and fruits. The corner tile, dated around 1490, a product of the majolica workshop in Buda, is decorated with polychrome glaze: green and yellow lead glaze and white and violet tin glaze.23 The image could be interpreted as a sexual allusion, since in Latin the word for acorn and penis was the same (glans). The fool’s bust is placed above two oversized acorn fruits springing from a phallic branch and his right hand is lowered towards the groin. If this is indeed the correct interpretation, one is left wondering what was the reaction triggered by this image in a bishop’s palace. Was it regarded as an amusing, clever pun? Or maybe as a condemnation of sexual pleasures? Fig. 2. Tile from the palace in Esztergom Another tile decorated with a fool, has been discovered among the ruins of another monastery in Northern Hungary. The cloister in Slovenská Ľupča was recently identified as having been owned by the Franciscans until 1526.24 The tile, inspired by a print created by Albrecht Dürer, depicts the fool as death, with a mowing on his shoulder, a hood with ass ears, and a purse (?) by his waist. The item was dated to the fifteenth-sixteenth century25 but it was probably created before 1526: 22 Minne 1977, p.225. 23 Holl, Voit 1963, p.66, cat. 22, fig. 22; Holl, Voit 1956, 115, fig. 39; Holl 2001, pp. 391-392, fig. 56. 24 Hanuliak 2001. 25 Egyház-Jurovská 1993, cat. 173, fig. 28. 133 ANA MARIA GRUIA Fig. 3. Tile from the monastery in Slovenská Ľupča A third tile with fool is kept in the National Museum in Budapest and is probably a product of the workshop in Banská Bystrica, Dolná Street 35, active around 1480-1500.26 It is a niche tile with open work in the upper part consisting of grapes and a reversed crown (?), and the interior decorated in relief with a repre- sentation of a standing fool, with cap and bell under the chin, bagpipe and purse, and a small monkey by his feet. The iconography of this tile combines several typical elements usually associated with fools: the bagpipes (standing for entertainment and lay music), the costume with bells, the purse by the belt (standing for the lust for money), and the monkey (impure, mocking animal). Grapes are usually Christian symbols, related to Christ’s sacrifice, but in this context they may be an indication of wine and drunkenness. Overall, this fool seems to be mainly an entertainer, embodying the pleasures of wine, music, and merrymaking. His laughing face is another indication for this: Fig. 4. Tile from Banská Bystrica (?) The fourth tile is the one from Klaštorisko. Its original context is not known, neither is the exact number of fragments or tiles decorated with this motif found on the site. The general iconography of the stoves from this Carthusian monastery is also not sufficiently researched. Therefore the interpretation of the tile will have to lean on the general context and the usual medieval interpretations of fools and churning or pounding. Such an analysis can be subsumed to the larger debate on the possible functions of “marginal representations”. 26 Cserey 1974, pp. 214-215, fig. 9. 134  FOOLS, DEVILS, AND ALCHEMY. SECULAR IMAGES IN THE MONASTERY Medievalists still argue over the meaning of such sexual, scatological, or ironic images,27 especially when they appear in religious contexts such as the monastery in Klaštorisko. Were they perceived as offensive by their medieval beholders? Or were they amusing in a way we ceased to understand? Could they have been simply moralizing or didactic references to condemned aspects of life? Or could they have been seen in the context of a medieval mentality relying on apotropaic representations for protection? Possible interpretations Around 1500 fools were mainly used in arts with a commentary function. If a character is not designated as a fool by the placing of an ass-eared hood on his head, then his proverbial folly is often quite literally pointed to by an accompanying fool.28 The moralizing fool is a stable late medieval iconographical topos, promoted especially by Sebastian Brant’s The Ship of Fools which pairs woodcuts (for the first edition of 1494 created by Albrecht Dürer) with explicating verses. One of them depicts two characters pushing a living sow into a tanning vat.29 The man’s folly is indicated by the hood with ears and bells hanging on his back and by the accompanying fool who copies his gestures. The folly is made explicit by the verses: Of Good Councilors: Who heeds what mighty men have said And e’er by fickleness is led Drives sows to vats before they’re dead. Fig. 5. Illustration from Sebastian Brant, The Ship of Fools, 25th edition, Lyon, 1499, woodcut by Guillaume Balsarin On the tile from Klaštorisko, the fool and the man wear identical costumes (except for the hat): short tunic, “skirt”, purse by the belt, and tight hoses. They also have identical facial characteristics. This clearly indicates that the fool is the man’s double and that his presence is a commentary to the latter’s folly: 27 Baltrusaitis 1955; Randall 1957; Randall 1966; Camille 1992; Freeman Sandler 1997; Christensen, 1998; Jones 2002; Wirth 2003; Mellinkoff 2005. 