Metaphysics as Therapy. List-Making and Renunciation in Gnostic Yogas

Indian Philosophy: Past and Present Series Editor Bindu Puri , JNU Campus, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India Editorial Board Asa Kasher, Department of Philosophy, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel Bhikhu Parekh, Hull, UK Christopher Key Chapple, Department of Theological Studies, Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, CA, USA Debashish Banerji, Haridas Chaudhuri Prof of Indian Phil., California Institute of Integral Studies, San Francisco, CA, USA Godabarish Misra, Philosophy and Comparative Religion, Nalanda University, Rajgir, Bihar, India Lesa Scholl, Queen’s College, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia Lisa Singh, Australia India Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia Mrinal Miri, New Delhi, Delhi, India Rakesh Chandra, philosophy, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India Roopen Majithia, Mount Allison University, Sackville, NB, Canada Richard Sorabji, King’s College London, London, UK This series explores problems, debates, and arguments in the expansive domain of Indian philosophy from classical to contemporary philosophical interests. It includes ancient Indian philosophy, philosophy developed through debates in the various schools (the Samkhya, Nyaya, Advaita, Buddhist and Jain among others), the work of both twentieth century and more contemporary Indian philosophers; as well as the indigenous philosophy of the tribes of India. It brings out the diverse interests of the Indian mind reflected in the practices and articulations of Indian cultures and the philosophical thinking that arises from them within the autonomy of their own boundaries of sense and meaning. This makes it possible to have an unalloyed view of the real concerns of the Indian philosophical tradition and lays the groundwork for a creative intervention in contemporary, what we might call mainstream philosophy, as it is practised worldwide in the academy. By initiating a dialogue between the philosophical traditions of India (and more generally of the East) with those of the West, the series fosters a global dialogue on diverse philosophical perspectives. It provides a valuable resource for both lay readers and scholars interested in Indian philosophy, comparative philosophy (in epistemology, ethics, metaphysics and other areas), pluralism, and multiculturalism. There are of course standalone volumes on specific systems, texts, and thinkers in Indian philosophy; however, this series uniquely positions significant works across centuries within a coherent framework presenting the specific concerns of Indian philosophy in their diversity, and its abiding issues as embedded in their original articulations. While rooted in the rich tapestry of Indian thought, the series explicitly addresses its global relevance, providing insights that resonate with scholars and readers across the world. Both individual-authored and edited books are considered within the series. Karl-Stéphan Bouthillette Metaphysics as Therapy List-Making and Renunciation in Gnostic Yogas Karl-Stéphan Bouthillette Department of Philosophy Manipal Academy of Higher Education Manipal, Karnataka, India ISSN 3005-088X ISSN 3005-0898 (electronic) Indian Philosophy: Past and Present ISBN 978-981-96-2555-0 ISBN 978-981-96-2556-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-2556-7 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2025 This work is subject to copyright. 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Go forth from your land, your relatives, and from your father’s house to a land that I will show you. — Genesis 12, 1. À Gilles, Lynn et Yan Preface Initiated in 2019 as a postdoctoral project funded by the Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek—Vlaanderen (FWO in short English), in beautiful Ghent, Belgium, among a people for whom I am forever grateful, this book is the product of six years of research and personal rumination over old and new materials. Doing the long count, however, it in fact stands on over twenty years of personal and scholarly pursuits. As I studied the literature during these years, I started to long for a different approach to Indian philosophy, something a bit less fragmented and fragmentating. So many avenues of research have been opened already. Perhaps for this reason, there is a tendency among scholars to remain along known paths rather than to look further afield. The path of fragmentation is one which has been substantially explored to date. To look elsewhere, I conceived of a project in which I could not only push myself to cross disciplinary boundaries but to explore a novel way of writing about it. I am humbled to have been able to lead this project to conclusion and to share this learning experience with colleagues, friends, and the informed public. May it be of service. I completed the manuscript while taking office as Assistant Professor in the Department of Philosophy (DoP) at the Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), in Karnataka, India. This new setting particularly influenced the last part of the book. To examine the significance of metaphysical list-making as a determining feature of ‘spiritual exercises’ in South Asian gnostic yogas, this book is divided into three main parts which function as concentric magnifying lenses, moving from the general to the particulars, from the abstract to the concrete. In this way, the monograph operates as an ophthalmic trial frame conceived to progressively adjust one’s view to the dazzling spectacle of gnostic philosophical literature. After all, the gnostic paths themselves follow some kind of programmatic vision (darśana) therapy. The first partition of the book is itself further segmented into three main questions, each followed by their speculative answers. (1) Why this book? It is because lists are ubiquitous in the gnostic literature I study, and this phenomenon requires attention. Thus, the entire first part of this study is dedicated to ‘lists’ and ‘list-making’ in general and within the South Asian contexts. (2) What are lists? To begin answering this question I draw a brief historical sketch of the appearance of lists in written languages in the ix x Preface Mesopotamian world. I reflect on the relationship between taxonomy and culture. I examine the significance of lists for analogical thinking, as a mnemotechnic, explanatory, and predictive device. I then move on to discuss the omnipresence of lists in the South Asian philosophical literature, before coming back onto the concept of list itself, which I dissect into three mirroring conceptual representations, that of sequences, categories, and taxonomies. The three can be said to capture what a list form represents, depending on the perspective one adopts when analyzing it. Having reflected on these dimensions of list-making practices, I examine the cognitive functions of listing and categorizing according to contemporary psychology, an understanding which I then contrast briefly with two critical components of mental activity commonly discussed by South Asian Gnostics: a. that of linguistic and conceptual proliferation (prapañca) and that of mental constructs and habitual tendencies (sam . skāra). (3) To conclude this initial section, I finally ask: what is not a list? Indeed, what, if anything, is not an agglomeration of parts, something contingent that was accidentally caused to come together by some external factors, but the opposite, a necessity, some ultimate object which can only be one, a unique and fundamental datum of reality? I highlight the role of negation in pointing out this singularity and argue that the dialectical negation of lists points at an indivisible and ungraspable reality, a utopian state which Gnostics ritually seek to realize through philosophizing and renunciation. With part two, I focus on determining what is yogic Gnosticism, as a South Asian historical religious undercurrent to begin with, and, in a second step, as a distinctive form of philosophical practice and ascetic way of life. Part two is divided into three questions. (1) What is Yogic Gnosticism? Here, after reflecting on the absence of research on gnostic yogas within contemporary Yoga Studies circles, I briefly sketch out the historical development of gnostic ideologies within ancient literature, arguing that yogic Gnosticism can historically be conceived as the result of a progressive ‘internalization’ of an ancient sacrificial worldview. (2) What is the gnostic inner sacrifice? Concretely, I argue that it amounts to the practice of a taxonomically guided determinate negation of oneself, renouncing all forms of (self-)representation. I explore this idea through a progressive study of different aspects of renunciation, like the usual ascetic abandonment of outer sensory objects of desire, the gnostic focus on negating internal objects (views), and the rejection of ‘yoga’ itself. I also reflect on the relevance of metaphysics for the performance of renunciation. Finally, I suggest that gnostic philosophy can be seen as a therapeutic ‘rite de passage.’ (3) What is gnostic philosophy? I propose that it presents a practical and therapeutic process of knowledge production, transmission, and internalization. I first briefly look at different aspects of ritual practice in South Asia and at how the practice of philosophy itself came to be seen as a higher ritual of internal purification. I then briefly retrace the trajectory of taxonomical practices from ancient sacrificial speculation to scholastic literature to conclude that, in gnostic contexts, taxonomy partakes of the general aesthetics of a broader ritual experience, a spiritual training, systematized in literature through metaphysics and dialectics. Following the in-depth theoretical overview offered by my tentative answers to the previous questions, having examined the practice of list-making in general and Preface xi introduced the South Asian gnostic philosophical contexts in broad terms, the third section narrows in on four different gnostic texts or chapters of texts coming from as many different philosophical traditions which variously harnessed taxonomy and list-making to inform a particular spiritual exercise. There is (1) the Sām . khyakārikā (Verses on Sām khya) of Īśvarakr s n a, an avatar of the gnostic stream of Sām . .. . . khya philosophy; (2) the Āgamaśāstra (Instruction on the Doctrine) of Gaud.apāda, representative of the early gnostic Advaita Vedānta; (3) the Prajñāpāramitāhr.dayasūtra (Heart of the Perfection of Wisdom Sūtra, or Heart Sūtra), paragon of the gnostic stream of Mahāyāna Buddhism; and (4) Kundakunda’s Bārasa An.uvekkhā (The Twelve Contemplations), exemplifying the Jaina version of gnostic thought. Each text serves to illustrate some of the key elements of the discussions which unfolded in the previous parts of the book, and to bring forward for analysis their own idiosyncratic sets of categories and gnostic speculation. Readers who are more interested in the ‘concrete’ discussions on the history, nature, and methods of gnostic yogas and perhaps less inclined to delve in the abstract theorization of the function of taxonomy and list-making in the formulation of gnostic ‘practices’ may want to read section 1.1 and immediately jump to part two. Yet, to understand my approach to gnostic spiritual exercises and my interpretation of the selected literature, the first part of this book is foundational. For, metaphysical lists and their dialectical negation are the active substance and pestle used to grind to dust the delusional habit of self-misidentification within the sacrificial mortar of gnostic philosophies. The knowledge ( jñāna) born of this cosmic grinding is the gnostic means (yoga) of self-realization par excellence. Regarding the numerous footnotes, they are not merely meant to provide references and evidence to the main discussions, but often to lead to a deeper examination of an issue, to add valuable expertise, or to relate a precise topic with the broader context of the book. Readers who dislike being distracted in their reading by constant side talks can very well chose to remain within the mainframe. It has been composed so that its key arguments may be understood without need for deviation toward external materials. This is perhaps especially appropriate for the non-specialists. Yet, the notes constitute a book within the book, and in that sense, they provide an echo-chamber against which my arguments are meant to reverberate and be reasoned to produce their maximum effect. Experience has already shown to me that this study can be used when teaching South Asian religions and philosophies. This is made possible here precisely because this book brings together a diverse array of primary sources from different sectarian backgrounds to showcase South Asian gnostic spiritual exercises in their own terms and in light of most relevant theories to date. I critically engage with these theories, propose correctives, and at times suggest altogether new avenues of interpretation which, in my view, apply best to the sources I study and their tradition. Because it is still not obvious to most, I spare no effort to define what I mean, doctrinally and historically speaking, by ‘South Asian Gnosticism,’ jñāna-yoga, and ‘gnostic yogas.’ I believe to have at least provided a working definition which is neither too broad nor too narrow, and which allows for a comparative analysis that meaningfully cuts across the rigid sectarian divisions that have unfortunately fractured and compartmentalized the field of Indian philosophy into hyperspecialized domains. Concomitantly, xii Preface I propose a taxonomological approach to critically examine and make sense of the rather simple but apparently controversial idea that the practice of philosophy may be a therapeutic means of ‘transformation’ in the South Asian context. While the final result is a somewhat bulky corpus, I believe that it was necessary to establish and defend the relevance of the trans-sectarian and trans-boundary field of South Asian gnostic studies. Manipal, India Karl-Stéphan Bouthillette Acknowledgments This project would not have been possible without the financial support of the Belgian Research Foundation—Flanders (FWO), from which I benefitted for three years (2019–2022) while positioned at Ghent University. A special thanks to Eva de Clercq who supervised the project during this period, and to all the team members of the South Asia Network Ghent (SANGH). Heartfelt gratitude, also, to my colleague Halina Marlewicz from the Jagiellonian University in Krakow, who generously agreed to meticulously review the first draft of the two initial parts of the manuscript and to share her honest views. Similarly, special thanks to my friend Patrick McCartney, now at Hiroshima University, in Japan, for the time he initially spent reviewing introductory sections, and for the later thorough and helpful reading of the whole. I’ll forever be indebted to another friend and long-time colleague, Henry Albery, JSPS International Fellow at the Institute of Advanced Studies on Asia, at the University of Tokyo, who patiently attended to my theoretical antics and by times mind-numbing confabulations at every stage of the project. It is to his eagle-eye and professional generosity that this monograph owes many of the subtle refinements that strengthen my arguments, precious nuggets of information that I alone, caught in the meta-perspective like Thales of Miletus in starlight, would have failed to acknowledge. I also wish to salute my colleague at the Department of Philosophy (DoP) in Manipal, India, Srinivasan Acarya, for the opportunity he gave me to join his faculty team while working on the manuscript, and for the freedom he allowed me to complete the task while assuming my other responsibilities. I particularly wish to highlight the unfailing professionalism and support of Satvinder Kaur and her team, at Springer, throughout the editorial process. Finally, though over two decades have passed, I would like to acknowledge the professors that inspired me during my B.A. in Ancient Studies (2002–2005), at Laval University in Québec city. It is they, members of L’Institut d’études anciennes et médiévales (IÉAM) like Louis Painchaud, Paul-Hubert Poirier, Jean-Marc Narbonne, Anne Pasquier, and André Couture, working on the French translations of the Nag xiii xiv Acknowledgments Hammadi corpus and its related literature, who first introduced me to Gnosticism, Manicheanism, Neoplatonism, Christian-Jewish Theology, and Sanskrit literature, kindling my passion for the field. Contents Part I List Making: From Universal to Spiritual Exercise 1 Why This Book? Ubiquitous Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 What Are Lists? Representations of Sequences, Categories, and Taxonomies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 The Origins of Written Lists: Mesopotamia and the Listenwissenschaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Taxonomy and Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Analogical List Making: A Mnemotechnic, Explanatory, and Predictive Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 The Omnipresence of Lists in South Asian Philosophical Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Toward a Definition of Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.1 Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.2 Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.3 Taxonomies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 Taxonomy, Cognition, and Gnostic Theories of Mental Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.1 Prapañca—Linguistic and Conceptual Proliferations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.2 Sam . skāra—Mental Constructs and Habitual Tendencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3 21 25 29 36 39 45 53 55 57 63 68 75 80 84 What Is Not a List? The Determinate Negation of the Absolute . . . . 91 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 xv xvi Contents Part II 4 5 6 Gnostic Yoga as Philosophical Practice What Is Yogic Gnosticism? The Spiritual Exercise of Inner Sacrifice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Demarcating an Elite Ritual Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Chronological Development of Yogic Gnosticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . What Is the Gnostic Inner Sacrifice? Renouncing Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Gnostic Renunciation as a Philosophical Way of Life . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 The Shared Ethos of Renunciation in South Asian Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 Renouncing Views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3 Renouncing Yoga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Sustaining Renunciation with Metaphysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Gnostic Philosophical Practice as Rite de Passage . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . What Is Gnostic Philosophy? The Therapeutic Production, Transmission, and Internalization of Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Mythological and Ritual Discourses qua Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.1 Fire Rituals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.2 Shared Rituals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.3 Inner Rituals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.4 Philosophy as Higher Ritual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 List Forms from Sacrificial Speculation to Gnostic Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 111 122 131 135 135 135 139 144 148 151 155 159 163 165 166 168 171 174 177 Part III Case Studies in South Asian Gnostic Spiritual Exercises 7 A Taxonomological Framing of the Therapeutic Method Articulated in Gnostic Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 8 The Sām . khyakārikā of Īśvarakr.s.n.a: The Gnostic Sacrificial Dancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Introduction to the Text and Its Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Two Truths in Sām . khya Philosophy? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Sacrificial Progression of the Sām . khyakārikā . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.1 The First Altar: The Desire to Know How to Remove Existential Distress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.2 The Second Altar: The Knowledge of Macrocosmic Behavioral Representations . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.3 The Third Altar: The Knowledge of Microcosmic Psychological Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 191 193 199 200 204 212 Contents xvii 8.3.4 The Sacrificial Pole: Release from Bondage . . . . . . . . . . 214 8.3.5 Summative Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 9 Gaud.apāda’s Om . kāraprakaran.am in the Āgamaśāstra: The Gnostic Mantra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Introduction to the Text and Its Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 The Om . kāraprakaran.am (Chapter on the Om . Syllable) of the Āgamaśāstra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.1 What is to Be Known? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.2 How is It Known? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.3 How is It Cultivated? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Bhagavatı̄Prajñāpāramitāhr.dayasūtra: The Gnostic Heart of Lady Prajñāpāramitā . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1 Introduction to the Text and Its Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 The Sūtra of the Heart of the Noble Lady of Perfect Wisdom . . . 10.2.1 What is to Be Known? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.2 How is It Cultivated? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Kundakunda’s Bārasa An.uvekkhā. Twelve Gnostic Contemplations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 Introduction to the Text and Its Tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.1 Kundakunda the Gnostic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.2 Taxonomy and Determinate Negation in the Twelve Gnostic Contemplations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 The Twelve Contemplations (Bārasa An.uvekkhā) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.1 Renunciation (Pratyākhyāna, 3-20) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.2 Repentance (Pratikraman.a, 21-42) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.3 Confession (Ālocanā, 43-65) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.4 Absorption (Samādhi, 66-86) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.5 Closing verses (87-91) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 227 232 232 233 239 242 243 244 253 253 261 268 271 271 271 275 279 280 282 284 286 289 290 12 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Annex 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Annex 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 About the Author Karl-Stéphan Bouthillette is Assistant Professor in the Department of Philosophy (DoP), Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE). Following his Ph.D. in Munich, he pursued postdoctoral research in Leiden and Gent. His first monograph was Dialogue and Doxography in Indian Philosophy (Routledge, 2020). xix Abbreviations AbhK AG AN ĀŚ BA BĀU BBhV BhG BhGŚBhā Bhā BS BCA CWSL DP DŚ GM HS KU MBh MHK MMK MN MU Mun.U NBh NV PahU PĀS PI PrS R.V Abhidharma Kośa Anugı̄tā Aṅguttara Nikāya Āgama Śāstra Bārasa An.uvekkhā Br.had Āran.yaka Upanis.ad Br.hadāran.yaka Bhās.ya Vārtika Bhagavad Gı̄tā Bhagavad Gı̄tā Śaṅkara Bhās.ya Bhāmatı̄ Brahma Sūtra Bodhicaryāvatāra Cheng Weishi Lun Dhammapada Daśa Ślokı̄ Genealogy of Morality (Nietzsche) Hr.daya Sūtra /Heart Sūtra Katha Upanis.ad Mahā Bhārata Madhyamaka Hr.daya Kārikā Mūla Madhyamaka Kārikā Majjhima Nikāya Mān.d.ūkya Upanis.ad Mun.d.aka Upanis.ad Nyāya Bhās.ya Nyāya Vārtika Prān.āgnihotra Upanis.ad Paṅcāstikāya Sam . graha Philosophical Investigations (Wittgenstein) Pravacana Sāra R.g Veda xxi xxii ŚB SK SPS SS ŚvU YS Abbreviations Śatapatha Brāhman.a Sām . khya Kārikā Sati Pat..thāna Sutta Samaya Sāra Śvetāśvatara Upanis.ad Yoga Sūtra Part I List Making: From Universal to Spiritual Exercise Part II Gnostic Yoga as Philosophical Practice Part III Case Studies in South Asian Gnostic Spiritual Exercises Annex 1 The Daśaślokī (Ten Verses) of Śaṅkara I decided to include full translations of the Daśaślokī of Śaṅkara in an annex for three reasons. 1. Though I did not analyze the text directly in the main body of the monograph, I quoted it several times in notes. I thus feel compelled to provide the remaining verses. 2. The Daśaślokī incorporates several elements discussed in the previous chapter on Gauḍapāda’s Oṃkāraprakaraṇam, like the waking and dream states, deep sleep, and the Fourth (turīya). But it goes much further, encompassing the whole Advaita worldview. 3. The lyrical format, meant to be recited, and the dense philosophical contents of the text, meant to be memorized as a kind of index, with its consecutive strings of ephemeral objects to be altogether negated, cannot fail to remind one of the Buddhist Heart Sūtra. Hence, though an extensive study of this text cannot be conducted here without adding considerable length to an already long monograph, it is worth bringing to the attention of the reader as another telling example of the pivotal role of taxonomy and determinate negation in gnostic spiritual exercises.1 The short text, consisting of ten bhujaṅgaprayāta verses (where each line consists of 12 syllables), is also known as the Cidānandastavarāja, the Cidānandadaśaślokī, or the Nirvāṇadaśaka. Its main commentary is the Siddhāntabindu or Siddhāntatattvabindu of Madhusūdana Sarasvatī (1540–1640). In brief, just as the Heart Sūtra independently summarizes the essence of the view of the Prajñāpāramitā literature, the Daśaślokī is an independent and pithy exposition of the whole Advaita philosophy. Its implicit structure is that of a progressive disclosure of the great saying (mahāvākya) ‘That thou art’ (tattvamasi), found in the Chāndogya Upaniṣad (6.8.7). The first three verses focus on the meaning of tvam, the 1 For more information on the context of the Daśaślokī and its structure, see Saha (2017). © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2025 K. Bouthillette, Metaphysics as Therapy, Indian Philosophy: Past and Present, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-2556-7 303 304 Annex 1 following three elucidate that of tat, while the last four are dedicated to the meaning of the entire sentence, tattvamasi.2 1. na bhūmir na toyaṃ na tejo na vāyur na khaṃ na indriyaṃ vā na teṣāṃ samuhaḥ | anaikāntikatvāt suṣuptyekasiddhas tadeko’vaśiṣṭaḥ śivaḥ kevalo’ham || Neither the earth, nor water, nor fire, nor the wind, nor the sky, nor the sense organs, nor the sum of these. Out of (all this) unsteadiness (anaikāntikatva), that realized by one in deep sleep (suṣupti), that one which remains, Śiva, alone am I. 2. na varṇā na varṇāśramācāradharmā na me dhāraṇādhyānayogādayo’pi | anātmāśrayāhaṃmamādhyāsahānāt tadeko’vaśiṣṭaḥ śivaḥ kevalo’ham || Neither caste, nor the stages, customs and laws of caste are for me. Neither are concentration (dhāraṇā), meditation (dhyāna), or yoga. Out of abandoning such superimposition (adhyāsa) as non-self, body, I, and mine, that one which remains, Śiva, alone am I. 3. na mātāpitā vā na devā na lokā na vedā na yajñā na tīrthaṃ bruvanti | suṣuptau nirastātiśūnyātmakatvāṭ tadeko’vaśiṣṭaḥ śivaḥ kevalo’ham || “Neither mother, nor father, nor the gods, nor [the three] worlds, nor the Vedas, nor the sacrifices, nor a ford [to bath in],” they say. Out of the absence and acute emptiness (nirastātiśūnyātmakatva) in deep sleep (suṣupti), that one which remains, Śiva, alone am I. 4. na sāṃkyaṃ na śaivaṃ na tatpañcarātraṃ na jainaṃ na mīmāṃsakader mataṃ vā | viśiṣṭānubhūtyā viśuddhātmakatvāt tadeko’vaśiṣṭaḥ śivaḥ kevalo’ham || Neither the Sāmkhyan, nor the Śaiva, the Pañcarātra among them, nor the Jain, nor the opinion of the Mīmāṃsāka and the likes. Out of a special