Sharks and Rays of South Eastern Australia A Field Guide to Species of Conservation Concern Produced with support from: by Janine Baker, Marine Ecologist Dedication Acknowledgments This booklet is dedicated to Mr Rudie Kuiter, in recognition of his prolific and educational photography and documentation of south-eastern Australian marine fauna, over many years. Sincere thanks to The Norman Wettenhall Foundation, Gippsland Coastal Board, Save our Seas Foundation, and Natural Resources - Citation South East SA, for supporting the creation of this guide. I am Baker, J.L. (2014) Sharks and Rays of South Eastern Australia – A grateful to DEWNR, ABRS and Natural Resources – Adelaide & Mt Field Guide to Species of Conservation Concern. Booklet produced Lofty Ranges for previously supporting part of my time to write an with support from The Norman Wettenhall Foundation, e-book on South Australian marine species, upon which some Gippsland Coastal Board, Save our Seas Foundation, and Natural information in this guide is based. Thank you to those who Resources - South East (DEWNR). provided images: L. Baade, Dr N. Barrett, H. Crawford, Professor G. Edgar, C. Geissler, D. Kuijlaars, R. Kuiter, J. Lewis, D. Maynard, The text contained in this publication is intended as a source of P. Mercurio, C. Rapson, R. Paton, Dr T. Rakotoarivelo, A. Sutandio information only. Whilst due care has been taken in compiling and K. Smith. I am grateful to these persons for having found and this information, contributors to this publication do not photographed the sharks and rays featured in this guide. Thanks guarantee that the publication is without flaw, and therefore to CSIRO staff for providing access to images in the CSIRO National disclaim all liability for any errors or omissions, loss, damage, or Fish Collection, including a photo by Dr K. Graham. Marine Life consequences which may arise from any information given in Society of South Australia and Star of the Sea School’s Marine this publication. This publication was made with assistance of Discovery Centre jointly provided an image, and several grants from The Norman Wettenhall Foundation, Gippsland photographs from the internet have also been included. Thanks to Coastal Board, Save our Seas Foundation, and Natural Resources Citron, Fir0002 Flagstaffotos, Frokor, and J. María Pérez Nuñez (all – South East (DEWNR). Views expressed are those of the author at Wikimedia Commons); R. Ling and S. Speight (saspotato) at and not necessarily those of any of the aforementioned Flickr; A. Green (Reef Life Survey) and M. Conlin, W. Heim and organisations, who accept no responsibility for the accuracy of R. Starr (CBNMS / NOAA) for making their photographs publicly information contained herein. available. Thanks to Dr D. Muirhead, and to associates of South Australian Conservation Research Divers (SACReD), for donating © J.L. Baker 2014 photos used for backgrounds on most pages. Many thanks to Copyright for photographs remains with each photographer. Dr Michelle Treloar (University of Tasmania and Australian Society Cover photos: © Richard Ling www.rling.com, CC-BY-NC-SA (top); © DEWNR (middle); © Robert Paton (bottom); © David Muirhead (background). for Fish Biology), Dr S. Shepherd (SARDI Aquatic Sciences) and K. Hart for editing the draft text, and to Oceania Chondrichthyan Printed by Cruikshank Rapid, South Australia. Society (OCS). Thanks to all who read this guide, and are inspired to further understand, appreciate and help protect the shark and ray fauna of south eastern Australia.  Introduction Sharks & Rays – Basic Facts This booklet provides information about 40 sharks and rays of Sharks, rays, skates, stingarees are all cartilaginous fishes, conservation interest in south-eastern Australia, including classified in the class Chondrichthyes. Chondrichthyans South Australia, Victoria and Tasmania. Some of these species have a skeleton made of cartilage, small scales (denticles) on also occur in other parts of Australia, and some have global the body, and no ribs. They reproduce through internal distributions. Some are narrow range endemics, recorded so far fertilisation. Males typically have modified ventral fins only in a single State. South-eastern Australian waters support called claspers, to assist sperm transmission to the females. an abundant fauna of sharks and rays. For example, southern Australia is a global centre of species richness for stingarees, Chondrichthyans retain urea and ammonia wastes in their with a dozen species, and most of these occur in the South body to provide buoyancy, and reduce fluid loss through East. Some sharks and rays in SE Australia occupy specific osmosis. habitats, and others are found over a broad depth range, in a Some of the major groups in south-eastern Australia which variety of habitats. A few species are restricted to shallow are discussed in this booklet include: waters, and others extend into deeper continental shelf and slope waters. Species of narrow geographic range and/or • Mackerel Sharks (White Shark, Shortfin Mako, Porbeagle) narrow depth range are more vulnerable to decline than are • Wobbegongs more broadly distributed species. Also, species which are long- • Catsharks and Swellsharks lived, slow to mature, and have few young per cycle are more • Hound Sharks (School Shark, and Gummy Shark) vulnerable to population impacts than are faster growing more • Whaler Sharks (Bronze Whaler, Dusky Shark, Blue Shark) fecund sharks. Both live-bearing species and egg-laying species • Hammerhead are vulnerable. Sharks and rays which are highly susceptible to • Sixgill and Sevengill Sharks fisheries capture, such as benthic species which are easily • Dogfish Sharks caught in trawls, are also vulnerable to population impacts. • Sawsharks • Shovelnose Rays and Fiddler Rays Note: This booklet does not discuss several of the more abundant and resilient shark species in SE Australia, such as Port Jackson Shark • Skates Heterodontus portusjacksoni, Draughtboard Shark Cephaloscyllium • Stingrays (including Stingarees and Eagle Rays) laticeps, the Collared Catsharks / Carpetsharks, Angel Sharks, or The Holocephali (Chimaeras) is a separate group of Electric Rays (Torpedo Rays, Coffin Rays, Numbfishes). Also excluded are species found mainly in the western part of southern Australia, cartilaginous fishes. They have a cartilaginous skeleton and rather than the South East, such as Pencil Shark Hypogaleus shark-like appearance, but have smooth scaleless skin, hyugaensis, Whiskery Shark Furgaleus macki, and Sharpnose grinding tooth plates, and 4 concealed gill openings. Most Sevengill Shark Heptranchias perlo. Deep water species which are holocephalans occur in deep water, but one (Elephantfish) rare in shelf waters of SE Australia are also excluded. which also enters shallow water is discussed in this booklet. Shovelnose Ray Fisheries A listed species in one of South Australia’s fisheries, Aptychotrema vincentiana probably caught in low numbers. A significant component of the ray bycatch in SA prawn trawls. Also a bycatch of trawls in Victoria, and of gill nets Description and long lines in WA. Often discarded due to low A greyish brown or yellowish ray with a darker mottling market value. Has been taken in small numbers in WA on dorsal surface. Juveniles are uniformly coloured, for the aquarium industry. Caught by recreational and lack blotches. Snout elongated and pointed. There fishers using lines and seines, but usually released. is a row of short thorns along midline of the disc. Grows to about 120cm long, but rarely seen at that size. Vulnerability Maturity occurs at a large size, and possibly a late age. Distribution The large size and strong association with the sea Widely distributed from north-west WA through to Bass floor in coastal waters makes this ray susceptible to Strait in Victoria. Common in waters around the SW capture in trawls and other fishing gear. Nearshore corner of WA, and less so in other parts of the range. habitat damage (dredging, channel clearing, coastal development) and water pollution may also be a threat Habitat to populations in parts of the range, but species- Commonly found in shallow sheltered bays and specific data are lacking. estuaries. Often seen on sandy substrates, and in seagrass beds. Mostly found in waters less than 50m deep, but there are records as deep as 125m in the Preserved male Great Australian Bight. In the south of the species range, juveniles are most common close inshore, but occur in deeper waters further north. © CSIRO National Fish Collection Diet Feeds on crustaceans (including prawns) and molluscs that live in or under sand, and in seagrass. Fishes are also eaten. Reproduction Males mature at about 67cm. Females mature at a large size (~ 80cm), and produce 5 – 14 pups per cycle. Adult buried in sand © H. Crawford Southern Fiddler Ray / Banjo Ray Trygonorrhina dumerilii Diet Juveniles feed mainly on small crustaceans (e.g. prawns, shrimps, and amphipods). Adults mainly eat crabs and Description other crustaceans, but also small fishes, polychaete Yellow-brown on top, with broad light brown or cream lines worms, and occasionally molluscs. across disc. This ray has a row of short thorns along midline of disc, to second dorsal fin. Grows to 1.5m long. Reproduction Females mature at quite a large size (about 89cm). Distribution After fertilisation, development is delayed for up to 8 Ranges from southern WA across southern Australia to months - known as embryonic diapause - to enable the young to be born at the optimal time for growth, in autumn. eastern Bass Strait, including northern Tasmania. Females usually produce less than 6 young per cycle. Common through much of its range, particularly in SA. Fisheries Habitat Large numbers (dozens of tonnes per annum) are part of Common in shallow, coastal sand bottoms; also on mud, the bycatch in the Commonwealth-managed trawl fishery or in seagrasses; and on (or near) reefs. Often seen by in the Great Australian Bight (GAB). Caught in lesser divers around jetties and wharves, and occasionally enters tonnages by trawl fishing in SE Australia, and a minor estuaries. Ranges across the continental shelf to about part of the bycatch of Danish seines, and shark hook 200m deep, but most records are from less than 100m. and net fisheries. The recreational catches by line, net and spear are unquantified. Vulnerability Strong habitat association in shallow waters makes fiddler rays susceptible to capture in trawls and other fisheries. A draft trawl impact assessment for GAB and SE Australia indicated that, despite its relative abundance, this ray is at high risk of population impacts from trawling, due to the large numbers caught; the high susceptibility to capture; and the species’ low productivity. Also, in some coastal areas, this ray may be vulnerable