28 Medieval Folklore 2000, p. 364. 29 Morris 2005, p. 159. 135 ANA MARIA GRUIA Fig. 6. Stove tile from Klaštorisko (detail) In art, the evolution of the fool and his functions is paralleled by that of the Wild Man and of the ape.30 They all embody disorder, parody, and the disruptive energies from outside the civilized society. What is more, yellow and green are associated with fools and labeled by Pastoureau as “colors of disorder”. So what is the “disorder” or the “folly” illustrated on this particular stove tile? Churning or pounding, when not illustrating actual household tasks (in which case they are always performed by women), usually associate the action with hybrids, apes, or fools. Ruth Mellinkoff interprets them as apotropaic because these creatures were deemed as demonic or the action itself was associated with magic. Not only was butter used as base for medical and magic recipes, but its production from milk was seen as a sensitive process, magic in itself, whose success could be threatened by the interference of evil spirits.31 Representations of this sort were meant to protect, according to this author, the manuscripts in which they featured, the houses and churches having them as signs or as fresco decorations, and the persons wearing them on badges. Fig. 7. Getty Antiphonal (Getty Museum MS 44/Ludwig VI 5, folio 135), Franco-Flemish, c. 1260-127032 30 Gifford 1974. 31 Mellinkoff 2005, pp.161-163. 32 Mellinkoff 2005, fig. VIII.11 136  FOOLS, DEVILS, AND ALCHEMY. SECULAR IMAGES IN THE MONASTERY Fig. 8. Stowe 17 Hours, British Library MS Stowe 17, folio 176r, Maastricht, c.130033 Fig. 9. Louis de Male Missal, Flemish, c. 1360, Brussels, Bibliotheque royale MS 9237, folio 33v.34 33 Mellinkoff 2005, fig. VIII.12. 34 Mellinkoff 2005, fig. VIII.13 137 ANA MARIA GRUIA Fig. 10. Painted wood carvings on corbels of a house in Goslar, Germany, XVIth century35 Fig. 11. Fresco in Espoo church (Finland)36 35 Mellinkoff 2005, fig. VIII.14A-B; Gaignebet, Lajou, 1985, p. 216, fig. 1-2. 36 Rácz 1967, fig. 192. 138  FOOLS, DEVILS, AND ALCHEMY. SECULAR IMAGES IN THE MONASTERY Fig. 12. Lay badge, c. 1375-1425; Salisbury and South Wiltshire Museum37 The stove tile from Klaštorisko could also have had an apotropaic function. It could have been meant to scare or distract the ubiquitous demons and evil spirits. But in a monastery, it would have been the religious images the ones displayed for supernatural protection. And Ruth Mellikoff’s apotropaic label covers different representations of churners, which contain several other elements supporting various other interpretations. Fig. 10 has been also seen as showing a witch and a devil preparing to support her sexual urges by symbolically blowing a pair of bellows towards her exposed behind.38 The badge depicting an ape with hood standing on a fish, urinating in a mortar and using the pestle (fig. 12) has also received diverging interpretations. Malcom Jones suggests that its popularity was due to its use as shop sign in France.39 Brian Spencer considers it might have been a satirical allusion to the substances used by apothecaries for making drugs. The author thinks that the motif was just satirical, presenting apes as doctors, since their analysis of urine was a common means of diagnostic.40 Mellinkoff thinks its primary function was apotropaic – since excrements and sexual display were.41 There is obviously something strange about these depictions of churners that pair female churners with devils (fig. 10 and 11) and nudity (fig. 9), churning with animals (fig. 12), monsters (fig. 9) and hybrids (fig. 9). What interests us here is the presence of fools and elements of fool’s costume on images of churning and pounding. The devil in figure 10 wears a fool’s hood with crest and bells. The ape in figure 12 also wears a long hood with collar. So the association of fools with churning or pounding was sometimes created. What is completely new on the tile from Klaštorisko is that the two characters are churning or pounding in the same time and that both of 37 Mellinkoff 2005, fig. II.40. 38 Gaignebet, Lajoux 1985, p.216. 39 Jones 1993. 40 Spencer 1998, p.310, fig. 308d, fig. 310, 312. 41 Mellinkoff 2005, p.85; For a discussion of apotropaic principles and protective images on stove tiles see: Gruia 2007. 139 ANA MARIA GRUIA them are male. The depiction does not refer therefore to demons interfering with human productive works (like on fig. 11 where the woman and the devil are churning with the same pestle in the same mortar against an agricultural household background). But the man’s proverbial folly could refer to the fact that he tries to churn like a woman. It might be a satirical allusion to the reversal of gender roles, to dominating women and subdued men taking over their tasks. Such an interpretation is also suggested by the tile’s context of use, in a male environment such as that of a Carthusian monastery. A close inspection of the tile could also clarify whether the fool is not in fact stealing the man’s purse, in which case the folly could be the lack of attention or the engagement in a financially unproductive activity. Having in mind sexual interpretations and considering the fact that fools are often associated to sexual licentiousness even on tiles, one could see pounding as analogue for penetration. Can it mean that the folly of this young man is that he becomes feminized in order to obtain sexual favors? Or could even sodomy be envisaged, as a danger lurking over the members of a male monastic community? Another possible reading of the image on the tile can be made by reference to alchemy. The alchemical procedures also imply the use of mortars in the preparation of substances for the production of Philosopher’s Stone. An illustration from a fifteen- century manuscript depicts four of the great alchemists watching over some of the typical procedures of the Art performed by anonymous men (fig. 13).42 The first on the left is a young apprentice pounding with a pestle in a mortar very much similar to that depicted on the tile in Klaštorisko. Another represen- tation of the vegetal chemistry used at different stages of the work, from the beginning of the sixteenth century, also shows a comparable mortar (fig. 14):43 Fig. 13. Norton, Ordinall, XVth century, British Museum, Add. 10302, f. 32v. (detail) 42 Klossowski de Rola 1986, plate 9. 43 Roob 2006, p.324. 140  FOOLS, DEVILS, AND ALCHEMY. SECULAR IMAGES IN THE MONASTERY Fig. 14. Aurora consurgens, beginning of the XVIth century Records of alchemical interests and alchemists in the Spiš region of Northern Hungary have been preserved for the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, some of them in monasteries (probably also related to medicine). Alchemy was practiced by some Carthusian monks from Červeny Klaštor and even Klaštorisko, or by burgers from Kežmarok (oldest documentary mention of a Bartholomeus Alchemista is from 1435) and Spišská Nová Ves (a certain Polish organist Andrej Smočky).44 In 1475 John of Transylvania, one of the Carthusian monks of Klaštorisko, was accused of defraud and was sent away by his superiors. The cause of the reckless expense seems to have been precisely alchemical experiments tried in the cloister.45 The representation on the tile might allude therefore to this particular episode, the fool probably mocking such foolish endeavors and their consequences. Other tiles from 44 Števík, Fetko 2007, p.17. 45 Info Martin Homza and Naďa Rácová. 141 ANA MARIA GRUIA Klaštorisko could also be interpreted from this paradigm, since they display unusual associations of crosses, pentagrams and Knots of Solomon, or a male character (possibly an alchemist?) working with several containers in front of a female assistant/muse. There are other examples of alchemical images decorating sixteen- century stove tiles. In the alchemical laboratory from the castle of Oberstockstall (today’s Austria) have been discovered such items depicting a man and a sun, or an open door with a series of symbols.46 The unique tile with fool from Klaštorisko supports several interpretations, among which probably the most seductive makes reference to alchemy. But in the lack of precise data on the location and composition of the stove or stoves which contained this particular representation, and in the absence of written sources concerning the interpretation of images on stove tiles in this particular context, the previously described hypothesis remain open for debate. 46 von Osten, 1998. 142  FOOLS, DEVILS, AND ALCHEMY. SECULAR IMAGES IN THE MONASTERY BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS d’Allemagne 1906 - Henry-René d’Allemagne, Les Cartes a Jouer du XIVe au XXe siècle, Paris: Librairie Hachette et Cle, 1906; Arens 1971 - Fritz Arens, “Die ursprüngliche Verwandung gotischer Stein- und Tohnmodel“, Mainzer Zeitschrift 66/1971: 106-131; Baltrusaitis 1955 - Jurgis Baltrusaitis, Le moyen âge fantastique, Paris: Armand Collin, 1955; Biedermann 1994 - Hans Biedermann, Knaurs Lexikon der Symbole, München: Droemer Knaur, 1994; Camille 1992 - Michael Camille, Image on the Edge. 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