knowledge (viśiṣiṣṭānubhūti) from the pure essence (viśuddhātmakatva), that one which remains, Śiva, alone am I. 5. na ca urdhvaṃ na ca adho na ca antar na bāhyaṃ na madhyaṃ na tiryaṅ na pūrvā’parā dik | viyadvyāpakatvād akhaṇḍaikarūpas tadeko’vaśiṣṭaḥ śivaḥ kevalo’ham || Neither above nor below, nor even within nor without, nor in the middle, nor across, nor an eastern nor western direction, out of the expanse of the firmament (viyad-vyāpakatva), the unfragmented (akhaṇḍa) and one form (eka-rūpa), that one which remains, Śiva, alone am I. 6. na śuklaṃ na kṛśṇaṃ na raktaṃ na pītaṃ na kubjaṃ na pīnaṃ na hrasvaṃ na dīrgham | arūpaṃ tathā jyotirākāśakatvāt tadeko’vaśiṣṭaḥ śivaḥ kevalo’ham || 2 For the convenience of the reader, the Sanskrit transliteration I provide breaks the external sandhi (junction of letters) wherever desirable, to clearly demarcate their meaningful units (pāda-s), with the exception of the final visarga (aḥ) in front of (a) which becomes (o), incurring the loss of the initial (a) of the following word, marked by the apostrophe sign (’). This means that I deliberately kept the (o) sound to preserve the lyrical sonority of the verses as much as possible. For example: kevalo’ham instead of kevalaḥ aham as it would appear without sandhi. Annex 1 305 Neither white nor black, nor red, nor yellow; neither crooked, nor round, nor short, nor long; formless (arūpa), as if out of light ( jyotir-ākāratva), that one which remains, Śiva, alone am I. 7. na śāstā na śāstraṃ na śiṣyo na śikṣā na ca tvaṃ na ca ahaṃ na ca ayaṃ prapañcaḥ | svarūpāvabodho vikalpāsahiṣṇus tadeko’vaśiṣṭaḥ śivaḥ kevalo’ham || Neither teacher nor teaching, neither student nor study; not even you, not even I, nor this phenomenal world; the knowledge of one’s nature (svarūpa-avabodha) does not allow (asahiṣṇu) distinction (vikalpa). That one which remains, Śiva, alone am I. 8. na jāgran na me svapnako vā suṣuptir na viśvo na vā taijasaḥ prājñako vā | avidyātmakatvāttrayāṇāṃ turīyas tadeko’vaśiṣṭaḥ śivaḥ kevalo’ham || Neither waking, nor dreaming, nor deep sleep is for me, no intellectual principle (viśva) [knowing the waking state], nothing consisting of light (taijasa) [knowing the dream state], nor knower (prājñaka) [of the deep sleep]. Out of the ignorant nature (avidyā-ātmakatva) of the three, the fourth (turīya), that one which remains, Śiva, alone am I. 9. api vyāpakatvādd hi tattvaprayogāt svatas siddhabhāvād ananyāśrayatvāt | jagat tuccham etat samastaṃ tadanyat tadeko’vaśiṣṭaḥ śivaḥ kevalo’ham || Out of the vastness (vyāpakatva) [emanating] from the contemplation of reality (tattvaprayoga), out of self-realized existence (svatas siddha-bhāva), and out of dependence on no other (ananya-aśrayatva), this insignificant (tuccha) compounded (samasta) universe ( jagat) being other than that (tad-anya), that one which remains, Śiva, alone am I. 10. na ca ekaṃ tadanyat dvitīyaṃ kutas syād na vā kevalatvaṃ na ca akevalatvam | na śūnyaṃ na ca aśūnyam advaitakatvāt kathaṃ sarvavedāntasiddhaṃ bravīmi || If not one, whence would there be a second other than that which is neither alone (kevalatva) nor not alone (akevalatva), neither empty (śūnya) nor non-empty (aśūnya)? Out of non-duality (advaitakatva), how can I speak about what is realized at the end of all the Vedas? References Saha, Niranjan. 2017. “An Introduction to the Daśaślokī of Śaṃkara and Its Commentary Siddhāntabindu by Madhusūdana Sarasvatī.” Sophia 56: 355–365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11841-017-0605-x. Annex 2 Textual Evidence for the Usage of the Term Jñāna-Yoga and the Development of Its Meaning In my previous book on Indian philosophical doxography3 , I explained my use of the expression jñāna-yoga within the chapter on Jainism (2.1.2.3 The Yoga of Knowledge: Reasoning on Anekānta-Vāda). Therein, I refer to Olle Qvarnström’s4 translation of the terms jñānayoga and saṃjñānayoga found in the eighth century CE Haribhadra’s Śāstravārtāsamuccaya (1.1.20; 1.1.21; 1.1.26; 2.1.156; 9.1.573; 9.1.574; 9.1.575; 9.1.579 + jñānakriyāyoge 11.2.682). In brief, I posit that Haribhadra’s understanding of jñāna-yoga, as a form of ‘intellectual asceticism’ necessary to free oneself from the bondage of saṃsāra, was a conception of spiritual practice similarly shared by the Madhyamaka philosopher Bhāviveka and the Vedāntin Śaṅkara. Otherwise, the expression jñāna-yoga is most notoriously known from Śaṅkara’s work (eighth century CE), particularly used within his commentary on the Bhagavadgītā (2.55; 3.4; 6.47; 14.27; 16.1). It is thus possible to posit that the explicit use of the term jñāna-yoga to emically qualify one’s form of practice, as the cultivation of gnosis, had currency already around the turn of the eighth century CE, even though the term occurs earlier in the Bhagavadgītā, where it does not explicitly designate a specific ‘type’ of yoga, but rather knowledge as a ‘means’ (yoga) – BhG 3.3, jñānayogena (by means of knowledge—where yogena is an idiomatic expression of instrumentality) in contrast to ritual (karma) performance. This being said, the BhG associates a kind of Sāṃkhya (arguably different from that found in the Sāṃkhyakārikā) (SK)) with that gnostic method (BhG 3.3: jñānayogena sāṃkhyānāṃ). This Sāṃkhya is understood as conveying a knowledge involving the removal of one’s attention from the ‘non-self.’5 At 3 Bouthillette 2020. Qvarnström 1999, p. 170–171. 5 Minor 1980. 4 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2025 K. Bouthillette, Metaphysics as Therapy, Indian Philosophy: Past and Present, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-2556-7 307 308 Annex 2 least, this is how Śaṅkara glossed sāṃkhyānāṃ in BhG 3.3: tena sāṃkhyānām ātmānātmaviṣayavivekavijñānavatāṃ. Similarly, according to Rāmānuja (1017– 1137) on BhG 16.1: jñānayogavyavasthitiḥ prakṛtiviyuktātmasvarūpavivekaniṣṭhā (Steadfast adherence to the discrimination between the pure self and the realm of non-self is the quality named ‘stabilization in Jñāna-yoga.’6 ). The contemplative apophatic practice of discriminating the self from the non-self is essentially what I argue that yogic Gnosticism in general is all about. It is found articulated in the Upaniṣads already, as in the Bṛhadāraṇyakopaniṣad (2.3.6), one of the oldest Upaniṣads, where it is particularly evident in the passages applying the determinate negation neti neti (neither this nor that), ultimately suggesting that “there is nothing else beyond the not” (BĀU 2.3.6 na ity anyat param asti). The determinate negation of precise lists of doctrinal contents in order to isolate ‘truth,’ I argue, is the gnostic ‘means’ of knowledge par excellence, something which I suggest developed out of ancient sacrificial practices. In this sense, this ‘method’ (yoga) is jñāna-yoga, and as a spiritual exercise it can be found beyond the Upaniṣads and the BhG, in Sāṃkhya philosophy and Advaita Vedānta, but also beyond the Brahmanical world, particularly explicit in Prajñāpāramitā/Madhyamaka Buddhism and the Kundakunda interpretative framework of Jainism. However, there have been various ways of interpreting the meaning of Sāṃkhya in the BhG, many suggesting that it boils down to the ‘knowledge of the pure self’ (śuddhātmatattvavijñānam).7 But this does not contradict my understanding of the generic apophatic methodology of Sāṃkhya, which is attested in the SK. In fact, it only specifies the goal or target of the Sāṃkhyan ‘knowledge’ and ‘path’ (mārga). It is noteworthy that, even for the ‘dualist’ (Dvaita) commentator Madhvācārya (1199–1278), though he rejects the association of the systems of Kapila (Sāmkhya) and Patañjali (Classical Yoga) with the Sāṃkhya and Yoga mentioned in the BhG, for reasons similar to those of Śaṅkara (no God, etc.), he understands Sāṃkhya’s references in the BhG with a kind of knowledge that more or less matches what we know of the Sāmkhya system (i.e. in the SK), and the term ‘yoga’ as the actual ‘means’ to achieving precisely that knowledge. Bhavani explains Madhva’s reasoning as follows: “If “Sāṃkhya” is true knowledge of the Para and the Apara tattvas comprising the Supreme Reality, the Jīvas and Prakṛti and its modifications, “Yoga” is the means of acquiring this true knowledge.”8 Indeed, in his commentary on BhG 3.3, Madhva explicitly describes yoga as an upāya (yoginām upāyināṃ), that is a ‘means’ or sādhana thereof.9 For Madhva, yoga is the method for obtaining the knowledge of Sāṃkhya, and it includes karmayoga, according to the peculiarities of his Dvaita system which does not reject the outer performances of ritual sacrifice like the Advaita. For us, here, what matters is to acknowledge that, for Madhva, there is an actual ‘method’ or ‘yoga’ of knowledge ( jñāna-yoga). It is a distinct way of going about attaining liberation. In fact, this is made even more explicit in 6 Translation from Raghavachar 2017, 176 (in PDF unpaginated version). See Bhavani 1995, 54. 8 Bhavani 1995, 67. 9 Bhavani 1995, 81. 7 Annex 2 309 his Tātparya Nirṇaya, Madhva’s second commentarial work on the BhG. Therein, on BhG 3.3 again, Madhva writes jñānapracuro yogo jñānayogaḥ, which I translate as: “The yoga which is ‘concentrated on’/’filled with’ (pracura) knowledge is jñāna-yoga.” Nagesh D. Sonde proposes: “The knowledge which promotes wisdom is jñānayogaḥ.”10 Here, jñāna-yoga is explicitly identified as a distinct ‘instrument’ (upāya/sādhana), a yoga dedicated to the cultivation of knowledge. Concerning the Sāṃkhya philosophical system, Ashok Aklujkar observes that, due to the explicitly asserted and continuously maintained importance of ‘correct knowing’ in the long history of the school, “the Sāṃkhya path came to be known as the path of knowledge.”11 This was already the case within the BhG (5.4). The famous Indologist Richard Garbe (1857–1927) contentiously believed that the BhG was originally a Sāṃkhya-Yoga treatise but that it was later reworked into its present form by some follower of the Vedānta.12 In any case, jñāna-mārga (the path of knowledge) is a known variant of jñāna-yoga and it is possible that its earliest manifestation in Brahmanical literature was one form or another of Sāṃkhya, if only initially as an enumerative (sāṃkhya refers to numerals) list of bandhu-s (bonds or connections) to be known by the sacrificial knower ( jñānin) said to be yá eváṃ véda (/eváṃ vid´ān) “(one) who knows thus.” To sum up my points here, what I am saying is that: 1. as a term, jñāna-yoga appears at least as early as the BhG itself (dates debated between 400 BCE and 200 CE). 2. By the eighth century CE, commentators already identify it with their own path to liberation. 3. By maximum the thirteenth century CE, it is already explicitly used by commentators of the BhG to denote a specific form of ‘yoga’ which constitutes a distinct ‘ethical’ approach to liberation that entails being a ‘renunciant’ (for reasons not discussed here but which can be verified against the commentaries I have mentioned) and to exercise an apophatic ‘epistemological’ approach to distinguishing (dialectically) what is the true ‘self’ (ātman) against what it is not. References Aklujkar, Ashok. 2017. “History and Doxography of the Philosophical Schools.” In The Oxford Handbook of Indian Philosophy, edited by Jonardon Ganeri, 32-54. New York: Oxford University Press. Bhavani, Sudhindra Krishnamurti. 1995. The Bhagavadgītā and Its Classical Commentaries. A Critical and Comparative Exposition. Bangalore: The Dvaita Vedānta Studies Research Foundation. Bouthillette, Karl-Stéphan. 2020. Dialogue and Doxography in Indian Philosophy: Points of View in Buddhist, Jaina, and Advaita Vedānta Traditions.Dialogues in South Asian Traditions: Religion, Philosophy, Literature and History. London and New York: Routledge. Dickstein, Jonathan. 2015. “Richard Garbe, German Indology, and the Messiness of (A)Theistic Sāṃkhya.” SAGAR: a South Asia Research Journal 23: 2–34. 10 Sonde 2011, 63. Aklujkar 2017, 19. 12 See Dickstein 2015; Garbe 1905; Majumdar 1966, 65. 11 310 Annex 2 Garbe, Richard. 1905. Die Bhagavadgita : aus dem Sanskrit übersetzt, mit einer Einleitung über ihre ursprüngliche Gestalt, ihre Lehren und ihr Alter. Leipzig: H. Haessel. Majumdar, Bimanbehari. 1966. “Date and the So-Called Development of the Bhagavad-Gita (BG.).” Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 28: 65–72. Minor, Robert N. 1980. “The “Gītā’s” Way as the Only Way.” Philosophy East and West 30 (3): 339–354. Qvarnström, Olle. 1999. “Haribhadra and the Beginnings of Doxography in India.” In Approaches to Jaina Studies: Philosophy, Logic, Rituals and Symbols, edited by N. K. Wagle and Olle Qvarnström, 169–210. Toronto: Center for South Asian Studies. Raghavachar, S. S. 2017. Rāmānuja on the Gītā. Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama. Sonde, Nagesh D. 2011. Sri Madavacharya. Bhagavad Gita Bhashya and Tatparya Nirnaya (Sanskrit Text with English Translation). Mumbai: Nagesh D. Sonde. Index A Abhidharma, 45, 49–52, 72, 92, 120, 139, 176, 184, 246–248, 250, 251, 253, 255, 258, 259, 265–267, 274, 297 Abhidharmakakośabhāṣya, 64 Abhidharmakośa, 50 Abhiṣeka, 247 Abhyāsa, 99 Absolute, 8, 92, 93, 100, 101, 104–106, 117, 123, 124, 136, 142, 145, 147, 198, 208, 231, 234, 238, 239, 248, 252, 294 Accounting, 18–21, 29, 32, 48, 55, 80 Ādhibhautika, 201 Adhyāropa, 105 Ādhyātmika, 201 Advaita of Śaṅkara, 43 Advaita Vedānta, 5, 43, 50, 77, 82, 92, 99, 105, 117, 119, 145, 147, 186, 193–195, 198, 224, 227–231, 234, 238, 241, 251 Aesthetic, 12, 25, 29, 30, 33, 65, 66, 79, 94, 142, 176, 300 Āgama, 101, 119, 139, 184, 186 Āgamaśāstra, 76, 186, 189, 224, 227, 232 Aggregates, 49, 50, 82, 120, 151, 246, 254, 257 Agnicayana, 42, 184, 211 Agnihotra, 165, 168 Ahaṃkāra, 194, 204, 206, 223 Āhavanīya, 199, 205, 208 Ahiṃsā, 163 Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, 215 Ajīva, 272, 283 Ājīvika, 44 Ajñāna, 119 Ālambana, 260 Ālayavijñāna, 59 Ālocanā, 277, 284, 286, 289 Analogy, 8–10, 12, 15, 19, 20, 30, 32–34, 36, 39, 41, 43, 44, 46–49, 58, 64, 65, 70, 74, 79, 103, 104, 122, 139, 154, 159, 174, 176, 177, 189, 192, 199–204, 207–210, 212, 213, 220, 221, 223, 228–235, 239–241, 256–258, 261, 263–265, 267, 272, 274, 279, 293, 299–301 Analysis, 9–13, 16, 17, 20, 28, 36, 50, 52, 54, 62, 70, 71, 78, 79, 82–84, 93, 97, 98, 104–106, 119, 122, 138, 139, 141, 148, 149, 151, 154, 160, 161, 184, 186, 187, 197, 217, 221, 222, 229, 241, 248–252, 255, 256, 258, 259, 265, 278, 281, 293, 296, 297, 299–301 Ānanda, 78, 233 Ānandagiri, 229 Anātman, 77 Anger, 95, 141, 284, 287 Aṅguttara Nikāya, 140 Anitya, 77 Antar, 80 Antarātman, 168 Antidote, 18, 95, 96, 106, 119, 122, 141, 148, 149, 170, 185, 202, 210, 249, 251 Antinomian, 7, 21, 66, 152 Antinomy, 116, 170, 171, 213 Antisocial, 136, 144 Anubhūtisvarūpa, 229 Anugītā, 131, 137 Anumāna, 161, 202 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2025 K. Bouthillette, Metaphysics as Therapy, Indian Philosophy: Past and Present, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-2556-7 311 312 Anuprekṣā, 273–275 Ānvīkṣikī, 174, 175 Aparā, 101, 117, 119, 124, 127, 198 Aparāvidyā, 203 Apavarga, 214 Apologetic, 116, 228, 231, 241, 249, 252, 300 Apophatic, 94, 104, 105, 164 Aprāpti, 257, 260 Āpta, 202 Arhat, 246, 255, 261 Aristotelian, 61, 161, 170, 171 Aristotle, 40, 60–63, 70, 161, 164, 301 Artha, 29, 106, 236 Arthaśāstra, 174 Āryadeva, 141 Āryasatya, 20, 259, 266 Asamasama, 261 Asaṃprajñātasamādhi, 102, 154 Asaṃskṛta, 92 Asaṅga, 247 Asat, 100, 230 Asceticism, 21, 28, 52, 95, 96, 99, 127, 131, 136–142, 144, 149, 154, 165, 166, 173, 183–185, 192, 207, 214, 235–238, 259, 272, 273, 276–278, 280, 281, 286–289 Ashburnipal, 40 Aśoka, 255 Āsrava, 284–286 Ásta, 61 Aṣṭāṅga, 45 Aṣṭapāhuḍa, 273 Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā, 151, 245 Astronomy, 40, 41, 124 Aśubhopayoga, 283, 285 Atharvan, 124 Atharvaveda, 124, 198, 228, 229 Ātman, 17, 42, 43, 50, 92, 153, 155, 172, 173, 230, 232, 234, 238–240, 284, 285 Ātmaparityāga, 120 Attachment, 9, 95, 99, 101, 138–141, 149, 155, 212, 251, 283–285 Aufheben, 17, 62, 103, 238 Auṃ, 189 Aurobindo, 114 Avadhijñāna, 96 Avalokiteśvara, 254–257, 261, 264 Avatāra, 206, 208 Avidyā, 77, 82, 83, 95, 99, 117, 119, 229, 230, 257, 259 Avyakta, 201, 203, 204, 206, 210 Index Awakened, 119, 257 Awakening, 135, 144, 148, 260, 262 Axis mundi, 215, 216 Ayatana, 77, 82, 259, 267 B Bacon, Francis, 61 Bādarāyaṇa, 117, 146, 193, 194, 201 Bandha, 119 Bandhu, 41, 42, 46, 47, 49, 202, 221 Bārasa Aṇuvekkhā, 186, 188, 273, 275–279 Bārū, 29 Bauman, Zygmunt, 62 Behavior, 9, 10, 12, 16, 20, 39, 42, 44, 48, 56, 57, 59, 62, 64, 67, 71–75, 77, 83, 84, 92, 122, 143, 152, 160, 202, 204, 206–211, 213, 214, 218, 220, 223, 283, 296 Bhagavadgītā, 106, 112, 113, 117, 138, 150, 192, 229, 230 Bhāgavatapurāṇa, 113 Bhakti, 164, 298 Bhaktiyoga, 113 Bhāmatī, 145 Bhāva, 101, 206–208, 212–214, 220, 222, 285 Bhāvana, 120, 147, 185, 273 Bhāviveka, 96, 106, 138, 149, 150, 193, 195, 242 Bheda, 100 Bhūmi, 247 Bhūta, 205 Biological, 13, 28, 36, 38, 69, 83 Bodha, 135 Bodhi, 7, 119, 261, 262, 288, 289 Bodhi, Bhikku, 82 Bodhicaryāvatāra, 98, 139 Bodhisattva, 119, 246–248, 254, 255, 257, 260–262, 264, 266, 289 Bodhisattva, 255, 260, 262, 264 Bourdieu, Pierre, 38, 67 Brahma, 124, 230, 284, 292 Brahmacarya, 172, 173, 287 Brahmajijñāsā, 125, 186, 201 Brahmajñānavalimāla, 230 Brahman, 32, 42, 45–47, 63, 92, 97, 99, 117, 123–125, 128, 131, 136, 137, 146, 165, 172, 189, 195, 199, 201, 205, 230, 232, 234, 238, 239, 251, 267 Brāhmaṇa, 46, 47, 117, 125, 165, 173 Brāhmaṇa, 34, 169, 176, 201 Index Brahmasūtra, 32, 105, 106, 117, 146, 194, 201, 229, 230 Brahmin, 31, 32, 47, 123, 125, 129, 140, 147, 169, 172, 192, 201, 205, 221, 228–231, 235, 248 Bṛhadāraṇyaka, 17, 41, 49, 120, 146, 147, 186, 235 Bṛhadāraṇyakabhāṣyavārtika, 130 Buddha, 10, 45, 50, 51, 78, 79, 82, 127, 128, 145, 148, 150, 151, 241, 242, 247, 251, 252, 254, 255, 257–260, 262, 263, 266, 298 Buddhaguhya, 129, 130 Buddhi, 75, 121, 131, 194, 204, 206, 211–214, 223 Buddhīndriya, 204 Buddhism, 5, 11, 15, 20, 27, 45, 46, 48–52, 54, 59, 60, 71, 72, 76–82, 92, 97, 98, 105, 106, 118–120, 122, 126, 128–130, 136–141, 143–146, 148–151, 155, 163–165, 167, 169, 170, 175, 176, 184, 186, 187, 191–195, 198, 229, 230, 236, 238, 241, 242, 244–247, 250, 252, 253, 255, 258, 262, 263, 265–267, 273, 274, 289, 293, 297 C Cakrabedha, 167 Candrakīrti, 141 Canon, 16, 114, 120, 123, 128, 136, 148, 185, 186, 255, 266, 274, 276, 279, 289 Canonical, 15, 29, 54, 60, 101, 105, 117, 120, 123, 127, 128, 140, 151, 164, 184, 186, 266, 273, 274, 279 Carakasaṃhitā, 174 Cāritra, 214, 276, 278, 281, 282, 289 Catuṣkoṭi, 263–265 Cessation, 8, 75, 78, 92, 106, 107, 201, 203, 209, 217, 229, 234, 240, 249, 257, 259, 260, 265, 266, 278, 287, 288 Cheng Weishi Lun, 59 Christian, 6, 7, 114, 143, 170, 171, 228, 274 Cicero, 12, 245 Cintā, 120, 147, 185 Citta, 75, 80 Cittavṛtti, 45 Cittavṛttinirodha, 78 Classification, 5, 29, 32, 37–39, 41, 42, 