to impacts from habitat damage (i.e. dredging and channel clearing, and © P. Mercurio coastal developments), but specific data are lacking. Long-nose Skate Fisheries Long-nose Skate is a common bycatch in Commonwealth- Dipturus confusus managed trawl, fisheries in SE Australia. In Tasmania and Bass Strait, a survey in 2001 recorded this species as the Description 4th most abundant of the 10 skate species in the trawl A brown or yellowish skate with paler spots and blotches. bycatch. Caught in lower numbers in drop line, long line, Round disc edges, moderately elongated snout, thorns in gill net and shark hook fisheries in SE Australia. In nape and eye area. Short tail (in adults). Easily confused Tasmania, surveys in the commercial shark fishery from with White-spotted Skate. Grows to 70cm. 1973 to 1976 recorded about 50 specimens of D. confusus per 1,000km hours. Also caught in the upper continental Distribution slope trawl grounds off NSW. Known mainly from Victoria and Tasmania, but range extends to southern NSW. Vulnerability The size, behaviour and habitat of skates makes them Habitat vulnerable to capture by a variety of fisheries, and survival of released skates may be low. Skate populations Recorded depth range is 18m to 390m, but D. confusus is are vulnerable to decline due to relatively long life span, known mostly from records on the inner continental shelf, maturity at a relatively large body size / late age, and low less than 120m deep. reproductive output. Due to strong association of skates with the sea floor during the life cycle, disturbance to soft Reproduction sediments from trawling may impact populations, This skate matures at a large size (48 – 52cm) and late age including survival rate of young inside egg cases. (6 – 7 years), and has few young per cycle. Young hatch from flat, brown egg cases, and are about 9 – 10cm at birth. newborn © M. Treloar © M. Treloar White-spotted Skate Fisheries Dipturus cerva Commonly part of the bycatch in Commonwealth- managed otter trawls in SE Australia, and also caught by Description demersal long lines and other gear. During the early A yellowish-brown or grey-brown skate with white spots. 2000s, one bycatch survey recorded about 1.45 tonnes of D. cerva in 54 otter trawl shots, and all was discarded. In Weakly quadrangular disc, short to moderately elongated recent years, some of bycatch has been retained for sale snout, 1 to 3 thorns in the nape area, short tail. Relatively as by-product. A minor bycatch in fish trawls in Great slender clasper in male. Easily confused with Long-nose Australian Bight, and in prawn trawls in South Australia. Skate. Grows to about 66cm long. Vulnerability Distribution Skate populations are vulnerable to decline due to Ranges from southern WA through to central NSW, and relatively long life span, maturity at a relatively large body more abundant in the Great Australian Bight, Bass Strait size / late age, and low reproductive output. The size, and Tasmania than in other parts of the range. behaviour and habitat of skates makes them vulnerable to capture by a variety of fisheries, and survival of released Habitat skates may be low. Trawling is intense in some parts of Found on soft bottoms of the continental shelf and upper the range (e.g. Bass Strait). In some areas, disturbance to slope, between 20m and around 500m, but more commonly soft sediments from trawling may impact populations, recorded in trawled depths of 100m – 200m. including survival rate of young inside egg cases. Classified in the IUCN Red List as Near Threatened. Longevity This species lives for at least 9 years. Diet Eats crustaceans, especially Sydney Comb Shrimp Leptochela sydniensis, but also other prawns and shrimps, crabs, and slipper lobsters. Juveniles feed mainly on shrimps, and diet changes with size. Adults also eat octopus, small bony fishes and cartilaginous fishes. Reproduction White-spotted Skates mature at a large size (47 – 49cm) and relatively late age (4 – 5 years). © D. Maynard, QVMAG Thornback Skate Diet Dentiraja lemprieri Small Thornback Skates commonly eat shrimps. Larger individuals mainly eat crabs and squat lobsters, but also consume octopus and benthic fishes. Description A common, short-snouted skate which grows to about Reproduction 55cm. Grey, black or brownish surface, covered with Generally, skates mature at a large body size and late spots and blotches. Dark grey or black blotch under the age, and have very few young per reproductive cycle. snout tip, and thorns along the mid-line of the back. Female skates lay brown egg cases that are typically flat, rectangular, and have horns at both ends. D. lemprieri Distribution has a gestation period of about 4 - 5 months, and young Ranges from NSW through to south eastern SA. It is are around 9 – 11cm long at birth. most common in Victoria and Tasmania. Fisheries Habitat Skate species in SE Australia have been taken by Found on soft bottoms of the continental shelf, from the trawlers since the early 20th century, with many catches shallow subtidal down to about 170m, but usually less discarded. Currently a minor bycatch in Commonwealth- than 40m. The species is often found over mud, sand, managed fisheries which use otter trawls, gill nets, drop and Heterozostera seagrass, in bays and the marine end lines, and Danish seine nets. Skates taken in State of estuaries, particularly in Tasmania. fisheries are rarely identified to species level, hence State catches and fishing effort are hard to determine. In Bass Strait, D. lemprieri is a minor bycatch in the scallop fishery. In Tasmania, it is caught by recreational gill netters. Likely to be caught by fishers in shallow bays and estuaries in other States too. Vulnerability The size, behaviour and habitat of skates make them vulnerable to capture by fisheries. Bycatch deaths may Juvenile © G. Edgar be particularly high in otter trawl and drop line fisheries. Survival of released skates may be low. Populations are vulnerable to decline due to low reproductive output. Also, disturbance to sediments by trawling and dredging may adversely affect skate populations, including survival rate of young inside egg cases. © R. Kuiter Pygmy Thornback Skate Fisheries This species may be part of the bycatch in the Dentiraja flindersi Commonwealth-managed gill net fishery in parts of South Australia, such as southern and south-western Kangaroo Island. Dentiraja flindersi may also be part of the bycatch in prawn trawl fisheries in South Australia, Description but there are no data, and apparently, this species has A small skate (to about 33cm) with a sub-circular disc, not been recorded to date in bycatch surveys in the short snout, and short tail. Pale yellowish brown, with gulfs. The recreational catch is not known. a dense pattern of light spots, and a dark snout tip. Whitish underneath. Dentiraja flindersi is considered Vulnerability to be a smaller relative of the Australian Thornback This skate is intrinsically vulnerable to population Skate (D. lemprieri). decline due to its apparent rarity, and geographically narrow distribution. The size, behaviour and habitat of Distribution skates make them easily caught in fisheries. Bycatch Currently considered to be endemic within South deaths are likely in otter trawl and gill net fisheries in Australia, and is known from the Investigator Strait South Australia, but there are no species-specific data. and Backstairs passage area adjacent to the South Survival of released skates may be low. Generally, skate Australian gulfs. Animals of similar appearance which populations are vulnerable to decline due to low have been recorded from further west, such as the reproductive output. Due to strong association of skates inner continental shelf of Albany in WA, may be a with the sea floor during their life cycle, disturbance to different species. soft sediments from trawling may impact populations, including survival of young inside egg cases. Habitat Very little is known of the habitat for this species. There are records of Pygmy Thornback Skate from between 27m and 54m deep, but the full depth range is not known. Reproduction Males mature at about 29cm long. Generally, skates mature at a large body size and late age, and have very few young per reproductive cycle. Female skates lay egg cases that are typically flat, brown colour, rectangular, and have horns at both ends. © CSIRO National Fish Collection Melbourne Skate / Whitley’s Skate Reproduction This skate matures at a late age (possibly as old as 14 Spiniraja whitleyi years for females and 8 years for males), and has very few young per reproductive cycle. Female skates lay flat, Description brown, rectangular egg cases which have horns at both A large skate, to around 2m and 50kg. Diamond-shaped disc ends. Little is known of reproduction in this species. and broad snout. Grey surface, with irregular white flecks. Juveniles have a large dark blotch on each side of disc. Fisheries Spiniraja whitleyi is used commercially, and sold as 'skate Distribution flaps' in fish shops. Data from Melbourne markets showed Ranges from NSW through to WA, including Tasmania. skate sales in the dozens of tonnes during some years of the 2000s. In SE Australia, frequently caught by otter trawl, Habitat and lesser numbers in long line, drop line and gill net Found from the shallows down to the continental slope, but fisheries. Data from one bycatch survey indicated that mainly known from upper shelf waters. Occurs over sand, ~19kg per trawl shot is retained, and nearly 26kg per trawl mud, seagrass, reef, and patches of reef near sand. Also shot discarded. Also caught and discarded in large number found under jetties. in the Great Australian Bight trawl fishery. Caught by ocean trawls in NSW, and by prawn trawls in SA (where discarded). Also caught by ‘graball’ netting and Diet recreational gill netting in Tasmania, and likely to be Juveniles commonly eat shrimps. Adults eat a variety of caught by gill nets in other parts of the range. foods, such as crabs, other crustaceans, octopus, bony fishes and eels. Vulnerability The large size, behaviour and habitat of Spiniraja whitleyi makes it vulnerable to capture by a variety of fisheries. Survival of released skates may be low. Skate populations are vulnerable to decline due to low reproductive output. Data over 20 years in SE Australia indicate a decline in Melbourne Skate numbers, thought to be due mainly to sustained trawling. Fishing effort is lower in shallower waters; however, disturbance to soft sediments by shallow trawling and dredging in some areas may impact populations, due to strong association of skates and egg cases with the sea floor. © R. Kuiter Peacock Skate Reproduction Pavoraja nitida Size at maturity is about 33cm for males. Females reach sexual maturity at 92% of maximum total length. Skates Description mature at a large size and late age, and have very few A small skate (to 35cm), dark brown on top with clusters of young per reproductive cycle. Females lay brown egg white spots. Peacock Skate has a heart-shaped disc, and a cases that are typically flat, rectangular, and have horns at moderately long, slender tail. both ends. Little is known of reproduction in this species. Fisheries Distribution Part of the bycatch in SE Australian trawl fisheries, and Ranges from the central Great Australian Bight near the SA / ~80% of the catch is discarded. During the early 2000s, an WA border, through to the NSW / Queensland border area. otter trawl bycatch study showed that in 219 trawl shots, The distribution includes Tasmania. 