Metamorphic Contributions to Electrical Phenomena in the Earth's Crust

ABSTRACT METAMORPHIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA IN THE EARTH’S CRUST By Daniel S. Helman August 2013 Metamorphism generates electrical and magnetic phenomena, and is influenced by these forces. Information fundamental to their combined study is presented, including examples from microtectonics, crystal physics, geophysics, seismology, mineralogy and materials science. Applications for earthquake prediction, planetary science research, alternative energy and science education are included. Work on reported seismic electric signals is analyzed and summarized. Ten hypotheses related to earthquake mechanisms and prediction are presented, as well as seventeen recommendations for further study. Eight microtectonic deformation mechanisms are explored. Two hundred seventeen descriptions of minerals exhibiting ferroelectricity, pyroelectricity or piezoelectricity are presented, with quantitative data where known. Fifty-three of these are centrosymmetric, and explanations are given for their apparent violations of crystal theory. A 1 comprehensive list of thirty-two mechanisms that generate telluric currents is also presented, as are some novel or inexpensive experimental techniques in crystal physics. 2 METAMORPHIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA IN THE EARTH’S CRUST A THESIS Presented to the Department of Geological Sciences California State University, Long Beach In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science in Geology Committee Members: Roswitha Grannell, Ph.D. (Chair) Jack Green, Ph.D. (Thesis Director) Ewa Burchard, M.S. Andreas Bill, Ph.D. College Designee: Robert D. Francis, Ph.D. By Daniel S. Helman B.A., 1994, University of California, Los Angeles August 2013  WE, THE UNDERSIGNED MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE, HAVE APPROVED THIS THESIS METAMORPHIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA IN THE EARTH’S CRUST By Daniel S. Helman COMMITTEE MEMBERS Roswitha Grannell, Ph.D. (Chair) Geological Sciences Jack Green, Ph.D. (Thesis Director) Geological Sciences Ewa Burchard, M.S. Geological Sciences Andreas Bill, Ph.D. Physics and Astronomy ACCEPTED AND APPROVED ON BEHALF OF THE UNIVERSITY Robert D. Francis, Ph.D. Chair, Department of Geological Sciences California State University, Long Beach August 2013  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thank you to the Department of Geological Sciences at CSULB, and to Dr. Jack Green in particular, for his humor and gentle manner. It is not every day that a student gets to work with someone who was affiliated with the early space missions and worked with the Apollo 17 moon rocks, and, five decades later, is still publishing on lunar science—much to my delight! I would like to thank my parents from the bottom of my heart, for their financial, emotional, and intellectual support, and acts unparalleled in common experience. They bought me the computer on which this thesis was composed, paid my rent, bought me food and gasoline, and gave me my car, a bike and clothes. Theirs is the credit from the mundane to the beautiful. This work is dedicated to Sandy and Jerry Helman. Several people and organizations donated or lent tourmaline samples for me to examine and to use for experiments. Bill Larson of The Collector Fine Jewelry in San Diego donated wonderful elbaite and dravite samples from the Pala Mine. The sample in Figure 9 on page 74 is one of these. The Arizona Sonora Desert Museum and Panny Savoie donated some beautiful schorl samples. The largest specimen, a cluster, has now been passed along to the Geology Department at CSULB. The Australian Museum and Ross Pogson lent me one of the samples used by Dr. Kate Hawkins for her tourmaline iii research. The Geology Department at CSULB also lent me an elbaite sample. Thank you also to Rosemary Tozer of the Gemological Institute of America for helping me try to track down other samples used by Dr. Hawkins. Thank you Dr. Hawkins for your supportive correspondences, as well. In addition, Tom Sperlazzo and Brad Green provided electronic test equipment at a discount, because they believed in this project. The staff of CAMCOR at the University of Oregon and Matthew Sullivan of UC Irvine's LEXI microscopy laboratory were also very generous with their time. My department at CSULB was outstanding. Dr. Stan Finney, with his love of teaching, was the department chair when I arrived, and Dr. Dan Francis has brought a wonderful sense of humor to that office now. The departmental office itself is run by Margaret Costello, who smiles like no other, and Diane Stein was a warm, welcoming and intuitive friend there, a magnet for conversation and sanity. Thanks to the entire department, Dr. Roswitha Grannell, Dr. Nate Onderdonk, Dr. Rick Behl, Dr. Lora Stevens-Landon, Bruce Perry, Dr. Greg Holk, Dr. Tom Kelty, Dr. Matt Becker, Carla Weaver, John Francis, and, especially, for the students who made the place warm, silly, and safe, people like Becca Lanners, Jeannette Harlowe, Logan Chinn, Emily Daubenmire, Christine Brown, Ewa Burchard, Dale Peterson, Ziad Sedki, Greg De Hoogh, Sara Afshar, Charles Fair, Andrew Wang, Denitsa Toneva, Ricky Lee, Rane Anderson, Eric Arney, Luke Schafer, Tiffany Searle, Michael Cannon, Jackie Chavez, Kristina Hill, Kassa Tesfalidet, Tiffany Mahan, Gaby Valenzuela, Alejandro Tiburcio and many others. You really have made my life amazing with your contributions to it. iv Thanks as well to Dr. Elena Miranda and the students at CSUN, who welcomed Christine and me into her microtectonics class with joy and a warm spirit of curiosity. The lion's share of editing and feedback for this thesis was splendidly and generously undertaken by Dr. Roswitha Grannell. She cares so much about the profession and the culture here, and it shows. A sheynem dank. Dr. Andreas Bill was able to fit in my work along with his other duties in the Department of Physics and Astronomy, and never once complained. He is a theorist using quantum mechanics to characterize materials, and I will always be grateful for his insights and welcoming invitation to share his world, one of beauty. Ewa Burchard gave me feedback and responses like a friend, because she is one. I will miss her as she leaves Long Beach for a training spot at the American Museum in New York. Of course, Dr. Jack Green takes the cake, as there are none like him, so warm, witty, generous, theatrical, brilliant, hard-working and fun. I would also like to highlight the community at CSULB, all of the students, faculty and staff, for making such a varied and open place, and for making me feel welcome enough to do creative work. While I typed this thesis at my "desk" outside, near the entrance to administration building, Brotman Hall, I was met with such kindness and humanity! Thanks especially to Irma Macias, Corion Lucas, John Nguyen, Linda Williams, Bruce Vancil, Mekonnen Garedow, Cecilia Fidora, Dr. Hillary Onyenche, Dr. Pete Perbix, Dr. Dave Sanfilippo, Valerie Iapello, Rachel Ang, and the members working at the various offices in Brotman Hall, who went out of their way to say hello and spread some joy each day. This kind of love is priceless. Dr. F. King Alexander, the former v President of the University, Dr. Don Para, the Provost, now interim President, and Dr. Cecile Lindsay, the Dean of Graduate Students all had a hand in sharing the joys of fellowship with me as I typed away. No other graduate student at CSULB has enjoyed such a warm welcome and collaborative spirit from the people whose work makes the university run. Thanks are due especially to Dr. Jeff Klaus, the Dean of Students, who cared for my spirit from the time I met him in the Office of Student Life and Development, as we worked together to set up a university-wide graduate student association, along with Michael Jackson and many others in that office. Thank you for your efforts and fuel for my dreams. A special thanks also goes to the staff of the CSULB University Library, for working closely with me as I borrowed several volumes from the Landolt-Börnstein New Series. These books came from as far away as Europe, and were worth thousands of dollars each. Please accept my gratitude also for wonderfully good cheer as I checked out and returned many hundreds of books that were used while I was a student and a teaching assistant here at CSULB. I hope the CSULB Foundation Center will call me and ask for a donation, since science without conscience is a thing to be avoided. Thank you, as well, to my neighbors in Rose Park in Long Beach, and to my daughter Ali and her mom Carol in Rhode Island, and to all those who cared and believed in me. vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.......................................................................................... iii LIST OF TABLES........................................................................................................ xv LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... xix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS....................................................................................... xxi LIST OF NOMENCLATURE......................................................................................xxxiii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1 2. TELLURIC CURRENTS .................................................................................. 6 Introduction................................................................................................. 6 Self Potential and GIC, Two Common Causes of Earth Electricity............................................................................ 7 Producing Electricity ...................................................................... 8 Causes: Telluric Currents........................................................................... 9 Space Phenomena ........................................................................... 13 Cosmic-particle flux............................................................ 13 Geomagnetically-induced currents, GIC ............................ 14 Planetary magnetic-field plasma......................................... 15 Atmospheric Phenomena ................................................................ 16 Traveling ionospheric disturbances, TID............................ 16 Lightning strikes ................................................................. 18 Lightning-strike induction .................................................. 19 Whistler induction............................................................... 20 Whistler plasma .................................................................. 20 Volcanic lightning strikes ................................................... 21 vii CHAPTER Page Storm charging.................................................................... 22 Oceanic Phenomena........................................................................ 23 Electrochemical effects in the ocean................................... 23 Ocean transport induction ................................................... 23 Oceanic charging ................................................................ 24 Metabolic electrochemistry in the ocean ............................ 24 Surface Phenomena......................................................................... 25 Artificial signals.................................................................. 25 Metabolic electrochemistry in soil...................................... 25 Exo-electron emission......................................................... 26 Groundwater Phenomena................................................................ 27 Electrochemical effects in groundwater.............................. 27 The electrokinetic effect ..................................................... 27 Seismic-dynamo induction.................................................. 28 Radioactive ionization ........................................................ 29 Other Terrestrial Phenomena .......................................................... 29 Volcanic electromagnetic signals ....................................... 29 Seismic electromagnetic signals ......................................... 30 Seismic electric signals ....................................................... 30 Fractoemission .................................................................... 31 Defect charging................................................................... 31 The piezoelectric effect....................................................... 32 The thermoelectric effect .................................................... 34 The pyroelectric effect ........................................................ 35 Magma electrochemistry..................................................... 35 Radioactive emission .......................................................... 36 Deep Terrestrial Phenomena........................................................... 36 Geomagnetic jerk ................................................................ 36 Monitoring Telluric Currents...................................................................... 37 3. CRYSTALLOGRAPHY OVERVIEW ............................................................. 40 Definition of a Crystal ................................................................................ 40 Crystal Systems........................................................................................... 43 Thermodynamics......................................................................................... 44 Phase Transitions ........................................................................................ 46 Using Mathematics to Describe Crystal Properties .................................... 48 Elastic Moduli............................................................................................. 49 Voigt Notation for Other Crystal Coefficients............................................ 50 viii CHAPTER Page Crystal Properties Across a Range of Temperatures and Pressures ........... 52 Electrical and Magnetic Properties ............................................................. 54 Conductivity and Dielectricity........................................................ 54 Piezoelectricity, Piezomagnetism and Their Converse Effects ...... 55 Electrostriction and Magnetostriction............................................. 56 Pyroelectricity, the Seebeck Effect and Thermoelectricity............. 56 Ferroelectricity, Antiferroelectricity and Paraelectricity ................ 57 Ferromagnetism, Ferrimagnetism, Paramagnetism and Diamagnetism ..................................................................... 58 The Piezooptic, Rotooptic, Electrooptic and Magnetooptic Effects, plus Electrogyration and Magnetogyration ........... 58 Computer Modeling .................................................................................... 60 4. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS......................................................................... 62 Sample Preparation ..................................................................................... 62 Making Aligned Cuts...................................................................... 62 Sample Lapping .............................................................................. 68 Sample Polishing ............................................................................ 72 Confirming Alignment.................................................................... 73 Determining Error........................................................................... 75 Sample Identification .................................................................................. 76 Temperature and Pressure Techniques ....................................................... 77 Elastic Data ................................................................................................. 80 Electrical and Magnetic Data...................................................................... 80 Simulating Metamorphic Reactions............................................................ 83 5. FERROELECTRIC, PYROELECTRIC, PIEZOELECTRIC AND SELECTED THERMOELECTRIC, DIELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC DATA FROM THE SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE .................................... 85 Introduction................................................................................................. 85 Lists of Minerals ......................................................................................... 86 Centrosymmetric Minerals Exhibiting Symmetry-Based Electricity ......... 91 Aminoffite....................................................................................... 93 Analcime, Gismondine-Ca, Gmelinite-Na, Thomsonite-Ca and Thornasite ........................................................................... 93 Arsenogoyazite ............................................................................... 94 Artinite ............................................................................................ 94 ix CHAPTER Page Bavenite .......................................................................................... 94 Benstonite ....................................................................................... 95 Beryl................................................................................................ 95 Breithauptite.................................................................................... 95 Brucite............................................................................................. 95 Bultfonteinite .................................................................................. 96 Coquimbite...................................................................................... 96 Crandallite....................................................................................... 96 Creedite ........................................................................................... 97 Dawsonite ....................................................................................... 97 Dioptase .......................................................................................... 97 Elpidite............................................................................................ 97 Eosphorite ....................................................................................... 98 Epistolite ......................................................................................... 98 Finnemanite..................................................................................... 98 Goyazite .......................................................................................... 99 Harmotome ..................................................................................... 99 Heulandite-Ca ................................................................................. 99 Innelite ............................................................................................ 99 Jeremejevite .................................................................................... 100 Kaliborite ........................................................................................ 100 Marialite.......................................................................................... 100 Meionite .......................................................................................... 100 Melanovanadite............................................................................... 101 Mimetite.......................................................................................... 101 Murmanite....................................................................................... 101 Muthmannite ................................................................................... 101 Nickeline ......................................................................................... 102 Nitrobarite ....................................................................................... 102 Parkerite .......................................................................................... 102 Pinnoite ........................................................................................... 103 Plumbojarosite ................................................................................ 103 Pyrochroite...................................................................................... 103 Pyromorphite................................................................................... 104 Quenselite ....................................................................................... 104 Sal Ammoniac................................................................................. 104 Sarcolite .......................................................................................... 104 Seligmannite ................................................................................... 105 Syngenite......................................................................................... 105 x CHAPTER Page Thaumasite...................................................................................... 105 Topaz............................................................................................... 106 Tyrolite............................................................................................ 106 Ussingite ......................................................................................... 106 Vermiculite ..................................................................................... 106 Wulfenite......................................................................................... 106 Explanations for the Apparent Violations of Piezoelectric Theory ............ 107 Mineral Data ............................................................................................... 109 Electrical and Magnetic Mineral Data in Metamorphic Settings.... 112 Bulk Rock Electrical Phenomena ............................................................... 120 Water............................................................................................... 123 Piezoelectric Effect in Rock............................................................ 125 Temperature and Pressure Effects .................................................. 125 Bulk Rock Magnetic Phenomena................................................................ 127 6. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM WITHIN METAMORPHIC REACTIONS AND DEFORMATION MECHANISMS........................... 129 Introduction................................................................................................. 129 Chemical Reactions in Metamorphism....................................................... 129 Deformation Mechanisms........................................................................... 131 Brittle Fracturing............................................................................. 132 Dissolution-Precipitation ................................................................ 132 Crystal Plastic Deformation............................................................ 133 Twinning and Kinking .................................................................... 134 Recovery ......................................................................................... 134 Dynamic Recrystallization.............................................................. 135 Diffusion Creep............................................................................... 135 Granular Flow ................................................................................. 136 Electric and Magnetic Phenomena Associated with Deformation Mechanisms .................................................................................... 136 Electric and Magnetic Phenomena with Brittle Fracture Mechanisms ........................................................................ 136 Electric ................................................................................ 136 Magnetic ............................................................................. 140 Electric and Magnetic Phenomena with Dissolution-Precipitation Mechanisms ........................................................................ 140 Electric ................................................................................ 140 Magnetic ............................................................................. 141 xi CHAPTER Page Electric and Magnetic Phenomena with Crystal Plastic Deformation Mechanisms................................................... 142 Electric ................................................................................ 142 Magnetic ............................................................................. 143 Electric and Magnetic Phenomena with Pressure Twinning and Kinking Mechanisms .......................................................... 144 Electric ................................................................................ 144 Magnetic ............................................................................. 145 Electric and Magnetic Phenomena with Recovery Mechanisms.... 146 Electric ................................................................................ 146 Magnetic ............................................................................. 146 Electric and Magnetic Phenomena with Dynamic Recrystal- lization Mechanisms ........................................................... 146 Electric ................................................................................ 146 Magnetic ............................................................................. 147 Electric and Magnetic Phenomena with Diffusion Creep Mechanisms ........................................................................ 147 Electric ................................................................................ 147 Magnetic ............................................................................. 148 Electric and Magnetic Phenomena with Granular Flow Mechanisms ........................................................................ 148 Electric ................................................................................ 148 Magnetic ............................................................................. 148 7. SEISMIC ELECTRIC SIGNAL (SES) RESEARCH ....................................... 149 Introduction................................................................................................. 149 Varotsos-Alexopoulos-Nomicos (VAN) Method ....................................... 149 Criticism of the VAN Method ........................................................ 154 Time Series Analysis of Presumed SES ......................................... 155 Mechanisms Causing SES .............................................................. 161 Solid state and pressure....................................................... 162 Solid state and temperature................................................. 162 Groundwater ....................................................................... 163 Ore bodies ........................................................................... 163 Data Relating to the Mechanisms of SES Generation .................... 163 Transmission of SES....................................................................... 166 Mechanisms Acting in Concert....................................................... 166 Short-Duration SES during an Earthquake ..................................... 167 xii CHAPTER Page Other Ongoing Research............................................................................. 167 8. DISCUSSION AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER WORK..................... 169 Introduction................................................................................................. 169 Earthquake Prediction................................................................................. 169 Selectivity Mapping for SES and Testing the Groundwater Hypotheses for SES ............................................................ 171 Geomagnetic and Telluric Data ...................................................... 172 Earthquake Prevention .................................................................... 173 Electricity and Magnetism as Hypothetical Causes for Seismic Events.................................................................................. 174 Mineral Lattices or Fluid Path Geometry as Hypothetical Causes of Groundwater Fluctuations associated with Earthquakes......................................................................... 175 Electricity, Magnetism and Volatiles as Hypothetical Causes for Seismic Events .................................................................... 176 Planetary Science Research ........................................................................ 178 Dielectric Strengths of Minerals ..................................................... 179 Mantle Anisotropy .......................................................................... 181 Metamorphic Models ...................................................................... 181 Heat Environment ........................................................................... 182 Online Model of the Electrical Fields of the Earth ......................... 183 Generalization to Other Planets ...................................................... 183 Application to Astrobiology ........................................................... 184 Energy Dependence and Climate Change................................................... 184 Science Education....................................................................................... 185 Summary ..................................................................................................... 187 APPENDICES .............................................................................................................. 191 A. LIST OF MINERALS EXHIBIING SYMMETRY-BASED ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES, PLUS SOME MINERALS WITH THERMO- ELECTRIC OR MAGNETIC PROPERTIES ............................................ 192 B. ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC MINERAL DATA ................................... 292 C. MINERALS ARRANGED BY MINERAL GROUP AND CHEMISTRY ..... 316 xiii APPENDIX Page D. MINERALS ARRANGED BY SYMMETRY................................................. 372 E. MINERALS ARRANGED BY PETROLOGIC SETTING ............................. 379 F. LIST AND SOURCES OF SUPPLIES FOR PREPARING SAMPLES .......... 385 G. SOURCES OF MINERAL DATA FOR THE TABLES ................................. 389 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 399 xiv  LIST OF TABLES TABLE Page 1. Electricity-Generation Models........................................................................... 9 2. Causes and Periods of Earth Electricity............................................................. 10 3. Magnitude, Duration and Transmission Frequency of Earth Electricity, Arranged by Magnitude .............................................................................. 12 4. List of Minerals Exhibiting Symmetry-Based Electrical Properties, plus Some Minerals with Thermoelectric or Magnetic Properties .................... 193 5. List of Supplies for Preparing Samples and Retail Contact Information........... 386 6. Retail Contact Information for Supplies Listed in Table 5................................ 388 7. Ferroelectric, Antiferroelectric and Paraelectric Minerals................................. 88 8. Pyroelectric Minerals ......................................................................................... 89 9. Piezoelectric Minerals........................................................................................ 90 10. Crystal Symmetry Notation Key...................................................................... 91 11. References for Crystal Structure Data in the List of Minerals in Table 4, Page 193...................................................................................................... 390 12. Ferroelectric Mineral Groups, with All Ferroelectric, Antiferroelectric or Paraelectric Minerals in Bold Type ............................................................ 317 13. Pyroelectric Mineral Groups, with All Pyroelectric Minerals in Bold Type... 320 14. Piezoelectric Mineral Groups, with All Piezoelectric Minerals in Bold Type 328 xv TABLE Page 15. References for Ferroelectric, Antiferroelectric and Paraelectric Minerals included in Table 7, Page 88 and Table 12, Page 317 ................................ 393 16. References for Pyroelectric Minerals Included in Table 8, Page 89 and Table 13, Page 320...................................................................................... 394 17. References for Piezoelectric Minerals Included in Table 9, Page 90 and Table 14, Page 328...................................................................................... 395 18. The 10th Edition Nickel-Strunz Classification of Minerals, with All Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric or Piezoelectric Minerals in Bold Type and Thermoelectric Minerals in Italic......................................................... 332 19. Minerals Exhibiting Ferro-, Pyro- or Piezoelectricity Arranged by Crystal System, Crystal Class and Overall Symmetry ............................................ 373 20. Centrosymmetric Minerals That Exhibit Symmetry-Based Electricity ........... 92 21. Explanations for Pyro- and Piezoelectricity in Centrosymmetric Minerals .... 110 22. Spontaneous Polarization (q) Data, Ferroelectric Minerals............................. 293 23. Electrocaloric Effect, Ferroelectric Minerals................................................... 294 24. Other Electrical Data, Ferroelectric Minerals.................................................. 294 25. Pyroelectric Polarization (p) Data for Minerals............................................... 295 26. Thermoelectric Potential (t) Data for Minerals................................................ 296 27. References for Ferroelectric Data (from Minerals) Included in Tables 22 through 24, Pages 293 through 294 ............................................................ 396 28. References for Pyroelectric Data (from Minerals) Included in Table 25, Page 295...................................................................................................... 396 29. References for Thermoelectric Data (from Minerals) Included in Table 26, Page 296...................................................................................................... 397 xvi TABLE Page 30. Piezoelectric (Electric Charge) Strain Rates (d) for Minerals ......................... 297 31. Piezoelectric (Electric Charge) Stress Rates (e) for Minerals ......................... 300 32. Piezoelectric (Electric Field) Strain Rates (g) for Minerals............................. 301 33. Piezoelectric (Electric Field) Stress Rates (h) for Minerals............................. 302 34. Electromechanical Coupling Factors (k) for Minerals..................................... 303 35. Ferroelectric Piezoelectric Strain and Stress Rates for Minerals..................... 304 36. Piezoelectric Rates (d, e, and k) During Temperature Variation for Minerals ...................................................................................................... 305 37. References for Piezoelectric Data (from Minerals) Included in Tables 30 through 36, Pages 297 through 305 ............................................................ 397 38. Relative Dielectric Strength (K) of Minerals ................................................... 306 39. Relative Dielectric Strength (K) of Minerals During Temperature Variation ..................................................................................................... 311 40. References for Dielectric Data (from Minerals) Included in Table 38, Page 306 and Table 39, Page 311........................................................................ 398 41. Magnetic Susceptibility (χ) Data for Minerals ................................................ 312 42. Spontaneous Magnetization (M0) Data for Minerals ....................................... 313 43. Saturation Magnetization Data for Ferromagnetic Minerals ........................... 314 44. Magnetostriction Data for Minerals................................................................. 315 45. Minerals Listed by Petrologic Setting.............................................................. 380 46. Constructing the Circles in Figures 15 through 25, Pages 113 through 119 ... 119 xvii TABLE Page 47. Mineral Data, with Measurement Temperatures, in Figures 15 through 25, Pages 113 through 119................................................................................ 120 48. Electric and Magnetic Influences on Chemical Reactions .............................. 132 49. Deformation Mechanisms and Associated Electric and Magnetic Phenomena Summarized............................................................................. 137 50. Data on Deformation Mechanisms and Associated Electric and Magnetic Phenomena.................................................................................................. 138 51. Important Results, Hypotheses and Recommendations for Further Study ...... 188 xviii  LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE Page 1. Heckmann diagram showing couplings among mechanical, electrical and thermal effects............................................................................................. 42 2. Sample box with digital angle gauge ................................................................. 64 3. Sample box with oriented sample ...................................................................... 65 4. Sample ready to be encased in wax ................................................................... 66 5. Cut sample ......................................................................................................... 67 6. Home-made mini saw blade from brass............................................................. 69 7. Home-made brass saw blade with slurry ........................................................... 70 8. Steel plate for lapping and polishing by hand.................................................... 71 9. Crystal lattice orientation with EBSD................................................................ 74 10. Geometric (vector) relationship between the true and observed magnitudes in a misoriented crystal plate ...................................................................... 76 11. Copper sample holder for heating at ambient pressure.................................... 78 12. Sample heating with a heat gun ....................................................................... 79 13. Sample holder for electrical measurements under applied pressure................ 81 14. Plungers for sample holders of various sizes................................................... 82 15. Electricity and magnetism in metamorphic and hydrothermal ore minerals ... 113 xix FIGURE Page 16. Electricity and magnetism in secondary ore minerals ..................................... 114 17. Electricity and magnetism in primary minerals from metamorphism of mafic rock ................................................................................................... 115 18. Electricity and magnetism in secondary minerals from metamorphism of mafic rock ................................................................................................... 115 19. Electricity and magnetism in primary minerals from high-grade metamorphism of silica-rich rock ............................................................... 116 20. Electricity and magnetism in minerals from contact or low-grade metamorphism of silica-rich rock ............................................................... 116 21. Electricity and magnetism in secondary minerals from metamorphism of silica-rich rock ............................................................................................ 117 22. Electricity and magnetism in secondary minerals from metamorphism of alkalic, silica-poor rock............................................................................... 117 23. Electricity and magnetism in minerals from regional metamorphism of carbonate-rich rock ..................................................................................... 118 24. Electricity and magnetism in skarn minerals and minerals from contact metamorphism of carbonate-rich rock ........................................................ 118 25. Electricity and magnetism in metasomatic minerals ....................................... 119 26. Record of electric field variations before and after the magnitude 4.8 earthquake of February 9, 1982 in the North Aegean................................. 150 27. Selectivities of three SES stations, Greece ...................................................... 153 xx  LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ± Plus or Minus ≈ Approximately Equal to < Less Than ≤ Less Than or Equal to > Greater Than ≥ Greater Than or Equal to ! Factorial ∝ Is Proportional to ∞ Infinity ° Degrees °C Degrees Celsius ºF Degrees Fahrenheit ⊥ Perpendicular 1 The x Axis in Voigt Notation 1 A 360° Rotational Symmetry Axis 1 A 360° Rotoinversion 2 The y Axis in Voigt Notation xxi 2 A Two-Fold Rotational Symmetry Axis 3 The z Axis in Voigt Notation 3 A Three-Fold Rotational Symmetry Axis 3 A Three-Fold Rotoinversion 4 The yz Plane in Voigt Notation 4 A Four-Fold Rotational Symmetry Axis 4 A Four-Fold Rotoinversion 5 The xz Plane in Voigt Notation 6 The xy Plane in Voigt Notation 6 A Six-Fold Rotational Symmetry Axis 6 A Six-Fold Rotoinversion -1 Divided by the Quantity -2 Divided by the Square of the Quantity -3 Divided by the Cube of the Quantity -x Divided by the Quantity Raised to X 2+ With a Positive Charge of Two 3+ With a Positive Charge of Three . . Nickel-Strunz Category [ ] Coordinated with Other Atoms by the Number [ ] Crystallographic Plane [] Lattice-Site Void xxii ∆ Change in ∂ Partial Derivative η Strain θ Angle Variable κ1 Variance in Natural Time Analysis µX Chemical Potential Energy of Phase X Π (v) Power Spectrum Π(v)ideal Ideal Power Spectrum π Ratio of Circumference to Diameter of a Circle ρ Electrical Resistivity ∑ Sum of σ Stress Φ Number of Phases χ Magnetic Susceptibility χi Natural Time Coefficient of the i-th event Ω Ohm A Ampere a Variation Indicator Variable a Primary Crystallographic Direction Ab Albite xxiii AC Alternating Current ACWI Advisory Committee on Water Information, USGS AT Shear Vibration Mode Thickness A B Magnetic Field Tensor b y Intercept b Secondary Crystallographic Direction BLG Bulging Recrystallization C Coulomb c Tertiary Crystallographic Direction c (ij) Stiffness c0 (ij) Original Stiffness Value for Calculations cS (ij) Adiabatic Stiffness cT (ij) Isothermal Stiffness Ccmm Crystallographic Space Group with an Additional Lattice Point on the c Axis, plus Three Mirror Planes, and Translation Along the c Plane at the Primary Symmetry Axis Cmcm Crystallographic Space Group with an Additional Lattice Point on the c Axis, plus Three Mirror Planes, and Translation Along the c Plane at the Secondary Symmetry Axis CSAMT Controlled Source Audio Magnetotelluric Survey D Critical Exponent D’’ Highly Conductive Region of the Earth’s Deep Mantle xxiv d Day d (ij) Piezoelectric (Electric Charge) Strain Rate DC Direct Current DD Dilatency Diffusion Model DFA Detrended Fluctuation Analysis DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid E- East Longitude [prefix] E Electric Field Tensor e- Electron e The Euler Number, Approximately 2.71828 e (ij) Piezoelectric (Electric Charge) Stress Rate EBSD Electron Backscatter Diffraction ECLAT European Cluster Assimilation Technology, Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of Leicester EDS Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy ELF Extremely Low Frequency Radio Signal EM Electromagnetic EURISGIC European Risk from Geomagnetically Induced Currents, Seventh Framework Programme (F7), European Union eV Electron Volt f Frequency FEG Field Emission Gun xxv FIB Focused Ion Beam G- Giga- [prefix] g Gram g (ij) Piezoelectric (Electric Field) Strain Rate GBM Grain Boundary Migration GIC Geomagnetically Induced Current GVEF Gradual Variation in the Electric Field of the Earth H Magnetic Field Strength, Divided by Vacuum Permability h (ij) Piezoelectric (Electric Field) Stress Rate HAARP High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program hr Hour Hz Hertz i Index Number i Square Root of Negative One IGRAC International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre, UNESCO IMA International Mineralogical Association IRIS Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology ISTP SB RAS Institute of Solar-Terrestrial Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Siberian Branch IUGS International Union of Geological Sciences j Index Number xxvi K Degrees Kelvin K (i) Relative Dielectric Strength k- Kilo- [prefix] k Constant Number k (ij) Electromechanical Coupling Factor k (p) Poled Electromechanical Coupling Factor k (t) Thickness Compressional Coupling Factor L Length LBD Landolt-Börnstein Database ln Natural Logarithm log Logarithm Base 10 M- Mega- [prefix] M Metal M0 Spontaneous Magnetization ML Local Earthquake Magnitude on the Richter Scale MS Saturation Magnetization M Magnetization Tensor m- Milli- [prefix] m Meter m Slope mo Observed Magnitude xxvii mt True Magnitude m Mirror Plane MAD Mean Angular Deviation MICRESS Microstructure Evolution Simulation Software min Minute MMSP Mesoscale Microstructure Simulation Project N- North Latitude [prefix] N Newtons Nf Number of Degrees of Freedom Nv Number of Independent Variables NX Number of Particles of Phase X n- Nano- [prefix] n Number of Events nc Number of Controlling Conditions in a System nm Number of Moles of a Gas nv Number of Variables in a System NIED National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention, Japan OH Hydroxide Or Orthoclase P Pressure xxviii PT Transition Pressure p- Pico- [prefix] p Electric Polarization p Pyroelectric Polarization Rate p Electric Polarization Tensor pi Fractional Quantity of Energy of the i-th Event Pa Pascal P Primitive Lattice Type Pbma Crystallographic Space Group with a Primitive Unit Cell, plus Three Mirror Planes, Translation Along the b Plane at the Primary Axis and Along the a Plane at the Tertiary Symmetry Axis Pc (ij) Pressure Stiffness Slope PcS (ij) Adiabatic Pressure Stiffness Slope PcT (ij) Isothermal Pressure Stiffness Slope PeakE Peak Value Across a Range of Electric Field Strengths PeakP Peak Value Across a Range of Pressures PeakT Peak Value Across a Range of Temperatures PFM Phase Field Model PGE Platinum Group Elements pH Power of Hydrogen Concentration Pmnm Crystallographic Space Group with a Primitive Unit Cell, plus Three Mirror Planes, with an Additional Translation xxix  Half-way Along the Diagonal of the Face Perpendicular to the Secondary Symmetry Axis Pnmm Crystallographic Space Group with a Primitive Unit Cell, plus Three Mirror Planes, with an Additional Translation Half-way Along the Diagonal of the Face Perpendicular to the Primary Symmetry Axis ppm Parts per Million Qi Quantity of Energy Released in the i-th Event Qtot Total Energy Released q Spontaneous Polarization Qz Quartz R Ideal Gas Constant R3c Crystallography Space Group with a Rhombohedral Unit Cell, a Three-Fold Symmetry Axis with a Rotoinversion at the Primary Symmetry Axis, and a Mirror Plane plus Translation along the c Plane at the Secondary Symmetry Axis R3m Crystallography Space Group with a Rhombohedral Unit Cell, a Three-Fold Symmetry Axis with a Rotoinversion at the Primary Symmetry Axis, and a Mirror Plane at the Secondary Symmetry Axis REE Rare Earth Elements RPM Rotations per Minute RRUFF The Name of a Scientist’s Cat RT Ambient Room Temperature S Siemens xxx Sn Entropy in Natural Time Analysis S Entropy s Segment Size s (ij) Compliance SGR Subgrain Rotation SEM Scanning Electron Microscope SES Seismic Electric Signal SI International System of Units SP Self Potential T Tesla T Temperature t Seebeck Coefficient Tc (ij) Temperature Stiffness Slope Tc(n) (ij) Polynomial Temperature Stiffness Factor TM Transition Metal T-P-X Temperature-Pressure-Chemistry U Internal Energy UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization U.S. United States USGS United States Geological Survey xxxi V Volt V Volume v Angle VAN Varotsos-Alexopoulos-Nomicos Var(x) Variation Measure Function VLF Very Low Frequency Radio Signal X Chemical Composition Variable x Number Variable Xl Crystal XRD X-Ray Diffraction y Number Variable xxxii  LIST OF NOMENCLATURE α-particle A helium nucleus formed through radioactive decay a Axis The primary crystallographic axis of a crystal (and that is not the axis of six-, four-, or three-fold rotation for hexagonal, tetragonal and trigonal crystals, respectively) Acicular Needle-like in form Activation Energy The energy required to initiate a process Acute Angle An angle measuring less than 90° Adiabatic A system at constant entropy Adsorb To attach to a surface Aesthenosphere The part of a planetary body immediately below its lithosphere, and that is subject to ductile deformation Albite The sodium-rich member of the plagioclase mineral group Albitite A rock composed primarily of albite, generally formed in a dike Albitization The transformation of plagioclase minerals within a rock to albite Alkali A substance containing either alkali metal or alkali earth elements Alkali Earth An element from the second group on the periodic table, namely beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium or radium xxxiii Alkali Metal An element from the first group on the periodic table, namely lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium or francium Alloy A solid solution of two or more metals Alluvium A deposit of unconsolidated sediment that has been transported by water, not of marine origin Alpine A hydrothermal classification, describing processes typically affecting subducted ophiolite rock, at high pressure and a range of low to high temperature Alteration A chemical change to a rock or mineral Alumina Al2O3 (corundum) used as an abrasive Aluminous Rock A rock that contains minerals with high aluminum content Amphibole A common silicate mineral group, typically rich in iron and magnesium, with aluminum sometimes substituting for the silicon atom Amphibolite A metamorphic rock composed mainly of minerals from the amphibole group, especially hornblende or actinolite. Amygdaloid A feature found in extrusive igneus rocks in which vesicles have been filled with a secondary mineral Andesite An extrusive igneus rock with intermediate chemical composition (in terms of silica, iron, magnesium, calcium and sodium content); the extrusive equivalent of diorite Angle Gauge A device for measuring angles Anion A negatively charged ion Anisotropic A material with properties that vary by direction Annealing A process of heating and cooling a metal, to remove internal stress and increase ductility xxxiv Anoxic Without oxygen Antiferroelectric An electrical phenomenon found in a ferroelectric material whose switchable sublattice orientations are orthogonal, and whose electrical response is asymmetrical, expressing more electricity under one orientation than another Antimonide A chemical substance containing the negative ion of antimony, valence three minus, as a major constituent Antimonite A chemical substance containing the positive ion of antimony, valence three plus, as a major constituent Arsenide A chemical substance containing the negative ion of arsenic, valence three minus, as a major constituent Arsenite A chemical substance containing the positive ion of arsenic, valence three plus, as a major constituent Arsenate A chemical substance containing an ion of arsenic and four oxygen atoms, with valence three minus, as a major constituent Ash A combustion product, with particle size < 4mm Astrobiology The study of life in the cosmos, especially related to its origin, distribution and evolution AT Cut A quartz plate cut with its thickness proportional to a frequency (1.661 MHz-mm), so that the overtones produced during vibrations are whole number odd multiples of the fundamental frequency of vibration Augite A common rock-forming mineral of the pyroxene group Authigenic A substance or thing generated in situ Avogadro’s Number A number that defines one mole of a substance, approximately 6.022 x 1023 particles xxxv b Axis The secondary crystallographic axis of a crystal (and that is not the axis of six-, four-, or three-fold rotation for hexagonal, tetragonal and trigonal crystals, respectively) b Plane A plane perpendicular to the b axis Banded Iron Formation A typically Precambrian rock composed of alternating layers of iron oxides (often magnetite or hematite) and shale or chert Bar A pressure unit equal to 100,000 pascals, and approximately equal to the atmospheric pressure of Earth at the equator Basalt A common extrusive igneous rock, rich in iron and magnesium minerals and calcium-rich plagioclase, and poor in silica Base Metal A metal that oxidizes or corrodes easily, such as iron, nickel, lead, zinc or copper Bedded Deposit A formation that contains secondary minerals along the bedding of sedimentary rock Benioff-Gutenberg A region of the upper mantle between the lithosphere and Low Velocity Zone aesthenosphere that is characterized by low seismic shear wave velocities Biogenic A process involving the metabolism of living organisms or a material created by such a process Birefringent A material with two different (orthogonal) refractive indices that refract electromagnetic radiation in different frequencies depending on orientation Bismuthide A chemical substance containing the negative ion of bismuth, valence three minus, as a major constituent Bismuthite A chemical substance containing the positive ion of bismuth, valence three plus, as a major constituent xxxvi Bitumen A semi-solid or highly viscous liquid form of petroleum, synonymous with asphalt Bolide Any large crater-forming meteorite whose chemical composition is unknown Boltzmann Constant A physical constant that relates the energy of an ideal gas to temperature Bond Energy The energy in chemical bonds, formed by the interactions of electrical charges or electrons Boro- A chemical substance containing boron Boson A fundamental class of particles distinguished from fermions (the other fundamental class) as follows: there is no limit to the number of bosons that can occupy the same quantum state simultaneously, whereas fermions are limited to a single particle per quantum state at any one time Botryoidal A mineral form that has a globular aspect; named for a "bunch of grapes" from the Greek Brazil Twin A quartz twin along the plane [1120] with the left- and right-handed structures combined (penetrating) in a single crystal Breccia A sedimentary rock composed of broken fragments of other rock in a fine-grained matrix Brittle Fracturing Brittle deformation (fracturing) at low temperature or high strain rate Bulging Recrystallization A dynamic recrystallization process in which one grain bulges into a neighboring grain, thereby capturing material and reducing the overall dislocation density of the aggregate c Axis The axis of six-, four-, or three-fold rotation for hexagonal, tetragonal and trigonal crystals, respectively xxxvii c Plane A plane perpendicular to the c axis Calcareous A rock or substance containing a significant amount of calcium carbonate Calcitic A rock that contains a significant amount of the mineral calcite Caliper A device to measure the thickness of a material to a specified precision Capillarity The ability to use surface tension to create fluid flow, based on very small channel size Carbide A chemical substance containing carbon and another, less electronegative element Carbon Tape Sticky tape made from the element carbon and available commercially for electron microscope work Carbonate A chemical substance containing an ion of carbon and three oxygen atoms, with valence two minus, as a major constituent Carbonatite An intrusive or extrusive igneous rock composed of more than 50% carbonate minerals Cartesian Coordinate Three-dimensional data graphic representation with System orthogonal axes and a sign convention that follows the right-hand rule Cation A positively-charged ion Cavitation The formation and subsequent collapse of small cavities in a substance Centrosymmetric A crystal lattice whose inverse lattice is identical Charge (1) A powdered sample, enclosed for heating at high or low pressures; (2) an electric charge xxxviii Charge Carrier The local host of an electrical charge, such as an ion, electron, or crystal lattice vacancy Charge Dislocation The displacement of an electrical charge carrier Charge Transmission The transmission of electrical charge through direct contact Charge-Vacancy Coupling A process involving the interaction of charged particles and charged structural vacancies in a material Chemical Potential Potential energy from chemical bonds that can be released during a chemical reaction Chiral A substance that is characterized by left-handed and right- handed forms Chlorite A chemical substance containing an ion of chlorine and two oxygen atoms, with valence one minus, as a major constituent Chondrite A class of stony (non-metallic) meteorites that have not undergone melting or chemical differentiation Chromate A chemical substance containing an ion of chromium and four oxygen atoms, with valence two minus, as a major constituent Clastic A previously fractured material, from the Greek verb “to cleave” Coal A carbon-rich sedimentary or metamorphic rock formed from plant matter Coble Creep A deformation mechanism in which lattice vacancies diffuse along grain boundaries Coercive Field The strength of the electric field needed to reverse the polarity of a ferroelectric material Colloid A particle fine enough to remain indefinitely suspended in water xxxix Complexing Agent A chemical compound (usually organic) that attaches to a metal ion with two or more separate coodinating bonds Compliance (1) The capacity of an elastic material to allow deformation; (2) the elastic modulus that one may use to convert stress data into strain data Compression Elastic or permanent deformation from being pressed together Concretion A typically spherical or ovoid mass in sedimentary rock formed by the precipitation of chemical cement Conductance The ability of a material to conduct electricity, measured in units of S, which is the inverse of resistance, that is, Ω-1 Conductivity The ability of a material to conduct electricity over a distance, measured in units of S m-1, for example, and which is the inverse of resistivity Contact Metamorphism A metamorphic process in which an igneous intrusion alters the surrounding rock mainly by heat Converse Piezoelectric The ability of a material to deform when subjected to an Effect electric field because of the field’s effect on the crystal lattice Converse Piezomagnetic The ability of a material to deform when subjected to a Effect magnetic field because of the field’s effect on the crystal lattice Country Rock A rock native to a region, as, for example, the basement rock underlying newer sedimentary rock may be termed the country rock Critical Exponent An exponent in an empirical power law whose value determines the criticality of the system Cross-Polarized Light Light transmitted through two polarizing plates at 90º angles to each other, generally with another medium (e.g. a crystal) between the two plates that may cause diffraction xl Crystal A solid material whose atomic arrangement repeats with a definite period Crystal Class Any of 32 distinct groups of crystals organized by the symmetries of the placement of atoms in their unit cells Crystal Face A flat surface on a crystal, created by natural crystal growth Crystal Lattice The arrangement of atoms in a crystal Crystal Plastic A deformation mechanism that occurs through the Deformation movement of lattice defects within crystals Cubic Crystal System A category of crystals in which the walls of the unit cell are perpendicular, and of equal length Curie Transition A phase transition in which a material changes from a permanent magnetic state, whether ferro-, ferri- or antiferromagnetic, to an induced (paramagnetic) magnetic state Cyanoacrylate A glue, also known as Super Glue® Cyclosilicate A silicate mineral whose framework is composed of rings of silicate tetrahedra Cyclotron Frequency The frequency of vibration of a charged particle moving perpendicular to a magnetic field d-Orbital An electron orbital characteristic of transition metals, containing ten electrons when full Dauphiné Twin A quartz twin rotated by 60º about the c axis Decibel In electrical applications, a logarithmic (base 10) unit of change in power or intensity determined by comparison with a given or reference value Defect Charging The electrical charging of defects in a crystal lattice Deformation A change in shape xli Deformation Band A region in a crystal with a high concentration of lattice dislocations that have migrated there during recovery, an early stage of annealing processes Deformation Mechanism A distinct process whereby rocks, metals or other materials accomodate strain Deformation Twinning A deformation mechanism in which the stress is accomodated as the growth of (often microscopic) crystal twins Degrees of Freedom The difference between the number of variables in a system and number of constraints upon them Denominator The number written below the line, for a fraction Dependent Variable A property which depends upon another property Depleted Soil A soil lacking in one or more of the following: major minerals (nitrogen, phosphorus or potassium), trace minerals, organic matter, neutral or close to neutral pH, and a range of microorganisms Derivative A measure of the rate of change of a variable Detrital Mineral A mineral that remains after other rock constituents have been weathered and transported away Deuteric A mineral that has been formed by alteration of original material during a late stage of igneous processes Deviatoric A process causing (or tendng to cause) a displacement Devitrification A process in which an amorphous (glass) phase is replaced by crystalline material Diabase An intrusive igneous rock akin to basalt, forming dikes or sills xlii Diagenesis A process of alteration to sediment or sedimentary rock at temperatures and pressures lower than those required for metamorphism or melting Diamagnetic A material that dampens a magnetic field Diborate A chemical substance containing an ion with two boron atoms as a major constituent Dichromate A chemical substance containing an ion with two chromium and seven oxygen atoms, with valence two minus, as a major constituent Dielectric An electrical insulator that can be polarized to store electric charge Dielectric Permittivity The ability of a substance to store electrical energy supplied by an externally applied electric field Differential Equation An equation with derivatives as some of its terms Diffusion Creep A deformation mechanism that accomodates strain at high temperatures by the random migration of lattice vacancies either along grain boundaries (Coble Creep) or within crystals (Nabarro-Herring Creep) Dike An igneous intrusion that forms a vertical or nearly vertical sheet Dilatency Diffusion A model for earthquakes nucleation, characterized by Model microcracking during a dilatency phase, and the migration of water and ions during a diffusion phase, with both processes acting together to overcome rock strength Dimer A structure formed of two chemical units Diopside A common mineral of the pyroxene group Dislocation Climb The migration (caused via movement of vacancies) of a glide plane to another part of a crystal lattice during crystal plastic deformation xliii Dislocation Creep The combination of dislocation glide and dislocation climb active at the same time Dislocation Glide The motion of defects along a slip plane over time, causing deformation to a crystal's shape Dislocation Loop A combination of line defects forming a circle or loop in a crystal lattice Dissolution-Precipitation A deformation mechanism occuring by pressure solution at grain boundaries, with the material precipitating elsewhere within the system Diurnal An event that occurs daily Dodecaborate A chemical substance containing an ion with twelve boron atoms as a major constituent Dolostone A sedimentary rock with a high (> 50%) concentration of the mineral dolomite Dopant A trace impurity added to a chemical substance to alter its electrical properties Druse A coating of usually small crystals that has grown on a rock surface Ductile Deformation without fracture Dunite An ultramafic igneous rock, composed primarily of olivine Dynamic Recrystallization A deformation mechanism in which the shapes, sizes and orientations of crystals and grain boundaries are altered to minimize defects and dislocations Eclogite A dense metamorphic rock resulting from high-pressure processes acting on mafic igneous parent rock Edge Dislocation A line defect formed at the edge of an extra half-lattice plane within a crystal lattice xliv Efflorescence A crystalline deposit that results from the dehydration of an earlier hydrated crystal Ejecta The debris or particles that are expelled during a volcanic or impact process Elastic An interaction with no permanent deformation or loss of energy Elastic Moduli The stiffness (c) and compliance (s) coefficients Electric Dipole A configuration of a material in which a pair of electric charges are separated by a small distance Electric Dipole Moment A measure of the polarization of a system of charges or polar molecules, measured in Coulomb meters, for example Electrical Impedence A measure of the total opposition to alternating electric current flow in a material, with resistance, inductance and capacitance making contributions Electrical Polarization The development of electrical charge in a material or on a surface Electrocaloric Effect A change in temperature due to the application of an external electric field Electrochemical Effect An electric current caused by the motion of the ions in an ion-rich fluid Electrogyration An applied electric field that changes the direction of photons being transmitted in a medium Electrokinetic Effect Electrostatic charging of a porous rock as a fluid carrying ions moves through it Electrolyte A chemical compound that contributes dissolved ions when added to a solvent Electromagnetic Force A force caused by interactions of electric charge or magnetic polarization xlv Electromagnetic Induction A process whereby a change in a magnetic field induces an electric current in a nearby conducting material, or a change in an electrical field induces a change in a nearby magnetic field, without relying on any physical contact of the materials involved Electromagnetic Radiation A form of energy characterized by frequency and wavelength, and carried by photons, which, in turn, mediate the electromagnetic force Electromechanical A calculated generalization of the piezoelectric stress and Coupling Factor strain rates into a single coefficient Electromigration A process in which an applied electric field recrystallizes a material and thereby produces desirable properties, useful in metals or thin film fabrication Electron Backscatter A technique which uses a phosphor screen to detect the Diffraction scattering interference of electrons from the bottom of a sample in a scanning electron microscope Electron Volt The amount of energy needed to move one electron across an electrical potential of one volt Electronegativity A measure of the ability of atoms, ions or other groups of elements to attract and retain electrons Electrooptic Effect An applied electric field that changes the frequency of photons being transmitted in a medium Electroremediation The application of an electric potential to the ground to attract metal (contaminant) ions in a well for removal. Electrostatic Induction A process whereby the presence of an electrical charge induces an equal and opposite charge to appear in a nearby material, to maintain the electrical neutrality of a system Electrostriction A process whereby materials constrict under an electric field, caused by surface charging xlvi Empirical Data or a law based on observation only, without any theoretical support Enantiomorphic A substance characterized by left-handed and right-handed forms Energy Dispersive X-Ray A system that uses X-rays generated in an electron Spectroscopy microscope to identify materials, based on characteristic inner-shell electron energies Enriched Zone A region of an ore or mineral deposit that is enriched in metals or minerals of interest Entropy A measure of the disorder of a system Epithermal A hydrothermal category characterized by low temperature (25 to 300ºC) and low pressure Euclidean Space A real coordinate space without curvature Euler Angles Three rotations that are used to describe the orientation of a solid in Euclidean space Evaporite A sedimentary mineral formed by evaporation and crystallization Exo-Electron Emission The release of low-energy electrons from a material during stress relaxation, or the addition of heat or photons, after an initial priming Exsolution A process whereby a mineral in solid solution becomes unstable, and two separate mineral phases form, typically in lamellae Extensive Parameter A parameter that does not depend on the amount of material present (in a thermodynamic system) Extremely Low Frequency A radio signal with a frequency from ten hertz to three Radio Signal thousand hertz (10 Hz to 3 kHz) xlvii Extrusive A mode of igneous rock formation in which magma reaches the surface, flowing out as lava or explosive forms, whether subaerial or submarine Facies A suite of rock types formed under specific conditions; for metamorphic facies, these are defined by the minerals that develop at different pressures and temperatures; for sedimentary facies, these are defined by rock features derived from the original depositional environments Factorial The multiplication of a number with all of the natural numbers that are less than that number Feldspar A group of common rock-forming minerals that contain potassium, sodium or calcium in an aluminous silicate framework Feldspathoid A group of minerals similar to feldspars, but with a lower silica content and different lattice symmetry Felsic A rock that is rich in feldspar and quartz; the "fel-" refers to feldspar, and the "-si-" to silicate Fenite A type of alkalic syenite that is formed by metasomatism Ferrimagnetic A material that displays a spontaneous (permanent) magnetic field based on its magnetic domain orientation Ferroan A compound or material containing iron Ferroelectric A material that can generate of an electric response under pressure, a response whose sign is switchable with an external electric field, which reorients two competing magnetic domain orientations Ferromagnetic A material that displays a spontaneous (switchable) magnetic field based on its magnetic domain orientation Ferrous A substance containing iron in a two plus valence state xlviii Finite Element Modeling A mathematical process that breaks a partial differential problem into related discrete functions that are solvable First Order Phase A description of a transition process in which both forms Transition coexist for part of the transition Flux The change in magnitude or direction of a field Foliation A layered form in metamorphic rock due to a preferred orientation of minerals Four-Fold Symmetry The quality that allows a shape to be rotated equally four times in 360º, whose form with each rotation is the same as the original form Fourier Transform A mathematical procedure that creates a new function showing how values in the original repeat with a definite period Fractoemission The emission of electrons in a fracture as electrons are distributed unevenly during fracture processes Fractoluminescence A process of electromagnetic emission in the visible light frequency range caused by the fracture of material and the subsequent release of electronic bond energy Fracture-charging The build-up of electrical charge in a fracture as electrons are distributed unevenly during fracture processes Fumarole A landform feature (e.g. a fissure) on the surface of a planet where volcanic gases are emitted Fundamental Frequency A pitch upon which the overtones are built in harmony Gabbro An intrusive igneous rock rich in iron- and magnesium- bearing minerals and lacking quartz, chemically equivalent to basalt Gangue A mass of unwanted material surrounding or closely mixed with ore minerals xlix Gauge Boson An elementary particle that mediates one of the fundamental forces of nature Geomagnetic Field Earth’s magnetic field Geomagnetic Jerk Short-term changes to the second derivative of the geomagnetic field Geomagnetically Induced Earth electric currents caused by solar wind or space Current weather, whose impact in the ionosphere creates changes in the geomagnetic field, which, in turn, cause electrical induction in the ground Germanate A mineral that contains the germanium tetrahedron, [GeO4]4—, as a primary constituent of the crystal lattice, or a rock composed of a high percentage of germanate minerals Glaucophane A common rock-forming mineral of the amphibole group Gneiss A common metamorphic rock with alternating dark and light bands, formed at high temperatures and pressures Grain Boundary Migration A dynamic recrystallization process in which grain shapes become interlocked (like a puzzle) from motion of the grain boundaries Granitic A rock with a chemical composition similar to granite Granular Flow A deformation mechanism in a fine-grained aggregate wherein the grains slide past one another to accomodate strain and develop a lattice-preferred orientation Gravity Wave Wave transmission of energy at a fluid interface or within a fluid where gravity and buoyancy act to oppose the displacement Greenstone A sequence of volcanic rock with a green aspect, for example, altered basalts l Greisen An alteration product of granitic rock, formed by contact with late stage gas- and water-rich fluids during granite emplacement Greywacke A sedimentary rock composed of poorly sorted angular sand grains in a clay matrix, formed by turbidity currents Groundmass The small-grained portion of an igneous rock that supports the larger crystals Geothermometer Minerals or structures whose properties indicate the temperature of rock formation or deformation Guano The excrement waste of bats, birds and seals Gutenberg-Richter Law An expression for the relationship between the magnitudes and number of earthquakes in a region, with frequency decreasing exponentially as magnitude increases Halide A mineral with fluorine, chlorine, bromine or iodine anions as a major constituent Hardpan A dense waterproof layer of some soil horizons below the upper topsoil layer, typically calcareous Harzburgite An ultramafic igneous rock containing mostly olivine and pyroxene Heat Gun A tool that looks and works like a hair-dryer, sold for heating old paint to make it easier to strip Heckmann Diagram A schematic diagram showing how mechanical and other physical effects are coupled together Heptaborate A chemical substance containing an ion with seven boron atoms as a major constituent Hexaborate A chemical substance containing an ion with six boron atoms as a major constituent Hexagonal A form exhibiting six-fold symmetry li Hexagonal Crystal System A category of crystals in which the unit cell displays six- fold symmetry and is prismatic along the c axis High-Frequency Electric or magnetic or electromagnetic phenomena of Electromagnetic Effects microwave or higher frequencies that can influence the orientation or energy state of materials High-Grade Metamorphism A metamorphic process occurring at about 800ºC or higher and at pressures found at 10 km depth or deeper Hornblende A common rock-forming mineral series of the amphibole group Humus A stable mass of organic material in soil Hydrostatic Pressure Pressure that is equal in all directions Hydrothermal A geologic process involving the circulation of heated water Hydroxide A chemical substance containing an ion with one oxygen and one hydrogen atom, with valence one negative, as a major constituent Hydroxy- A term denoting the presence of a hydroxide ion Hypabyssal A rock that is formed at medium to shallow depths in the Earth's crust Hysteresis Loop A trace of the electric field caused by the interaction of an externally applied field and a ferroelectric material, that shows different paths depending on whether the external field is increasing or decreasing Ideal Gas A gas in which the molecules are perfectly elastic in their collisions Impingement Microcrack A discontinuity (plus some dilation) at the grain contact, radiating in from the edge of the contact Inclusion A substance trapped inside a mineral during formation lii Independent Variable A property that does not depend on another property, used in equations Index A unique number with which to identify a variable, and also a synonym for “subscript” Infrared Electromagnetic radiation whose wavelength is longer than that of visible light, but shorter than microwaves or radio waves Ino- A crystal lattice in a framework structure composed of chains of the form that follows this prefix Inosilicate A silicate mineral whose framework is composed of chains of silicate tetrahedra Intensive Parameter A parameter that depends on the amount of material present (in a thermodynamic system) Intergranular Fracture A discontinuity (plus some dilation) between grains Intermediate Igneous Rock An igneous rock whose chemistry lies between felsic and mafic compositions Internal Energy The ability of a system to do work Internal Wave A wave that propagates through a medium but does not reach the surface or its other boundaries Interstitial An extra site within a crystal lattice Intrinsic A property that affects the thermodynamics of a reaction, and that doesn't increase by adding more material to the system, as, for example, adding more material does not necessarily change a system's temperature, thus, temperature is intrinsic Intrusive An igneous rock or process that was formed or occurs within the Earth liii Inverse Lattice A mathematical model created by reflecting the coordinates of a crystal lattice through a point, creating a set of inverse coordinates Iodate A chemical substance containing an ion with iodine and three oxygen atoms, with valence one minus, as a major constituent Ion An atom with electrical charge from either extra or fewer electrons compared to the number of protons in its nucleus Ionosphere The part of the Earth’s atmosphere from about 85 to 600 km, consisting of charged particles Ironstone A sedimentary rock with iron-rich minerals as a major constituent, and typically considered distinct from the rock of banded iron formations Isothermal A process conducted at constant temperature Isotropic A substance that is characterized by equal properties in all directions Jahn-Teller Effect A process whereby molecules become distorted so as to not maintain two or more electron configurations with equivalent energies Jig A holder used during drilling or sawing Kaolinitization A hydrothermal alteration process whereby feldspars and other clay minerals change to kaolinite Kelvin A scale for measuring temperature based on absolute zero, sharing the size of the degree with the Celsius scale Kerf The thickness of a saw blade Kikuchi Lines Bands of electrons diffracted by the crystal lattice planes of a sample during electron microscopy liv Kimberlite An ultramafic igneous rock that typically forms pipes, dikes and sills, and that may contains mantle xenoliths and minerals Kinetics The rate at which chemical reactions occur Kinking A deformation mechanism in which stress causes kinks to develop in a crystal grain Laccolith A dome-shaped sheet intrusion of igneous rock, formed by emplacement between layers of sedimentary rock Lacustrine Pertaining to lakes Lamella A plate-like structure occurring in a mineral Lapping The process of making the thickness uniform for a cut crystal plate Lateritic A soil rich in iron and aluminum hydroxides, typically formed by long-term chemical weathering in wet, hot tropical regions Lattice The orderly arrangement of atoms in a crystal Lattice Defect A flaw in the arrangement of atoms that make up a crystal Lattice-Preferred The shared alignment of crystallographic axes in an Orientation aggregate of crystals Leucite A rock-forming mineral of the feldspathoid group Leucosome The light-colored part of a migmatite, which itself is a mixture of high-grade metamorphic and igneous rock types, formed by partial melting Lignite The lowest-ranked grade of coal Limestone A sedimentary rock composed primarily of calcite lv Line Defect A defect in a crystal lattice occuring as a line (rather than as an isolated point) Linear An expression which varies proportionally, as in the equation: x = ky, where x and y are variables, and k is a constant Low-Frequency Electric or magnetic or electromagnetic phenomena of Electromagnetic Effects radio or lower frequencies Low-Grade Metamorphism A metamorphic process occurring at about 500ºC or lower and at pressures found at 30 km depth or shallower MacLaurin Series A mathematical expression that represents a function as the sum of the values of its derivatives around the origin MAD Number The tolerance (in degrees) when fitting Kikuchi lines from a sample with computer-generated Kikuchi lines Mafic A rock that is rich in magnesium and iron; the "ma-" refers to magnesium, and the "-fi-" to iron Magmatic Segregation A process during rock formation or volcanism in which minerals are segregated in a magma chamber Magnetic Domain A region in a magnetic material with uniform magnetic properties Magnetic Fabric A spatial and geometric configuration of the grains in rock that displays a magnetic anisotropy Magnetic Susceptibility The volume magnetic susceptibility, a measure of the magnetization of a material in response to a magnetic field Magnetization The development of magnetic polarization in a material or on a surface Magnetogyration An applied magnetic field process that changes the direction of photons being transmitted in a medium Magnetooptic Effect An applied magnetic field process that changes the frequency of photons being transmitted in a medium lvi Magnetostriction The constriction of materials under the influence of a magnetic field, caused by surface polarization Magnetotail The distal part of an oblong magnetic field Magnetotelluric A term referring to both magnetic and electrical constituents in the ground, whether artificially induced or natural Malter Effect The pulling of electrons to the surface of a material from deep inside during fractoemission Manganite A hydroxide of manganese oxide Manganoan A substance containing manganese Marble A metamorphic rock formed from limestone of dolostone Marl A mud or mudstone rich in calcium carbonate Massif A group of mountains formed by faulting of a large section of the Earth's crust Matrix The small-grained portion of soil, sediment, or sedimentary rock that supports larger rock fragments Medium A substance that transmits some physical property, wave, or wave-like particle Megaborate A chemical substance containing an ion with seven or more boron atoms as a major constituent Melamine A white material used to coat some press- and particle board Melanite A black, titanium-rich variety of andradite garnet Melanosome The dark-colored part of a migmatite, which itself is a mixture of high-grade metamorphic and igneous rock types, formed by partial melting lvii Mesitylene A benzene derivative with three methyl groups substituting symmetrically on the benzene ring Mesothermal A hydrothermal category characterized by moderate temperature (250 to 450ºC) and low to moderate pressure Meta- A metamorphic rock that formed from the rock type listed after this prefix, e.g. metaconglomerate Metal A material that is a good conductor of heat and electricity because of its electron configuration Metalloid A material that has properties in between those of metals and non-metals, also called a semi-metal: boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, selenium or tellurium, for example Metamorphic Facies An assemblage of metamorphic minerals formed under similar pressure and temperature conditions Metamorphism A solid-state change in the chemistry of earth materials, associated with the parameters of pressure, temperature, chemical composition and time Metasomatism A solid-state change in the chemistry of earth materials, similar to metamorphism, but at near-surface temperatures and pressures, and often involving fluid. Miarolitic A rock containing irregular-shaped cavities lined with crystals Micaceous A rock with abundant mica Micron A micrometer, with 1,000 micrometers equal to 1 mm Microtectonics The study of small deformation structures using microscopes Migmatite A mixture of high-grade metamorphic and igneous rock types, formed by partial melting lviii Mineral A natural, solid, crystalline material with a distinct chemical formula formed by geologic processes Mineral Group A set of minerals whose crystal lattices are similar, but with different atoms occupying some lattice sites Mineral Supergroup A set of mineral groups, whose members share lattice similarities Mineralogical Topics relating to minerals Mirror Plane A symmetry element that rotoinverts points as a mirror does, with two-fold symmetry Mole The amount of material in 12 grams of carbon-12 Molybdate A chemical substance containing an ion with molybdenum and four oxygen atoms, with valence two minus, as a major constituent Moment Magnitude A measure of earthquake magnitude based on the area of rupture, the length of the dislocation, and the stiffness of the earth materials Monoborate A chemical substance containing an ion with one boron atom as a major constituent Monoclinic Crystal A category of crystals in which the unit cell walls are not System orthogonal, but two of the walls are parallel Nabarro-Herring Creep A deformation mechanism in which lattice vacancies diffuse through crystal lattices Natural Fission Reactor A rock that contains radionuclides and hosts naturally- occurring fission reactions Natural Log A logarithm with the Euler number (e) as its base Natural Number A digital number and member of the set {1,2,3,4,…,∞} lix Néel Temperature A magnetic phase transition temperature above which ferri- or antiferrimagnetic materials change to an induced (paramagnetic) state Neso- A crystal lattice in a framework structure composed of the form that follows this prefix, connected indirectly via other atoms or ions Nesosilicate A silicate mineral whose framework is composed of silicate tetrahedra connected to each other indirectly via other atoms or ions Newton The amount of force needed to accelerate one gram at one meter per second per second Nickel-Strunz A mineral classification system Niobate A chemical substance containing an ion with niobium atoms as a major constituent Nitrate A chemical substance containing an ion with nitrogen and three oxygen atoms, with valence one minus, as a major constituent Nitride A chemical substance containing nitrogen in an oxidation state of three minus Non-Centrosymmetric A crystal lattice whose inverse lattice can be rotated to match the original lattice Nonmetal Any of the following elements, sharing common properties such as low density, high electronegativity, and poor conductance of heat and electricity when compared to metals: hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen, sulfur, selenium, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, astatine and the noble gasses Norite A mafic intrusive igneous rock similar to gabbro, but with orthopyroxene instead of clinopyroxene Normal Forms that intersect at a right angle lx Numerator The number written above the line, for a fraction Oblique An angle that is not 90º Obsidian A glassy extrusive igneous rock of felsic composition Octahedron An eight-pointed solid composed of two square-based pyramids stacked base to base Oolitic A sedimentary rock composed of spherical grains with concentric layers Open System In thermodynamics, a system that can receive inputs from outside itself Ophiolite A group of rock types formed via mid-ocean ridge volcanism into ultramafic crust, including, in sequence, muds and cherts, greenstone, gabbro, serpentinite, and peridotite Optic Axis An orientation based on variation in the transmission of light through a crystal Order of Magnitude An approximation of the size of a number, specifying the power of 10 to which the number is closest Ordinal That which can be put in order Ore Rock with enough metallic minerals in it to be mined commercially Organic A category including most chemical compounds containing carbon, typically those that form from biological rather than geological processes Orthoclase Feldspar A common rock-forming group of potassic aluminosilicate minerals that cleave at a 90º angle Orthogonal Forms that intersect at a right angle lxi Orthorhombic Crystal A category of crystals in which the walls of the unit cell are System perpendicular and of unequal length Overtone A tone whose frequency is some simple function of a fundamental frequency, and whose sound is higher in pitch Oxidation A chemical reaction wherein electrons are lost Oxide A chemical substance containing oxygen bonded with at least one other element Oxy- A chemical substance containing oxygen Paraelectric A material that strengthens an electric field and increases it more than linearly Paramagnetic A material that strengthens a magnetic field and increases it more than linearly Partial Derivative A measure of the rate of change of a variable while holding other variables constant Partial Differential An equation with partial derivatives as some of its terms Equation Pascal A unit of pressure equal to one newton per square meter Pauli Paramagnetism A weak form of paramagnetism caused by the difference in magnetic potential energy between spin-up and spin-down electron states Peat A stable mass of partially decomposed vegetation Pegmatite An intrusive igneous rock with large (> 2.5 cm) crystals, often of granitic composition Pelitic A fine-grained rock or sediment Peltier Effect The generation of heat at an electrified junction of two dissimilar conductors lxii Penrose Tiles A set of tile shapes that will cover a flat surface without any repeating pattern Pentaborate A chemical substance containing an ion with five boron atoms as a major constituent Periclase A magnesium oxide mineral, typically occurring in contact metamorphic zones Peridotite An ultramafic intrusive igneous rock consisting mainly of olivine and pyroxene Period A unit of time Peroxy A chemical bond in which two oxygen atoms are present where only one is normally found Perpendicular Forms that intersect at a right angle Petrologic A descriptive term relating to rocks Phase A distinctive chemical or physical state of a substance Phase Field Model A mathematical system that describes boundary interfaces with partial differential equations Phonolite An extrusive igneous rock of intermediate composition and low silica content, typically containing feldspathoid minerals Phosphate A chemical substance containing an ion with phosphorus and four oxygen atoms, with valence three minus, as a major constituent Phosphide A chemical substance with phosphorus as the more electronegative constituent Phosphorite A sedimentary rock rich in phosphorus, not formed by weathering or erosion of pre-existing rock Photon A particle of light or other electromagnetic phenomenon lxiii Phyllo- A crystal lattice in a framework structure composed of the form that follows this prefix, connected directly in sheets Phyllosilicate A silicate mineral whose framework is composed of silicate tetrahedra connected to each other in sheets Piezoelectric Strain Rate A measure of the rate at which a material transforms strain into electricity, observed either as an electric charge (d) or as an electric field (g) Piezoelectric Stress Rate A measure of the rate at which a material transforms stress into electricity, observed either as an electric charge (e) or as an electric field (h) Piezoelectricity An electrical field or charge caused during the application of pressure, due to distortion of a crystal lattice Piezomagnetism A magnetic field or polarization caused during the application of pressure, due to distortion of a crystal lattice Piezooptic Effect A change in the frequency of photons being transmitted within a medium due to pressure Pinning Wall The boundary separating magnetic domains Pipe A large, carotiform igneous structure formed through deep volcanic eruptions Placer Deposit A clastic mineral deposit formed by separation due to gravity during transport Plagioclase Feldspar A common rock-forming group of aluminosilicate minerals that cleave at an inclined angle Plane A flat surface defined by three (nonlinear) points Plasma A state of matter where both fluid flow and the local action of electrical charge influence its dynamic behavior, generally thought of as a charged gas Plastic Viscous flow in a medium without fracture lxiv Plate A thin material sample with parallel sides Platinum Group Elements Ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium and platinum Playa A dry, alkaline lake with surficial evaporite deposits, usually found in desert regions Pleat Dislocation A combinatin of screw and edge dislocations that looks like a pleat in a crystal lattice Plume The cloud arising from a volcanic eruption Plutonic A rock forming at depth within the Earth Pneumatolytic An igneous alteration process caused by the presence of volcanic gasses Point Defect A defect in a crystal lattice occuring as an isolated point (rather than as a line) Point Group An organization of geometry based on taking one point as fixed and performing symmetry operations (such as rotation, translation and rotoinversion) to generate the other points, with symmetry properties distinguishing the different groups Polar A molecule or complex ion that displays positive and negative electric charges separated by a distance Polar Chorus Radio signals at high latitudes caused by the motions of charged particles in the ionosphere Poled Electromechanical A value calculated from a thin disk of a crystal cut Coupling Factor normal to the c axis while under an externally applied electric field Polygon A two-dimensional figure with regular sides and angles Polyhedron A three-dimensional figure with regular sides and angles lxv Polymetallic A substance containing several types of metal Polynomial An expression with variables in powers (or which has terms that cannot be added for other reasons), as in the expression x4 + 2x Polytetrafluoroethylene A non-reactive insulating material commonly sold under the commercial name Teflon® Pore Pressure Pressure caused by the presence of fluid within the pore space of a rock Porphyry An igneous rock containing large crystals set in a fine- grained groundmass Potash A salt with potassium as a major constituent Potassic A material that is high in potassium Potential Electrical potential, synonymous with voltage Power of Hydrogen (pH) A measure of the hydrogen concentration of a liquid, indicating its acidity or alkalinity Power Spectrum The characterization of a signal according to variation in its frequency compared to some other quantity Precipitate A process whereby a chemical compound separates out via phase transition, e.g. a solid precipitating from a liquid solution; or, the (solid) chemical product of this process Pressure Slope A measure of the rate of change in some parameter across a range of pressures Pressure Solution The dissolution of material caused by pressure Pressure Stiffness Slope A measure of the rate of change in elastic moduli across a range of pressures Primary Mineral A mineral that formed during the formation of a rock lxvi Primary Pyroelectric Pyroelectricity caused by the electrical polarity of the Effect crystal lattice Prime Number A number divisible only by itself and by one Primitive Lattice A unit cell with lattice sites on the corners, but without sites at the centers of the walls of the cell or at the center of the unit cell itself Prism An elongated solid form similar to a cylinder, but with a polygon in cross section instead of a circle Projection A mathematical procedure for making a derivative image from an original, comparable to light casting a shadow Pulaskite A variety of syenite composed primarily of orthoclase, sodium-rich pyroxene, arfvedsonite (an amphibole group) and nepheline Pyroclastic A rock composed chiefly of angular fragments of primarily volcanic rock, with or without clasts of country rock Pyroelectricity The expression of electric charge, voltage or current at the ends of the polar axis of a crystal due to its lattice symmetry Pyroxene A common silicate mineral group, typically rich in iron and magnesium Pyroxenite An ultramafic igneous rock composed mainly of pyroxene Radionuclides Atoms that give off radiation as the result of radioactive decay or nuclear fission Raman Spectroscopy A non-invasive technique to identify a crystal by shining a laser on it and correlating the unique resulting emission spectrum with a catalog of spectra for known crystals Rare Earth Element Any of the fifteen lanthanides, plus scandium and yttrium Reciprocal Space A space created by performing a Fourier transform on a set of coordinates or a function lxvii Recovery Mechanism A deformation mechanism that lowers the internal strain of a crystal by segregating lattice dislocations Reduction A chemical reaction wherein electrons are gained Reflector Any material that reflects neutrons during neutron diffraction analysis Refractive The ability to refract electromagnetic radiation Regional Metamorphism A class of metamorphic processes that occur over large areas and typically involve mountain formation Relative Dielectric The ability of a material to hold electric charge, measured Strength in proportion to the dielectric strength of a vacuum Remanent Field (1) The magnetization that remains in magnetic materials after a magnetizing field has been removed; (2) for ferroelectric materials, the strength of the electric field remaining when no applied electric field is present Resistance The ability of a material to resist the flow of electric current, measured in units of Ω, for example Resistivity Resistance to the flow of electric current over a distance, measured in units of Ω m, for example Retrograde Alteration A change to a material at lower temperatures and pressures than previously attained Rhyolite A felsic extrusive igneous rock, equivalent to granite in composition Right Angle 90º Rotation A symmetry operation of moving every point to a new position that makes the same angle with respect to the origin and the old position lxviii Rotoinversion A symmetry operation wherein all points are rotated about an axis and reflected with a plane perpindicular to the rotation axis, as in a mirror, for example, which creates a rotation of 180° Rotooptic Effect A change in the direction of photons being transmitted in a medium by the application of pressure Sandstone A sedimentary rock formed primarily from sand-sized (1/16 to 2 mm) sediment grains Sanidinite Facies A high-temperature, low-pressure metamorphic regime, generally restricted to some contact metamorphic environments Sapwood The part of a tree where sap flows, outside the heartwood Saturation Magnetization The magnetic field strength needed to reverse the magnetic polarity of a ferromagnetic material Scanning Electron A microscope used to image samples via a beam of Microscope electrons striking a sample with detectors placed above the sample Schist A medium-grade foliated metamorphic rock Screw Dislocation A line defect formed by a twist about an axis in order to accommodate three-dimensional lattice defects Second Derivative The change in the slope of a function Second Order Phase A description of a transition process in which both forms Transition do not coexist for any part of the transition Second Order Term In crystallographic notation, a term with two indices Secondary Mineral A mineral that formed after the original formation of a rock Secondary Pyroelectric The expression of electric charge in a pyroelectric material Effect caused by piezoelectricity as heat deforms the crystal lattice lxix Seebeck Effect An electromotive force and electric current that occur in a conducting material as it is subjected to a temperature gradient Seebeck Coefficient A measure of the field strength of the thermoelectric effect, in volts per degree Seismic Phenomena related to earthquakes Seismic Electric Signal Electrical phenomenon associated with an earthquake Selenate A chemical substance containing an ion with selenium and four oxygen atoms, with valence two minus, as a major constituent Selenide A chemical substance containing the negative ion of selenium, valence two minus, as a major constituent Selenite A chemical substance containing an ion with selenium and three oxygen atoms, with valence two minus, as a major constituent Self Potential An electrical potential in a porous medium or rock, caused by the motion of an ion-rich fluid, and by the inductive electrostatic charging of the material through which the flow occurs Semiconductor A material which conducts electricity when a certain voltage threshold has been reached, called the band gap Serpentinite A rock with serpentine minerals as the major constituent Serpentinization A metamorphic process wherein minerals in mafic and ultramafic rock are altered to serpentine minerals via low- temperature metamorphic processes involving water Sferic Radio-frequency atmospheric signal Shale A fine grained sedimentary rock with clay-sized (< 1/256 mm) constituent grains predominantly lxx Shear Extension or slip along a plane by a force that is directed parallel to the plane, or at an acute angle Shear Zone A region of high tectonic stress where earthquakes occur Shonkinite An alkaline intrusive igneous rock similar to syenite, but with feldspathoids as major constituents Siemens A unit of electrical conductance, equivalent to Ω-1 Sierra Cup A cup made from metal with a thin metal handle that cools quickly enough for use while heating Silicate A mineral that contains the silicon tetrahedron, [SiO4]4-, as a primary constituent of the crystal lattice, or a rock composed of a high percentage of silicate minerals Silicide A chemical substance with silicon as the more electronegative constituent Silicification A geologic process whereby organic material in a substance is replaced with silica Sill A horizontal or nearly horizontal igneous sheet intrusion Siltstone A sedimentary rock with constituent grains of silt size (1/16 to 1/256 mm) as major constituents Six-Fold Symmetry The quality that allows a shape to be rotated equally six times in 360º, whose form with each rotation is the same as the original form Skarn A rock containing calc-silicates, typically formed by the intrusion of granitic material into calcium-bearing or calcium-carbonate rich rock Skeletal Inclusion An inclusion in a mineral that contains only the original edges of the including material Slag A partly glassy waste meterial from an industrual process, containing metal and silica lxxi Slip Band A crystal lattice region with a high concentration of dislocations Slip System A combination of slip plane and slip direction giving a unique orientation to deformation in a crystal Slope The difference in altitude divided by the difference in extent, also known as “rise over run” Slurry A fluid that contains solids Solfataric A material derived from sulfate-rich fumarole processes Solid Solution A crystal that can incorporate more than one type of atom into a lattice site Solidus The temperature boundary below which a material is completely solid, the values of which are dependent on pressure and chemistry Sorosilicate A silicate mineral whose framework is composed of pairs of silicate tetrahedra Space Group An organization of space based upon symmetry operations Spodumene A mineral of the pyroxene group containing lithium and aluminum Spontaneous Polarization The appearance of electric charge due to changes in temperature while other parameters are held constant Sprue A channel used during casting to allow molten material to enter the mold and to allow gases to escape Stacking Fault Misfitted edges in a crystal lattice caused by a combination of line or point defects Stalactite A dripstone hanging down from the roof of a cave lxxii Stiffness (1) The capacity of an elastic material to resist deformation; (2) the elastic modulus that one may use to convert strain data into stress data Stoichiometry A measure of the relative amounts of constituent elements or ions in chemical reactions Strain A normalized measure of length displacement caused by stress Stratiform A general term for a layered deposit Stratosphere The part of the Earth’s atmosphere just above the troposphere, reaching from about 10 to 15 km to 50 km above the surface of the Earth for midlatitude regions, and that is stratified with the hotter layers at the higher positions Streaming Potential Electrical potential caused by the electrokinetic effect Stress The average force per unit area that some particle of a body exerts on an adjacent particle across an imaginary internal surface Stress Corrosion Cracking Microfracture growth caused by a chemical reaction Subcritical Microcrack A slow process of microfracture growth based on stress, Growth temperature and the surrounding chemical environment Subduction A process in plate tectonics in which generally oceanic lithospheric plates descend into the mantle Subgrain A region in a crystal with a slightly different lattice orientation Subgrain Rotation A dynamic recrystallization process in which new grains are formed from subgrains in a crystal Sublattice A portion of a crystal lattice lxxiii Sublimate A condensate; this usage is restricted to geology as, generally, sublimate means the reverse of condensate Sulfantimonite A chemical substance with three elements: a metal, antimony, and sulfur, as major constituents Sulfarsenite A chemical substance with three elements: a metal, arsenic, and sulfur, as major constituents Sulfate A chemical substance containing an ion with sulfur and four oxygen atoms, with valence two minus, as a major constituent Sulfbismuthite A chemical substance with three elements: a metal, bismuth, and sulfur, as major constituents Sulfide A chemical substance containing the negative ion of sulfur, valence two minus, as a major constituent Sulfite A chemical substance containing an ion with sulfur and three oxygen atoms, with valence two minus, as a major constituent Sulfosalt A chemical substance containing the negative ion of sulfur and two other elements, typically a metal and a semi-metal Supergroup A category in mineral taxonomy above mineral group Superplasticity A deformation mechanism in a fine-grained aggregate wherein the grains slide past one another to accomodate strain without any lattice-preferred orientation Syenite An alkaline felsic intrusive igneous rock, lacking quartz Symmetry Repetition of forms Tactite A synonym for skarn, typically formed by the intrusion of granitic material into calcium-bearing or calcium-carbonate rich rock lxxiv Tecto- A crystal lattice in a framework structure composed of the form that follows this prefix Tectosilicate A silicate mineral whose framework is composed of silicate tetrahedra connected to each other directly in an extensive structure Tellurate A chemical substance containing an ion with tellurium and four oxygen atoms, with valence two minus, or with tellurium and six oxygen atoms, with valence six minus, as a major constituent Telluric Phenomena of or relating to the Earth Telluric Current A natural electric current in the Earth or in a body of water, or in another planet or in a body of liquid other than water (as with lakes of methane on Titan), or an electric current in the Earth of unknown origin Telluride A chemical substance containing the negative ion of tellurium, valence two minus, as a major constituent Tellurite A chemical substance containing an ion with tellurium and three oxygen atoms, with valence two minus, as a major constituent Temperature A measure of the ability to transmit heat for a material or system Temperature Gradient The rate of change in temperature when one measures temperature along a physical path Temperature Slope A measure of the rate of change in some parameter across a range of temperatures Temperature Stiffness A measure of the change in elastic moduli across a range of Slope temperatures Tension Elastic or permanent deformation in a material while being pulled apart lxxv Tensor A set of numbers in several dimensions; a vector, for example is a tensor in two dimensions, these being direction and magnitude Tensile Strength The ability of a material to withstand being pulled apart Tephrite An extrusive igneous rock with abundant feldspathoid minerals and lacking quartz Tesla A unit of magnetic-field strength, defined as the strength of a magnetic field that allows a particle carrying a charge of one coulomb at a speed of one meter per second perpendicular to the field to experience one newton of force Tetraborate A chemical substance containing an ion with four boron atoms as a major constituent Tetragonal A form exhibiting four-fold symmetry Tetragonal Crystal System A category of crystals in which the unit cell displays four- fold symmetry and is prismatic along the c axis Tetrahedron A pyramid with a triangular base, so named because it has four corners Thermocouple A device made from two dissimilar metals to measure temperature, with an electric signal caused by the Seebeck effect Thermodynamic A state of balance for a system with no net flows of Equilibrium energy, matter, driving forces, or changes of phase Thermodynamics The study of how systems change over time, based on parameters that influence the energy inside a system Thermoelectric Effect Electric current caused by a temperature gradient within a conductor, as ions or other charge carriers are mobilized by the heat Thermoplastic A material that becomes soft on heating and can flow plastically lxxvi Thickness Compressional A value taken from a thin disk cut normal to a symmetry Coupling Factor axis or parallel to a symmetry plane, so that the compressional component is not coupled to the shear component Thio- A substance containing sulfur, such as thiocyanate, [SCN]— Third Order Term In crystallographic notation, a variable or constant with three indices Thomson Effect The generation of heat in an electrified conductor caused by a gradient in the Seebeck coefficient of that material Three-Fold Symmetry The quality that allows a shape to be rotated equally three times in 360º, whose form with each rotation is the same as the original form Tiling The study of how shapes cover space Topology The study of mathematics describing the classification of surfaces T-P-X Model A phase diagram or set of phase diagrams based on the temperature (T), pressure (P) and chemistry (X) of rock conditions Trachyte An extrusive igneous rock chemically equivalent to syenite, commonly with feldspathoids and lacking quartz Transgranular Fracture A discontinuity (plus some dilation) across grains Translation A symmetry operation of moving every point the same distance in the same direction Tremolite A metamorphic mineral of the amphibole group Triboluminescence A phenomenon in which light is generated via fracture, scratching, crushing or various other mechanical processes that break chemical bonds lxxvii Triborate A chemical substance containing an ion with three boron atoms as a major constituent Triclinic Crystal System A category of crystals in which none of the walls of the unit cell are parallel Trigonal A form exhibiting three-fold symmetry Trigonal Crystal System A category of crystals in which the unit cell displays three- fold symmetry and is prismatic along the c axis Trimer A structure formed of three chemical units Troposphere The 7 to 20 km thick part of the Earth’s atmosphere closest to its surface Tuff A rock consisting of consolidated volcanic ash Tuffaceous A rock consisting of greater than 50% tuff, but with other constituents Turbidity Current A density-driven subaqueous flow of water plus material in suspension, akin to a debris flow Two-Fold Symmetry The quality that allows a shape to be rotated equally two times in 360º, whose form with each rotation is the same as the original form Ultramafic A rock containing more than 90% mafic minerals and very low silica content Undulose Extinction A process of alignment between polarized light traveling through a crystal and the optic axes of the crystal in which the darkness (from the alignment) is not regionally uniform Unit Cell The basic repeating pattern for the arrangement of atoms in a crystal Upset Forge Magnet A magnet in which the magnetism is created via deformation or recrystallization of the crystal lattice of the material lxxviii Uranyl A polyatomic ion with uranium and two oxygen atoms, valence two plus Vacancy An unfilled site within a crystal lattice Vadose Zone The part of an aquifer that is mostly unsaturated, lying between the surface of the Earth and the water table Vanadate A chemical substance containing an ion with vanadium and oxygen atoms as a major constituent Variable A mathematical expression that can represent different values depending on what information is given Vector A mathematical quantity characterized by both magnitude and direction Vein A rock structure containing a mass of minerals encolsed in a fissure, distinct from the minerals of the surrounding rock Veinlet A small vein Very Low Frequency A radio signal with a frequency from three thousand hertz Radio Signal to thirty thousand hertz (3 kHz to 30 kHz) Vesicle A small cavity in volcanic rock formed around a gas bubble Voigt Notation A crystallographic notation that uses the indices 1 through 6 to specify directions, with 1, 2, and 3 indicating the x, y, and z axes, and 4, 5, and 6 indicating planes perpendicular to the x, y, and z axes Volatile A material with a relatively low boiling point Vug A small or medium-sized cavity in rock, lined partially with crystals, or a void Whistler A change to the local magnetic field accompanying lightning discharge, including the induced electric currents associated with that change, and named for the signal interference caused by induction in telephone lines lxxix Wolframate A chemical substance containing an ion with tungsten and four oxygen atoms, with valence two minus, as a major constituent x Axis One of the orthogonal axes in a Cartesian coordinate system, oriented horizontally by convention X-Ray Diffraction A technique for determining the arrangement of atoms in crystalline materials, by shining X-rays through them onto a film Xenolith A rock fragment encased within a larger (igneous) rock xy Plane The flat surface made by the intersection of the x and y axes in a Cartesian coordinate system xz Plane The flat surface made by the intersection of the x and z axes in a Cartesian coordinate system y Axis One of the orthogonal axes in a Cartesian coordinate system, oriented vertically by convention if the system is two-dimensional, or horizontally by convention if the system is three-dimensional yz Plane The flat surface made by the intersection of the y and z axes in a Cartesian coordinate system z Axis The axis that corresponds to the long axis of a hexagonal, tetragonal or trigonal crystal, and one of the orthogonal axes in a Cartesian coordinate system, oriented vertically by convention if the system is three-dimensional Zeolite A group of aluminosilicate minerals with a microporous form lxxx  CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Metamorphism is a chemical transformation of earth materials while in a solid state. One product of the chemical reactions is the transfer of electrons or ions. Pressure, temperature, time and chemical composition drive metamorphic reactions, and electrical phenomena are associated with metamorphism based upon these parameters. The study of electricity and metamorphism is, however, in its infancy. Information is spread across several subdisciplines of geology, materials science, physics, and chemistry, and data are often not usable for the problems to which they might be applied, because the data are unknown to the person asking the question. As an example, earthquakes are sometimes associated with electrical discharges, traveling visibly in the air as lightning, or through the Earth (Freund 2011; Varotsos et al., 1998; Johnston, 1997), or as electromagnetic radiation that disturbs radio or television transmission (Matsumoto et al., 1998). Prediction of earthquakes based on these signals would be useful. One of the difficulties for this kind of prediction is the absence of generally-accepted, credible mechanisms to generate seismic electrical phenomena. The signals which travel through the ground are called seismic electric signals (SES). Their existence is well-documented, but a predictive model is not. A usable hypothesis for how 1 earthquake rupture occurs is necessary, as well as a hypothesis on the mechanism for generating presumed SES that matches natural processes. Shear zones, where earthquakes occur, are the site of metamorphic reactions. Metamorphism is thus associated with electricity. A study of the electrical phenomena related to metamorphism should provide a foundation for a practical, predictive model to match observed and purported seismic electric signals, and would also be useful in planetary science. The study of metamorphism was transformed with George Barrow’s observations of the distribution of minerals (e.g., Barrow, 1893) in the 19th and early 20th century. His observations led to the metamorphic facies concept, and are consistent with plate tectonic theory. Barrow’s metamorphic zones, in which different minerals were cataloged, have been used to develop the concept of the geothermometer, minerals or structures that can be used to reconstruct the temperature at which a rock was formed, or at which deformation occurred. Likewise, microtectonics uses microscopy to examine deformation mechanisms and construct the past conditions of pressure and stress in shear zones and in metamorphic rock. Electrical phenomena at the grain-size scale influence the kinetics of metamorphic reactions. Along with chemistry, temperature and pressure, they serve as one of the reservoirs of energy for thermodynamics, interacting with bond energy in a physical medium. Bond energy also influences mineral form, symmetry, and lattice defects, which are flaws in the arrangement of the atoms that constitute a crystal. Variations in 2 the chemical composition of materials are created when the energy of an open system changes. Several processes occur whereby earth materials influence, and are influenced by, electrical phenomena. Describing all of the small-scale and large-scale electrical phenomena is one goal of this thesis. Several experimental options, and their strengths and weaknesses, will be presented. As described earlier, large-scale electrical phenomena associated with metamorphism may be useful for modeling ideal seismic electric signals. Earthquake prediction through analyses of purported SES now has had some success. A positive correlation between presumed SES and earthquakes has been found in Greece, for earthquakes of ML ≥ 5.0 (Dologlou, 1993a; Shnirman et al., 1993), where ML is the local earthquake magnitude on the Richter scale. Purported seismic electric signals are on the order of 1 to 10 mV (Thanassoulas and Tselentis, 1993). The timing between presumed SES and a seismic event can vary days, tens of days, or more, though a new methodology may help to narrow the prediction window to a few days (Uyeda and Kamogawa, 2008). The location of the predicted event can vary by about 100 kilometers (km), but with selective sensitivity, so complete coverage can be problematic (Varotsos et al., 1993a). Selective sensitivity is a term to describe how purported SES may not travel uniformly. Monitoring stations may only be sensitive to SES from a restricted area or areas, and these may not be contiguous. The predictions can be well-constrained in magnitude, with uncertaintly (∆ML) equal to about 0.7 (Hamada, 1993). Distinguishing man-made from natural signals has proven somewhat challenging (Pham et al., 1998). The predictive 3 success rate, at 50%, was only moderate (Hamada, 1993), but in 2001 a time series analysis method was developed that produces a higher (nearly 90%) success rate (Varotsos et al., 2011). The method is well-enough developed that other scientists ought to try and replicate the results. Also, a definitive mechanism for generating presumed SES ought to be developed. Purported seismic electric signals are sometimes detectable more than 100 km from an earthquake epicenter. An appropriate mechanism is needed to account for the size of this electrical circuit. These signals may be generated by changes in the capillarity of groundwater due to pore pressure variations prior to an earthquake. Moving ground water, for example, can generate an electrical potential in rock, called a self potential (Jardani et al., 2008; Jardani et al., 2006; Revil et al., 2003; Birch, 1998; Aubert and Atangana, 1996). In association with pressure variations, charge dislocations caused by lattice defects, rather than self potential, may create a circuit with the surface (Freund, 2011). Alternately, temperature variations prior to an earthquake may be responsible for presumed SES, acting on magnetite via a thermoelectric effect (Junfeng Shen et al., 2010). Magnetite is common enough in a wide range of rocks for this possibility to be considered. Thermoelectricity is created in a conductor or semi-conductor when there is a temperature gradient, allowing the most mobile charge carrier to move and create a circuit (Shankland, 1975). Whatever their cause, purported seismic electric signals can occur early enough (a few days prior to the event), to encourage further research, since that is the minimum time needed for evacuation if prediction is possible. Time series 4 analysis of the signals over a longer period of time looks feasible (Uyeda and Kamogawa, 2008). This thesis was written to promote further study in Earth electricity, not just related to SES, but in other applications as well. Topics range from small- to large-scale phenomena. Each section includes references to the current scientific literature and is meant to be as comprehensive as possible in presenting descriptions of phenomena and data. Short tables appear within the chapters, while tables longer than two or three pages have been placed in the Appendices, as have most tables containing numerical data or lists of references. 5  CHAPTER 2 TELLURIC CURRENTS Introduction The word “telluric” is from the Latin tellus, meaning earth. Telluric currents were originally defined as natural electric currents passing through the Earth’s soil or rock layers or bodies of water, as opposed to its atmosphere. The term has been generalized to include electric currents in any planet, or in any body of liquid on the surface of a planet. For the Earth, any electric current in the soil, rock, or water of natural or unknown origin is classed as a telluric current. This usage is slightly different from that of exploration geophysicists, where most natural currents are called telluric, to distinguish them from self potential that may be present at ore bodies, and artifical current, used for study. At present, magnetotelluric surveys create artificial electric and magnetic fields to explore subsurface features and characterize rock, and many natural phenomena are considered noise in the survey signals. Sometimes the natural currents themselves are used to study subsurface characteristics (Gasperikova and Morrison, 2001). For the purposes of this thesis, any electric current in the Earth or on it may be classed as a telluric current. 6 Self Potential and GIC, Two Common Causes of Earth Electricity The most common large electrical potentials measurable at the Earth's surface are self potential, caused as groundwater streams through ore bodies, and geomagnetically- induced currents (GIC). (For more information, see subsections Groundwater Phenomena, p. 27, and Geomagnetically-induced currents, GIC, p. 14.) Self potential is caused by the transfer of ions in groundwater, and by rock-charging from the motion of these ions. It is not necessarily a nuisance during electrical surveys and can be used to examine the subsurface (Suski et al., 2006). For other electrical survey techniques, data must have any self potential signal calculated and subtracted out to be useful, called self potential buck-out (Sumner, 1976). The ionosphere is composed of charged particles and located 85 to 600 km above the Earth’s surface. Electrical phenomena are caused as the solar wind or space weather impact the ionosphere. The solar wind and space weather create ionospheric electromagnetic phenomena in the radio spectrum, and these disrupt communication. Eddies in the ionosphere also occur, and these create electric current, from the motion of ions. This electric current affects the geomagnetic field, and the resulting geomagnetic anomalies induce telluric currents in the ground (Boteler et al., 1998). This is GIC. Geomagnetically-induced currents cause corrosion in pipes and pipelines, and are a problem at high latitudes, where the Earth’s magnetic flux lines point towards (or away from) the surface of the Earth. 7 Producing Electricity Several models depict electricity-generation processes. Four of these are useful in conjunction with the study of telluric currents. These are listed in Table 1, with a brief explanation for each. Charged particles, if they change location, transfer charge. Charged particles, such as electrons or ions, are termed charge carriers. The motions of ions or electrons are examples of the direct transfer of electric charge. A deeper treatment of the ideas in the following description may be found in Jonassen (2002). Electrostatic induction is a special case of charged particle transfer. An external charge elicits an electrical response from a second material containing mobile charge carriers. The charge carriers move to neutralize the applied field. If the external charge is positive, for example, then negative charge carriers will migrate within the second material to the site of the external charge. This model is termed electrostatic induction because the charge transfer is induced within one of the materials, but no charge is transferred between them. A more thorough treatment of the ideas in the following description may be found in Schieber (1986). Electromagnetic induction occurs in any electrical conductor where a change in a magnetic field occurs, so that the magnetic flux lines pass through the conductor. The combination of mobile charge carriers and magnetic flux creates an electromotive force. This is the principle behind electrical power generation, for example. A coil of wire moves through a magnetic field, and the motion creates electric 8 TABLE 1. Electricity-Generation Models Model Explanation Direct Transfer of Charge Charge carriers such as ions or electrons change location, and their motion transfers electric charge Electrostatic Induction External electric charge creates an electromotive force within a material as particles move to neutralize the external charge Electromagnetic Induction Relative motion of a magnetic field creates an electromotive force on electric charge carriers within it Rearrangement of Electrical Deformation creates electricity as it changes the Domains position of immobile charge carriers in a material current in the wire. Electricity is generated. If the charge carriers in a material are not mobile, electricity can be generated by deformation of the material, or some other process that changes the configuration of the domains carrying electric charge. The rearrangement of electrical domains can generate electricity. Causes: Telluric Currents Several phenomena that can generate telluric currents have been described in scientific specializations whose members may not communicate with each other regularly. Along with artificial signals, these Earth electrical phenomena are summarized in Table 2, and Table 3 lists telluric currents by frequency, magnitude and signal 9 TABLE 2. Causes and Periods of Earth Electricity Name Cause Cycle Mechanism Space Phenomena Cosmic Particle Flux Cosmic Events Not Known Charge Transmission (On Bodies with Little or No Atmosphere) GIC Solar 11yr Electromagnetic Induction 24hr Cosmic Not Known Planetary Magnetic Magnetotail 28d Charge Transmission Field Plasma (Earth to Moon) Atmospheric Phenomena TID Atmospheric Not Known Electromagnetic Induction Disturbance Lightning Strikes Lightning Seasonal Charge Transmission Lightning-Strike Lightning Seasonal Electromagnetic Induction Induction Whistler Induction Lightning Seasonal Electromagnetic Induction Whistler Plasma Lightning Seasonal Charge Transmission Volcanic Lightning Volcanic Not Known Charge Transmission Strikes Lightning Storm Charging Weather Seasonal Electrostatic Induction Oceanic Phenomena Electrochemical Ocean Currents Seasonal Charge Transmission Effect Ocean Transport Ocean Currents Seasonal Electromagnetic Induction Induction Oceanic Charging Ocean Electric Seasonal Electrostatic Induction Currents Metabolic Microbes and Not Known Charge Transmission Electrochemistry Algae Surface Phenomena Artificial Signals Industry Various Electromagnetic Induction Metabolic Microbes and 24hr Charge Transmission Electrochemistry Plants Exo-Electron Primed Material Not Known Charge Transmission Emission 10 TABLE 2. Continued Name Cause Cycle Mechanism Groundwater Phenomena Electrochemical Fluid Flow Seasonal Charge Transmission Effect Electrokinetic Fluid Flow in Various Electrostatic Induction Effect Porous Media Seismic Dynamo Seismic Waves Not Known Electromagnetic Induction Induction Radioactive Radioactive Not Known Charge Transmission Ionization Decay Other Terrestrial Phenomena Volcanic EM Signals Volcanism Not Known Not Known Seismic EM Signals Earthquakes Not Known Not Known Seismic electric signals Earthquakes Not Known Not Known Fractoemission Fracture Not Known Charge Transmission Defect Charging Material Defects Not Known Charge Transmission Piezoelectric Effect Crystal Lattice Not Known Domain Rearrangement Geometry Thermoelectric Temperature Not Known Charge Transmission Effect Gradient Pyroelectric Effect Temperature Not Known Domain Rearrangement Gradient Magma Magma Not Known Charge Transmission Electrochemistry Processes Radioactive Radioactive Not Known Charge Transmission Emission Decay Deep Terrestrial Phenomena Geomagnetic Jerk Geodynamo Not Known Electromagnetic Induction Notes: GIC are geomagnetically induced currents, TID are traveling ionospheric disturbances, and EM stands for electromagnetic 11 TABLE 3. Magnitude, Duration and Transmission Frequency of Earth Electricity, Arranged by Magnitude Name Magnitude Duration Frequency Lightning Strikes 105 A (peak) 1 ms 10-3 to 103 MHz Lightning-Strike 105 A (peak) 1 ms 10-3 to 103 MHz Induction 104 A Volcanic Lightning > 3 kA (peak) Not Reported Not Reported Strikes Artificial Signals Various Various Various GIC (Space Weather) 200 A (in metal) ≈ 10 s 10-3 to 10-2 Hz -1 50 µV m (polar chorus) Various 300 Hz to 2 kHz Not Reported (γ-ray flares) Various VLF Not Reported (meteor showers) Various 16 kHz Planetary Magnetic Field 5000 V (Lunar surface) ≈ 1 week Not Reported Plasma Storm Charging 10-2 A m-2 hrs to days Not Reported Electrochemical Effect 5 V Various < 300 kHz (ocean) Electrokinetic Effect 100 mV km-1 Ongoing 0.1 to 0.5 Hz -1 Ocean Transport 25 mV km (in metal) Ongoing Some from 10-7.0 Induction to 10-3.8 Hz GIC (Diurnal) 1 mV km-1 (ionospheric) ≈1d 0.4 Hz Cosmic Particle Flux 6000 MeV cm-2 (protons-Mars) Various Not Reported (On Bodies with Little or No Atmosphere) Whistler Plasma 104 e- cm-3 (striking land) Not Reported Not Reported Seismic EM Signals ≈ 20 to 50 mV m-1 ≈ 1 µs 217 MHz -5 -1 Fractoemission 10 C kg (volcanic ash) Various 103 to 105 Hz (ice) Seismic Electric Signals 1 to 10 mV Various ≤ 1 Hz Seismic Dynamo µV to mV Various 10 to 50 Hz Induction Thermoelectric 10-5 V K-1 Ongoing Not Reported Effect Pyroelectric 10-6 C m-2 K-1 Ongoing Not Reported Effect (single crystal) Piezoelectric Effect 10-12 C N-1 (single crystal) Various Not Reported Defect Charging 10-9 A Various 102 to 106 Hz 8 - -2 Exo-Electron Emission ≤10 e cm Various Not Reported Volcanic EM Signals 1 to 5 pT Various Radio frequencies 12 TABLE 3. Continued Name Magnitude Duration Frequency TID 1.0 pT Ongoing 10.6, 18.4, 26.0, (Schumann Resonances) 33.5 and 41.1 Hz Geomagnetic Jerk Not Reported Ongoing Not Reported Magma Not Reported Ongoing Not Reported Electrochemistry Radioactive Emission Not Reported Not Reported Not Reported Radioactive Ionization Not Reported Not Reported Not Reported Oceanic Charging Not Reported Ongoing Not Reported TID Not Reported Various Not Reported (Compressive Event) TID (Gravity Wave) Not Reported Ongoing 10-7 to 10-6 Hz Whistler Induction Not Reported ≈ 30 s 10 Hz to 30 kHz Metabolic Not Reported Not Reported Not Reported Electrochemistry (Hypothetical) Notes: GIC are geomagnetically induced currents, TID are traveling ionospheric disturbances and e- is electrons. duration. Thirty-two causes of Earth electricity within the above four models are described in the text that follows. Space Phenomena Cosmic-particle flux. Direct bombardment by high-energy charged particles and radiation coming from solar, stellar, and cosmic sources, acts generally to form GIC. For example, a gamma-ray flare from a neutron star 23,000 light years away was reported in 1999 as causing VLF amplitude changes of more than 20 decibels from interaction with the ionosphere. The Lyrid, delta-Aquarid and Perseid metoer showers have caused phase variations in a 16 kHz signal due to GIC (Barr et al., 2000). 13  For planetary bodies with no atmosphere, this flux of cosmic particles creates telluric currents directly (Madey et al., 2002). Cosmic ray ions have an energy flux of about 6 x 109 eV cm-2 s-1 for bodies in the Solar System. For Mars, protons and neutrons strike the surface with energy fluxes of around 6000 and 1400 MeV cm-2, respectively (Molina- Cuberos, et al., 2001). This process is not occurring on the Earth’s surface at present; the atmosphere intervenes. Geomagnetically-induced currents, GIC. Ore, or other rock bodies, or human-made structures, such as pipes and cables, respond to electrical changes in the ionosphere. The geomagnetic field interacts with these changes, so that a telluric current is induced in the ground. Pulkkinen et al. (2007), Constable and Constable (2004), Everett and Martinec (2003), Osella et al. (1998), and others have studied this phenomenon. Cycles are related to space weather, and are dominated by the influence of the Sun’s eleven-year sunspot cycle, whose period predicts emissions of gas from the solar surface. Diurnal variations within this larger cycle have been recorded (Diodati et al., 2001). The ongoing diurnal currents are responsible for the corrosion of pipelines and cables in some locations, especially at high latitudes, and have been studied extensively in Scandinavia (Viljanen et al., 2006). GIC typically are on the order of 200 amperes (A) in man-made conductors, with durations of approximately 10 seconds (Pulkkinen et al., 2008; Viljanen et al., 1999; Kappenman et al., 1981). The oscillating frequency is typically 0.01 to 0.001 Hz (Price, 14 2002). Peak current can be on the order of 2000 A, and these occur about 10 to 100 times in 100 years (Pulkkinen et al., 2008). Diurnal flux rates at the sub-auroral latitudes are on the order of a few millivolts per kilometer (mV km-1) (Mather et al., 1964). The strongest oscillation frequency of these diurnal signals is 0.4 Hz, and is widespread at different latitudes (Mather et al., 1964). At high latitudes, the motion of charged particles also creates a distinct radio signal, termed the polar chorus, with a characteristic frequency of 300 Hz to 2 kHz (Barr et al., 2000). Polar chorus is associated with the solar wind, and the peak intensity is around 50 µV m-1 as recorded from stations on the ground in Antarctica. It typically exhibits a diurnal variation (Salvati et al., 2000). Telluric currents (and specifically GIC) were first documented in the 1840s with the invention of the telegraph. Buried telegraph lines are electrical conductors, and susceptible to electrical induction. Geomagnetically-induced currents caused interference during telegraph transmission, so that the telegraph needles hung frozen by the signals of the GIC. At first this phenomenon was attributed to weather causes, but it was soon recognized that the hung needles coincided with the occurrence of aurora borealis and magnetic storms (Walker, 1861). Planetary magnetic-field plasma. If ultraviolet and X-Ray emissions from a star encounter a magnetic field, the interactions will create a plasma of energetic electrons. Such a plasma is created in the Earth’s magnetosphere from solar radiation, and strikes the moon’s surface as it passes through the Earth’s magnetotail. as described in Stubbs et 15 al. (2007). The magnitude of the charging can be several thousand volts (Halekas and Fox, 2012). A magnetotail is the distal part of an oblong magnetic field, caused in this case by the solar wind. Atmospheric Phenomena Traveling ionospheric disturbances, TID. Atmospheric compression (i.e. acoustic waves) from a sudden event, such as an earthquake, tsunami, volcanic eruption, severe weather or rocket launches can create traveling ionospheric disturbances (TID) (Afraimovich et al., 2001; Johnston, 1997; Georges, 1968), and these TID can induce telluric currents in the ground via the geomagnetic field. TID are themselves a category of GIC. The ionosphere also has resonant electrical phenomena, called Schumann resonances, at a fundamental frequency of 10.6 Hz, with overtones at 18.4, 26.0, 33.5 and 41.1 Hz (Barr et al., 2000). The background amplitude of measured Shumann resonances is about 1.0 pico Teslas (Schlegel and Füllekrug, 1999). In addition to the above examples, TID can form as the result of gravity waves at the troposphere-ionosphere interface (Georges, 1968). A gravity wave is one where buoyancy or gravity (or both) act to oppose the displacement. A common example of a gravity wave is the wind-generated wave forms one sees at the ocean at the ocean-air interface. Some TID are akin to these, occurring at the troposphere-ionosphere interface. No quantitative reports of the magnitudes of telluric currents resulting from TID are extant, to the best of the author's knowledge, though qualitative magnitudes are known. 16 Space weather events are the strongest TID, and then, in descending order, daytime signals, atmospheric compression events, and gravity waves (Georges, 1968). The effect of TID within the ionosphere is for the disturbance to develop a potential on the order of 1 millivolt per meter (Shiokawa et al., 2003). Frequency for the ionospheric dynamo region is modeled to be on the order of 10-6 to 10-7 Hz (Kaladze et al., 2003). Higher frequencies are also present (Munro, 1958). Short-term changes (on the order of hours) to the Earth’s magnetic field may be caused by ionospheric activity. Kaladze et al. (2003) have modeled ionospheric activity that matches the magnitude and timing of ground observations of changes to the geomagnetic field. The ionosphere is studied with dedicated ground-based facilities, such as the High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program (HAARP) and with satellites. A network of satellites measuring ionospheric disturbances are in place. A 1996 space experiment with a nearly 2 km long conducting line gathered electrical data in the ionosphere, and then compared these with satellite data. The accuracy of modeled ionospheric activity between satellites is low. Modeled electrical data are off by as much 140% (Szuszczewicz et al., 1998). On the ground, HAARP has been in operation in Alaska since 1993 (Bailey and Worthington, 1997). That facility is designed to transmit radio-frequency electromagnetic radiation into the ionosphere for communication with submarines, with the electrolytes in the ocean acting as an antenna. HAARP is also suited for ionospheric studies. 17  HAARP experiments are designed to study the structure of the ionosphere, and for determining practical applications of wave propagation, such as radio signaling. Results have included techniques to produce very low frequency and extremely low frequency (VLF/ELF – 30 Hz to 30 kHz) radio waves (Cohen et al., 2008). Lightning channels broadcast electromagnetic radiation in the VLF range, and HAARP can duplicate this VLF. HAARP has also been used for magnetotelluric surveying. In a magnetotelluric survey, both electrical and magnetic fields are used for remote sensing, to determine the electrical resistivity of an area, and variations within it, according to an empirical equation ρ = 1/5 f [E/B]2, (1) where ρ is the resistivity in ohm meters (Ω m), f is frequency in Hertz (Hz), E is the electric field tensor in volts per meter (V m-1), and B is the magnetic field tensor in nanoteslas (nT) (Wescott and Sentman, 2002). HAARP can generate magnetotelluric signals, and was used as the transmitter for a proof-of-concept controlled-source audio- magnetotelluric survey (CSAMT) in Alaska in 1999 and 2000, prospecting for petroleum (Wescott and Sentman, 2002). This is a new trend. Most magnetotelluric surveys have historically used natural fields (Simpson and Bahr, 2005). Simultaneous measurements of the geomagnetic field and of telluric currents are used to calculate a value for the electrical impedence at depth, to explore subsurface features. Lightning strikes. Electrical charge is transferred between the ground and the atmosphere during lightning strikes, and the tops of stormclouds close an electrical circuit 18 with the ionosphere. Lightning discharge is energetic and creates plasma that we see. The first pulse of lightning occurs as charges within the cloud consolidate to form a strike leader, and plasma from the ground rises up to meet the leader in that cloud. The next pulse comes from the cloud to the ground. The process repeats, with alternating pulse initiations between ground and cloud. A lightning strike is a combination of about 30 nanosecond pulse events, and its overall duration is on the order of milliseconds (Uman, 1994). The bulk result is a negative charge given to the ground. Peak electric current is 99 ± 7 kA, measured by quantifying remanent magnetization of the ground and calculating the peak magnetic field (Verrier and Rochette, 2002). Oscillation signal frequencies are on the order of 10-3 MHz to 103 MHz, or higher (Uman and Krider, 1982). The previous data have been normalized to a 10 km distance, and higher frequency signals are known to attenuate. With some dry lightning and strikes which ignite fires, a positive charge is given from the cloud to the ground. The magnitude of charge carried by positive cloud to ground strikes is increased by the presence of aerosols and smoke (Nichitiu et al., 2009). Lightning-strike induction. Lightning strikes can also cause transient changes to the geomagnetic field (Verrier and Rochette, 2002). Lightning can occur in various weather conditions, including thunderstorms, dust storms and tornadoes (Barr et al., 2000). Telluric currents arising from this phenomenon ought to have frequencies of 10-3 MHz to 103 MHz, based on the ns to ms variations recorded in lightning phenomena. These are the same frequencies that a direct flash of lightning will display. Induction is localized, 19 and portions of large buildings and towers are frequently subject to induction when they are struck. Hussein et al. (2003) compare data from several structures, and the average magnitudes are between 7 and 12 kA, with peak magnitudes from 20 to 100 kA. Whistler induction. Lightning discharge heats the air and creates plasma. The entire lightning channel radiates electromagnetic energy. If in the radio frequency, it is called a radio atmospheric signal, or sferic. If the plasma from lightning dishcarge travels along geomagnetic lines, the resulting radio-frequency disturbances are termed “whistlers” and are named for the sound which this interference makes in telephone lines, as first described in 1919 (Schlatter, 2008). The sound was attributed to lightning phenomena in 1953. Whistlers typically occur in the ELF/VLF range of 3 Hz to 30 kHz (Barr et al., 2000). For example, observations made from Antarctica at 22.3 kHz show common changes in amplitude of 3 decibels to an artificially transmitted signal, with duration of around 30 seconds. These changes were associated with whistler activity (Helliwell et al., 1973). The propogation of whistlers along geomagnetic flux lines can induce changes to local magnetic fields, and these can cause induction of human-made conductors and ore bodies. Whistler plasma. Whistlers are caused when plasma from lightning travels along the geomagnetic flux lines. The magnitude of the electron density striking the Earth is on the order of 104 electrons per cm3 during whistler events at the equator. Poleward densities should be higher, as the flux lines there are more inclined to the Earth’s surface (Schlatter, 2008). 20  Volcanic lightning strikes. An electrical response in the ground as lightning strikes during volcanic eruptions has been described in Aizawa et al. (2010). They describe magnetotelluric data from Sakurajima volcano in Kyushu, Japan, from May 2008 to July 2009. Magnetotelluric pulses were recorded coincident with several strikes. Generally, volcanic plume heights where volcanic lightning has been observed are distributed bimodally: plume heights 1 to 4 km, and plume heights 7 to 12 km. In the former, volcanic lightning is due to vent processes, and in the latter volcanic lightning is due to stratospheric processes (McNutt and Williams, 2010). Occurrence of volcanic lightning increases with height in the stratospheric plumes, and peak currents greater than three thousand amperes have been observed (Bennett et al., 2010). Ash erupted from a volcano is electrically charged. Whether a circuit is made between charged ash and the ionosphere has not yet been reported. Low frequency (30 kHz to 300 kHz) sferics are reported, as with meteoroligical lightning events, but the emission spectra of the flash itself has not been. Likewise, the author has not found reports of the magnitude of electrical discharge during volcanic lightning. James et al. (2000) have described a mechanism for ash charging. In a series of experiments, ash-sized particles were ground from several crustal rock samples in a non- conducting sample holder. The materials developed charges of both polarities, generally based on the chemical composition of the particles, with the net charge of ≈10-5 to 10-6 coulombs per kilogram (C kg-1). Their data are consistent with measurements taken previously within ash fall plumes (James et al., 2000). They attribute the charge in the 21 ash to fracture-charging, also called fractoemission, where electrical charge is caused in a fracture as electrons are distributed unevenly during fracture processes. Lightning in volcanic plumes is controlled by topography and wind direction, with negative strikes (negative charge carried to the ground) and positive strikes (positive charge carried to the ground) evolving over the course of an eruption (Hoblitt, 1994) or occurring simultaneously. The role of water in the magma and its influence in volcanic lightning is still an open question, though the occurrence of volcanic lightning is not related to latitude, and, hence, is likely not related to the ability of the air to hold water (McNutt and Williams, 2010). Storm charging. Terrestrial electrical fields occur during storm activity. Typically, a vertical field on the order of 100 V m-1 and a current density at the surface of roughly 2 x 10-2 A m-2 exist, with water droplet interactions in clouds serving as the source of the initial (negative) charge buildup. These induce a positive charge in the ground. In thunderstorm clouds, the negative charge at the bottom of the cloud is offset by a positive charge in the top portion, that together form a conductive circuit flowing upward through the stratosphere, also called a thundercloud cell. In reality, negative charge is flowing downward. The current has been experimentally determined to be around 0.7 A per thundercloud cell (Troshichev et al., 2004). Current flow in a thundercloud cell accounts for about 96% of the electrical activity of a storm, while lightning discharges account for a minority (≈ 4%). Electrical charging of storm clouds is offset by charging of the ocean surface, where daily electrical ocean 22 surface variations are consistent with the daily change of the total area occupied by thunderstorms (Troshichev et al., 2004). Electrical frequency spectra in the ground from electrostatic storm charging are not reported, to the author's knowledge. Oceanic Phenomena Electrochemical effects in the ocean. In the oceans, different layers of water will be stratified by temperature and salinity, and each influences density. Both of these gradients influence electrical conductivity, and create variations in electric currents in the oceans (Chave and Luther, 1990). The signals are low-frequency (30 kHz to 300 kHz) or lower, typically. Voltages from temperature and salinity variations in the ocean are less than a few mV (silver/silver-chloride electrodes were used) and the differences in salinity and temperature were less than a few parts per thousand and a few degrees Celsius, respectively, between electrodes (Larsen, 1992). The electrode material affects the observed voltage. Internal waves (within the stratified ocean) are measurable electrically in their vertical component as gradients are crossed (Chave, 1984). Ocean transport induction. Electrical induction in the oceans occurs by three processes: transport of seawater across the geomagnetic field (treated in this subsection); the influence of GIC on saltwater, a conductor (treated above); and variations in sea water due to variations in salinity and temperature (treated in the subsection above entitled Electrochemical effects in the ocean.) Bulk water transport was first measured electrically by Faraday in 1832, at the Waterloo Bridge with electrodes placed in the Thames River, but sunspot activity (unfortunately) masked the periodic influence of the 23 Gulf Stream (Larsen, 1992). Induced voltage due to transport of saline water has been observed successfully, with a magnitude on the order of 25 mV per kilometer, measured on a cable fitted with electrodes in the Straits of Florida (Larsen, 1992). The GIC (with peaks up to about 50 mV km-1 but with typical values of 10 to 20 mV km-1) had been subtracted out of the data by hand. The voltages occur at frequencies from 10-3.8 to 10-7.0 Hz and are incomplete, and tidal variation and other outliers create peaks around 10-5 Hz. Oceanic charging. Two sources of electric currents in the ocean already described in this text are: storm clouds charging the ocean surface (above); and processes to charge water strata in the ocean itself. Electricity from both of these may be transmitted to the rock with which it is in contact via electrostatic induction (Cox, 1981). The oceanic lithosphere receives a quasi-static charge from the ocean. Due to the high metal content of the rock, both electrostatic and electromagnetic induction will occur if major changes to electric current in the oceans or to the geomagnetic field also occur. Metabolic electrochemistry in the ocean. The metabolic action of micro- and macrobiota in the oceans may contribute to an electrical signal that is measurable. Bohlin et al. (1989) describes how fish are attracted to electric signals; this phenomenon might be related either to physiology or to food sensing. Brahic (2010) describes how an extensive network of microbial electric currents may exist in oceanic mud. Atekwana and Slater (2009) introduce the study of microbial geophysical signatures in a comprehensive manner; biogeophysics is an emerging field, and more research is warranted. 24 Surface Phenomena Artificial signals. Earth electric currents may come from the transmission of electricity or electromagnetic radiation emanating from human-made sources (Pham et al., 1998; Keller, 1968) and also from on-ground activity, such as from electric trains. Telluric currents may come from electrical fields set up intentionally as, for example, from a direct-current (DC) electrical field designed to remove contaminants from soils (Probstein and Hicks, 1993). Electroremediation can be accomplished with a field strength of about 150 V m-1. A complexing agent is added to the groundwater, and contaminants are attracted to wells for removal (Wong et al., 1997). The magnitude of artificial telluric currents depends directly upon the generation process. Extremely low frequency radio waves are generated by heating the ionosphere, and are used by the US military to communicate with submarines, for example. Nuclear explosions above ground also create ionospheric VLF radiation, with frequencies of 10 kHz to 15 kHz (Barr et al., 2000). Metabolic electrochemistry in soil. The daily action of plants, fungi, bacteria, lichen or algae that inhabit soil and rock fissures may produce electrical signals from electrochemical processes related to metabolism. Some evidence exists that soil microbes respond to changes in the geomagnetic field (Jie Li et al., 2009), though the converse has not been shown. Abdel Aal et al. (2010) report that the imaginary component of measured conductivity in sand is increased linearly as Pseudomonas aeruginosa are introduced to the grains. The imaginary component of conductivity is a 25 measure of its dissipation, part of the field equations that model oscillating or alternating current. Abdel Ai et al. (2010) used low frequency (0.1 to 1000 Hz) signals for their study. No change to the real component of the conductivity was observed. Regarding plants: despite the existence of diurnal electrical variations measured in sapwood (Gilbert et al., 2006), and in leaves and leaf stems (Gil et al., 2008), and also despite the invention of functional electrical circuitry powered by plants and trees (Yamaguchi and Hashimoto, 2012; Himes et al., 2010), no diurnal soil-root signal from plants has been detected (Love et al., 2008). A new sensor for these signals has recently been developed (Gurovich, 2009), but no evidence of diurnal signals has been published yet. Exo-electron emission. The process of stress relaxation may release electrons after an initial priming, as can the addition of heat or photons to a previously stressed sample (Oster et al., 1999). These and related processes are termed exo-electron emission if the energy of the electrons is low (less than or equal to one electron volt), to distinguish it from high-energy electron emission phenomena, such as fractoemission. Exo-electron emission functions by means of traps and defects and requires a solid-gas or solid- vacuum interface for its action: it acts at a surface. Exo-electron emission may occur in the vadose zone or on the surface of the crust (Freund, 2011; Oster et al., 1999). Exo- electron flux is observed as less than or equal to 108 electrons (e-) per square centimeter (Oster et al., 1999). 26 Groundwater Phenomena Electrochemical effects in groundwater. As ionically-charged fluids travel in porous rock, an electric current is created by the motion of the suspended ions (Corwin and Hoover, 1979). This is the principle behind household chemical batteries, and is common in nature. The electrochemical effect found in ore bodies, for example, is akin to commercial electrochemical batteries in magnitude (a few volts) (Lile, 1996). While the chemistry of the fluid determines the voltage, the signal frequencies are controlled by the motion. The electrokinetic effect. Just as the motion of ionically-charged fluids in porous rock creates an electrochemical current, so too the interaction of the charged fluid with the bounding rock creates a complementary charging in the rock itself. At the fluid-rock interface, a single layer of adsorbed ions attracts a second layer of the opposite sign, and these are sufficient to create an electrical potential over a distance. This so-called streaming potential, caused by an electrokinetic effect, involves electrostatic induction by moving ions. Self potential is a combination of streaming potential (based on the electrokinetic effect) and of the diffusion of the ions themselves. Typically, self potential is present in groundwater flows (Jardani et al., 2008; Jardani et al., 2006; Revil et al., 2003; Birch, 1998; Aubert and Atangana, 1996), but can also be found in many geologic settings, such as sulphide ore bodies (Lile, 1996) and other mineral deposits, including graphitic deposits (Stoll et al., 1995), and on volcanoes, 27 where the phenomenon is due to hydrothermal activity, changes in groundwater flow, and magma displacement (Zlotnicki and Nishida, 2003). In hydrothermal settings, streaming potential from electrokinetic effects is much stronger than associated thermoelectric effects (Corwin and Hoover, 1979). A streaming potential of up to 30 mV can be generated from a groundwater change of 50 cm, if the fluid resistivity is 102 Ω m and the rock permeability is 10-12 m2 (Jouniaux and Pozzi, 1995). Streaming potential variations occur, with pulses in amplitude of 15 to 40 mV, and a frequency of 0.1 to 0.5 Hz (Jouniaux and Pozzi, 1997). Seismic-dynamo induction. Rock is displaced as seismic waves pass through. Groundwater in the pore space is displaced as well, as are ions in the groundwater. The motion of ions relative to the geomagnetic field creates circularly or elliptically polarized electric fields, with opposite orientations for positive and negative ions. This effect was reported in 2009, and was observed both for artificial seismic waves from blasting and for natural seismic waves (Honkura et al., 2009). The magnitude of the seismic-dynamo effect is on the order of µV to mV, and frequency depends upon the ions in the groundwater, with observed values between approximately 10 and 50 Hz. Cyclotron frequency is the name given for charged particles moving in circular motion perpendicular to a magnetic field. Each charged particle has a cyclotron frequency based on its charge, mass and velocity relative to the magnetic field. The observed seismic-dynamo effect reported in Honkura et al. (2009) shows electric frequencies that may be interpreted as resonances of the cyclotron frequency of particles 28 and the geomagnetic field, with bicarbonate, chloride, sodium and calcium taken as constituents. These vary in abundance by location, and account for differences of orientation in the observed electric fields. Radioactive ionization. Radionuclides release energy as they decay, and that energy can ionize surrounding material. Radon gas is one example. The most common isotope of radon (222Ra) has a half-life of 3.8 days (Jordan et al., 2011). Several thousand scientific publications have described the presence of radon as co-seismic with major events. Radon at the Earth's surface ionizes particles in the air, and the motion of these ions creates atmospheric electrical phenomena linking the surface to the ionosphere (Pulinets, 2007). Co-seismic ionospheric anomalies might be attributed to the action of ions created as radon is released. Studies of radon occurrence as an earthquake precursor often look for radon concentrations in groundwater (Jordan et al., 2011). It is plausible to assume that radon ionizes other atoms in groundwater, and that the motion of these ions can create an electric signal. Other radionuclides could do the same. Other Terrestrial Phenomena Volcanic electromagnetic signals. Hata et al. (2001) report detection of consistent electromagnetic signals during the Izu-Miyake volcanic eruption of 2000 in Japan. The signals preceded the eruption by a week, and are associated with changes to the surface of the Earth from magma dike growth. The exact mechanism of the signal generation is unknown. The observational apparatus was set to detect extremely low frequency radio waves (between 10 Hz and 300 Hz). Below 10 Hz, ionospheric and other geomagnetic 29 signals predominate, and above 300 Hz, lightning noise predominates. The full spectrum of the occuring radiation is not known. Seismic electromagnetic signals. Matsumoto et al. (1998) report television signal interference associated with the 1995 Kobe earthquake in Japan. The electromagnetic radiation preceded the earthquake by 6.5 hours, and was characterized as having a magnitude of a few tens of mV m-1, a frequency in the 217 MHz range with micro second duration. Other reports of electromagnetic phenomena during earthquakes are common, typically involving ionospheric disturbances (Zolotov et al., 2012; Heki, 2011; Perrone et al., 2010; Pulinets, 2007; Singh and Singh, 2007; Popov et al., 2004; Pulinets and Boyarchuk, 2004; Davies and Baker, 1965). