15
Silent minority
Celebrated difference, caste difference, and
the Hinduization of independent India
Rupa Viswanath
E v e r y s c h o o l c h i l d i n I n d i a is t a u g h t t h e c r e d o o f ‘u n i t y i n d i v e r s i t y ’, t h e f o r m u l a p o p u l a r i z e d b y
J a w a r h a r l a l N e h r u , i n d e p e n d e n t I n d i a ’s f i r s t p r i m e m i n i s t e r , w h o i n s t i t u t e d i t a s s ta te p o l i c y .
T h e p h r a s e is r e p r e s e n t e d , f o r i n s t a n c e , i n t h e u b i q u i t o u s c h e a p p o s t e r s t h a t p a p e r c l a s s r o o m
w a l ls s h o w i n g c o l o u r f u l t a b l e a u x o f I n d i a n s i n
r e g io n a l d re ss, a n d o f v a rio u s r e lig io u s a n d
s e c t a r i a n p e r s u a s i o n s . T h e p o s t e r c h i l d r e n o f I n d i a n d i v e r s i t y a r e I n d i a ’s m a n y l a n g u a g e s a n d
r e l i g i o n s . T h e d a r k h o r s e is c a s t e . R e p r e s e n t a t i v e i m a g e s o f d i f f e r e n t c a s te s n e v e r a p p e a r o n
c l a s s r o o m w a lls . T h e f o r m e r , i n s h o r t , a r e t h e k i n d s o f d i v e r s i t y t h a t I n d i a n p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s
p r o u d l y s h o w c a s e ; t h e l a t t e r is a n e m b a r r a s s m e n t , b e s t r e l e g a t e d t o t h e p a s t as q u i c k l y as p o s s i b l e . 1
W h e n s c h o la r s , p u b l i c i n t e l l e c t u a l s a n d m e d i a f i g u r e s s p e a k o f r e l i g i o u s a n d l i n g u i s t i c d i v e r s i t y ,
t h e f o c u s is a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y o n t h e I n d i a n s t a t e ’s p r o t e c t i o n o f r e l i g i o u s m i n o r i t i e s , r e l i g i o n s
o th e r th a n
H in d u i s m .2 B u t w h e r e la n g u a g e s a re
a rg u a b ly b a s e d in p r e - e x is tin g
( l in g u i s t i c )
p r a c t i c e s , 3 r e l i g i o u s m a j o r i t i e s a n d m i n o r i t i e s a r e c r e a t e d e n t i r e l y b y t h e s ta te its e l f . M o r e o v e r ,
w h i l e t h e f o c u s o f b o t h o f f i c i a l a n d a c a d e m i c d i v e r s i t y t a l k is o n h o w
w h a t is le s s n o t i c e d is h o w
m a jo r itie s a r e t h e r e b y
c o n s titu te d .
m i n o r itie s a r e m a n a g e d ,
I t is t h i s a s p e c t o f ‘d i v e r s i t y
m a n a g e m e n t ’ — w h a t m i g h t b e c a l l e d its s i l e n t p a r t n e r — t h a t t h i s e s s a y d is c u s s e s . I w i l l a r g u e t h a t
a l t h o u g h r e l i g i o n (a f o r m o f ‘g o o d d i v e r s i t y ’) is s e e n as d i s t i n c t f r o m c a s te (a d i v e r s i t y m e a n t t o
b e u ltim a te ly e ra d ic a te d ), th e tw o a re in fa c t in s e p a r a b ly lin k e d in th e p ro c e s s e s b y w h ic h th e
I n d i a n s ta te c r e a te s a n d m a i n t a i n s its H i n d u m a j o r i t y . I b e g i n w i t h a b r i e f o v e r v i e w o f m a i n s t r e a m
d i v e r s i t y t a l k i n p o s t c o l o n i a l I n d i a n s ta te c r a f t a n d i n a c a d e m i c d i s c o u r s e . I t h e n t u r n t o h o w c a s t e
d i f f e r e n c e h a s b e e n c o n c e i v e d b y t h e p o s t c o l o n i a l s ta te a n d t a r g e t e d b y its p o l i c i e s . T h i s w i ll
i l l u s t r a t e t h e u n a c k n o w l e d g e d p r o c e s s e s b y w h i c h a n o v e r w h e l m i n g ‘H i n d u ’ m a j o r i t y p o p u l a t i o n
w a s c r e a te d b y t h e I n d ia n s ta te .4
I t w i ll
a ls o
d e m o n s tra te
th a t, a lth o u g h
s ta te
re s p o n s e s
to
re lig io n
in
I n d ia
are
w id e ly
u n d e r s t o o d t o b e a f o r m o f w h a t N a n c y F r a s e r h a s c a l l e d ‘r e c o g n i t i o n ’, w h i l e p o l i c i e s o n c a s te
a r e s e e n t o b e a m a t t e r o f ‘r e d i s t r i b u t i o n ’, i n f a c t b o th o f t h e s e r e s p o n s e s e q u a l l y d e n y t h e s e
g r o u p s ’ p o litic a l a u to n o m y .5
Multiculturalism avant la lettre? Diversity management
as national incorporation
D u r i n g t h e c o lo n ia l p e r i o d , t h e I n d ia n p e o p l e w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d as so d e e p ly d iv id e d t h a t g e n u in e
n a t i o n h o o d - u n d e r s t o o d t o r e q u i r e e t h n i c a n d c u l t u r a l h o m o g e n e i t y — w a s a ll b u t i m p o s s i b l e .
T h is v ie w w a s c h a lle n g e d b y I n d ia n n a tio n a lis ts , n o t b y d e n y in g d iffe re n c e , b u t b y c la im in g th a t
n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y c o u l d e n c o m p a s s i t, t h o u g h t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f n a t i o n h o o d w a s u n d e r s t o o d t o
re q u ire
a
c o n c e rte d
and
p ro g ra m m a tic
in d e p e n d e n c e fro m B r itis h ru le in
e ffo rt
(se e
Roy
2006:
1 9 -2 1 ).
F o llo w in g
I n d i a ’s
1 9 4 7 , th e r e c o g n itio n , p r o te c tio n a n d e v e n c u ltiv a tio n o f
d iv e r s i t y h a v e c o n t i n u e d t o b e r e g a r d e d b y n a t i o n a l i s t e l ite s as e s s e n tia l t o t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e
p o s t c o l o n i a l p o li t y . D r a f t e d i n t h e w a k e o f a n e v e n t t h a t r e v e a l e d d i v e r s i t y ’s m o s t t h r e a t e n i n g
aspect -
t h e b l o o d y p a r t i t i o n o f B r i t i s h I n d i a i n t o I n d i a a n d P a k i s t a n o n t h e b a s is o f r e l i g i o u s
d if fe re n c e — th e I n d ia n C o n s t it u ti o n p ro m is e s re lig io u s a n d lin g u is tic m in o r itie s a v a rie ty o f
r i g h t s . ‘A n y s e c t i o n o f t h e c i t i z e n s r e s i d i n g i n t h e t e r r i t o r y o f I n d i a o r a n y p a r t t h e r e o f h a v i n g a
d is tin c t la n g u a g e , s c r ip t o r c u ltu r e
( C o n s titu tio n
o f its o w n
o f I n d ia , p a r t III, a rtic le
s h a ll h a v e t h e
2 9 ). T h is
p ro m is e
rig h t to
c o n se rv e
th e
s a m e .’
o f ‘c o n s e r v a t i o n ’ i n c l u d e s f o r a ll
‘m i n o r i t i e s , w h e t h e r b a s e d o n r e l i g i o n o r l a n g u a g e . . . t h e r i g h t t o e s t a b li s h a n d a d m i n i s t e r
e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s o f t h e i r c h o i c e ’ ( i b id . a r t i c l e 3 0 ) . I n t h e p a r l a n c e o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n —
fr a m e d p r i o r to th e a s c e n d a n c y o f th e la n g u a g e o f m u ltic u ltu r a lis m in p o litic a l th e o r e tic d is c o u rs e
- a ll t h e s e m e a s u r e s w e r e a t t e m p t s t o p r o t e c t w h a t w a s c a l le d I n d i a ’s ‘c o m p o s i t e c u l t u r e ’. I n d e e d ,
t h e d u t i e s e n j o i n e d u p o n I n d i a ’s c i t iz e n s , t h e c o u n t e r b a l a n c e t o t h e r i g h t s j u s t d e s c r i b e d , i n c l u d e
t h e d u t y ‘. . . t o p r o m o t e h a r m o n y a n d t h e s p i r i t o f c o m m o n b r o t h e r h o o d a m o n g s t a ll t h e p e o p l e
o f I n d ia tr a n s c e n d in g re lig io u s , lin g u is tic a n d r e g io n a l o r s e c tio n a l d iv e r s itie s ’ ( C o n s titu tio n o f
I n d i a , p a r t IV A , 5 1 A ) . I n s h o r t , n o t o n l y t h e s ta te b u t a ls o its c i t i z e n r y m u s t ‘v a l u e a n d p r e s e r v e
th e
ric h
h e rita g e
o f [ I n d i a ’s] c o m p o s i t e
c u ltu re ’ b y b o th
a c k n o w le d g in g
and
tra n s c e n d in g
s u b n a tio n a l d if f e r e n c e (i b id .) .
T h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a s s e r ts t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n is n a t u r a l l y d iv e r s e i n a w a y r e q u i r i n g a s p e c i f i c
k i n d o f g o v e r n a n c e a n d a c e r t a i n t y p e o f c i t i z e n : I n d i a n d if f e r e n c e s , t h e n , as S r i r u p a R o y h a s
o b s e r v e d , a r e m o s t o f t e n u n d e r s t o o d as p r i m o r d i a l : ‘T h e i n t e r e s t e d o r i g i n s a n d p o w e r e f f e c ts . . .
[ o f “ d i v e r s i t y ” ] - t h e f a c t t h a t d i v e r s i t y is a s m u c h o f a “ m a d e ” a s i t is a “ f o u n d ” f o r m a t i o n - a r e
r e m o v e d f r o m o u r l i n e o f s i g h t ’ ( R o y 2 0 0 6 : 7 ) . A c o r r e l a t e o f t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t I n d i a ’s ‘d e e p
d i v e r s i t y ’ m u s t b e m a n a g e d b y t h e s ta te h a s b e e n a t r e n d i n c o m m e n t a r i e s o n I n d i a n d e m o c r a c y
t o p o r t r a y d e m o c r a c y ’s v e r y e x i s t e n c e i n I n d i a as i n s o m e w a y a n ‘e x c e p t i o n a l ’ p h e n o m e n o n , a n
e n d u r i n g ‘p a r a d o x ’ o r ‘p u z z l e ’ r e q u i r i n g s p e c i a l e x p l a n a t i o n . 6
T h r e e t y p e s o f d i f f e r e n c e a r e i n v o k e d i n s c h o la r ly d is c u s s io n s o f I n d i a n d iv e r s i t y : l a n g u a g e ,
r e l i g i o n a n d c a s te . W e w i ll f o c u s o n t h e l a t t e r f o r t h e b u l k o f t h i s e s s a y L e t u s f i r s t b r i e f l y c o n s i d e r
th e p o lic ie s fra m e d , b e a r in g in m in d w h a t w e h a v e s e e n in C o n s titu tio n a l r h e to r ic , w i th re s p e c t
t o t h e f o r m e r t w o . I n s t a n d a r d a c c o u n t s o f t h e p o s t c o l o n i a l I n d i a n p o lit y , o n e l e a r n s t h a t l i n g u i s t i c
d i v e r s i t y h a s b e e n s u c c e s s f u lly ‘m a n a g e d ’ b y f e d e r a l i s m . P o w e r w a s d e v o l v e d o n t o l i n g u i s t i c a l l y
o r g a n i z e d s ta te s i n I n d i a p r i m a r i l y d u r i n g t h e f i r s t t w o d e c a d e s f o l l o w i n g i n d e p e n d e n c e . F a r
f r o m s t r e n g t h e n i n g c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s a t p la y i n t h e p o lit y , N e h r u ’s m a n a g e m e n t o f l i n g u i s t i c
d iv e r s it y , p r o p e r l y b a l a n c e d p o w e r , s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e f i d e l i t y o f s ta te s t o t h e u n i o n a n d ‘h a s i n d e e d
b e e n a m o n g th e m o r e s u c c e s s fu l e x p e r im e n ts o f in s titu tio n a l e n g in e e r in g in t h e h is to r y o f
m o d e rn
I n d i a ’ (Ja y a l 2 0 0 6 : 4 8 ) . T h e r e a r e a d m i t t e d e x c e p t i o n s : t h e u n i o n ’s a b r o g a t i o n o f i ts
p r o m i s e t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s i n 1 9 4 7 t o a l l o w K a s h m i r ’s c i t i z e n r y t o d e t e r m i n e b y p l e b i s c i t e
its n a t i o n a l s ta tu s ( i.e . w h e t h e r t o b e s u b s u m e d w i t h i n I n d i a o r P a k i s t a n ) , a n d its s u p p r e s s i o n o f
c a lls f o r s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n b y t h e p e o p l e s o f t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n s ta te s , f o r e x a m p l e ( s e e A n d e r s o n
2 0 1 2 a , b ; B a r u a h 2 0 1 1 ) . T h e s e a r e d e c r i e d , b u t as e g r e g i o u s e x c e p t i o n s i n a n o t h e r w i s e s u c c e s s f u l
p o lic y
re g im e . L ess o fte n
in itia tiv e s in
th e
nam e
d is c u s s e d
in
m a in s tre a m
o f d e v e lo p m e n t in
a c c o u n ts
o f d iv e rs ity
m anagem ent
s o - c a l l e d ‘t r i b a l ’ r e g i o n s t h a t a r e r i c h i n
a re
n a tu ra l
r e s o u r c e s . T h e s e h a v e i n v o l v e d m a s s iv e e n c l o s u r e s o f c o m m o n s a n d f o r c e d d i s p l a c e m e n t , w h i c h
m o r e q u ie tly a n d r o u tin e ly v io la te th e e n s h r in e d r ig h ts o f c u ltu r a l a n d lin g u is tic p r e s e r v a tio n
( B a v is k a r 2 0 0 4 ) .
W h a t a b o u t r e l i g i o u s d if f e r e n c e ? N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g a ll t h e
u n iq u e
a s p e c ts o f p o s t c o l o n i a l
I n d i a n s e c u l a r i s m t h a t m a n y a u t h o r s h a v e d e b a t e d (s e e B h a r g a v a 2 0 0 4 a ) , i t s h a r e s a t l e a s t o n e
c e n t r a l s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w i t h W e s t e r n s e c u l a r d e m o c r a c i e s , n a m e l y t h a t l e g a l ly p r o t e c t e d
r e l i g i o u s a u t o n o m y is e x e r c i s e d o n l y i n v e r y c i r c u m s c r i b e d s p h e r e s l a r g e l y c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o
w h a t is i d e n t i f i e d as t h e ‘p r i v a t e ’. W h i l e t h e I n d i a n p u b l i c h a s o f t e n b e e n d e s c r i b e d as d i s t i n c t
f r o m W e s t e r n s e c u l a r p o l i t i e s i n s o f a r as p u b l i c d is p la y s o f r e l i g i o n ( i n c l u d i n g , f o r e x a m p l e , i n
g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c e s a n d i n t h e s y m b o l s o f s ta te ) a r e c o m m o n p l a c e , c i t i z e n s ’ r e l i g i o u s l y d e f i n e d
rig h ts are c o n f in e d to th e p riv a te a n d e d u c a tio n a l d o m a in s , a n d p r im a r ily to th e a re n a o f th e
f a m ily .7 I n d i a , s in c e its i n d e p e n d e n c e , h a s h a d
d i s t i n c t s e ts o f r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t y - s p e c i f i c
‘p e r s o n a l l a w s ’ t h a t g o v e r n m a r r i a g e , i n h e r i t a n c e a n d r e l a t e d m a t t e r s . T h i s h a s b e e n m o s t r e l e v a n t
i n t h e c a s e o f M u s l i m s , w h o r e p r e s e n t t h e l a r g e s t r e l i g i o u s m i n o r i t y , b u t p e r s o n a l la w s o p t i o n a l l y
e x t e n d t o H i n d u s , C h r i s t i a n s a n d P a r s is ( a k a Z o r o a s t r i a n s ) as w e l l.
The
p o litic a l
rig h ts
h e ld
by
re lig io u s
m in o r itie s
d u rin g
th e
c o lo n ia l p e r io d , th e
m ost
s ig n ific a n t o f w h ic h w a s th a t re lig io u s m in o r itie s w e r e p e r m it t e d to h a v e s e p a ra te e le c to ra te s ,
w e r e d e n o u n c e d b y C o n g r e s s P a r t y l e a d e r s ( w h o w e r e o v e r w h e l m i n g l y h i g h - c a s t e H i n d u s ) as a n
i n s t a n c e o f t h e c o l o n i z e r ’s d i v i d e - a n d - r u l e s tr a te g y . I n i n d e p e n d e n t I n d i a t h e p o litic a l rig h ts o f
r e l i g i o u s m i n o r i t i e s w e r e r e p l a c e d b y c u ltu r a l p r o t e c t i o n s . A s m a n y h a v e n o t e d , t h i s h a s p r o v i d e d
m a n ife s t o p p o r tu n itie s fo r th e c a p tu r e o f c o m m u n ity r e p r e s e n ta tio n b y c o n s e rv a tiv e e le m e n ts i n s h o r t , t h e s t i f l i n g o f i n t r a - c o m m u n i t y d is s e n t , l e a d i n g t o s e v e r a l e g r e g i o u s a n d h i g h l y p u b l i c i z e d
cases o f g e n d e r in ju s tic e
(s e e C h a t t e r j e e 2 0 0 4 ) . 8 B u t t h e m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t f e a t u r e f r o m
th e
p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h i s e s s a y is t h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f p o l i t i c a l r i g h t s , e s p e c i a l ly e l e c t o r a l l y m e d i a t e d
r e p r e s e n ta tio n , b y n o n - d e m o c r a tic a lly d e f in e d c u ltu ra l p r o te c tio n s .9
I n d i a ’s p o l i c i e s o n l i n g u i s t i c d iv e r s it y , i n w h i c h m a j o r r e g i o n a l l a n g u a g e g r o u p s w e r e g r a n t e d
t h e i r o w n s ta te s , p o s e s a c o n t r a s t i n g c a s e t o
re lig io n w ith
re s p e c t to
th e s h a rin g o f p o w e r.
H o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h s o m e m e a s u r e o f a u t o n o m y h a s b e e n g r a n t e d t o l i n g u i s t i c s ta te s , t h e u n i o n
h a s d o n e so o n ly a fte r h a v in g e x tr a c te d th e p le d g e to r e n o u n c e f o r e v e r m o r e a n y c la im to
i n d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n a l s ta tu s . A s f e d e r a l s y s te m s g o , I n d i a ’s fa lls s q u a r e l y o n t h e m o r e c e n t r a l i z e d
e n d o f th e s p e c tr u m , w ith , m o re o v e r , th e c e n tra l g o v e r n m e n t r e ta in in g c o n s id e ra b ly m o r e p o w e r
t h a n i n c o m p a r a b l e f e d e r a l s ta te s , i n c l u d i n g t h e p o w e r t o d is s o lv e e f f e c ti v e l y s ta te g o v e r n m e n t s
a t w i l l . 10 I n s h o r t , t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f d iv e r s i t y i n I n d i a is c a r e f u ll y f r a m e d i n w a y s t h a t r e i n f o r c e
th e a b s o lu te p o litic a l u n ity o f th e c o u n tr y b y r e d u c in g in te r n a l o th e r s ( n o n - H in d u p o p u la tio n s
a n d f o r m e r ly d is tin c t r e g io n a l p o litic a l id e n titie s ) to a n o d y n e e x p re s s io n s o f c u ltu r a l a n d lin g u is tic
d i v e r s i t y w i t h i n a h i g h l y c e n t r a l i z e d f e d e r a l s y s t e m . 11
The
a b s o lu te
fo re c lo s u re
by
th e
d o m i n a n t - c a s t e —H i n d u
p o litic a l
c u ltu re
in
In d ia
of
i n d e p e n d e n t m i n o r i t y p o l i t i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n h a s b e e n a c c o m p a n i e d b y t h e s te a d y d e c l i n e o f a
o n c e th r iv in g In d ia n M u s lim
p o p u la tio n , w h ic h n o w
r a n k s a m o n g t h e l o w e s t o f a ll I n d i a n
g r o u p s i n t e r m s o f e d u c a t i o n , l i t e r a c y a n d i n c o m e ( J a f f r e lo t 2 0 1 2 ) . 12 A n d as w e w i ll s e e , t h e
s i t u a t i o n o f t h e l o w e s t c a s t e s , t h o s e f o r m e r l y k n o w n as u n t o u c h a b l e s a n d n o w
r e f e r r e d t o as
D a l i t s , 13 h a s s h o w n s o m e s ig n s o f i m p r o v e m e n t i n t h e p o s t - i n d e p e n d e n c e d e c a d e s , b u t la g s
s c a n d a l o u s l y b e h i n d t h e r e s t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n . D a l it s , f u r t h e r m o r e , c o n t i n u e t o b e t h e v i c t i m s o f
w i d e s p r e a d c a s t e - b a s e d v i o l e n c e i n m o s t p a r t s o f r u r a l I n d i a . 14 Y e t I n d i a ’s d i v e r s i t y p o l i c i e s a r e
n e v e r t h e l e s s f r e q u e n t l y d e s c r i b e d i n g l o w i n g t e r m s as s u c c e s s f u l m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m a v a n t la l e t t r e .
E c h o i n g o f f ic ia l d i s c o u r s e , o n e p r o m i n e n t a u t h o r w r i t e s ,
In d ia w as a m o n g th e firs t fe w d e m o c r a c ie s to e m b a r k o n th e m u ltic u ltu r a l p a th . A t a tim e
w h e n W e s te rn
lib e ra lis m
a d v o c a te d
n e u tr a lity
and
a
d if f e r e n c e - b lin d
a p p ro a c h , In d ia
a c k n o w l e d g e d t h e r i g h t s o f m i n o r i t i e s a n d v a l u e d c u l t u r a l d iv e r s ity . T h i s w a s a n i n n o v a t i v e
a n d b o l d i n i t i a t i v e t h a t d e f i e d t h e t h i n k i n g o f its t i m e .
( M a h a j a n 2 0 0 5 : 2 8 8 f ) 15
W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e e m p i r i c a l e f f e c ts a n d s p e c i f i c s t i p u l a t i o n s o f p o li c y , h o w e v e r , I n d i a is p e r h a p s
m o r e p r o s a ic a ll y d e s c r i b e d as a s s im i l a t i o n i s t o r i n c o r p o r a t i v e — a n d t h e r e f o r e s o m e w h a t le s s t h a n
‘b o l d ’ f o r its t i m e . I t w a s p e r h a p s i n n o v a t i v e i n m a k i n g a v i r t u e - ‘d i v e r s i t y ’ -
o f irre d u c ib ly
p o l i t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e ; I n d i a u n d o u b t e d l y d i d n o t p u r s u e n a t i o n - b u i l d i n g i n t h e s a m e w a y as m o r e
o v e r t l y h o m o g e n i z i n g n a t i o n - s t a t e s , s u c h as F r a n c e . Y e t h o w e v e r m u c h t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e e a r l y
p o s t c o l o n i a l n a t i o n - s t a t e m a y h a v e g e n u i n e l y c h e r i s h e d d iv e r s ity , as s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n t h e c a s e
w i t h N e h r u ( s e e K h i l n a n i 2 0 1 1 ; P a r e k h 1 9 9 1 ) , i t is u s e f u l t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t u n i t y - i n - d i v e r s i t y
r h e to r ic e n a b le d p o lic ie s th a t s e rv e d to r e in f o r c e t h e h e g e m o n y o f th e C o n g r e s s P a r ty a n d th e
v e r y s p e c i f ic s e t o f s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l f r a c t i o n s i t r e p r e s e n t e d ( J a f f r e lo t 2 0 0 3 ) . 16
Caste difference: a distinctive mode of incorporation
I tu rn n o w
t o t h e k i n d o f d i f f e r e n c e w h o s e r e s i l i e n c e is u s u a l l y n o t c e l e b r a t e d i n t h e s a m e
m a n n e r as r e l i g i o u s a n d l i n g u i s t i c d iv e r s i t y . 17 I t is n e c e s s a r y a t t h e o u t s e t t o m a r k a d i s t i n c t i o n
b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t p o s s i b le m e a n i n g s o f c a s te d i f f e r e n c e t h a t g e n e r i c d i s c u s s io n s o f ‘c a s t e ’ t e n d t o
o v e r l o o k ( s e e a ls o J o d h k a , t h i s v o l u m e ) . O n o n e h a n d , t h e r e a r e t h e m u l t i p l e a n d o f t e n t r i v i a l
d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g p a r t i c u l a r c a s te s , u n d e r s t o o d as l o c a l l y o r r e g i o n a l l y s p e c i f i c e n d o g a m o u s j a t i s .
C a s t e i n t h i s s e n s e is a c c u r a t e l y d e s c r i b e d as ‘r e v o l v i n g a r o u n d d i f f e r e n c e s i n t i n y d e t a i l s ’. 18 T h e
m u l t i p l e x c a s te d if f e r e n c e s o f t h i s s o r t a r e n o t o f a n y g r e a t p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , a n d d o n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y e n t a i l s y s t e m a t ic a n d i n t r a c t a b l e p o w e r d i f f e r e n t i a l . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e is t h e
s i n g u l a r d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n D a l i t c a s te s a n d a ll o t h e r s , w h i c h f o r c l a r i t y I w i l l d e s c r i b e as ‘D a l i t
d i f f e r e n c e ’. 19
W h a t e x a c t l y m a k e s D a l i t d i f f e r e n c e d i s t i n c t i v e a n d a s p e c i a l p r o b l e m f o r b o t h t h e s ta te a n d
n a t i o n ? W h a t d e f i n e s D a l i t s as a c la s s is n o t a n y s h a r e d c u l t u r e , r i t u a l o r r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s o r
la n g u a g e . N o r d o t h e y c o n s t i t u t e a s in g l e e n d o g a m o u s g r o u p , o r j a t i ; D a l i t s , l ik e o t h e r I n d i a n s ,
a r e s u b d i v i d e d i n t o i n n u m e r a b l e r e g i o n a l l y a n d l i n g u i s t i c a l l y s p e c i f i c j a t i s , e a c h w i t h its o w n
o r i g i n m y t h s a n d t r a d i t i o n s . D a l i t d i f f e r e n c e is q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i s t i n c t f r o m a ll o t h e r s o r t s o f c a s t e
d i f f e r e n c e i n a t l e a s t t h r e e w a y s . F ir s t, h i s t o r i c a l l y D a l i t s w e r e h e r e d i t a r i l y u n f r e e l a b o u r e r s w h o
w e r e a c t i v e ly b a r r e d f r o m a c q u i r i n g l a n d i n I n d i a ’s m a j o r a g r a r i a n r e g i o n s . T h o u g h t h e i r e n s la v e
m e n t w a s m a d e ill e g a l i n B r i t i s h I n d i a i n 1 8 4 3 , a n d c e a s e d t o b e a n e f f e c ti v e r e a l i ty i n m o s t o f
t h e s u b c o n t i n e n t b y t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ( V i s w a n a t h 2 0 1 4 ) , p o v e r t y a n d la n d le s s n e s s a r e
e n d e m ic a m o n g D a lits to th e p r e s e n t d a y ( M e n d e ls o h n a n d V ic z ia n y 2 0 0 0 ) , a n d m o d e r n f o rm s
o f ( la r g e l y n o n - h e r e d i t a r y ) b o n d a g e r e m a i n t h e l o t o f a n o n - t r i v i a l m i n o r i t y ( B r e m a n 2 0 1 3 ) .
S e c o n d , t h e y w e r e a n d s till a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d s p a t ia ll y f r o m a ll o t h e r s i n r u r a l I n d i a . A ll o t h e r
c a s te s i n a v ill a g e , t h o u g h s e g r e g a t e d r e s i d e n t i a l l y f r o m o n e a n o t h e r o n d i f f e r e n t s tr e e t s , n e v e r
th e le s s s h a r e w h a t is s e e n as t h e v il la g e p r o p e r , t h e m a i n s e t t l e m e n t . D a l i t s e t t l e m e n t s a r e k e p t a t
a p h y s i c a l d i s t a n c e f r o m a ll o t h e r s , i n w h a t h a s b e e n c a l l e d I n d i a ’s ‘h i d d e n a p a r t h e i d ’ ( H u m a n
R i g h t s W a t c h 2 0 0 7 ; T e l t u m b d e 2 0 1 0 ) . T h i s s p a t ia l s e g r e g a t i o n is n o t s i m p l y a ‘s u p e r s t i t i o u s ’
a d h e r e n c e t o id e a s o f p u r i t y a n d i m p u r i t y . I t a ls o e n t a i ls d i f f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s t o a ll v il l a g e r e s o u r c e s :
p a s t u r a g e , r o a d s a n d , p e r h a p s m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y , w a t e r s o u r c e s . F i n a lly , D a l i t s a r e r e g a r d e d b y m o s t
H i n d u s a s r i t u a l l y d e f i l i n g , a n d b y c a s t e p e o p l e o f a ll r e l i g i o n s i n I n d i a as la z y , d ir ty , i m m o r a l a n d
i n t e l l e c t u a l l y i n f e r i o r . 20
D a lits a re th u s a p e r m a n e n t, h e r e d ita r y u n d e rc la s s c o m p a r a b le to a ra c e , a n d t h e ir r e la tio n s h ip
t o t h e d o m i n a n t n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y h a s a lw a y s b e e n a w k w a r d a n d f r a u g h t w i t h t e n s i o n s . T h e
e x c lu s io n f r o m te m p le s u n d e r s c o r e s th e fa c t th a t, in f o r m e r tim e s , D a lits w e re n o t c o n s id e r e d
H i n d u s , a n d t h i s p a s t r e s u r f a c e s i n o r d i n a r y l a n g u a g e t o d a y - i t is n o t u n c o m m o n f o r D a l i t s t o
r e f e r t o a ll o t h e r c a s te s as ‘H i n d u s ’ i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e m s e l v e s (s e e S e a r l e - C h a t t e r j e e 1 9 9 4 , 2 0 0 8 ;
R o b e r t s f o r th c o m in g ) . E v e n t h o u g h D a lits w o r s h ip p e d g o d s th a t a re to d a y c o n s id e r e d H i n d u
g o d s , D a l i t s w e r e e x c l u d e d as a m a t t e r o f d e f i n i t i o n f r o m t h e H i n d u f o l d , a n d e v e n i n t h e e a r l y
d e c a d e s o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y o n e c o u l d , f o r e x a m p l e , a s k o f s o m e o n e , ‘Is h e a H i n d u o r a
P a r i a h ? ’ ( V i s w a n a t h 2 0 1 4 : c h a p . I ) . 21 T h u s , w h e n I n d i a n c e n s u s t a k e r s i n t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h
c e n t u r y w e r e i n s t r u c t e d b y t h e B r i t i s h t o r e c o r d D a l i t s as H i n d u s , t h e y f r e q u e n t l y b a l k e d , f i n d i n g
th e
c a te g o riz a tio n b o th
p u z z lin g a n d
o ffe n s iv e
( M e n d e ls o h n
a n d V ic z ia n y
2000
q u o te d
in
R o b e r ts , fo rth c o m in g ).
B u t t h i s s ta te o f a f f a ir s c h a n g e d d r a m a t i c a l l y b y t h e e a r l y d e c a d e s o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y .
I n c l u d i n g D a l i t s w i t h i n t h e c a t e g o r y H i n d u — a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y i f n o t s o c i a lly — c a m e t o b e
p o r t r a y e d b y G a n d h i a n d t h e C o n g r e s s P a r t y as a m a t t e r o f p r e s s i n g n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t . T h i s is
b e c a u s e t h e B r i t i s h , as p r e v i o u s l y d is c u s s e d , a c c o r d e d p o l i t i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o n t h e b a s is o f
r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t y . R e p r e s e n t i n g D a l i t s as w i t h i n t h e H i n d u f o l d , a n d t h e r e b y c o v e r i n g o v e r
th e fa c t th a t H i n d u o n c e h a d a c a s te -s p e c ific m e a n in g , e n s u r e d th a t H in d u s w o u ld re ta in a f ir m
n u m e r ic a l m a jo rity . T h is in c o r p o r a tiv e p o litic a l s tr a te g y o n th e p a r t o f n o n - D a li t H in d u s h a s
b e e n a p t ly t e r m e d a ‘p o l i t i c s o f n u m b e r s ’, i n s o f a r as i t w a s d r i v e n b y t h e n e w c o n d i t i o n s i n s t i t u t e d
by
th e B r itis h
e x p a n s io n
o f th e
fra n c h is e
and
th e
in tro d u c tio n
o f fo rm s o f re p re s e n ta tiv e
g o v e r n a n c e t o t h e c o l o n y . 22 A t f i r s t p u r s u e d p r i m a r i l y b y t h o s e k n o w n a s H i n d u n a t i o n a l i s t s , 23
in c o r p o r a ti n g D a lits w i th i n H in d u is m w a s e m b r a c e d b y M .K . G a n d h i in th e 1 9 3 0 s. I n th is w a y
G a n d h i s y s t e m a t ic a ll y b l u r r e d t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n n a t i o n a l a n d H i n d u c o m m u n a l i n t e r e s t ,
t h o u g h h e w a s n o t t h e o n l y o n e t o d o s o .24
T h e la r g e r b a c k d r o p o f p o litic a l a c tiv ity a t th e tim e w a s w h a t h is to r ia n S u m it S a rk a r h a s
d e s c r i b e d as a l a t e - c o l o n i a l n a t i o n a l i s m t h a t s u b t l y b u t u n m i s t a k a b l y r e l i e d o n H i n d u i m a g e r y
a n d m o d e s o f m o b i l i z a t i o n e v e n w h i l e s e e k i n g t o p r o j e c t i t s e l f as t h e l e g i t i m a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f
a ll I n d i a n s i r r e s p e c t i v e o f r e l i g i o n . 25 T h e a s s a s s i n a t io n o f G a n d h i b y H i n d u n a t io n a l i s t s , w h o w e r e
u n h a p p y w i t h w h a t t h e y s a w as h is w i l l i n g n e s s t o a c c o m m o d a t e M u s l i m s , r e n d e r e d e x p l i c i t
a p p e a ls t o H i n d u m a j o r i t a r i a n i s m t a b o o . G a n d h i ’s a s s a s s i n a t io n a ls o h e l p e d c e m e n t C o n g r e s s ’s
l o n g - s t a n d i n g a t t e m p t s t o p r o j e c t i t s e l f as a n o n - s e c t a r i a n a l t e r n a t i v e , a n e f f o r t t h a t t o o k m o r e
s u b s t a n t i a l f o r m w h e n N e h r u , a s t a u n c h s e c u l a r i s t a n d a d v o c a t e o f t h e ‘s c i e n t i f i c t e m p e r a m e n t ’,
w a s p l a c e d a t t h e h e l m o f i n d e p e n d e n t I n d i a ’s f i r s t g o v e r n m e n t . B u t w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p r o b l e m
o f D a l i t d i f f e r e n c e , t h e H i n d u i z i n g p r o j e c t o f t h e s ta te n e v e r f l a g g e d . T h e m a j o r i t y o f D a l i t s i n
p o s t c o l o n i a l I n d i a a r e n o w H i n d u as a m a t t e r o f la w .
H o w is t h i s s o ? F i r s t , t h e p o s t c o l o n i a l s ta te d e f i n e d H i n d u i s m o f f ic ia lly as t h e d e f a u l t r e l i g i o n
o f a ll I n d i a n s , b y d e e m i n g e v e r y o n e H i n d u w h o is b o r n i n I n d i a o f I n d i a n p a r e n t s s o l o n g as t h e y
w e r e n o t s p e c i f i c a ll y a f f i l ia te d w i t h o n e o f t h e ‘m i n o r i t y ’ r e l i g i o n s ( G a l a n t e r 1 9 7 1 ; L u d d e n 1 9 9 6 ;
S e n 2 0 0 7 ) . I n t h i s w a y , H i n d u i s m w a s t r e a t e d as a r e s i d u a l c a t e g o r y , e n c o m p a s s i n g m i l l i o n s o f
a d iv a s is ( a . k . a . t r ib a l s ) , w h o s e c o n n e c t i o n t o H i n d u i s m w a s a m b i g u o u s a t b e s t, a n d D a l it s , w h o ,
as w e h a v e s e e n , h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n e x c l u d e d f r o m
P a r titio n o f B r itis h In d ia in to
th e H i n d u fo ld . B e tw e e n th is a n d th e
C o n g r e s s - c o n tr o lle d In d ia a n d a n e x p lic itly M u s lim
P a k is ta n ,
H i n d u i s m w a s c o n s t i t u t e d a s t h e ‘m a j o r i t y r e l i g i o n ’. T h e r e - d e f i n i t i o n o f H i n d u i s m a c c o r d i n g t o
n a t i o n a l i s t ‘b l o o d a n d s o i l ’ c r i t e r i a h a s b e e n e n s h r i n e d i n t h e la w : t h e le g a l
te s t
o f w h e th e r
w h ic h
. . . can be
a
p e rso n
re b u tte d
is
a
H in d u
n o t by
...
s ta r ts
w ith
p ro o f o f absence
e th n ic
and
g e o g ra p h ic a l
o f b e lie f o r p re se n c e
te s ts ,
o f d is b e lie f
but
o n ly
by
p r o o f o f e x c lu s iv e
a d h e re n c e
(o r
c o n v e rs io n )
to
a
fo re ig n
( i.e . a n o n -
H in d u ) fa ith .
(D errett 1 9 6 8 : 5 2 )
T h a t is, a n y o n e p r a c t i s i n g o r p r o f e s s i n g a n y t h i n g a t a ll, s o l o n g as s h e r e f r a in s f r o m e x p l i c i t l y
a d h e r i n g t o C h r i s t i a n i t y o r I s l a m - e v e n a c o m m i t t e d a t h e i s t - is , le g a l ly s p e a k i n g , a H i n d u . L i t t l e
t r a c e n o w r e m a i n s i n t h e d i s c o u r s e o f t h e s ta te t h a t , a t o n e t i m e , D a l it s m i g h t j u s t as e a s ily h a v e
b e e n c o n s t r u e d as a n o t h e r s u b n a t i o n a l m i n o r i t y .
W h a t d o D a l i t s t h e m s e l v e s h a v e t o s a y a b o u t th is ? I n t h e 1 9 3 0 s , p o l i t i c a l l y a c t iv e D a l i t s u n d e r
t h e r e v e r e d a c t i v is t a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l D r B . R . A m b e d k a r , i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e i r o u t s i d e r s ta tu s b e r e c
o g n iz e d p o litic a lly b y g r a n tin g t h e m s e p a ra te e le c to r a te s .T h e id e a w as th a t th e y th e m s e lv e s , a n d
n o t n o n - D a lits , w o u ld c h o o s e w h o w o u ld re p r e s e n t t h e m in p u b lic o ffic e . A s e p a ra te e le c to r a te
w a s g r a n t e d t o M u s l i m s as a r e s u l t o f t h e I n d i a n C o u n c i l s A c t o f 1 9 0 9 , a n d , a l t h o u g h a t f i r s t
u n h a p p y a b o u t t h i s , I n d i a n n a t i o n a l i s t s b e c a m e r e c o n c i l e d t o i t ( B o s e a n d J a la l 2 0 0 4 : 8 4 ) . I n a
fa te fu l t u r n in th e b u ild in g o f a n a n ti- c o lo n ia l n a tio n a lis t c o n s e n s u s , G a n d h i r e s o lu te ly o p p o s e d
g iv in g D a lits s im ila r p o litic a l a u to n o m y w h e n th e B r itis h tr ie d to g r a n t t h e m th is in 1 9 3 2 , in s is t
in g th a t D a lits c o u ld n o t b e s e p a ra te d f r o m th e H i n d u c o m m u n ity , a n d th a t th e p r o b le m s th e y
f a c e d h a d t o b e c o n s i d e r e d as m a t t e r s w i t h i n t h e H i n d u f o l d , w h i c h h e p r o p o s e d s o c ia l r e f o r m
a n d a t t i t u d i n a l c h a n g e c o u l d ‘p u r i f y ’. B . R . A m b e d k a r , t h e c i v il r i g h t s l a w y e r w h o l e d t h e D a l i t s ,
p le a d e d f o r s e p a ra te e le c to ra te s to b e g r a n te d fo r th e te m p o r a r y p e r io d o f a d e c a d e , j u s t lo n g
e n o u g h th a t D a lits c o u ld a tta in s o m e m e a s u r e o f p o litic a l e q u a lity b e f o r e b e c o m in g p a r t o f t h e
g e n e r a l e l e c t o r a t e . B u t G a n d h i ’s o p p o s i t i o n t o t h i s p r o s p e c t w a s s o m a r k e d t h a t h e u n d e r t o o k a
‘f a s t - u n t o - d e a t h ’ i n p r o t e s t . G i v e n G a n d h i ’s e n o r m o u s s t a t u r e as a n a t i o n a l h e r o , h i s illn e s s o r
d e a t h w o u l d h a v e m e a n t a m a s s iv e r e t a l i a t i o n a g a i n s t D a l i t s a c r o s s I n d ia , s o A m b e d k a r w a s f o r c e d
t o c a p i t u l a t e , a n d i n 1 9 3 2 h e s i g n e d t h e P o o n a P a c t . T h e p a c t f o r e c l o s e d , o n c e a n d f o r a ll, t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t D a l i t s c o u l d i n d e p e n d e n t l y e l e c t t h e i r o w n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . 26
The
H in d u iz in g
te n d e n c ie s
o f th e
p o stc o lo n ia l
s ta te
a re
a ll t h e
m o re
e v id e n t in
th e
s t a t e ’s p r o f f e r e d s o l u t i o n t o t h e p r o b l e m o f D a l i t d i f f e r e n c e . T h e p o s t c o l o n i a l s ta te h a s i n s t i t u t e d
w h a t a r e c a l l e d ‘r e s e r v a t i o n s ’, a f f i r m a t i v e a c t i o n - s t y l e p o l i c i e s t h a t p r o v i d e f o r a p e r c e n t a g e o f
s e a ts i n l e g i s l a t u r e s , g o v e r n m e n t e m p l o y m e n t a n d g o v e r n m e n t - r u n e d u c a t i o n a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s .
I n 1 9 5 0 a lis t o f S c h e d u l e d C a s t e s ( o r S C s ) , c a s te s t h a t w e r e t o b e n a m e d i n t h e ‘s c h e d u l e s ’, o r
lis ts t h a t d e t e r m i n e d e l i g i b i l i t y f o r r e s e r v a t i o n s , w a s i n c l u d e d i n t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n . W h o e x a c t l y
w o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d S C f o r l e g a l - a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p u r p o s e s ? ‘N o p e r s o n w h o p r o f e s s e s a r e l i g i o n
d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e H i n d u [ o r t h e S i k h o r t h e B u d d h i s t ] r e l i g i o n s h a ll b e d e e m e d t o b e a m e m b e r
o f a S c h e d u l e d C a s t e . ’27 E x c l u d e d e n t i r e l y a r e t h e v a s t n u m b e r s o f C h r i s t i a n a n d M u s l i m D a l i t
c o n v e r t s , w h o m a y n o t b e n e f i t f r o m s t a t e - s p o n s o r e d w e l f a r e s c h e m e s . E v e n le ss o f t e n p u b l i c l y
a c k n o w l e d g e d is t h e f a c t t h a t D a l i t s o u t s i d e t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f S C t h e r e b y a ls o l o s e p r o t e c t i o n
u n d e r t h e S c h e d u l e d C a s t e a n d S c h e d u l e d T r i b e s P r e v e n t i o n o f A t r o c i t i e s A c t ( k n o w n as t h e
P O A ) , 28 a p i e c e o f h a t e c r i m e s - s t y l e l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t is s u p p o s e d t o p r o v i d e s p e c i a l p e n a l t i e s f o r
S C s a g a i n s t p e r p e t r a t o r s o f c a s t e - b a s e d v i o l e n c e . B y e x c l u d i n g D a l it s w h o o p t o u t o f H i n d u i s m
in
fav o u r
o f C h ris tia n ity
or
I s la m , t h e
In d ia n
s ta te
in s titu te s
an
o ffic ia l
d is in c e n tiv e
to
o u t - c o n v e r s i o n . 29
O v e r a h a l f a c e n t u r y o n , i t is w i d e l y a g r e e d t h a t p o l i c i e s o f r e s e r v a t i o n h a v e b e e n , i f a t a ll,
o n ly m in im a lly su c c e s s fu l in
V ic z ia n y
c h a lle n g in g d is c r im in a tio n a n d d is a d v a n ta g e
2 0 0 0 ). M o r e o v e r , d e s p ite
th e
e n a c tm e n t
o f a la w
in
1955
(M e n d e ls o h n a n d
th a t m a d e
p ra c tisin g
u n to u c h a b ility a c rim in a l o ffe n c e a n d p u n is h e d ly n c h in g a n d o th e r r o u tin e fo rm s o f v io le n c e
a g a in s t D a lits ‘k n o w
p r im a r ily a tta c k s b y u p p e r - c a s te e m p lo y e rs a g a in s t D a lits w h o a p p e a r n o t to
t h e i r p l a c e ’ — r e m a i n c o m m o n p l a c e i n m o s t o f r u r a l I n d i a . E n f o r c e m e n t o f t h e A c t is
e x tr e m e ly ra re , a n d , r e c a llin g th e
A m e r ic a n
S o u th , ru ra l
p e tra to r s , g e n e ra lly
re fu s e to
N o t in fre q u e n tly , th e y
P o lic e
to
are
th e
a n s w e ra b le
are
th e m s e lv e s
to
th e
d e p o litic iz a tio n
chosen
by
c a s te
o f A fric a n A m e ric a n s in th e p o s t- r e c o n s tr u c tio n
in v a r ia b ly
re c o g n iz e
u ltim a te ly
a fo re m e n tio n e d
r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s ’ a re
s itu a tio n
p o lic e , w h o
even
am ong
b e lo n g
th e
th e
e le c te d
o f D a lit
p e o p le , a n d
to
th e
sam e
c o m m u n itie s
as
m o s t b la ta n t a n ti- D a lit a tro c itie s
a tta c k e rs
(N a ru la
re p re s e n ta tiv e s
d iffe re n c e ,
even
a c c o u n ta b ility
1999; R o b e rts
at th e
s ta te
th o s e
re m a in s
p e r
as s u c h .
2 0 1 0 ).
le v e l . B u t
e le c te d
due
as
‘D a l i t
e l u s iv e . T h e
m ost
i m p o r t a n t a d v o c a te f o r D a lits ’ r ig h ts in m o d e r n In d ia , B .R . A m b e d k a r , w as p r e s c ie n t w h e n in
1 9 3 0 h e u n s u c c e s s f u l l y t r i e d t o p e r s u a d e h is f e l l o w I n d i a n s t h a t D a l i t s o u g h t t o b e g i v e n p o l i t i c a l
a u to n o m y :
W e a r e o f t e n r e m i n d e d t h a t t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e D e p r e s s e d C la s s e s [a t e r m f o r D a l i t u s e d i n
t h e e a r l y d e c a d e s o f t h e c e n t u r y ] is a s o c i a l p r o b l e m a n d t h a t its s o l u t i o n lie s e l s e w h e r e t h a n
i n p o l i t i c s . W e t a k e s t r o n g e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s v ie w . W e h o l d t h a t t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e D e p r e s s e d
C la s s e s w i l l n e v e r b e s o lv e d u n le s s t h e y g e t p o l i t i c a l p o w e r i n t h e i r o w n h a n d s . . . . T h e
s e ttle m e n t o f o u r p r o b le m m u s t n o t b e le ft . . . to th e s h iftin g sa n d s o f s y m p a th y a n d th e
g o o d w ill o f th e ru le rs .
(A m b e d k a r 1 9 8 2 : 5 0 3 - 9 )
Notes
1 To cite o n ly th e m ost recen t ex a m p le o f w hat N ic h o la s D irk s has d escrib ed as th e ‘em barrassm ent o f
caste’, th e Indian state and p ro m in en t Indian so cio lo g ists o p p o sed the plea by D a lit groups in India that
their p lig h t b e represented befo re th e U N ’s 2 0 0 1 D u rb an C o n fere n c e o n R a c ism and X en o p h o b ia ; see
discu ssio n in N atrajan and G re en o u g h ( 2 0 0 9 : 1 -4 4 ) and V isw an ath (2 0 1 4 ). D irk s (2 0 0 3 : 2 9 0 -6 ) discusses
the ‘em barrassm ent o f caste’ o n th e part o f co n tem p o ra ry Indian intellectuals.
2 T h e signal d istin ctio n b e tw e e n official and aca d em ic discourses o n diversity is that caste is absent in
official celeb ra tio ns o f diversity, su ch as th e R e p u b lic D a y parades describ ed by R o y (2006: 6 6 -1 0 4 ) . In
acad em ic discourse, caste is in clu d ed a m o n g the form s o f diversity that the state m u st m anage
(Jayal 20 0 6 ; M ahajan 2 0 0 5 ; R up arelia 2 0 0 8 ).
3 B u t see C rystal (1987: 2 5 - 3 3 ) o n the lack o f scien tific supp ort for the pop ular id ea that lan gu ages are
naturally distinct, w h ic h m akes the w ay langu ages are d e fin ed in h eren tly p olitical. T h e lin k th e state
m akes b e tw e e n languages and p o p u la tio n s is furtherm ore p rem ised o n a ‘folk id e o lo g y [that] assum es
m o n o lin g u a lism to be the natural hu m an state o f affairs’, and therefore ‘that there sh o u ld b e a o n e - t o o n e m ap p in g b e tw e e n lan gu ages and speakers’ (B ash kow 2 0 04 : 4 5 6 , n. 14).
4 T h e Indian state’s creation o f H in d u ism as the m ajority re lig io n co m p le te d a p o litica l project that was
in itiated by early H in d u nationalists in th e late n in etee n th century, and su pported b o th actively
and passively by th e G an d h i-le d C on gress Party in the decades p rio r to In dian in d e p e n d e n c e in
1 9 4 7 . O n early H in d u natio nalism and its precursors, see, respectively, Jaffrelot (20 0 7 ) and Sharm a
(2 0 0 3 ). O n the H in d u iza tio n o f In dian natio nalism u n d er a G a nd hian C ongress, see W illia m G o u ld
(200 4 ).
5 Fraser (19 95 ) first p ro p o sed this d istin ctio n to cr itiq u e th e cu ltura lizin g effects o f id en tity politic s. K evin
O lse n (20 0 8) offers an e x c elle n t re cen t c o lle c tio n o f debates o n the issue.
6 A n in flu en tial ex a m p le o f this sort o f talk is K h iln an i (1 9 9 8 ). See also Lijphart (19 9 6) and G angu ly
(200 7 ).
7 A standard scholarly p o sitio n o n Indian secularism , w h ic h clo sely approxim ates the G o v er n m en t o f
India’s o w n se lM e sc r ip tio n , can b e fo u n d in th e w ritin g s o f R a jee v Bhargava (e.g. Bhargava 2 004b :
1 - 2 8 , 2 0 0 9 : 8 2 —109). T h e range o f ex istin g p ositio n s o n Indian secularism can b e fo u n d in the latter
vo lu m e, and in R ajesw ari Sunderrajan and A nu rad ha N e e d h a m (20 0 6 ). See also A m ir A li (2 0 0 0 ), w h o
argues that ev e n in the pu b lic square, pace m o st observers, there has b e e n a relative n o n -r e c o g n itio n o f
re ligio u s m in o rities.
8 T h e ob servatio n that In dia ’s p o lic y o f cultural p r o te ctio n for m in o rities em p ow ers th e m o st con servative
elem en ts in th o se c o m m u n ities is freq uently seen as b e in g ex em p lified in the w id e ly discussed case o f
Shah B an o, a M u slim w o m a n w h o se righ ts to m ain ten an ce u p o n d iv orce w ere revoked b y the Indian
state in deferen ce to th e w ish es o f h e r ‘c o m m u n ity ’. T h is has g iv en rise to a vast literature (Ali 1987;
Pathak and R ajan 1 9 89 ). T h e in tersectio n o f patriarchy, in ternal m in o rities and group righ ts is also o f
cou rse a mainstay in the broader theo retical literature o n m u lticu ltu ralism . C lassic so urces in clu d e
C o h e n e t a l (19 99) and E isen b erg and S p in n er-H a le v (200 5 ).
9 B y d e fin in g relig io u s co m m u n ities as
e s s e n tia lly
at odds w ith o n e a n o th er at th e cultural le v el, the Indian
state iron ically reifies the very p ro b le m o f ‘tolera n ce’ that it th en g o e s o n to so lv e (or m anage) throu gh
its diversity p o lic ie s. In this, India is n o t necessarily u n iq ue; for a parallel argu m ent w ith respect to th e
tolera tio n o f relig io u s difference in the co n tem p o ra ry U n ite d States, see B r o w n (2006).
10 T h e state governor, a p o sitio n to w h ic h o n e is ap p o in ted by the centre, can m o v e to dissolve the state
g o v er n m e n t u p o n approval from the presid en t and p rim e m inister (D asgu pta 2 0 0 1 : 4 9 -7 8 ) .
11 A s Srirupa R o y has p u t this, in th e early decad es o f p o stco lo n ia l India ‘th e n o r m o f diversity ’ w as
o f ‘an ethn ocu ltu ral,
em phasis).
n o n p o litic a l
m atrix org an ized and m aintained by the sta te’ (R o y 2 0 0 6 : 20, m y
12 T h e fin d in gs o n Indian M u slim s’ current situatio n are detailed in an exten siv e G o v ern m en t o f India
stud y en title d
S o c ia l, E c o n o m ic a n d E d u c a tio n a l S ta tu s o f th e M u s li m s in In d ia : A
R eport
(G o vern m en t o f
India 2 0 0 6 ).T h is is w id e ly referred to as th e Sachar C o m m itte e R e p o r t after R a jin d e r Sachar, the retired
C h ie f Justice o f th e D e lh i C o u rt w h o h ea d ed the co m m issio n .
13
D a lit
is th e accep ted scholarly term for th o se w h o w ere in previo u s tim es k n o w n by a w id e variety o f
nam es in India. In ad d itio n to ‘u n to u ch a b le’, term s that w ere u sed across India in clu d ed ‘Pariah’,
p a n c h a m a , a v a rn a , c h a n d a la , a c h u t.
T h e y are still so m etim es referred to, fo llo w in g G and hian usage, as
‘harijans’, (m ea n in g ‘ch ild ren o f the [H in d u] g o d H a ri’), bu t this usage has b e e n w id e ly rejected b y
D alits as dem ean in g; see N atrajan and G re en o u g h (2 0 0 9 :1 ).
14 O n u b iq u ito u s d iscrim in atio n against D alits in ed u ca tio n , h o u sin g and em p lo y m en t, see N e w m a n and
T h orat (20 1 2 ), and o n o n g o in g v io le n c e see N aru la (19 9 9 ).
15 U sin g th e C o n stitu en t A ssem b ly debates to m ake his case, C h risto p h e Jaffrelot arrives at a m o r e sceptical
c o n clu sio n , parallel to the o n e I present, n a m ely that ‘m ulticu ltu ralism ’ is a m islead in g d escrip tio n o f
In dian state p olicies; see Jaffrelot ( 2 0 0 4 : 1 2 6 -4 9 ).
16 T h e ab solu te h e g e m o n y o f C on gress and th e caste- and relig io n -sp ecific interests it represented bega n
to cru m b le at th e national level o n ly in th e 1990s; th e best available acco u n t o f this is Jaffrelot (2003);
see also n o te 18.
17 In a tellin g e x c e p tio n , w h ic h reflects th e w id e r cultural stereoty p e that caste en d o g am y is b en eficia l to
the preservation o f culture, th e form er C o m m e rc e M in ister Jairam R a m esh ‘sp ok e prou d ly o f In dia’s
diversity [in 2 0 0 7 ] by in clu d in g . . . a g lo w in g m e n tio n o f its “4 6 3 5 largely en d o g a m o u s c o m m u n itie s”
- a direct referen ce to th e app roxim ately 3 9 9 0 caste grou ps and 6 4 5 “ tribal” gro u ps in India.’ (C ited in
N atrajan 2 0 1 2 .)
18 T estim o n y o fD ip a n k a r G upta in
T r e a t y M o n i t o r R e p o r t : I n t e r n a t i o n a l S e r v ic e f o r H u m a n R i g h t s ,
C o m m itte e
o n th e E lim in a tio n o f R a cia l D iscr im in a tio n , 7 0 th Sessio n India, p. 6
19 S in ce th e 1990s, a larger grou p o f lo w er castes w h o are n o t D a lit, falling u n d er a n ew adm inistrative
ca tego ry called ‘O th er B ackw ard C lasses’, or O B C , has also b e en elig ib le for sp ecial state en title m en ts,
and th e po litical m o b iliz a tio n o f su ch groups has radically tra nsform ed the face o f parliam entary p o litic s
in India (Jaffrelot 2 0 0 3 ). For co n sid eratio n s o f space, I focus here o n D alit difference, w h ic h con sid ered
b y its e lf can nevertheless provid e a clear illustration o f th e breadth, nature and relative sile n ce su rrou n d in g
In dian assim ilationism .
2 0 A s I discuss in th e fo llo w in g , all religio u s c o m m u n ities in India (n ot just H in d u s) are su b d ivid ed in to
en d o g a m o u s jatis, and the D a lit—n o n -D a lit d iv isio n crosscuts all.
21 O n term in o lo g y , see n o te 11.
2 2 In k e ep in g w ith this n e w p o litics, d iscrim in ation against D alits w as th en d e fin ed as a fo r m o f re ligio u s
su p erstition in tern al to H in d u ism (V isw anath 2 0 1 0 ). T h e ‘p o litics o f n u m b ers’ is w ell describ ed b y
W eb ster (199 2: 9 3 -1 5 7 ) .
2 3 H in d u nationalists in co lo n ia l India co m p rised m o v em en ts that so u gh t to em ph asize the Indian
n a tio n ’s pu tatively H in d u character (and in so d o in g q u estio n th e le gitim a cy o f India’s large M u slim
m ajority).
2 4 G a n d h i’s m ore or less exp licit eq u a tio n o f H in d u and national in terest is deta iled in R o b e r ts,
o f C o n v e r s io n a n d th e F o r e ig n n e s s o f B e lo n g in g
T he Pow er
(unp ub lish ed b o o k m anuscrip t).
25 W illia m G o u ld details h o w th e C ongress Party co n sisten tly gave an im pressio n o f regarding India
as a H in d u n a tio n - an im pressio n that cau sed considerable alarm a m o n g India’s M u slim s and
D alits - desp ite its officially secular platform (G o u ld 2 0 0 4 ). A co n cise discu ssion o f th ese issues can also
be fo u n d in Sarkar (1996: 2 7 0 -9 3 ) .
2 6 T h is a cc o u n t o f the struggle over th e P o o n a Pact is derived p rim arily from A n a n d (20 1 4 ), Jaffrelot
(200 5 ) and Z e llio t ( 2 0 1 0 ) /
2 7 T h e rules regarding Sik h ism and B u d d h ism w ere am en d m en ts to the orig in al statem en t, and w ere
in tro d u ced in 1 9 5 6 and 1 9 9 0 , respectively: C o n stitu tio n o f India, S ch ed u led C astes O rd er o f 19 5 0 .
2 8 A lth o u g h this law w as o n ly passed in 1 9 89 , it w as based o n earlier law s, the first o f w h ic h was the
P ro tectio n o f C iv il R ig h ts A ct o f 1 9 5 5 .
2 9 T h e N a tio n a l C o m m issio n for R e lig io u s and L in guistic M in o rities, also k n o w n as th e M ishra
C o m m issio n R e p o r t after the retired ju d g e w h o chaired it, m ade for the first tim e an official statem en t
that th e ca tego ry o f S c h ed u led C aste sh ou ld b e am en d ed to in clu d e C hristians and M u slim s. T h e
M ishra R e p o r t appeared in 2 0 0 7 ; the legal d e fin itio n o f SC has yet to b e am end ed ; see N a tio n a l
C o m m issio n for R e lig io u s and L in guistic M in o rities (2 0 0 7 ).
References
A li, A . (20 0 0) ‘C ase for M u lticultu ralism in India’,
E c o n o m i c a n d P o l i ti c a l W e e k l y ,
3 5 (2 8 -2 9 ): 2 5 0 3 - 5 .
A m b ed k ar, B .R . (1 9 82 ) ‘N e e d for P olitical P o w e r for D ep ressed C lasses’, in B .R . A m b edk ar and V . M o o n
(eds) W r i t i n g s a n d S p e e c h e s , B om bay: D ep a rtm en t o f E d u catio n , G o v er n m en t o f Maharashtra.
A nand , S. (20 1 4 ) ‘T h e J u ice and the R in d : T h e C o m m u n a l A w ard, the P o o n a Pact and its A fterm ath ’, in
B .R . A m b edk ar and A . R o y (eds)
N avayana.
A n d erso n , P. (2012a) ‘W h y P artition?’,
A n n ih ila tio n
o f C a ste :
T h e C r itic a l A n n o t a t e d E d i tio n ,
L o n d o n R e v ie w o f B o o ks ,
N e w D elh i:
34 (1 4 ): 1 1 -1 9 . O n lin e . A vailable H T T P :
< h ttp : //w w w .lr b .c o .u k /v 3 4 /n l4 /p e r r y - a n d e r s o n /w h y -p a r t itio n > (accessed 14 A u g u st 2 0 1 2 ).
— (20 12 b ) ‘A fter N e h r u ’,
L o n d o n R e v ie w o f B o o ks ,
3 4 (1 5 ): 2 1 - 3 6 . O n lin e . A vailable H T T P : < h t t p : //w w w .
l r b .c o .u k /v 3 4 /n l5 /p err y -a n d er so n /a fte r-n eh ru > (accessed 14 A u gu st 2 0 1 2 ).
Balm urli, N . and G re en o u g h , P .R . (eds.) (20 0 9 ) A g a i n s t S t i g m a : S t u d i e s i n C a s t e ,
D urban,
R a c e , a n d J u s t i c e s in c e
N e w D elh i: O rien t B la ckS w an .
Baruah, S. (20 1 1 ) ‘R e g io n a lism and S ecessio n ism ’, in N . Jayal and P .B . M eh ta (eds)
N e w D elh i: O x fo r d U n iv e rsity Press.
B a sh k o w , I. (200 4 ) ‘A N e o -B o a s ia n C o n c e p tio n o f C ultural B o u n d a ries’,
O x f o r d C o m p a n i o n to
P o l iti c s i n I n d i a ,
4 4 3 -5 8 .
Baviskar, A . (20 0 4 )
A m e r i c a n A n th r o p o lo g is t,
In th e B e ll y o f th e R iv e r : T r ib a l C o n flic ts o v e r D e v e l o p m e n t in th e N a r m a d a
O x fo r d U n iv e rsity Press.
Bhargava, R . (ed.) (2004a ) S e c u l a r i s m
a n d it s C r i t i c s ,
— (20 0 4 b ) ‘In tro d u c tio n ’, in R . Bhargava (ed.)
V a lle y ,
106(3):
D elh i:
C hen nai: O x fo r d U n iv e rsity Press.
S e c u l a r i s m a n d it s C r i ti c s ,
C hen nai: O x fo r d U n iv e rsity Press.
— (20 0 9 ) ‘P olitical Secularism : W h y it is N e e d e d and W h a t can b e Learned fro m its In dian V ersio n ’, in G.
B rahm and T . M o d o o d (eds)
S e c u la r is m ,
R e li g io n
and
M u lt ic u lt u r a l
C itiz e n s h ip ,
C am brid ge, U K :
C am brid ge U n iv ersity Press.
B o se , S. and Jalal, A . (20 04 )
M o d e r n S o u t h A s i a : H is to r y ,
C i d t u r e a n d P o l i ti c a l E c o n o m y ,
N e w Y o rk , N Y :
R oudedge.
B rem an , J. (2 0 13 ) ‘O n L abour B o n d a g e ’,
B r o w n , W . (20 0 6 )
C o n t r i b u t i o n s to I n d i a n S o c i o l o g y ,
48(1 ): 1 3 3 -4 1 .
R e g u la tin g A v e r s io n : T o le ra n c e in th e A g e o f I d e n ti ty a n d E m p ir e ,
U n iv e rsity Press.
C h a tteije e, P. (20 04 ) ‘Secularism and T o le r a n c e ’, in R . Bhargava (ed.)
P rin ceto n , NJ: P rin ceto n
S e c u l a r i s m a n d i t s C r i ti c s ,
C hen nai:
O x fo r d U n iv ersity Press.
C o h e n , J., H o w a rd , M . and N u ssb au m , M .C . (eds) (19 9 9 )
Is M u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m B a d f o r W o m e n ? ,
P rin ceto n ,
NJ: P rin ceto n U n iv ersity Press.
C o n stitu tio n
o f India, O n lin e . A vailable H T T P
< h t t p : //la w m in .n ic .in /o lw in g /c o i/c o i- e n g lis h /c o i-
in d e x e n g lish .h tm > (accessed 2 5 A pril 2 0 1 4 ).
C rystal, D . (19 8 7 )
The
C a m b rid g e
E n c y c lo p e d ia
o f Langua ge,
C am brid ge, U K : C am brid ge U n iv ersity
Press.
D asgup ta, J. (2 00 1 ) ‘India’s Federal D e sig n and M u lticu ltural N a tio n a l C o n stru c tio n ’, in A . K o h li (ed.)
The
C am brid ge, U K : C am brid ge U n iv e rsity Press.
D errett, J .D .M . (1 9 6 8 ) R e l i g i o n , L a w a n d t h e S t a t e i n I n d i a , N e w Y o rk , N Y : T h e Free Press.
S u c c e s s o f I n d i a ’s D e m o c r a c y ,
D irks, N . (20 0 3 )
Press.
C a s te s
o f M in d :
The
M a k in g
o f M odem
In d ia ,
P rin ceto n , NJ: P rin ceto n U n iv ersity
E isenb erg, A .I. and S p in n er-H a lev , J. (eds) (2 0 0 5 )
M in o r itie s w it h in M in o r itie s : E q u a l i t y , R ig h ts , a n d D iv e r s ity ,
C am b rid ge, U K : C am brid ge U n iv e rsity Press.
E n gin eer, A .A . (19 8 9) T h e S h a h B a n o C o n t r o v e r s y , N e w D elh i: O rien t Lo n gm an.
Fraser, N . (1995) ‘F ro m R ed istr ib u tio n to R e c o g n itio n : D ilem m a s o f Justice in a P ostsocialist A g e ’,
N e w L e f t R e v i e w , 2 1 2(1 ): 6 8 - 9 3 .
Galanter, M . (1971) ‘H in d u ism , Secularism , and the Indian Ju d iciary’,
P h ilo s o p h y E a s t a n d
4 6 7 -8 7 .
G angu ly , S. (2007) ‘India’s U n lik e ly D em o cra cy : Six D eca d es o f In d e p e n d e n c e ’,
21(4):
W e s t,
J o u rn a l o f D em ocracy,
18(2): 3 0 - 4 0 .
G o u ld , W . (2004)
H in d u
N a tio n a lis m
a n d t h e L a n g u a g e o f P o l iti c s i n L a t e C o l o n i a l I n d i a ,
C am brid ge U n iv e rsity Press.
G o v er n m en t o f India (20 06 ) S o c ia l ,
E c o n o m ic a n d
E d u c a tio n a l S ta tu s
o f th e M u s l i m s
in
C am brid ge, U K :
I n d ia : A
R e p o r t,
N e w D elh i: G o v er n m en t o f India. H u m a n R ig h ts W a tc h (2007) H i d d e n A p a r t h e i d : C a s t e D i s c r i m i n a t i o n
A g a i n s t I n d i a ’s U n t o u c h a b l e s , N e w Y o rk , N Y : H u m a n R ig h ts W a tch . O n lin e . A vailable H T T P : < w w w .
h r w .o r g /r e p o r ts /2 0 0 7 /in d ia 0 2 0 7 > (accessed 16 A pril 2 0 1 4 ).
Jaffrelot, C . (20 0 3 )
I n d i a ’s S i l e n t R e v o l u t i o n : T h e R i s e o f t h e L o w e r C a s t e s i n N o r t h I n d i a ,
L on don: H urst.
— (200 4 ) ‘C o m p o site C ulture is n o t M ulticulturalism : A Study o f the Indian C o n stitu en t A ssem bly
D e b a te s’, in A . V arshn ey (ed.)
I n d i a a n d t h e P o l iti c s o f D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s ,
— (20 0 5 )
D r . A m b e d k a r a n d U n to u c h a b ilit y : A n a l y s i n g a n d F ig h t in g C a s te ,
— (20 0 7 )
H i n d u N a tio n a li s m : A
R ea d er,
L o n d o n : Sage.
L on don: H urst.
P rin ceto n , NJ: P rin ceto n U n iv ersity Press.
— (20 1 2 ) ‘T h e Sense o f a C o m m u n ity ’,
O u tlo o k
M a g a zin e .
O n lin e . A vailable H T T P : < h t t p : //w w w .
o u t lo o k in d ia .c o m /article.a sp x? 2 8 1 64 2 > (accessed 16 A pril 2 0 1 4 ).
Jayal, N .G . (2006)
R e p r e s e n tin g I n d ia : E th n ic D iv e r s it y a n d th e G o v e r n a n c e o f P u b lic In s t it u ti o n s ,
N e w Y o rk ,
N Y : Palgrave M acm illan .
K h iln ani, S. (1998)
T h e Id e a o f In d ia ,
N e w Y o rk , N Y : Farrar Straus G ir o u x.
— (20 1 1) ‘P olitics and N a tio n a l Id en tity ’, in N . Jayal and P .B . M eh ta (eds)
I n d i a , N e w D elh i: O x fo rd U n iv e rsity Press.
K lein, H . (2007)
T r e a ty B o d y M o n ito r ,
O x f o r d C o m p a n i o n to P o l iti c s i n
H u m a n R ig h ts M o n ito r Series, 7 0 th Sessio n India, In ternational
Servic e for H u m a n R ig h ts. O n lin e . A vailable H T T P : < h ttp ://o ld d o c .is h r .c h /h r m /tm b /t r e a t y /c e r d /
r e p o r ts/c e r d _ 7 0 /c e r d _ 7 0 _ in d ia .p d f> (accessed 23 A pril 2 0 1 4 ).
Lijphart, A . (1996) ‘T h e P u zzle o f Indian D em o cra cy: A C o n so ciatio n a l A p p ro a ch ’,
S c ie n c e R e v i e w ,
A m e r ic a n
P o l i ti c a l
90 (2 ): 2 5 8 - 6 8 .
L u dd en , D . (ed.) (19 96 )
C o n te s tin g th e N a t io n : R e li g io n ,
C o m m u n i t y a n d t h e P o l i ti c s o f D e m o c r a c y i n I n d i a ,
P hilad elphia, PA: U n iv e rsity o f P en nsy lvania Press.
M ahajan, G . (2005) ‘Indian E x cep tio n a lism or Indian M o d el: N e g o tia tin g C ultural D iv ersity and M in o rity
R ig h ts in a D em o c ra tic N a tio n -S ta te ’, in W . K ym lick a and B . H e (eds)
M u lti c u ltu r a li s m in A s i a ,
O x ford ,
U K : O x fo r d U n iv e rsity Press.
M e n d elso h n , O . and V iczia n y , M . (2000) T h e U n t o u c h a b l e s :
I n d i a , N e w D elh i: C am brid ge U n iv ersity Press.
N arula, S. (1999)
B ro ke n
P e o p le :
C a s te
S u b o r d in a ti o n , P o v e r ty a n d th e S ta te in M o d e r n
V io le n c e A g a i n s t I n d i a ’s
‘U n t o u c h a b l e s ’,
N e w Y ork, N Y : H u m a n
R ig h ts W atch .
N a tio n a l C o m m issio n for R e lig io u s and L in guistic M in o ritie s, N C R L M (2007) R e p o r t o f th e N C R L M ,
N e w D elh i: M in istry o f M in o rity Affairs. O n lin e . A vailable H T T P : < h ttp ://w w w .m in o r ity a ffa ir s.g o v .
in /s it e s /u p lo a d _ f ile s /m o m a /file s /p d f s /v o lu m e - l.p d f > (accessed 16 A pril 2 0 1 4 ).
N atrajan, B . (2012)
T h e C u l tu r a li z a tio n o f C a s te in In d ia : I d e n ti ty a n d I n e q u a lit y in a M u lt ic u lt u r a l A g e .
L on don:
R o u tle d g e .
N atrajan, B . and G re en o u g h , P .R . (2 0 0 9) ‘In tro d u ctio n ’, in B . N atrajan and P .R . G re en o u g h (eds)
S ti g m a : S tu d ie s in C a s te , R a c e , a n d J u s tic e sin c e D u r b a n ,
N e w m a n , K . and T h o ra t, S.K . (eds) (2012)
A g a in s t
N e w D elh i: O rien t B la ck S w an .
B lo c k e d b y C a s te : E c o n o m ic D is c r im in a tio n in M o d e r n In d ia ,
N ew
D elh i: O x fo r d U n iv ersity Press.
O lsen , K. (ed.) (200 8 )
A d d i n g I n s u l t to I n j u r y : N a n c y F r a s e r D e b a t e s h e r C r i t ic s ,
Parekh, B . (19 9 1 ) ‘N e h r u and th e N a tio n a l P h ilo so p h y o f India’,
3 5 -4 8 .
Pathak, Z . and R ajan, R .S . (19 8 9) ‘S h ahb ano’,
S ig n s ,
N e w Y ork , N Y : V erso.
E c o n o m i c a n d P o l i ti c a l W e e k l y ,
14(3): 5 5 8 -8 2 .
R o b er ts, N . (2010) ‘Language V io le n c e and th e State: W ritin g T a m il D a lits’,
A c a d e m ic J o u r n a l.
2 0 1 4 ).
O n lin e . A vailable H T T P :
2 6 (1 -2 ):
S o u t h A s i a M u lt id is c ip lin a r y
< h ttp ://sa m a j.r e v u e s.o r g /2 9 5 2 >
(accessed
16 A pril
— (fo rth co m in g ) ‘F rom V illa ge to C ity: H in d u ism and the “ H in d u C aste S y stem ’” , in P. van der V eer (ed.)
R e l i g i o n i n A s i a n C i t i e s , B erk eley , C A : U n iv e rsity o f C aliforn ia Press.
R o y , S. (20 0 6) B e y o n d B e l i e f : I n d i a a n d t h e P o l iti c s o f P o s t c o l o n i a l N a t i o n a l i s m , D u rh a m , N C : D u k e U n iv e rsity
Press.
R up ar elia, S. (200 8 ) ‘H o w the P o litic s o f R e c o g n itio n E n abled In dia’s D em o c ra tic E x c ep tio n a lism ’,
I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f P o l i ti c s , C u l t u r e a n d S o c i e t y , 2 1 (1 -4 ): 3 9 - 5 6 .
Sarkar, S. (19 9 6 ) ‘Indian N a tio n a lism and the P olitic s o f H in d u tv a ’, in D . L u d d en (ed.) C o n t e s t i n g t h e
N a t i o n : R e l i g i o n , C o m m u n i t y a n d t h e P o l iti c s o f D e m o c r a c y i n I n d i a , P hilad elphia, PA: U n iv e rsity o f
P en nsy lvania Press.
S earle -C h atterie e, M . (19 9 4) ‘U rb an “ U n to u c h a b le s” and H in d u N a tio n a lism ’,
13(1): 1 2 -2 5 .
— (2 0 0 8 )
‘A ttrib u tin g and R e je c tin g the Label “H in d u ” in N o r th
S earle-C hatterjee (eds)
Se n , R . (20 0 7 ) L e g a l i z i n g
E a st-W e st C en ter.
Sharma, J. (20 0 3 )
R e li g io n , L a n g u a g e a n d P o w e r ,
R elig io n :
The
I n d ia n
C ourt and
H i n d u t v a : E x p lo r i n g th e Id e a o f H i n d u N a t io n a li s m ,
The
In dia’, in N .
G reen and M .
N e w Y ork , N Y : R o u tle d g e .
Su p rem e
Sunderrajan, R . and N e e d h a m , A . (eds) (20 0 6 )
Im m ig r a n ts a n d M in o r itie s ,
S e c u la r is m ,
W a sh in g to n , D .C .: T h e
D elh i: P en gu in .
C r is is o f S e c u la r is m
in
In d ia ,
D u rh am , N C : D u k e
U n iv e rsity Press.
T e ltu m b d e , A . (20 1 0)
Z e d B o o k s.
T h e P e r s is te n c e o f C a s t e : T h e K h a i r l a n j i M u r d e r s a n d I n d i a ’s H i d d e n A p a r t h e i d ,
L on d on :
V isw an ath , R . (2 0 1 0 ) ‘Spiritual Slavery, M aterial M alaise: “ U n to u c h a b le s” and R e lig io u s N eu tra lity in
C o lo n ia l S o u th India’,
H is to r ic a l R e s e a r c h ,
83 (2 1 9 ): 1 2 4 -4 5 .
— (2 0 1 4 ) T h e P a r i a h
U n iv e rsity Press.
P r o b le m : C a s te , R e li g io n a n d th e S o c ia l in M o d e r n In d ia ,
W eb ster, J .C . (19 9 2 )
D a l i t C h r is tia n s : A
Z e llio t, E. (20 1 0 )
M anohar.
F ro m
U n to u c h a b le
H is to r y ,
N e w Y o rk , N Y : C o lu m b ia
N e w D elh i: IS P C K .
to D a l i t : E s s a y s o n
th e A m b e d k a r M o v e m e n t ,
3rd ed n , N e w D elh i:
Rupa Viswanath