2.7 tonnes of P. nitida were discarded, and none was retained. Comprises only 5 – 20% of the skate catch in Habitat Commonwealth fisheries, but that constitutes a large Considered abundant on southern Australian continental number of skates, due to the small size of this species. shelf. Recorded depth range is around 75m - 430m, but Also a minor catch in the Great Australian Bight trawl more commonly recorded within the range 150m - 300m. fishery, in much lower quantities than in SE Australia. Also part of the bycatch in State fisheries, but most of these do Diet not record skates catches at species level. Part of the During a dietary study in SE Australia, P. nitida was reported bycatch in the ocean prawn trawl fishery in NSW, with a to eat large amounts of Sydney Comb Shrimp Leptochela reported frequency of occurrence of 22% across all trawls. sydniensis, throughout life. Vulnerability Skate populations are vulnerable to decline due to maturity at a relatively large body size / late age, and low reproductive output. Peacock Skate is likely to be more vulnerable to depletion than some other small skates, because females do not reach maturity until almost fully grown. Classified in the IUCN Red List as Near Threatened. In some areas, disturbance to soft sediments from trawling may impact populations, due to strong association of skates and egg cases with the sea floor. © CSIRO National Fish Collection Maugean Skate / Port Davey Skate Fisheries Zearaja maugeana Z. maugeana is caught by gill nets in Macquarie Harbour. Vulnerability Description Classified in the IUCN Red List as Endangered, due to A dark grey-brown skate with lighter patches on the apparent low population numbers, very narrow geographic underside. Quadrangular disc with pointed snout. range, unique habitat, and decline in habitat quality. Status Females grow to around 84cm; males to about 71cm. of the Bathurst Harbour population is uncertain, with lack of sightings despite targetted surveys. For many decades, Distribution Macquarie Harbour has been impacted by large amounts of Found to date in Macquarie Harbour, and previously in waste run-off from copper mining. A remediation program the Port Davey / Bathurst Harbour area in south-western has been in place since the mid 1990s. A major concern is Tasmania. This species is currently considered to be a increased nutrient load and reduced oxygen content in the narrow range endemic. water from expansion of salmon farming in Macquarie Harbour. There is concern for viability of skate eggs due to Habitat lowered oxygen levels. Other threats include boating and Found in brackish to almost fresh water in coastal eco-tourism in both harbours, and potential introduction of harbours. The water is darkened by high tannin loadings non-native species. A recent study has been undertaken by from vegetation on surrounding land. This reduces the university researchers with government and industry level of light penetration that normally occurs at shallow support, to investigate movements, habitat use, biology, depths. Macquarie Harbour has stratified salinity and and interactions of Z. maugeana with fishers and fish farms. oxygen levels. The harbour bottoms have soft sediments, supporting attached invertebrate communities of corals and related fauna, more typical of deep offshore waters. Diet This species feeds on crabs, shrimps and fishes. Reproduction Generally, skates mature at a large size and late age, and have very few young per reproductive cycle. Females lay paired egg cases that are typically flat, rectangular, and have horns at both ends. © N. Barrett Sandyback Stingaree Longevity Urolophus bucculentus Sandyback Stingaree may live for about 17 years. Description Reproduction This species has a biennial reproductive cycle, and a long A yellow-brown stingaree, often with pale spots or patterns. gestation period, of about 15 – 19 months. Fecundity Sub-circular, disc wider than long. Flattened tail, about 67% increases with length of the female, with one to five pups of disc length, with a short, broad caudal fin. Largest per pregnancy. Fifty percent of females contribute to each stingaree in Australia. Females grow to more than 80cm. year’s recruitment. Distribution Fisheries Occurs in southern Queensland, NSW, Victoria, Tasmania, Sandyback Stingaree is caught and discarded in large and South Australia (extending to upper South East of SA, numbers in the Commonwealth-managed otter trawl fishery possibly further west). Considered locally common in SE in SE Australia. One monitoring program reported that in Australia, but may be patchily distributed within its range. 314 trawl shots, about 1.5 tonnes of U. bucculentus were retained, and 5.3 tonnes discarded (almost 5kg per trawl Habitat shot retained, and 17kg per trawl shot discarded). It is part Found mainly on the outer continental shelf and upper of discarded bycatch in ocean fish and prawn trawl slope, presumably on soft substrates. Occasionally fisheries in NSW, with surveys showing it to be the second recorded from shelf waters as shallow as 20m, but most most commonly caught bycatch species in continental records are from 150m – 250m deep. shelf fish trawls in the NSW fishery. Also caught in shark fisheries in SE Australia, in much lower numbers. Vulnerability Classified in the IUCN Red List as Vulnerable. Studies of catches over 20 years indicate that fishing in SE Australian trawl grounds is the most likely cause of marked declines in relative abundance of several stingaree species in SE Australia, including Sandyback. This species is large and difficult to handle in bycatch, and can inflict painful wounds, which may result in the mistreatment of individual stingarees when they are caught. Female stingarees may abort their young when they are caught and handled. © K. Graham Greenback Stingaree Reproduction Very little is known of the biology. Males are reported to Urolophus viridis mature at 27cm. The Greenback Stingaree is likely to have low reproductive capacity and low fecundity (1 – 3 Description pups per year), as with other stingaree species. An olive-green stingaree with a sub-circular disc which is wider than long. Tail about 75% of disc length, with a leaf- Fisheries shaped caudal fin. Grows to around 44cm long. A bycatch in fisheries across the range. Highest numbers come from shelf waters of the NSW Ocean Trawl fishery. Distribution In one survey, frequency of capture was > 90% of trawl Known mostly from Tasmania, Bass Strait, and Victoria, shots. Often caught and discarded in otter trawls, in but also recorded in NSW, and as far north as southern Commonwealth-managed trawls in SE Australia. During Queensland. Considered to be common in SE Australia. the early 2000s, a bycatch survey recorded about 42 tonnes of U. viridis in 670 trawl shots; all were discarded. Habitat Vulnerability Found on soft sediments on the continental shelf and Classified in the IUCN Red List as Vulnerable, due to low upper continental slope, from 20m to more than 200m reproductive output, high levels of bycatch and deep, but most records are from 80m to 180m deep. discarding in trawls, and likely low levels of survival after catch and release. When caught and handled, stingarees Longevity often abort their young. Fishery-independent trawl Greenback Stingaree may live for about 10 years. surveys indicate past depletion of U. viridis populations in southern NSW from at least the 1970s to the 1990s. Trawl effort in part of the Commonwealth SE fisheries remains high. Bycatch in trawls (and less so on hooks) is considered to be a major threatening process. Listed in a NSW Ocean Trawl Fishery assessment as having a high risk of trawl-induced population impacts, due to its life history, suffering of trawl trauma when hauled, and low post-trawl survival rate. According to the IUCN, apparent population declines over time due to trawl bycatch would result in U. viridis qualifying for an Endangered listing, if it were not for lower trawling pressure off Bass Strait and © CSIRO National Fish Collection the western Tasmania coast. Coastal Stingaree Diet Likely to have a diet similar to other Urolophus Urolophus orarius species, which includes small crustaceans (crabs, amphipods and isopods), molluscs, worms, and Description small fishes. A greyish-brown stingaree with black markings on part of disc, fins and tail. Disc is sub-circular, wider than long, Reproduction and snout is rounded. Prominent dark patches in eye Males are reported to mature when 23cm long. area. Tail not flattened, about 75% of disc length, with a Coastal Stingarees are likely to have low fecundity leaf-shaped caudal fin. Grows to around 31cm long. (one to a few young per year) and low reproductive capacity, as with other stingaree species. Similar in markings to the Crossback (Banded) Stingaree U. cruciatus, but lacks a dark stripe along the back. Fisheries Trawl bycatch and museum records indicate that this Distribution species has occasionally been caught in prawn trawl Found in South Australia, with records ranging from the fisheries in the Great Australian Bight, Spencer Gulf, Great Australian Bight through to the South East. and southern Gulf St Vincent / Investigator Strait area in South Australia. Might also be caught and Habitat discarded by Commonwealth-managed trawls, but Found on sand and rubble, near reefs, seagrass beds data are lacking. and under jetties. Records range from the shallows to around 50m deep (trawl records). Vulnerability Coastal Stingarees have a restricted range (i.e. may be endemic within South Australia), and this narrow range is considered to be a significant intrinsic threat to the survival of the species. Stingarees have low reproductive capacity, and likely low levels of survival after catch and release in trawls. There is a high rate of abortion of young when stingarees are caught and handled. In some areas, disturbance to habitat (such as trawling, dredging, channel clearing, coastal development) may also impact populations, due to strong association with the sea floor during their life cycle. However, specific data are lacking. © C. Rapson