59, 60, 63–65, 67, 68, 122, 123, 130, 176, 188, 197, 259, 274, 301 313 Codanā, 57 Code, 21, 28, 30, 52, 74, 82, 166, 167, 175, 262, 266, 287, 291, 294, 298 Coding, 13, 28, 30–32, 48, 66, 68, 73, 107, 160 Cognition, 8, 9, 12, 13, 16, 18, 21, 37, 38, 44, 48, 53, 58, 59, 65–75, 77, 83, 84, 95, 98, 99, 101, 103, 122, 219, 252, 276, 293 Cognitive, 9, 12, 13, 16, 26, 33, 34, 36–39, 43, 44, 48, 53, 55, 58–61, 63, 66–74, 78, 81–83, 95, 99, 102, 121, 122, 142, 143, 154, 155, 160, 250, 276 Coincidentia oppositorum, 145 Computation, 36, 59, 69, 75, 81 Conceptual, 8, 9, 13, 17–20, 26–29, 33, 42, 49, 54, 56–59, 69, 70, 74–78, 82–84, 91, 92, 96, 97, 100, 106, 117, 141, 142, 150, 154, 155, 170, 171, 186, 196, 197, 199, 216, 219, 222, 223, 230, 234, 240, 248–252, 265, 281, 301 Conceptualization, 20, 78, 173 Consciousness, 8, 43, 50, 51, 72, 77, 93, 94, 96, 99, 106, 127, 150, 152, 154, 155, 176, 194, 196–198, 204, 206, 209–211, 214, 217–220, 222, 223, 233–235, 237, 239, 240, 248, 254, 256, 257, 259, 272, 275, 276, 286, 293 Contemplation, 8–10, 12, 13, 15, 17, 27–29, 42, 43, 52, 67, 71, 76, 78, 82, 94–99, 102, 104, 106, 115, 120–122, 125, 136–138, 143, 147–152, 154, 161, 165, 166, 174–177, 183, 187–189, 191–193, 195, 196, 198–200, 202, 203, 207, 210, 211, 216, 217, 223, 228, 230, 241, 247, 248, 252, 255–257, 259, 262, 263, 272–279, 281–284, 286–289, 293, 298, 301 Contra mundum, 17, 21, 137, 173, 293 Convention, 15, 16, 56, 65, 71, 97, 104, 107, 121, 144, 152, 154, 177, 185, 189, 230, 247, 252, 260, 267, 276, 295 Conventional, 9, 10, 13, 16, 17, 19, 28, 29, 37, 39, 51, 52, 54, 60, 62, 72, 74, 79, 81–83, 91, 92, 96, 97, 99, 100, 102, 103, 105, 117, 119, 120, 122, 124, 127, 137, 141, 143, 145, 151, 152, 154, 155, 175, 183–185, 196, 198, 203, 223, 230, 231, 233, 235, 238, 240, 247–249, 251, 258, 266, 267, 314 273, 275, 276, 278, 281, 283, 284, 286, 288, 289, 291, 292, 294, 295, 299, 301 Cosmovision, 38, 41, 167, 223, 267 Culture, 4, 7, 12, 13, 16, 26, 28, 29, 32–34, 36–41, 44, 45, 48, 52, 53, 56, 65, 66, 70, 79, 80, 84, 114, 121, 137, 153, 160, 164, 171, 221, 235, 240, 292, 293–296 D Dakṣiṇā, 205 Dakṣināgni, 199, 205, 213 Dancer, 191, 198, 207, 208, 212–214, 217, 219, 237, 281 Darśana, 4, 42, 48, 186, 192, 195, 214, 221, 249, 276, 278, 281–284, 287, 289, 296 Daśaślokī, 6, 102, 120, 141, 147, 293 Debate, 12, 16, 19, 20, 47, 53, 63, 80, 103, 105, 130, 140, 152, 161, 170, 173, 192, 195, 222, 237 Debt, 19–21, 31, 236, 294, 295 Democritus, 40 Dennett, Daniel, 72–74, 84 Descartes, René, 61 Deva, 96, 205, 261 Dhammapada, 144, 169 Dharma, 20, 48–51, 54, 78, 79, 92, 120, 125, 129, 201, 212, 214, 220, 236, 246, 247, 255–259, 264, 265, 267, 281–283, 287, 288 Dharmajijñāsā, 125, 186, 201 Dharmapravicaya, 51, 129 Dharmin, 48 Dhātu, 82, 257, 259, 267 Dhruva, 235, 280, 281 Dhyāna, 120, 146, 185, 273, 285 Dhyānapāramitā, 139 Dialectic, 3, 5, 8, 9, 12, 13, 15, 17, 18, 28, 29, 37, 61, 72, 79, 83, 84, 92–94, 96–101, 103–107, 116, 120, 122, 130, 138, 141, 142, 152, 154, 155, 161, 164–166, 171, 177, 184, 186–188, 193, 195, 197, 198, 203, 206, 210, 217, 219, 222, 238, 242, 248, 251, 263, 272, 274, 275, 293, 295–298, 301 Dialogical, 66, 99, 116, 129, 150, 253, 255, 265 Digambara, 271 Dikṣā, 172 Index Discipline, 7, 9, 10, 33, 94, 99, 101, 105, 116, 135–137, 141, 147, 154, 166, 167, 170, 176, 185, 186, 261, 272, 280, 285, 296, 297, 299 Dissolution, 9, 75, 94, 96, 152, 215, 220, 231, 294 Dissolve, 84, 100, 104, 106, 129, 136, 138, 141, 212, 214, 231, 240, 279, 286, 294, 296 Distress, 8, 17, 20, 103, 177, 183, 200–203, 210, 214, 216, 221, 257, 259, 261, 263, 265, 266, 281–283, 285–287 Diṭṭhirāga, 140 Doṣa, 8 Doxa, 12, 37, 38 Doxographical, 78, 116, 129, 130, 138, 266 Dravya, 283, 285 Dṛṣṭa, 202, 203 Dṛṣṭi, 77, 100 Dualism, 100, 177, 194, 197, 198, 203, 207, 211, 214, 222, 238 Duality, 100, 146, 152, 209, 210, 213, 223, 229, 233, 234, 240 Duḥkha, 8, 20, 77, 80, 177, 183, 201, 257, 259, 265 Durkheim, Émile, 39, 41, 67 E Eco, Umberto, 25–28, 33, 34, 65, 79, 84 Egyptian, 41 Einstein, Albert, 105 Elite, 5, 7, 31, 32, 45, 95, 111, 114, 152, 188, 230, 245, 247, 249, 251, 252, 274, 289, 296, 299 Elitist, 18, 115, 131, 275, 298 Empedocles, 40 Emptiness, 60, 98, 113, 244, 246–249, 251–260, 264–267, 274 Enlightenment, 6, 45, 46, 100, 105, 117, 262 Episteme, 70, 297, 298 Esoteric, 6, 32, 46, 47, 57, 113, 119, 125, 129, 130, 223, 229, 230, 240 Evolutionary, 7, 16, 32, 36–38, 64, 65, 69, 80, 143 Explanatory, 20, 39, 68, 176 F Fanatic, 103 Feminist, 16, 61, 62 First-order representation, 55, 57, 74 Foucault, Michel, 15, 34, 65, 67, 70, 71 Index Fourfold, 20, 99, 199, 232, 256, 264 Fractal, 53, 58, 59, 73, 93, 142, 253, 259, 262, 274, 278 Freedom, 21, 66, 76, 106, 119, 149, 150, 236, 292, 296, 298, 299 Fusion philosophy, 223 G Gārhapatyāgni, 199, 200 Gauḍapāda, 76, 77, 119, 126, 186, 187, 189, 193, 194, 224, 227–231, 238, 240–242 Gauḍapādakārikā, 228 Gautama, 79 Geometry, 41, 279 Gītā, 105, 118 Gnosis, 6, 7, 9, 37, 82, 115, 116, 119, 122, 131, 262 Gnosis, 37, 116, 119 God, 17, 20, 31, 32, 63, 97, 117, 124, 131, 153, 164, 167, 168, 170, 205, 213, 217, 234, 238, 278, 292, 294 Gorfinkel, Elena, 61 Govinda Bhagavatpāda, 227 Grasping, 78, 91, 95, 96, 105, 122, 140, 246, 248, 249, 251, 255, 259, 262, 284, 293, 295, 300 Greek, 32, 33, 39, 41, 44, 54, 56, 60, 61, 119, 153, 161, 162, 164, 168–171, 235, 278, 292 Guṇa, 93, 176, 204, 205, 208, 209, 212, 214, 220, 237 Gyatso, Tenzin, 48 H Habits, 32, 66, 69, 72, 80, 81, 83, 84 Habitus, 9, 38, 72, 74, 80, 83, 93, 96, 155 Hadot, Pierre, 10, 11, 13, 79, 143, 183, 187 Haribhadra Sūri, 5, 273 Haṭha, 116 Haṭhayoga, 116, 129 Haṭhayogapradīpikā, 112, 116 Heart, 216, 267 Heart Sūtra, 50, 60, 120, 122, 151, 186, 244, 246, 252, 253, 255, 256, 258, 259, 261, 262, 264, 266–268, 277 Heesterman, Johannes Cornelis, 164, 229 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 10, 17, 62, 103, 104, 164, 238, 263 Heidegger, Martin, 171 Heraclitus, 168 315 Hermeneutics, 5, 45, 57, 98, 117, 120, 121, 125, 186, 195, 197, 221, 222, 248, 249, 263, 274, 276, 294 Higher, 7, 18, 43, 47, 49, 73, 95, 96, 101–105, 114, 116, 117, 119–121, 124, 125, 130, 139, 151, 152, 160, 169–171, 173, 183, 184, 188, 203, 217, 219, 221, 229, 234, 238, 239, 248, 255, 262, 266, 267, 272, 274, 275, 278, 281–283, 289, 291, 294 Hiṃsā, 284 Hindu, 5, 17, 28, 50, 57, 97, 101, 105, 114, 115, 117, 118, 139, 144, 146, 155, 184, 189, 236 Historical, 16, 28, 31, 112, 113, 118, 125, 126, 142, 164, 171, 188, 198, 229, 236, 245, 250, 297 Holocaust, 62, 106 Homa, 130 Householder, 124, 130, 137, 138, 140, 144, 236, 263, 281, 287, 288 Hubert, Henri, 18 I Identification, 9, 12, 17, 28, 29, 40, 84, 93, 94, 104, 139, 140, 154, 155, 184, 186, 198, 207, 214, 219, 268, 276, 294 Identity, 17, 43, 51, 78, 93, 95, 99, 104, 118, 128, 130, 140, 154, 155, 171, 186, 191, 194, 197, 200, 208, 218, 221, 230, 237, 256, 257, 264, 272, 274, 289, 293, 296, 298 Ignatius of Loyola, 13 Ignorance, 37, 71, 77, 82–84, 91, 95, 99, 100, 106, 117, 119, 122, 139, 145, 147, 152, 170, 212, 213, 220, 229, 230, 240, 247, 248, 257, 259, 294, 295, 301 Illusion, 83, 95, 100, 113, 119, 197, 210, 237, 238, 276, 277, 300 Indoctrinate, 95, 101, 296 Indoctrination, 9, 95, 296 Indology, 4, 10, 12, 28, 114, 115, 159, 187 Indriya, 77, 80, 96, 121, 194 Indriyasaṃvara, 77 Internalization, 5, 9, 29, 95, 96, 106, 121, 124, 127–130, 138, 139, 148, 160, 165, 183, 186, 221, 231, 240, 251, 262, 266, 267, 272, 273, 275, 281, 285, 294 Internalized, 28, 37, 42, 57, 60, 67, 71, 74, 93, 95, 105, 121, 125, 129, 130, 138, 316 141, 164–166, 168, 187, 188, 193, 218, 229, 262, 266, 274, 276, 293, 294, 297, 298 Internalizing, 129, 139, 148, 165, 171, 184, 219, 279, 294 Iran, 31 ĪśvaraGītā, 113 Īśvarakṛṣṇa, 186, 188, 192, 193, 199, 220 J Jaimini, 176, 201 Jaina, 4, 46, 81, 96, 97, 101, 105, 113, 118, 120, 126, 128, 137–139, 145, 146, 155, 163, 164, 176, 184, 186, 187, 194, 241, 251, 271–282, 284, 286, 288, 289 Jaina Kundakunda, 5 Jainism, 5, 44, 45, 80, 82, 92, 102, 119, 120, 136, 137, 144, 146, 193, 198, 236, 271–273, 288, 289, 293 Jain, Vijay K., 279 Jamgön Ju Mipham Gyatso, 194 Jewish, 58, 62 Jījñāsā, 201, 221 Jina, 96, 127, 128, 145, 279, 281–286 Jīva, 43, 92, 101, 102, 155, 272, 276, 280, 282, 283, 285, 286 Jīvanmuktiviveka, 113 Jñāna, 4–7, 37, 42, 77, 82, 113–119, 122, 126, 128–130, 137, 138, 145, 151, 164, 170, 171, 173, 191, 192, 195, 214, 217, 223, 228, 257, 260, 273, 276, 278, 281, 282, 284, 286, 288, 289 Jñānin, 42 Judaism, 7, 33 K Kaivalya, 196, 210, 211, 215 Kalpana, 259 Kāma, 140 Kāmarāga, 140 Kant, Immanuel, 60, 67 Kapila, 195, 215, 220 Karma, 18–21, 44, 45, 56, 57, 80, 81, 83, 84, 101, 119, 127, 137, 138, 150, 163, 164, 170, 171, 173, 195, 202, 209, 213, 217, 218, 220, 228, 236, 247, 248, 272, 278, 280, 283–286, 288, 294 Karma, 80, 83, 236 Karmaprakṛti, 288 Index Karmayoga, 118 Karmendriya, 204 Kauṭilya, 174 Kevala, 203, 207, 219 Khyāti, 102 Kleśa, 8, 45 Knowledge, 4–9, 13, 15–18, 28, 30, 32–34, 37, 39, 41, 43, 44, 46, 47, 49, 52, 58, 61, 66, 67, 69–72, 82, 94, 96–99, 101–107, 113, 115–120, 122, 124–127, 131, 135–138, 141–143, 145, 146, 150–153, 155, 159, 160, 165, 168, 170–173, 175, 177, 183, 192, 195, 201–206, 208, 210, 212–216, 218–220, 228, 229, 232, 239–241, 244, 247, 248, 255, 257, 259, 261, 262, 272–274, 276, 278–286, 288, 289, 291, 292, 296–299, 301 Kriyāyoga, 113 Kundakunda, 5, 92, 96, 101, 102, 117, 119, 120, 126, 145, 186, 188, 193, 198, 251, 271–282, 286, 288, 289 L Lakṣana, 258, 265 Lama, Dalai, 48, 50 Language, 10, 11, 13, 28, 