Western Shovelnose Stingaree Diet Trygonoptera mucosa This stingaree feeds mainly on polychaete worms, and diet may change seasonally. Description A grey, greyish brown or black stingaree, often with Longevity scattered, paler yellowish blotches, and a dark tail. Maximum age of Trygonoptera mucosa is around 17 Sub-circular disc is wider than long. Fleshy snout years for females and 12 years for males. without extended tip. Tail about 81% of disc length, with leaf-shaped caudal fin. Grows to at least 45cm long. Reproduction Size and age at maturity are about 25cm disc width and Distribution 5 years for females; 22cm disc width and 2 years for Found in WA (as far north as Geraldton) and SA, with males. Litter size is 1 to 2 pups, and females reproduce once per year. Pups are more than 10cm wide at birth. Gulf St Vincent and Kangaroo Island being the edge of the geographical range. Fisheries Part of the bycatch in scallop and prawn fisheries in Habitat WA, with one survey recording 153 specimens in 69 Found in coastal waters (to about 35m deep), in shallow trawl shots. Also likely to be part of the prawn trawl sand and seagrass habitats, and sand near reef edges. bycatch in South Australia, as the species has been Common in shallow habitats of the Great Australian Bight. recorded in Spencer Gulf and Gulf St Vincent, where prawn trawls operate. Vulnerability When this species is part of the bycatch in trawls, net trauma can occur, and of great concern is the abortion of pups which occurs when pregnant stingarees are caught in fishing gear and handled. Also of concern is the apparent narrow depth range of this species, and the strong association with the sea floor during the life cycle. In some areas, disturbance to habitat (e.g. from trawling, dredging, channel clearing, coastal development, and introduced species) may also impact populations. However, specific data are lacking. © D. Kuijlaars Eastern Shovelnose Stingaree Trygonoptera imitata Diet This stingaree feeds mainly on polychaete worms. Description A large, brown stingaree, to about 80cm long. Disc sub- Longevity circular; wider than long. Fleshy snout without extended Trygonoptera imitata may live for at least 12 years. tip. No dorsal fin. Tail about 85% of disc length, with leaf- shaped caudal fin, and two venomous spines.. Reproduction Size at which 50% of individuals are mature is about 46 Distribution cm for females and 49cm for males. Litter size varies Occurs mainly in Victoria (particularly the bays) and from 1 to 5 pups. Young are about 25cm long at birth. Tasmania, but the distribution extends west to the gulfs Fisheries of SA, and east into southern NSW. Caught and discarded in beach seine, Danish seine and trawl fisheries in south-eastern Australia, particularly in Habitat bays in Victoria. May also be captured occasionally by Found in coastal waters, in shallow sand and on reef. In recreational fishers, particularly in Victoria and Victoria, it is often found either in the open, or resting on Tasmania, but there are no species-specific data. the sandy floor of caves and ledges. Recorded depth range is about 4m to 45m. Vulnerability Although considered quite robust to capture and discarding, net trauma can occur (including abortion of pups in pregnant stingarees when caught in fishing gear and handled). Also of concern is the apparent narrow depth range of this species, and the strong association with the sea floor during their life cycle. In some areas, disturbance to habitat (e.g. from trawling, dredging, channel clearing, coastal development, and introduced species) may also impact populations. However, specific data are lacking. Data from Victoria indicate a decline in abundance of Eastern Shovelnose Stingaree over 10 years in Port Phillip Bay. © A. Green, Reef Life Survey  Fisheries Black Stingray This species is taken commercially in Commonwealth- and State-managed trawl fisheries across southern Bathytoshia lata (prev. Dasyatis thetidis) Australia. During the early 2000s, a monitoring program recorded 3.5t retained and 4.3t discarded, in 186 otter trawl shots. In NSW, it is caught by commercial gill nets Description (e.g. 18% of discards, during monitoring in 6 estuaries Black or dark grey on the surface, and grows to 4m long over 265 fishing trips). Also caught in both oceanic and and 1.8m wide. The long, whip-like tail has tubercles and estuarine trawl fisheries in NSW, and a minor part of prickles along most of the length, and a venomous barb. prawn trawl fishery bycatch in Queensland. Commercially fished in South Australia, and a significant Distribution prawn trawl bycatch species there. This stingray is taken This species is found mainly in New Zealand, Australia by recreational lines, nets and spears across the range. and part of Africa, and several islands associated with Vulnerability those countries. In Australia, it ranges from Queensland This species is susceptible to capture by many fisheries around the south coast (including Tasmania), through to due to its benthic existence and strong site-association, Western Australia. and taken in significant numbers in some parts of the range. Being live-bearers, and having a low number of Habitat offspring, make Black Stingray vulnerable to population Black Stingrays are common inshore, but have also been depletion. Habitat degradation may also impact recorded in deep, upper continental slope waters. Found populations, but there are no species-specific data. in a variety of habitats, including lagoons and estuaries; muddy and sandy bays; and around reefs. Diet Black Stingrays eat a variety of prey, including crabs, lobsters, mantis shrimps, bivalve shells, polychaete worms, fishes (e.g. conger eels) and eggs (e.g. of Port Jackson shark Heterodontus portusjacksoni). Reproduction Litter size may be from 2 – 6 pups, as in other members of the family. Young about 36cm wide at birth. © C. Geissler @ Project Noah Smooth Stingray Fisheries Smooth Stingrays are part of the bycatch (and Bathytoshia brevicaudata usually discarded) in Commonwealth-managed otter trawls and Danish seine nets, snapper long line, and purse seine fisheries. They are also a bycatch in the Description NSW ocean trawl fishery, and in the prawn trawl Grey or brownish (sometimes with irregular white fishery in South Australia, where caught in flecks) and pale underneath. Grows to 4.3m long and significant numbers. These stingrays are also taken 2.1m wide. Smooth stingray has tubercles on the tail, by recreational line and net fishers, and using spear. and venomous barbs. Vulnerability Distribution Susceptible to capture by numerous fisheries due to Found mainly in New Zealand, Australia and South its close association with the sea floor. This species Africa, and large islands associated with those is taken in significant numbers in some parts of the countries. In Australia, ranges from Queensland range. The live-bearing mode of reproduction and around the south coast, to mid Western Australia. low number of offspring make Smooth Stingray vulnerable to population depletion. Benthic habitat Habitat degradation may also impact populations, but there Found in a variety of habitats, including estuaries; are no species-specific data. harbours; sandy bottoms in shallow bays; under piers / jetties; near coastal reefs (both natural and artificial); around offshore islands; at continental “drop-offs”; on open sea floor (to about 170m deep) and occasionally near the surface over the outer shelf. Diet Main food items include large molluscs (e.g. bivalves in sand, and abalone on reef), crustaceans such as crabs and lobsters, squid, and small fishes. Reproduction Litter size may be 2 – 6 pups, as in other members of the family. Young are born at 32 – 36cm wide. © L. Baade Southern Eagle Ray Fisheries Myliobatis tenuicaudatus A bycatch in Commonwealth-managed, Tasmanian and WA gillnet fisheries. Also caught by set lines, long lines, beach seine, and demersal prawn and scallop trawlers. Description During the mid 2000s, annual catch of Eagle Rays in the A wide, kite-shaped ray (to 1.6m wide) which grows to Commonwealth Trawl Sector was around 13 – 14 tonnes almost 2m long, including the thin tail. Surface sandy or per annum. Eagle Rays are also caught commercially in olive green colour with an irregular pattern of greyish New Zealand. The quantity retained and sold has blue blotches and cross-bars. Has a fleshy lobe around increased in recent years, in both Australia and New the blunt snout, and broad wing-like fins. Zealand. Eagle rays are commonly caught by recreational fishers across the range, using lines and spears. Distribution Ranges from southern Queensland (where uncommon), Vulnerability along the eastern, southern and western coasts of Strong habitat association in nearshore and shelf waters Australia, to at least Geraldton area in Western Australia. makes this species susceptible to capture in numerous The distribution includes Tasmania and New Zealand. fisheries. Eagle Rays are potentially vulnerable to population decline from over-exploitation, due to their Habitat seasonal aggregation and ease of capture, live-bearing Usually found inshore, off beaches in shallow seagrass reproduction, and relatively low number of offspring. and bare sand bottom habitats, but also on or near reefs (both natural and artificial), and under jetties. Juveniles commonly enter estuaries. Depth range is from shore (0m) to about 80m, but deeper in New Zealand waters. Diet Eagle Rays have specialised flat, plate-like teeth for crushing prey, which includes various crab species, rock lobsters, molluscs, and worms. Small Eagle Rays feed on prawns, shrimps, and other small crustaceans. Reproduction Females mature at ~ 80cm, and are live-bearing, with an average of 6 pups per cycle. Breeding may not be annual. In southern Australia, pups are born in summer. © H. Crawford Elephantfish / Elephant Shark egg case (damaged) Callorhinchus milii (c) MLSSA and SoS MDC Description Silvery or pale copper-coloured surface with iridescent reflections, and dark blotches on top and sides of body. Distinctive, hoe-shaped snout. Grows to around 1.5m. © Fir0002 Flagstaffotos at Wikimedia Commons. CC Licence Distribution Found across southern Australia (from central NSW through to southern WA, including Tasmania), and in Fisheries New Zealand (NZ). In southern Australia, C. milii is most Caught commercially in Australia and NZ. Substantial abundant in Bass Strait. tonnages are taken across SE Australia and Tasmania as by-product, mainly in gill nets, but also in trawls Habitat and on long lines. Smaller quantities are caught using Occurs over a broad range in continental shelf waters, seine nets and other gear. During the 2000s, there was from about 1m - 230m. Elephantfish have been recorded a quota of around 100 tonnes per annum in the on muddy, sandy, rocky