30, 31, 48, 50, 54–56, 60, 64, 70, 73, 76–78, 97, 103, 105, 122, 172, 175, 197, 203, 231, 241, 253, 296 Leach, Edmund, 77, 78 Liberation, 8, 21, 71, 82, 96, 99, 101, 102, 106, 117, 135, 138, 141, 147, 163, 188, 192, 199, 202, 214–216, 218, 220, 221, 223, 230, 240, 245, 246, 263, 272, 276, 278, 281–285, 287, 289 Liminal, 151, 152, 154 Liṅga, 208, 209, 212–214 Listenwissenschaft, 29, 32, 33, 45, 71 Logos, 170, 171, 274 Loka, 151, 216, 282, 283 Lokapati, 125 Lower, 43, 72, 96, 101, 105, 114–117, 119–121, 124, 125, 130, 131, 139, 140, 152, 154, 188, 197, 203, 218, 231, 234, 239, 247, 262, 267, 275, 283, 294, 295 M Madhupiṇḍikasutta, 77 Index Madhyamaka, 5, 76, 78, 96–98, 105, 106, 119, 120, 141, 150, 187, 193, 198, 248–252 Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā (MHK), 96, 106, 138, 149, 150, 195, 242 Madhyamakālaṅkāra, 194 Madhyamakāvatāra, 141 Mādhyamika, 96, 99, 141, 149, 241, 242, 249–252 Magic, 34, 36, 39, 40, 43, 45, 153, 165, 246, 262, 267, 291, 300 Mahābhārata, 192, 197 Mahābhūta, 194, 213 Mahānārāyaṇa, 216 Mahat, 204 Mahāvairocanābhisaṃbodhi, 129 Mahāyāna, 5, 77, 98, 119, 126, 151, 167, 186, 187, 241, 244, 247, 248, 255, 266 Māna, 284 Manana, 120, 146, 185 Manas, 75, 80, 194, 205, 223 Māṇḍūkya, 187, 228–232, 234, 235, 238, 239, 241, 261, 265–267, 276, 277, 291 Māṇḍūkyakārikā, 228 Māṇḍūkyopaniṣad, 76 Mantra, 199, 200, 221, 231, 261–265, 279 Mārga, 145, 152, 187, 193, 257, 259, 265, 274 Mārtha, 103, 124, 198 Matilal, Bimal Krishna, 161 Matrix, 9, 13, 16, 18, 20, 42, 44, 50, 52, 74, 154, 206, 208, 233, 253, 265 Mātṛkā, 50–52, 253, 255, 265 Mauss, Marcel, 18, 34, 39, 41, 67, 153 Māyā, 95, 113, 284, 300 Medical, 7, 45, 106, 174 Medicine, 49, 95, 98, 102, 106, 122, 174, 201, 222, 249, 250, 300 Meditate, 43, 71, 113, 252, 289 Meditation, 43, 71, 72, 82, 99, 113, 138, 139, 147–149, 161, 163, 165, 196, 217, 224, 228, 246, 252, 256, 272, 273, 277, 285, 287–289, 296, 297 Meditative, 15, 42, 43, 72, 137, 147–149, 240 Mediterranean, 6, 7, 38, 162, 164, 177, 245, 250 Memory, 13, 30, 44, 59, 68, 70, 73, 80, 84, 160, 264, 292, 293, 296 Menander, 54, 92 317 Merit, 101, 149, 150, 223, 236, 248, 281, 285, 286 Mesopotamia, 29, 31, 32, 39, 55 Metanoia, 154 Metaphor, 17, 54, 65, 94, 97, 106, 144, 145, 154, 165, 172, 188, 193, 196–199, 207, 216, 217, 220, 221, 231, 237, 300, 301 Metaphysical, 3, 16, 17, 28, 40, 48, 49, 53, 63, 82, 84, 93, 97, 105–107, 142, 145, 149, 155, 176, 177, 183, 194, 195, 202, 206, 248, 250, 251, 256, 265 Metaphysics, 9, 32, 54, 62, 68, 81, 104, 146, 148, 151, 154, 159, 161, 176, 203, 206, 208, 222, 267, 301 Milinda, 92 Milindapañha, 92 Mīmāṃsā, 57, 138, 175, 176, 195 Mīmāṃsāsūtra, 201 Mind, 12, 13, 16, 17, 27, 29, 32, 33, 35, 36, 43, 49, 51, 53, 55–57, 61, 67–69, 71, 72, 74–76, 78, 80–82, 84, 95, 97, 100, 102, 104–106, 113, 117, 138–141, 146, 148–151, 154, 160, 163, 165, 170, 183, 185, 188, 197, 198, 200, 205, 207, 218, 233, 237, 244, 249, 252, 257, 259, 260, 262, 265, 272, 281, 284, 285, 287, 289, 291, 292, 294, 295, 297, 299, 300 Miracle, 48, 162, 171, 258 Mise en abyme, 142, 155, 177, 238, 253, 258 Mithyā, 283, 286 Mithyātva, 98, 282–284 Mnemonic, 52, 74, 265 Mnemotechnic, 13, 25, 39, 52, 68, 263 Mokṣa, 8, 21, 101, 117, 119, 135, 163, 192, 196, 217, 230, 283, 285, 289 Mokṣamārga, 282, 289 Mūlamadhyamakakārikā (MMK), 78, 79, 117, 145 Muṇḍaka, 101, 119, 124, 198 Mundum, 6, 173 Myth, 6, 15, 31, 32, 37, 40, 44, 64, 77, 163, 164, 167, 168, 170, 171, 195, 231 N Nāgārjuna, 5, 76, 78, 79, 98, 100, 101, 117, 119, 126, 145, 186, 248–251, 263, 264, 300 Nāgasena, 54, 92 318 Naiṣkarmya, 138 Nartakī, 207, 217 Naya, 272, 275, 280, 287, 288 Negation, 9, 13, 15, 17, 20, 27–29, 37, 60, 62, 67, 72, 74, 75, 78, 92, 96–101, 103–106, 116, 119, 120, 124, 127, 130, 142, 143, 146, 148, 154, 164, 184, 186, 188, 193, 198, 202–204, 210, 215–219, 222, 223, 229, 230, 232, 235, 238, 244, 248, 250, 251, 256, 258–260, 263–268, 272, 274–276, 288, 295–297, 299, 301 Neoplatonic, 60, 171 Neoplatonistic, 164 Nescience, 95 Neti neti, 37, 99, 103, 105, 120, 197, 202–204, 210, 216, 218, 235, 238, 239 Network, 7, 13, 16, 17, 26, 33, 39, 42, 49, 58, 59, 66, 69, 70, 73, 74, 77, 142, 223, 265 Newton, Isaac, 48 Nidāna, 255 Nididhyāsana, 43 Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm, 10, 44, 218, 237, 248, 294 Niḥprapañca, 75, 77 Niḥśreyasa, 99 Nikāya, 76, 82, 148 Nirdharmaka, 100 Nirjarā, 286, 288 Nirodha, 75, 217, 257, 259, 265 Nirvāṇa, 8, 9, 12, 63, 76, 78, 92, 97, 106, 117, 137, 240, 247, 249, 250, 257, 260 Niścaya, 272, 275, 278, 280, 283, 285–288 Niścaya naya, 278 Niśvāsatattvasaṃhitā, 113 Nītīśāstra, 174 Niyamasāra, 273 Nonattachment, 183 Nyāya, 81, 83, 99, 123, 161, 175, 176 Nyāyasūtra, 175 Nyāyavārtika, 175 Nyāyāyikas, 99 O Oṃ, 43, 223, 224, 228–232, 238–241, 261, 265, 291 Oṃkāraprakaraṇa, 229 Omniscience, 96, 102 Ontological, 62, 63, 99, 153, 176, 284 Index Orientalism, 114, 115 Orthodoxy, 37, 38, 168, 228, 229 Orthopraxy, 168 P Padārtha, 101 Pādmasaṃhitā, 113 Pakṣa, 99 Pāli, 76, 77, 82 Palliative, 29, 95, 96, 101, 106, 117 Paṅcāstikāyasaṃgraha, 273 Paṅcāstikāyasāra, 273 Pāpa, 285 Papañcasaññāsaṅkhā, 77 Parā, 101, 117, 119, 124, 127, 198 Parā/aparā, 203 Paracāritra, 102 Paradox, 26, 27, 34, 74, 75, 84, 98, 142, 145, 186, 264, 298, 300 Paramārtha, 99, 127 Parasamaya, 102 Paravairāgya, 102, 154 Paravidyā, 101 Parīkṣā, 17, 52 Pariṇāma, 221 Parivrājaka, 192 Paryudāsa, 263, 264 Pātañjalayogaśāstra, 113 Patañjali, 78, 112, 146, 195, 217, 222 Pedagogy, 8, 9, 12, 83, 99, 116, 140, 142, 146, 153, 183, 184, 188, 197, 208, 210, 211, 265, 273, 274, 279, 296–299 Perception, 4, 12, 13, 15, 16, 36, 37, 49, 56, 57, 59, 60, 66, 70, 72–77, 81, 83, 96, 99–101, 104, 106, 120, 122, 139, 148, 154, 155, 177, 184, 186, 187, 202, 205, 223, 254, 256, 257, 259, 276, 281, 283, 284, 286, 291, 294, 301 Persia, 40 Phala, 19, 20, 247 Phonetics, 124 Physical, 6, 30, 43, 49, 70, 73–75, 79–81, 83, 111–116, 130, 137, 165, 195, 202, 212–215, 259, 272, 284, 291, 294 Pinker, Steven, 34, 35, 68, 69, 74–76, 79, 81, 82 Pitṛ, 213, 215 Plato, 40, 164, 168, 170 Poison, 18, 95, 98, 100, 102, 122, 140, 141, 149, 202, 210, 222, 249 Index Popper, Karl Raimund, 66 Pradhāna, 93, 203, 205, 213–215 Prajāpati, 184, 231, 234, 238 Prajñā, 6, 7, 37, 51, 82, 100, 118, 119, 122, 126, 233, 234, 239, 244, 255 Prajñāpāramitā, 5, 126, 187, 244–252, 254–268, 274, 289 Prajñāpāramitā, 5 Prajñāpāramitāhṛdayasūtra, 186, 244 Prakriyāyoga, 113 Prakṛti, 92–94, 96–98, 100, 102, 119, 127, 146, 154, 175, 176, 194, 196–198, 200, 203, 204, 206–223, 237, 238, 248, 276, 282, 297 Pralaya, 96, 220 Pramāṇa, 186, 200, 202, 203, 231 Prapañca, 17, 68, 73–78, 84, 154, 249, 265 Prasajya, 263, 264 Prasthānatrayī, 117 Pratikramaṇa, 277, 282, 283, 289 Pratītyasamutpāda, 75, 98, 258 Pratiyogin, 98 Pratyākhyāna, 277, 280, 289 Pratyayasarga, 212, 214, 222 Pravacanasāra, 96, 273 Praxis, 12, 130 Predictive, 20, 33–35, 39, 68, 160 Psychagogy, 8, 11, 12, 66, 99, 116, 140, 142, 146, 153, 188, 197, 273 Psychology, 4, 36, 58, 80, 121, 252, 276, 295 Psychosomatic, 70, 113, 114 Punarjanma, 213 Puṇya, 248, 281, 285 Purāṇa, 192 Puruṣa, 42, 84, 92–94, 99, 102, 119, 127, 154, 155, 176, 193, 196–198, 200, 202–223, 237–239, 248, 276, 281 Q Quipus, 30 R Rabbinic, 53 Rabbinic Judaism, 41, 58, 71 Radical, 9, 17, 66, 68, 78, 82, 103, 126, 127, 137, 142, 143, 193, 208, 211, 229, 231, 235, 248, 250, 259, 272, 281, 286, 288, 299 Rāga, 101, 284 Rāja, 116, 285 Rājadharma, 174 319 Rajas, 204, 212, 214 Rājayoga, 116, 129 Rebirth, 17, 21, 44, 45, 81, 101, 117, 137, 163, 172, 213, 236, 281, 283, 284 Religion, 7, 18, 21, 31, 36, 66, 95, 114–116, 124, 136, 143, 145, 167, 168, 172, 231, 248, 293, 295, 298, 299 Renunciate, 9, 106, 129, 130, 138, 144, 145, 147, 149, 152, 163, 165, 173, 192, 217, 232, 236, 259, 263, 266, 281, 288, 293, 301 Renunciation, 7–9, 12, 28, 29, 71, 72, 75, 78, 79, 81, 92, 95, 96, 101–105, 115, 116, 120–123, 125, 127–129, 135–142, 145, 146, 148–150, 153, 154, 163–165, 169–171, 173, 177, 183, 184, 186–188, 192, 207, 210, 211, 217, 219, 222, 223, 229, 235, 236, 238–240, 248, 255, 263, 266–268, 273, 274, 276–281, 287, 289, 291, 292–296, 299 Representation, 8, 9, 13, 14, 25–27, 33, 37, 42, 44, 52, 53, 55, 56, 58, 59, 62, 63, 72, 91–93, 95, 97, 121, 141–143, 150, 151, 154, 155, 160, 163, 172, 173, 177, 188, 196–198, 206–211, 213, 214, 216–220, 222, 223, 232, 233, 237, 239, 240, 247, 248, 251, 252, 259, 260, 265, 267, 272, 275, 276, 279, 281, 291–301 Rescue, 17, 103, 105, 145, 229, 293 Reversal, 21, 37, 67, 210, 238, 239, 262 Ṛgveda, 124, 231 Rhetoric, 14, 15, 63, 93, 100, 115, 116, 121, 125, 128, 137, 140, 146, 154, 161–163, 165, 175, 176, 194, 217, 231, 238, 242, 259, 265, 276, 281, 289, 300 Ritual, 6, 9, 12, 13, 15–21, 28–34, 36, 37, 39–43, 45–47, 49–52, 57, 60, 64, 66, 67, 71, 72, 74, 78, 81–83, 93, 96, 103–106, 111, 113–117, 119–130, 136–139, 141, 144, 146–149, 151–155, 159–173, 175–177, 183–186, 188, 192, 193, 195, 197–203, 207, 208, 210, 211, 215–223, 228–232, 239, 248, 251, 267, 273, 274, 279, 291, 294, 296–300 Ritualism, 125, 130, 163 Ritualistic, 45, 116, 129, 162, 163, 272 Ṛṇa, 20 Rohde, Erwin, 40, 162 320 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 298 Rūpa, 49, 254, 256, 259, 264 Russell, Bertrand, 26, 27 S Śabda, 202, 203 Sacrifice, 6–9, 17–19, 28, 29, 42, 43, 52, 82, 99, 103–106, 116, 119, 120, 122, 123, 125, 127–131, 137, 139, 140, 145, 147–149, 153–155, 163–166, 168–173, 177, 183, 188, 193–195, 198, 199, 201, 205, 215–223, 228, 229, 231, 232, 237, 240, 241, 248, 262, 267, 272, 293, 294, 297, 299–301 Sacrificial, 13, 15, 19, 20, 28, 32, 41, 43, 44, 49, 66, 92, 96, 103, 122, 123, 125, 127–130, 138, 145, 148, 149, 153, 154, 162–164, 166, 168, 169, 171–174, 176, 188, 192, 199–205, 213–221, 223, 228–231, 235, 237–239, 241, 251, 262, 267, 293, 294, 297, 299, 301 Sākṣin, 207 Samādhi, 84, 240, 254, 255, 261, 277, 278, 286, 288, 289 Sāmaveda, 124, 198, 231 Samayasāra, 145, 273, 276 Saṃghabheda, 167 Samiddhilokapañha-sutta, 76, 150 Saṃjñā, 49, 59, 77, 254, 256, 284 Sāṃkhya, 5, 28, 29, 45, 52, 83, 92–100, 104, 118, 119, 123, 127, 138, 146, 174–177, 186, 191–198, 200–203, 205–211, 214, 218, 220, 221, 235, 237, 238, 251, 272, 276, 281 Sāṃkhyakārikā, 92, 127, 186, 188, 191–193, 196, 198, 199, 220, 221, 249 Sāṃkhyakārikā, 126 Saṃnyāsa, 101, 120 Saṃnyāsin, 125 Saṃsāra, 17, 21, 74, 77, 92, 101, 106, 117, 138, 140, 141, 163, 218, 247, 282, 283, 285, 288 Saṃskāra, 17, 49, 56, 73–75, 78, 80–84, 91, 104, 122, 153, 154, 220, 254, 256, 294 Saṃskṛta, 49 Saṃvit, 119 Saṃvṛti, 99, 103, 124, 127, 198 Samyag, 276 Index Samyagdarśana, 101, 105, 106, 278, 280, 281, 284, 285, 287 Samyagdṛṣṭi, 281 Samyagjñāna, 101, 278, 280, 285, 288, 289 Samyak, 119, 257, 260, 280 Samyakcāritra, 101, 278, 280, 281, 289 Saṃyama, 101, 285, 287 Saṃyutta Nikāya, 148, 149 Saṅgha, 46, 254, 255 Śaṅkara, 5, 6, 8, 27, 50, 100–102, 105, 117, 119, 120, 141, 143, 146, 147, 193, 194, 227–230, 240, 293 Sanskrit, 6, 7, 17, 40, 52, 54, 56, 58, 73, 76, 77, 92, 95–98, 101, 112, 152, 170, 171, 174, 175, 188, 189, 231, 235, 240, 244, 249, 253, 279 Śantarakṣita, 193, 194 Śānti, 78 Śāntideva, 98, 139 Śāriputra, 254–257, 261 Sarvadṛṣṭi, 79 Sarvajña, 278 Sarvāstivāda, 51, 246, 258 Sarvāstivādin Vasubandhu, 50 Sāsrava, 49 Ṣaṣṭhitantra, 174, 175, 198, 220 Śāstra, 45, 128, 174, 175 Sat, 100 Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, 20, 165, 168, 172, 173, 185 Satipaṭṭhāna-sutta, 94 Satkāryavāda, 201–203, 209, 210, 213, 221 Sattva, 102, 204, 212, 214, 262 Saturation, 94, 95, 105 Satya, 29, 124, 287 Scholastic, 5, 6, 16, 45, 60, 81, 99, 106, 123, 128, 140, 149, 175, 186, 187, 222, 249–252, 274, 300 Scholasticism, 5, 15, 60, 121, 149, 161, 175, 192, 249, 252, 272, 297 Schopenhauer, Arthur, 27, 207 Science, 4, 12, 13, 32–34, 36, 39, 43, 45, 48, 57, 61, 63–68, 71, 81, 105, 124, 198, 295, 299, 301 Second-order representation, 14, 33, 44, 55, 57, 74, 207 Semiotic, 55, 127, 129, 140, 165, 169, 188, 198, 262, 265, 266, 301 Servitude, 82, 140, 216, 298 Siddha, 96 Siddhārtha, 247 Siddhi, 212 Index Skandha, 49, 50, 59, 76, 151, 246, 253–259, 264, 267 Skepticism, 78 Śloka, 229 Smith, Brian K., 31, 171 Smith, Edward E., 58 Smith, Jonathan Zittell, 36 Smṛti, 146 Smṛtibīja, 59 Social, 7, 16, 18–21, 28, 30, 31, 36–38, 44, 46, 61, 62, 65, 67, 72, 77, 112, 124, 128, 136, 137, 140, 143, 144, 152, 154, 160, 163, 168, 170, 221, 236, 245, 274, 297 Sociology, 36, 66 Socrates, 10, 164, 250 Sönam, Künzang, 98 Soteriological, 7, 9, 11, 38, 75, 76, 103, 117, 118, 124, 126, 138, 168, 228, 230, 231, 250, 251, 273 Sparśa, 77 Spiritual, 3, 6, 8–13, 15, 17, 28, 36, 37, 57, 60, 66, 67, 72, 79, 84, 94, 99, 100, 105, 106, 116, 129, 135, 137, 140, 143, 148, 150, 154, 162, 163, 175–177, 183, 184, 186–189, 192, 193, 196, 199, 202, 207, 210, 214, 216–218, 220–222, 224, 227–231, 241, 242, 244, 245, 247, 251, 256, 267, 272–274, 277, 295–298, 300 Śramaṇ, 127, 229 Śramaṇa, 96, 123, 127, 130, 137, 140, 163, 165 Śramaṇic, 136 Śrauta, 199, 200, 205, 213, 220, 231 Śrautasūtra, 199 Śravaṇa, 120, 146, 185, 281 Śruta, 120, 147, 185 Śruti, 146, 199, 202, 203 Stoic, 60, 106 Study, 4, 7–10, 12, 29, 32, 33, 36, 51–53, 66, 67, 71, 72, 79, 94–96, 101, 107, 113, 125, 131, 141, 143, 149, 151, 159–162, 172, 183, 185, 187, 188, 200, 201, 205, 212, 229, 272–274, 281, 287, 288, 293, 298 Śubhopayoga, 283, 285 Subversion, 66, 266, 273, 289 Subversive, 66 Śuddha, 286 Śuddhopayoga, 283, 285 Sūkṣma, 203, 217 Śūnya, 54, 100, 155, 238 321 Sūnyatā, 254 Śūnyatā, 98, 244, 254, 257, 264, 267 Supercategory, 63, 97 Supra-category, 63, 92, 209 Sureśvara, 130, 136 Suśrutasaṃhitā, 174 Sūtra, 32, 54, 101, 123, 127, 128, 148, 151, 153, 187, 193, 201, 244, 246, 255, 266 Svabhāva, 246, 248, 254–256, 258, 264–267, 274, 286 Svacāritra, 102 Svādhyāya, 200, 273 Svalakṣaṇa, 246 Svarūpa, 282 Swami Vivekananda, 114, 115 Symbol, 13, 34, 38, 39, 43, 55, 56, 60, 65, 68–70, 75, 76, 160, 223, 231, 247, 248, 262, 263, 298, 299, 301 Symbolic, 7, 10, 13, 15, 17, 30, 31, 42, 47, 48, 53, 55, 74, 77, 78, 106, 135, 144, 152, 163, 165, 183, 199, 205, 213, 215, 236, 241, 262 T Tabula Smaragdina, 48, 59, 258 Taijasa, 233, 234, 239 Taittirīya, 42 Tamas, 204, 212, 214 Tanmātra, 194, 205 Tantra, 45, 129, 130, 174, 175, 262 Tapas, 101, 138, 168, 231, 286–288 Tarka, 77, 142 Tathāgata, 145, 261, 262 Tattva, 45, 92, 94, 194, 206–209, 213 Tattvābhyāsa, 121, 154, 219 Tattvajñāna, 94, 119, 215, 216, 218, 219 Tattvārthasūtra, 275 Taxonomy, 4, 7–13, 15–18, 20, 21, 26, 28, 29, 31–33, 36–39, 41–45, 49–51, 53, 54, 56, 63–68, 70–72, 74, 75, 78, 79, 82–84, 92, 95, 100–102, 104–106, 113, 116, 119, 122–124, 129, 130, 135–137, 139, 141–143, 145, 147, 148, 150, 151, 153–155, 164, 165, 167, 170, 172, 174–177, 183–189, 191, 193, 197, 199, 210, 216, 218, 219, 223, 229–234, 239, 248, 258, 264, 267, 272, 275, 276, 279, 284, 288, 293, 295, 296, 300, 301 Theology, 41, 61, 114, 164, 170, 171, 230 Theosophy, 114 322 Therapeutic, 4, 5, 7–12, 17, 21, 29, 53, 78, 79, 81, 93, 95, 96, 100, 101, 103, 105–107, 113, 127, 153–155, 160, 161, 169, 173, 177, 183, 185–188, 192, 193, 195–202, 207, 208, 210, 217, 220–223, 228, 229, 231, 239, 247–252, 256, 260, 267, 274, 276, 283, 286, 288, 289, 293, 295–301 Therapy, 5, 8, 10–12, 74, 81, 92, 95, 96, 102, 183, 197, 201–203, 210, 216, 248, 300, 301 Theravāda, 92 Theurgy, 164 Threefold, 120, 146, 147, 201, 205, 212, 231, 233, 234, 238, 239, 266, 267, 278, 287, 289 Tibetan, 76, 98, 194, 244, 253 Tīrthaṅkara, 101, 280, 281 Transformative, 12, 16, 66, 78, 143, 148, 153, 166, 184, 187, 228, 247 Tridvāra, 80 Tripiṭaka, 266, 267 Tṛṣṇa, 77 Turīya, 234, 235, 238 Twofold, 101, 113, 124, 183, 186, 203, 217 Two truths, 46, 119, 125, 183, 193, 198 Tyāga, 268, 287 U Uddyotkara, 175 Ultimate, 6, 8, 13, 17, 21, 29, 37, 51, 63, 65, 76, 79, 82, 92, 93, 95–99, 101–103, 105, 117, 119, 120, 122, 125, 127, 131, 139, 145, 148, 152, 155, 168, 176, 198, 208, 209, 230, 247, 248, 251, 252, 267, 276, 281, 293, 295, 297, 298, 300 Unconventional, 28, 189, 235, 262, 264, 272, 275, 278, 280, 281, 283, 285–289, 293, 299 Upanayana, 172 Upaniṣad, 5, 17, 32, 41–43, 49, 82, 99, 101, 103, 105, 106, 117, 119, 120, 123–127, 130, 139, 146, 147, 164, 165, 168, 175, 186, 187, 189, 192, 198, 201–203, 216, 222, 223, 228–232, 235, 236, 238–241, 261, 265, 291 Upāsana, 42, 43 Upāya, 248 Utopia, 97, 235, 239 Utopian, 145 Index Utpatti, 95, 220 V Vācaspati, 145 Vaibhāṣika, 51, 258 Vairāgya, 99, 101, 214 Vaiśeṣika, 123, 175, 176, 194 Vaiśvānara, 233, 234, 239 Vajracchedikasūtra, 246 Varṇa, 31, 32, 236 Vārṣagaṇya, 192 Vāsanā, 104 Vasubandhu, 64, 79 Vātsyāyana, 175 Veda, 32, 46, 47, 120, 131, 146, 172, 184, 199, 202, 203, 205, 229, 234, 235, 239–241, 266, 293 Vedanā, 49, 77, 254, 256 Vedānta, 32, 42, 76, 82, 100, 105, 106, 117, 119, 120, 146, 147, 176, 186, 193, 194, 198, 227, 229, 230, 241, 242 Vedāntin, 114, 126, 130, 145, 241 Vedāntin Gauḍapāda, 4 Vedic, 19, 20, 31, 32, 34, 41–43, 46, 47, 50, 57, 67, 81, 119, 123, 127, 130, 147, 153, 165, 168, 171–176, 192, 199, 201, 202, 205, 213, 215–217, 221, 223, 228–231, 235, 238, 240, 241, 262, 266, 293 Via negativa, 145 Vidhi, 57 Vidyā, 43, 174, 257, 259 Viewing, 78, 79, 96, 97, 103, 139–141, 143, 147, 249 View(s), 5, 13, 38, 39, 42, 45, 49, 50, 76–79, 84, 93, 95–98, 103, 105–107, 115, 120, 121, 127, 136, 139–141, 143, 146, 147, 171, 172, 175, 176, 184, 186, 192, 193, 195, 214, 216, 217, 219, 237, 239, 241, 244, 246, 249, 251, 252, 255, 259, 267, 273, 275, 276, 278–289, 295, 296, 301 Vijñāna, 37, 50, 77, 100, 202, 203, 210, 218, 219, 254, 256 Vijñāna Bhikṣu, 154 Vijñānavāda, 100 Vikalpa, 76, 100 Vinaya, 52, 266, 284 Viparyaya, 104, 176 Vītarāga, 101 Viveka, 16, 17, 37, 100, 106 Vivekajñāna, 28, 119 Index Vivekakhyāti, 119 Volition, 13, 53, 74, 75, 80, 82, 122, 154, 223 Vṛtti, 154, 217 Vyakta, 201, 204, 206, 207, 210, 213, 214 Vyāsa, 102, 154, 227 Vyavahāra, 92, 273, 275, 278 W Wampum, 30 Way of life, 9–11, 16, 45, 105, 115, 135, 136, 138, 139, 141, 143, 163, 169, 170, 176, 187, 236, 288, 291, 293, 301 Westerhoff, Jan, 62, 63, 72–74, 141, 251, 263–265 Wittgenstein, Josef Johann, 7, 10, 34–36, 42, 54, 61, 104, 152, 300 Worldview(s), 7, 13, 20, 38, 39, 41, 42, 45, 48, 59, 78, 83, 92–94, 99, 119, 123, 138, 143, 171, 176, 183, 184, 227, 230, 238, 247, 272, 284, 291, 298, 299 X Xeno of Elea, 26 Xenophanes, 164 323 Y Yajamāna, 215 Yajña, 19, 105, 171–173, 199, 205, 220 Yajurveda, 124, 173, 198, 231 Yathābhūta, 151 Yoga, 3–6, 9, 15, 17, 28, 29, 41, 42, 45, 48, 63, 71, 74, 75, 77, 78, 80–84, 93, 96, 99, 102–105, 111–118, 120, 121, 128–130, 135–138, 142, 144–148, 150, 151, 153, 163, 165, 173, 175, 176, 183, 184, 186–189, 191, 192, 195, 217, 218, 223, 228, 245, 251, 273, 284, 286, 294, 298 Yogabīja, 113 Yogācāra, 59 Yoga of action, 113, 137, 150 Yogasmṛti, 146 Yogasūtra, 78, 102, 112, 154, 195, 217, 222 Yogavārtika, 154 Yogic, 4, 6, 9, 18, 21, 28, 29, 42, 63, 72, 75, 76, 78, 81, 83, 84, 92, 93, 96, 99, 102–104, 106, 112, 113, 115–117, 120, 122, 141, 145, 150, 154, 184, 195, 196, 275, 292 Yoniśomanaskāra, 77 Yūpa, 199, 215–218, 220, 223, 237, 241 Z Zoroastrian, 40