and rubble bottoms in coastal Commonwealth-managed SE fisheries. C. milii is also waters, including bays and estuaries. caught in State-managed fisheries across southern Australia. Commercial catches are often used in the Diet “fish and chip” market. Elephantfish is a popular This species has a very restricted diet, consisting mainly target for recreational fishers in Victoria, with more of clams and other bivalve molluscs, but some than 20,000 specimens recorded during a recreational crustaceans and fish are also eaten. fishing survey in 2000/01. Reproduction Vunerability Elephantfish are seasonal breeders, and females move Elephantfish populations are vulnerable to depletion to shallower bays and estuaries to lay pairs of leathery due to their very low fecundity, and capture in large egg cases. Egg cases are laid over several weeks each numbers by commercial operators in deeper waters, year, and may take 8 months to hatch. Young are about and by recreational anglers in shallow waters, where 10cm at birth, and remain in the shallow habitats for up female C. milii aggregate to lay eggs. Recruitment to 3 years. levels are highly variable from year to year. Dogfish Sharks / Dogfishes Reproduction Squalus acanthias, S. chloroculus, S. megalops Females mature at a late age (estimates include 10 to 20 years, for S. acanthias) and have few pups per cycle (4 – 7 in S. acanthias and 2 – 4 in S. megalops) after a Description gestation period of 18 – 24 months. Piked Spurdog (Spikey Dogfish) Squalus megalops and Greeneye Dogfish S. chloroculus are greyish brown on top, Fisheries and paler underneath; White-spotted Dogfish S. acanthias Globally, Squalus species are heavily fished for oil, leather, is bluish grey with scattered white spots. Juvenile S. pet food, fish meal, and other products. In southern megalops and S. chloroculus often have white-edged fins. Australia, dogfishes are taken in bottom trawls, gill nets Piked Spurdog and Greeneye Dogfish grow to about 80cm; and seine nets, and also by bottom-set lines. Dogfishes S. acanthias to about 1.3m. These sharks have two dorsal are often caught in Commonwealth-managed fisheries for spines with spikes, and a keel on the tail fin. other species. Also caught in smaller quantities in some States, with a portion discarded, and some marketed. Distribution Most of the recreational catch of S. acanthias is from The White-spotted Dogfish is globally distributed in Victoria, where thousands of specimens per annum were temperate waters, including southern Australia and New reported in a previous recreational fishing survey. Zealand. The Piked Spurdog is also found abundantly in southern Australia, but global distribution is uncertain due Vulnerability to taxonomic issues. The Greeneye Dogfish is considered Squalus dogfishes are slow-growing, quite long-lived (25 – to be endemic to Australia (NSW to Great Australian Bight). 30 years), and slow to mature. Gestation time is long, with small numbers of young per batch. These characteristics Habitat increase the vulnerability of fished populations to decline. The White-spotted Dogfish and Piked Spurdog have a In SE Australia, fishing is the main threatening process. broad depth range on the continental shelf and upper slope, from inshore to about 730m for S. megalops and to 900m (rarely deeper) for S. acanthias. Both can occur in shallow bays and estuaries. Greeneye Dogfish is found on the upper to mid continental slope, from 200m to more than 1.3km deep. All occur over soft sea floor sediments. Diet Dogfishes eat many fish species, also crustaceans (shrimps, lobsters, hermit cabs), molluscs, squid and octopus, brittle stars, sea cucumbers, jellyfish and worms. © D. Maynard, QVMAG Piked Spurdog Catsharks Fisheries Asymbolus species Catsharks are caught incidentally in low tonnages in trawl fisheries across southern Australia, and in the Danish seine fishery in south-eastern Australia. Description Catches in these Commonwealth-managed fisheries Small (to 60cm), slender sharks with two dorsal fins, a are mainly discarded. Orange-spotted Catsharks are caudal fin, and an anal fin. Several species occur in SE also part of the bycatch in prawn and fish trawls in Australia, including Grey-spotted - A. analis (greyish Queensland and NSW, especially in deep waters. It brown with large darker blotches, white spots and has also been caught in lobster pots in NSW and brown-black spots); Orange-spotted - A. rubiginosus sold as a by-product. The Gulf Catshark is a minor (pale brown with grey brown blotches and prolific dark bycatch species in the prawn trawl fishery in SA. rusty spots); Gulf - A. vincenti (greyish-brown with large, darker blotches and many small white spots, which are Vulnerability less distinct in juveniles). In south-eastern Australia, little is known of the biology or relative abundance of catsharks. Trawl Distribution capture is considered to be the main threatening Grey-spotted and Orange-spotted catsharks are found process, as these sharks are small, and easily mainly in NSW and Victoria, but the latter extends west crushed. However, for those animals which do not to SA; Gulf Catshark occurs across southern Australia, suffer trawl trauma when caught, survival rate after including Tasmania. release may be higher than for other species. Habitat All live near the sea floor, in continental shelf waters. Orange-spotted Catsharks are also found on the continental slope. Catshark habitats include sand / rubble, reefs (e.g. caves, crevices), and seagrass beds. Diet Catsharks feed on crustaceans, fishes and cephalopods. Reproduction During breeding periods, females have two squarish, slightly flattened egg-cases with a tendril at each corner. A. rubiginosus females have a continuous egg-laying cycle, and each produces around 36 - 57 eggs per year. Juvenile Gulf Catshark © J. Lewis Whitefin Swell-shark Vulnerability Cephaloscyllium albipinnum Although commonly caught in trawls, specimens are reported to be released alive, and this shark is considered more resilient to trawl capture than many Description other species. Declines in abundance in the related A broad-bellied, greyish-brown catshark with darker species C. variegatum have been recorded in SE brown blotches. Paler underneath, and pale fin margins. Australia over a 20-year period, considered to be due Like other catsharks, it has two spineless dorsal fins, an to sustained commercial trawling. Declines in catch asymmetrical caudal fin, and an anal fin. The stomach numbers of C. albipinnum have also been recorded. can be inflated with air or water when the shark is Around 1,350 specimens of this species were disturbed, to increase body size. Grows to about 102cm. reported to be caught in research surveys during the mid-late 2000s, in canyon and other deepwater Distribution habitats in SE Australia. Those catches may indicate Ranges from southern New South Wales, through to the the importance of such areas as a required refuge Great Australian Bight in southern WA. The distribution from trawling, and research catches at that scale includes Tasmania. could be considered incompatible with conservation objectives. In the IUCN Red List, this species has Habitat been listed as Near Threatened, because sustained Found on the outer continental shelf and upper trawling continues in some parts of the range. continental slope, with records to date from around 125m to 550m deep. Reproduction Female lays smooth egg cases with long, coiled tendrils. Fisheries Listed as a bycatch species in Commonwealth-managed trawl fisheries in the Great Australian Bight, Victoria and Tasmania, and also a bycatch in the SE shark fishery. Reported in the ocean trawl fishery in NSW. © R. Kuiter Australian Sawtail Catshark Figaro boardmani or Galeus boardmani Fisheries A frequent bycatch of demersal trawl fisheries, down to about 460m deep. Part of the discarded bycatch in Description the Commonwealth-managed trawl fisheries in SE A narrow, greyish-brown shark with mottled and Australia, and the Great Australian Bight. Also caught barred surface pattern, and pale underneath. Has two in deepwater trawls off WA. During the early 2000s, spineless dorsal fins, an asymmetrical caudal fin, and otter trawl bycatch sampling in SE Australia reported an anal fin. Large, cat-like eyes with inner eyelids that 2.2 tonnes of F. boardmani in 390 trawl shots (nictitating membrane. Grows to about 60cm. were caught and discarded. In that fishery, catch rates were reportedly stable during the late 1990s to early Distribution 2000s when monitoring occurred. Much lower Occurs in southern Queensland, NSW, Victoria, numbers have been recorded in long line bycatch. Tasmania, South Australia and Western Australia. F. boardmani is also a bycatch in the deepwater Habitat fisheries for king prawns in Queensland and NSW. Found mainly on the outer continental shelf and upper It is probable that the species is also part of the slope (200 – 450m), with few records from deeper waters bycatch of other demersal trawl fisheries operating (e.g. 820m) and shallower waters (e.g. 85m, 120m). throughout its distribution. Diet Vulnerability Feeds mainly on fishes, crustaceans, and cephalopods. This species may have seasonal behaviour traits that increase susceptibility to capture (e.g. aggregation by Reproduction sex). Figaro boardmani was listed as one of the high Size at maturity is about 40cm. Females produce 1 – 2 risk bycatch species in the NSW ocean trawl fishery egg cases per cycle, containing numerous ova. The which has a high fishery impact profile, due to its life yolky eggs are encased in a leathery capsule, attached history; suffering of trawl trauma when hauled up’ and to the sea floor by tendrils which project from the estimated low post-trawl survival rate. However, corners of the capsule. survivorship from trawling in Queensland prawn trawls is reported to be high. This species may also be at risk from trawling in the Commonwealth- managed South East and Great Australian Bight trawl fisheries, especially if spatial fishing effort expands over time, and bycatch of catsharks increases. © R. Kuiter Common Sawshark & Southern Sawshark Pristiophorus cirratus and P. nudipinnis Description Common Sawsharks are grey-brown or yellowish on top, with darker blotches and spots, and white underneath. Southern Sawsharks are grey on top and paler below. © R. Kuiter Both species grow to about 1.5m, but are usually seen at smaller sizes. Sawsharks have a long, flat, blade-like snout, edged with irregular, tooth-like projections. There Reproduction are 2 barbels on the underside of the snout. Sawsharks bear live young, after a gestation of more than 12 months. Females produce about 7 – 14 offspring every Distribution 2 years. Litter size increases with size of the mother. The Common Sawshark is found across southern Australia from NSW through to the mid coast of WA. It is Fisheries more common in Bass Strait than elsewhere. Southern Sawsharks are fished under quota in trawl and gill net Sawshark is found mainly in Victoria, Tasmania and SA, fisheries, especially in Bass Strait, with lesser catches extending to south-western WA. from other areas. Mainly a by-product of Gummy Shark fishing, and used in the “fish and chips” market. More than Habitat 200 tonnes per annum have been taken in Commonwealth- Sawsharks are found over soft sediments. The Common managed fisheries over the past decade. Around 80% of Sawshark occurs over a broad depth range on the the sawshark catch is P. cirratus. Small annual tonnages continental shelf and upper slope, from about 40m to at are taken in State fisheries from NSW to WA. Recreational least 400m deep, occasionally deeper. Southern catches are low compared with commercial take. Sawshark is found in continental shelf waters, and individuals sometimes enter shallow bays and estuaries. Vulnerability Strong habitat association in continental shelf waters Diet makes sawsharks susceptible to capture in trawls and Sawsharks use their sensory barbels to locate food in other fisheries. Fishing is regulated, but there are concerns the sand, and their snout movements assist in about bulk discarding of sawsharks caught over quota, and dislodging prey. Their diet consists mainly of small also previous documented declines in abundance in some fishes, crustaceans (crabs, lobsters) and octopus. areas. Status requires fishery independent re-assessment. Wobbegongs Orectolobus maculatus (Spotted Wobbegong) Orectolobus halei (Large Ornate Wobbegong) Description Flattened sharks, tan to brown in colour, with darker and lighter patterns. Broad head, with dermal flaps along the sides, and barbels near the broad mouth. Both species grow to around 3m, but are rarely seen at that size. © T. Rakotoarivelo Distribution Both species occur in eastern, southern and western Australia, from Queensland to WA. Fisheries Habitat Both wobbegong species are caught commercially, Both species are found on reefs (coral and rocky), and in targeted in some fisheries and bycaught in others. bays and estuaries, under jetties, and around islands. Wobbegongs are caught in Commonwealth and State- Wobbegongs rest on the bottom during the day in caves, based fisheries. These sharks are taken on lines, in under ledges, and in reef trenches. Juvenile O. maculatus trawls, beach seine nets, gill nets, lobster pots and traps, can occur in estuaries and seagrass beds. Depth ranges other gear, and by spear fishing. Most commercially- from the shallows to at least 220m deep for O. maculatus, caught wobbegongs are sold as boneless fillets or flake, and to at least 115m deep for O. halei. which includes use in the “fish and chip” market. Diet Vulnerability Wobbegongs feed mainly at night, on fishes (e.g. snapper, Wobbegongs are highly vulnerable to over-exploitation mackerel, drummer, eels), small sharks, rays, and octopus. due to their large size; sedentary nature; strong site Juveniles eat lobsters, crabs and other crustaceans. association / territoriality; relatively slow growth rate; late age (and large size) at sexual maturity; relatively low Reproduction frequency of reproduction (every 3 years); long life span; Age at maturity may be 5 to 10 years, possibly older. low natural mortality, and ease of capture. There are Both species reproduce about every 3 years. The Spotted documented declines in wobbegong numbers in some Wobbegong produces about 20 pups per litter (sometimes areas of Australia. Fishing is considered to be the main more), and the Large Ornate produces about 30 pups. threatening process. Broadnose Sevengill Shark Notorhynchus cepedianus Description Silvery grey to brown on the dorsal surface and white underneath. The head is wide, with a short, blunt snout. Body covered with small, scattered black and white spots. Grows to around 3m long. Distribution Occurs in all oceans except the North Atlantic, and the (c) J. María Pérez Nuñez @ Wikimedia Commons Mediterranean Sea. Found in all States in southern Australia, including Tasmania. Longevity Habitat Maximum age is between 30 and 50 years. Wide-ranging in temperate waters, including sandy and muddy bays, estuaries, and shallow reefs. Also found Fisheries down to more than 200m deep with maximum recorded Widely fished across the range, both commercially and depth of 570m. Occurs on or near the bottom, but recreationally. In Australia, caught by gill net, otter trawl, sometimes comes to the surface in inshore areas. and long line in Commonwealth-managed fisheries, and mostly retained as a by-product. Surveys from 1998 – Diet 2001 off SA reported a gill net catch of around 13 – 37 An opportunistic predator which feeds on sharks (such sharks per 1,000km hours. Also taken in low tonnages as Gummy Shark, School Shark, and dogfishes), rays in Victorian and Tasmanian State waters. (including eagle rays and stingarees), bony fishes (e.g. whiting), dolphins and seals. Vulnerability A slow-growing, late-maturing, and long-lived coastal Reproduction species with low capacity for population recovery if over- Females mature at quite a large size (1.9 – 2.5m) and late fished. Vulnerable to capture both inshore (e.g. when age (recorded range 11 – 21 years), and produce large breeding) and offshore. Also caught in the NSW beach- litters, averaging 80 pups. The reproductive cycle is 2 meshing program. Habitat degradation of inshore bays years, and females move into shallow bays to give birth. and estuaries could adversely affect nursery grounds. Shortfin Mako Isurus oxyrinchus Description A large, spindle-shaped shark, dark metallic blue on the dorsal side, and white underneath. Grows to almost 4m long, but usually seen at smaller sizes (e.g. 2.5m). Distribution A migratory species which occurs in tropical and © M. Conlin, NOAA temperate seas in both hemispheres, from about 50°N (up to 60°N in NE Atlantic) to 50°S. Recorded in all States of Australia, but less common in the tropical north than the south. Fisheries Globally valued for meat, fins and skin, and caught Habitat across the range. In Australia, I. oxyrinchus is caught by Found from the surface down to about 500m deep, often hooks, nets and drop-lines in Commonwealth-managed at less than 150m deep. Mako sharks are mostly oceanic, fisheries, and it is also a by-product in tuna and billfish but sometimes seen inshore, especially where the fisheries. This species is also caught in WA, in demersal continental shelf is narrow. gill net and long line fisheries. Mako sharks are caught (and often tagged then released) by recreational game Diet fishers around Australia and overseas. Eats various fishes, such as mackerel, tuna, bonito, anchovy, herring, ling, salmon, trevally, and swordfishes. Vulnerability The Shortfin Mako also preys on small sharks, and on Classified globally in IUCN Red List as Vulnerable. This cephalopods such as squid. species is relatively long-lived (> 30 years), late- maturing, and has low capacity for population recovery Reproduction if over-fished. A number of Mako fisheries around the Large differences exist between males and females in world have declined, reportedly due to over-exploitation size and age at maturity. Females may not mature until of adults, and fishing of juveniles in nursery areas. This around 18 years old. They have a 3 year reproductive species is also susceptible to bycatch in significant cycle, a long gestation period (15 – 18 months), and numbers, in numerous other fisheries, including tuna produce 10 to 18 pups, sometimes more or less. long lines and shark gill nets. Blue Shark Prionace glauca Description Dark indigo blue on top, grading to metallic blue on the side, and white underneath. Has a long conical snout, long scythe-shaped pectoral fins, and large round eyes. Grows to about 3.8m long. © SWFSC, NOAA Distribution A globally distributed shark found throughout tropical and temperate seas from at least 50°N to 40°S. Found around southern, eastern and western Australia. Fisheries Common in oceanic waters around Tasmania. Globally, P. glauca is one of the most heavily fished sharks in the world, with millions killed each year. It has Habitat long been a main bycatch of long line and drift net Mainly occurs offshore, in surface waters and the fisheries overseas, and used in the fin trade. Off the pelagic zone, down to about 350m. Occasionally found Australian coast, this species has been killed in large close to shore, where the continental shelf is narrow. numbers by Japanese long-liners which targeted tuna Blue Sharks prefer middle temperatures – such as those and billfish - an estimated 430,000 migratory Blue in temperate waters. In the tropics, this species occurs Sharks were killed over 5 years, during mid-late 1990s. in deeper waters. Finning is now banned in many countries. Fins cannot be landed in Australia without the whole carcass. Also a Diet byproduct species of drop lines in the Commonwealth- Blue Sharks mainly eat small pelagic fish and managed fishery in SE Australia. Caught in low numbers cephalopods (especially squid), but occasionally take by sports fishers in some areas. other prey, such as pelagic crustaceans, small sharks, cetaceans (marine mammals), and seabirds. Vulnerability Although the Blue Shark is a productive species Reproduction compared with many other shark species, it is caught Blue Sharks grow fast and mature at 4 to 6 years. globally in very large numbers. Bycatch in commercial Females produce around 35 pups per litter, after 9 – 12 fisheries, particularly in tuna long lines, is considered to months gestation. Pups are 35 to 50cm at birth. be the major threatening process for Blue Sharks. Background photo from www.gdefon.com Smooth Hammerhead Sphyrna zygaena Description Bronze to greyish brown dorsal surface, paler underneath. Head moderately large and broad, with no median indentation; head about 21% of the total shark © R. Kuiter length. Grows to about 3.5m long. Distribution Widespread in both hemispheres, mainly in warm Fisheries temperate seas. Found in southern Australia, from Heavily fished in some countries for more than a central Queensland coast around the south (including century, as both target and bycatch. In southern Tasmania), through to central Western Australia. Australia, caught by trawls, gill nets, shark hooks and other gear in Commonwealth-managed fisheries and Habitat others. In the SE Australian shark fishery, logbooks Found over continental and insular shelves, from the recorded about 10 tonnes per year of S. zygaena during surface to about 275m deep, but known mostly from the early 2000s. Surveys from 1998-2001 off SA waters less than 20m deep. Often occurs at the surface recorded an average of 75 S. zygaena per 1,000km in the open ocean, and can form enormous schools hours, using 6.5 inch nets. Also a bycatch in the WA during summer migration to cooler latitudes. In demersal gill net and long line fishery. Recorded Australia, seasonal aggregations at river mouths catches of hammerheads (mainly S. zygaena) in the WA (and in other shallow waters) have been recorded. fishery averaged about 100 tonnes per annum during the 2000s. Also caught commercially in NSW, and by Diet game fishers across southern Australia. Feeds mainly on squid (when young), and bony fishes, such as sardines, herrings, and mackerel. Also takes Vulnerability smaller sharks (including own species) and stingrays. Hammerheads (including seasonal aggregations) are vulnerable to over-fishing. Both carcass meat and fins Reproduction are considered valuable. As bycatch, survival time is Females mature at 2.6 – 2.7m and males at 2.1 – 2.5m. short, and mortality may be high. Classified globally in Pups are born after 10 – 11 months gestation, and the IUCN Red List as Vulnerable, but fishing pressure is average litter number produced is about 30 per batch. lower in Australia than in other parts of the range. Porbeagle Fisheries Caught under quota in some parts of the world. Also a Lamna nasus bycatch in many fisheries, including long line fisheries for tuna in SW Pacific (e.g. NZ and eastern Australia), and Description in southern Indian Ocean. Also a bycatch in the Southern Grey, bluish grey or dark grey-black on dorsal side, and Bluefin Tuna fishery, and caught on hook in southern white underneath. White or grey rear tip on dorsal fin. Australian shark fisheries. In Tasmania, L. nasus is taken Grows to around 3m. in a small State-managed fishery. In the past, Porbeagles were a regular bycatch of Japanese tuna long-line vessels Distribution fishing around Tasmania. Previously also commonly A globally distributed species, in temperate and cold- finned by foreign and domestic long liners in the EEZ. temperate waters. Most records in Australia come from In NZ, where there is a catch quota, tuna long-line southern WA, eastern Tasmania, NSW, and Queensland. bycatch is dominated by immature Porbeagles, and Rarely recorded in SA and Victoria. most larger individuals are male; few mature females are caught. Porbeagles are also taken by recreational line Habitat fishers in Australia, with bag limits in some areas. More common on the continental shelf than at other depths. Seen in surface waters, mid waters, and also in Vulnerability deeper continental slope waters. Found inshore and The Porbeagle is a relatively slow growing, long-lived around offshore banks; also far from land in ocean species (> 25 years), with slow maturity relative to basins. The Porbeagle is found over a water temperature maximum age, and low reproductive output per cycle. It range of 1o – 23oC, but it prefers cold water. also aggregates for feeding in some areas, and migrates inshore seasonally, both of which increase susceptibility Diet to capture. Over-fishing is the main threat, with An opportunistic species which consumes a wide variety documented declines in some parts of the world. of pelagic fishes (such as herring and mackerel) and benthic fishes (e.g. flounders and hakes). Also eats small sharks, squid, and sea birds. Reproduction In New Zealand, length at maturity is about 145cm for males, and 175cm for females. Age at maturity in the northern hemisphere has been recorded as 14 years for females and 8 years for males. Litter size is about 1 – 5 © Citron at Wikimedia Commons pups per year. Thresher Shark Fisheries Alopias vulpinus Fished throughout the global range, especially by long lines, and to a lesser extent by gill nets and other gear. In Australia, catches are not well recorded, but the Thresher Shark is a byproduct of otter trawling and shark gill netting in Commonwealth-managed Description waters across southern Australia, and a bycatch of A metallic blue-grey shark, white underneath and near tuna and billfish long-lining. pectoral and ventral fin bases. Long upper lobe on caudal fin, as long as the body in some individuals. Vulnerability Grows to almost 6m. Classified globally in IUCN Red List as Vulnerable due to its low reproductive output, and the intensive Distribution targeting of this species by fisheries throughout the This shark is globally distributed in tropical to cold- world. There are documented rapid population temperate seas, but is most common in temperate declines in the Pacific, even from small and localised waters. In Australia, it is found mainly in Western and fisheries. However, fishing pressure is lower in South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania and NSW, but also Australia than in other parts of the range. extends to southern Queensland. Habitat Thresher sharks occur in both coastal and oceanic waters, from the surface down to about 400m deep. Diet Small bait fish (e.g. anchovies, mackerel, herring) and other schooling fishes are preferred prey. Squids, octopus, and pelagic crustaceans are also eaten. Reproduction In females, size and age at maturity are reported to range from 260 to 465cm and 3 to 9 years respectively. Litter size varies from 2 to 7 pups. In some areas, young remain close to shore for the first few years after birth. © W. Heim, SWFSC NOAA Illustration of Thresher Shark © H. Gervais, Les Poissons School Shark Fisheries In Australia, the School Shark has been a commercial Galeorhinus galeus species since the 1920s, for both liver oil and the “flake” market (for fish and chips), but less so in recent decades Description due to over-fishing. Caught mainly in Commonwealth- A moderately slender, bronze-grey shark, which is paler managed fisheries using gill nets, drop lines, bottom set below. Large lobe (flap) on the caudal fin. Grows to long lines and trawls, but also in State fisheries. Also around 1.8m. caught by recreational fishers across southern Australia. Distribution Vulnerability Globally distributed, from cold to warm temperate areas. The School Shark is an aggregating, migratory species. It In southern Australia, ranges from lower WA coast around is long-lived and slow-growing, and has a high age at to southern Queensland, including Tasmania. maturity and relatively low reproductive capacity. This species has been heavily fished in Australia, particularly Habitat during the 20th century, and has been classified as over- Found over a broad depth range, from the surface down fished, with a very low current biomass. Capture of to around 800m deep. Occurs both inshore and offshore, breeding aggregations, schools of pregnant females, and is mainly demersal (bottom-dwelling). Some schools of juveniles and immature sub-adults, and fishing individuals migrate nocturnally from continental slope in shallow water nursery areas for pups, have all led to to shelf waters. Females and juveniles utilise inshore population collapse. Their population has not recovered, coastal nursery areas in Victoria, Tasmania and parts of as in other parts of the world where G. galeus fisheries South Australia. have a history of collapse. Various management measures to “rebuild” the stock in Australia have not yet been Diet effective, and the population recovery time is very slow. Feeds on both demersal and pelagic fishes, as well as squid and octopus. The diet of juveniles includes crustaceans, worms, and gastropod shells. Longevity A relatively long-lived species, from 40 – 60 years. Reproduction Delayed age at maturity of 8 – 10 years for males and 10 – 15 years for females. In Australia, the usual litter size is 20 – 35 pups produced every 3 years. © R. Kuiter Gummy Shark Fisheries In Australia, the Gummy Shark is one of the main Mustelus antarcticus commercial species used in the “flake” market (for fish and chips). Mostly taken by gill nets and demersal long lines in SE Australia. Also a byproduct Description of trawl fishing in some areas, including Great A moderately slender, grey or greyish brown shark, Australian Bight. This species is taken in significant which is paler below. Numerous white spots (rarely with tonnages in State fisheries across southern Australia black spots). Large lobe (flap) on the caudal fin. Grows and Tasmania. It is a popular target for recreational to around 1.85m. shark fishers. A national survey reported 43,611 Distribution gummy sharks taken recreationally from May 2000 An Australian shark, from Queensland in the east, to April 2001, with 64% of those from Victoria. across southern Australia (including Tasmania) to Western Australia. More abundant in southern Australia Vulnerability than in northern parts of the range. Although the Gummy Shark is a relatively abundant and productive species, it is heavily fished across Habitat southern Australia. There are many management Gummy Shark is a demersal species, occurring mainly measures in Australian fisheries to control over- on the continental shelf from the shore down to around exploitation of this species, such as limited entry for 80m, but also on the upper slope, to about 350m deep. use of gill nets and long lines, catch limits, and net This species is often associated with sea floor areas of and hook specifications. In SE Australia, areas of soft sediment. State waters have been closed to fishing, to protect pregnant females and pups in nursery grounds. Diet Feeds mostly on cephalopods (e.g. squid and octopus) and crustaceans, but also eats fishes. Reproduction Gummy sharks in most areas of Australia breed annually. Females produce about 14 young after a year- long gestation, but a range of 1 to 40 young has been recorded. Large mothers produce more offspring than smaller ones. Size at birth is around 33cm, and the young are usually born in shallow coastal areas. © R. Kuiter White Shark / White Pointer Carcharodon carcharias Description A large shark which is greyish brown, black or lead grey on the dorsal surface, and white underneath. Dark tip under pectoral fin. Females grow to about 6m long, rarely larger. Distribution A highly migratory species which is found globally in sub- tropical and temperate oceans and seas. In Australia, found mainly from southern Queensland southwards around the © A. Sutandio bottom half of the continent, and up to north-western WA. Habitat Fisheries Occurs mainly in continental shelf waters, but distribution In Australia, formally protected under legislation from direct extends to the slope. Often found in deeper waters close to fishing, but small numbers are bycaught in demersal gill shore, such as around island edges. Also found inshore nets and shark hooks in the Commonwealth-managed near the surf, and rarely in shallow bays, harbours and fisheries. Also caught incidentally on long lines and in waters adjacent to estuarine areas. purse seines in the Southern Bluefin Tuna Fishery, and also rarely caught in demersal gill nets and demersal long lines Diet in WA. Also reported to be killed illegally in some areas The diet includes bony fishes, small sharks, rays, seal and during fishing operations, when White Sharks are following sea lion pups, dolphins, and small whales. Small shark aggregated fish. Rarely caught (accidentally) in game also eat crabs, abalone, squid and sea birds. Pink snapper, fisheries, and usually released. southern bluefin tuna, mulloway, and West Australian salmon are some of the fishes eaten by white sharks in Vulnerability southern Australia. Listed in IUCN Red List as Vulnerable. White Sharks are relatively slow growing, late-maturing, and long-lived, with Longevity low reproductive capacity, small litter size, and low natural White sharks can live for more than 50 years. mortality. Although protected under Commonwealth and State legislation, potential impacts may include fisheries Reproduction bycatch and fisheries-related deaths; shark meshing and Males mature when they are 3.5 – 4m long (about 7 – 10 drum-line programs; illegal trade; long-term over-fishing years old), and females at 4.5 – 5m (11 – 17) years. White of shark prey fishes, and possible changes to feeding and Sharks produce 2 to 10 pups per 3-year cycle, rarely more. movement patterns due to baiting in tourism operations. Whaler Sharks Carcharhinus brachyurus and C. obscurus Description Bronze Whalers (C. brachyurus) are bronze or grey brown colour, and grow to around 3m. Dusky Sharks (C. obscurus) are bronze-grey to dark grey on top, and grow to around 4m. Both sharks are pale underneath. They have pointed, © R. Ling www.rling.com at Flickr tapering fins, narrowly rounded in some Dusky Sharks. Distribution Both species have widespread, patchy distributions in Reproduction most tropical to temperate seas, with discrete populations Female whaler sharks mature late in life, at about 20 years through the global range. Dusky Sharks are more common of age. They produce young every 2 – 3 years, with an in warm temperate waters. Bronze Whalers occur in average of 15 pups per cycle for Bronze Whaler and 3 to 14 southern Australia (Jurien Bay in WA to Coffs Harbour in pups for Dusky Shark. NSW) and in New Zealand. Dusky Whalers are found throughout Australia waters. Fisheries In SA and WA, whaler sharks (mostly juveniles) are taken Habitat commercially, largely for the “fish and chip” market. Both species are coastal and pelagic. The Dusky Shark The WA and SA fisheries take about 200 tonnes and 100- ranges from surf zones to well offshore, and from the 150 tonnes per annum respectively. These sharks are also surface to about 400m deep. Bronze Whalers enter shallow part of the bycatch in Commonwealth-managed shark water; individuals and groups are often sighted in bays, fisheries in SE Australia. Lesser numbers are taken as tuna harbours and surf zones during summer. They also occur fishery bycatch. Several thousand whaler sharks per year in estuaries. Most records are from less than 100m. are also taken by sports fishers, mostly in WA and SA. Diet Vulnerability Bronze Whalers have a broad diet including squid, Dusky Shark and Bronze Whaler are classified by IUCN as cuttlefish, octopus, dogfish sharks, stingrays, various Vulnerable and Near Threatened respectively. They have bottom fishes and schooling fishes (e.g. salmon, mullet, long life span (40 – 50+ years), late age at maturity, biennial sardines, anchovy). Young Dusky Sharks eat small reproductive cycle with relatively low number of pups, and schooling fishes and squid. Larger C. obscurus also eat are highly targetted by fisheries. These sharks have been fishes, as well as skates, stingrays, and other sharks – such described as “recruitment over-fished” in Australia, and as angel sharks, gummy sharks, and dog sharks. few recovery efforts have been (or are being) made.  Glossary invertebrate: an animal which does not have a backbone. aggregation: a grouping of animals, of same or different species. insular shelf: the submerged shelf which surrounds an island. bycatch / bycaught: the portion of a fishing catch that is discarded lUCN: International Union for the Conservation of Nature. IUCN as unwanted or commercially unusable. byproduct: the portion of a produces the global Red List of Threatened Species. fishing bycatch that is retained for sale, but was not part of the target catch. long-line: a method of fishing that uses heavy fishing line, usually several to many kilometres long, with a series of baited hooks on Commonwealth-managed: fisheries which are managed by shorter lines, set horizontally at intervals, using floats. Australian government authority, based in Canberra. mollusc: an invertebrate which has a soft unsegmented body, continental shelf: the submerged, extended perimeter of a usually enclosed in a shell. continent, between the coast and the continental slope, out to about 200m deep. pectoral: pertaining to the chest or breast. Pectoral fins are attached to the upper sides of a fish, behind the head. continental slope: the comparatively steep slope which connects the edge of the continental shelf to the ocean floor. pelagic: living in the water column of the sea. crustacean: animals which have a hard external shell, made of recruitment over-fishing: the state of a fished population when it is chitin and calcium carbonate. Examples include crabs, lobsters, no longer large enough to replenish itself; i.e. depleted to a level shrimps, amphipods, isopods, and barnacles. where there are not enough adults to produce sufficient numbers of offspring to maintain the population. demersal: living close to the floor of the sea. State: a region of Australia, defined as Queensland, New South dorsal: pertaining to the top surface, or back of an animal Wales, South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania, or Western Australia. e.g. dorsal fin is attached to the top side of a fish. sub-maximal: below or less than the maximum. drop-line: a line for commercial fishing, which is set vertically in the water column. It consists of four main parts; the main line, branch subtidal: in a tidally influenced area, a marine or estuarine lines (or snoods), hooks and bait. environment that lies below the mean low water mark, and therefore is submerged. endemic: restriction of an animal’s distribution to a certain place. temperate: relating to, or denoting a marine region or climate fecund: capable of producing many young. characterised by mild temperatures (e.g. 10 – 24oC). estuary: the tidal mouth of a large river, where sea water from tidal territorial: behaviour relating a single animal, a mating pair, or a movement meets fresh water. small group of animals that occupy an area and often vigorously defend it against intruders, especially those of the same species. gill-net: a fishing net set vertically in the water, to catch fishes or sharks (usually by their gills) when they swim into the net. ventral: the underside of an animal’s body.  Further Reading Braccini, J. M. (2008) Feeding ecology of two high-order predators from SE Australia: the coastal broadnose and the deepwater sharpnose sevengill sharks. Marine Ecology Progress Series 371: 273–284. Australian Government (2014) Atlas of Living Australia. http://bie.ala.org.au/ Braccini, J. M., Gillanders, B. & Walker, T. (2006) Determining reproductive parameters for population assessments of chondrichthyan Bromhead, D. & Bolton, S. (2005) Potential interactions between species with asynchronous ovulation and parturition: Squalus Commonwealth managed fisheries (Summary). Final Report to the megalops as a case study. Marine & Freshwater Research 57: 105–119. Fisheries Resources Research Fund and the Australian Fisheries Management Authority. Bureau of Rural Sciences. Canberra. Braccini, J.M., Walker, T. & Gason, A. (2009) GHATF shark survey of population abundance and population size composition for target, Brown, L. & Knuckey, I. (2002) ISMP – Monitoring of the Great Australian by-product and bycatch species. Final report to Australian Fisheries Bight Trawl Fishery during 2001/02. Report to Fisheries Research and Management Authority. Project No. R2006/823. Fisheries Research Development Corporation, Project No. R01/0817. Department of Natural Branch, Department of Primary Industries: Queenscliff, Victoria. Resources and Environment, Victoria. Daley, R., Stevens, J., Last, P. & Yearsley, G. (2002) Field Guide to Cavanagh, R.D., Kyne, P.M., Fowler, S. et al. (2003) The Conservation Australian Sharks and Rays. CSIRO Marine Research Division, Fisheries Status of Australasian Chondrichthyans: Report of the IUCN Shark Research and Development Corporation and Australian Fisheries Specialist Group Australia and Oceania Regional Red List Workshop, Management Authority. 84p. Queensland, Australia, 7-9 March 2003. University of Queensland. Huveneers, C. (2007) The ecology and biology of wobbegong sharks Compagno, L.J. (2001) Sharks of the World. An annotated and illustrated (genus Orectolobus) in relation to the commercial fishery In New South catalogue of shark species known to date. FAO Spec. Cat. Fish. Purp. 1(2). Wales, Australia. Ph.D thesis. February, 2007. Graduate School of the Environment, Macquarie University, NSW. Compagno, L.J.V., Ebert, D.A. & Smale, M.J. (1989) Guide to the sharks and rays of southern Africa. New Holland (Publ.), London. Huveneers, C. Pollard, D., Gordon, I., Flaherty, A. & Pogonoski, J. (2009) (i) Orectolobus halei; (ii) Orectolobus maculatus. In: IUCN (2014) IUCN Barnett, A., Abrantes, K. Stevens, J.D., Yick, J.L., Frusher, S. & Semmens, Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.2. www.iucnredlist.org. J. (2010) Predator-prey relationships and foraging ecology of a marine apex predator with a wide temperate distribution. Marine Ecology Jones, A., Hall, N. & Potter, I. (2010) Species compositions of Progress Series 416: 189–200. elasmobranchs caught by three different commercial fishing methods off south-western Australia, and biological data for four abundant Barnett, A., Stevens, J.D., Frusher, S.D. & Semmens, J. (2010) Seasonal bycatch species. Fish. Bull. 108: 365–381. occurrence and population structure of the broadnose sevengill shark Notorynchus cepedianus in coastal habitats of south-east Tasmania. Joyce, W., Campana, S., Natanson, L., Kohler, N., Pratt, H. Jr & Jensen, Journal of Fish Biology 77(7): 1688–70. C. (2002) Analysis of stomach contents of the porbeagle shark (Lamna nasus Bonnaterre) in the northwest Atlantic. ICES Journal of Marine Bax, N.J. & Williams, A. (2001) Seabed habitat on the southeast Australian Science 59: 1263–1269. continental shelf – context vulnerability and monitoring. Marine and Freshwater Research 52: 491–512. Gomon, M., Bray, D. & Kuiter, R. (2008) Fishes of Australia’s Southern Coast. New Holland, Australia. 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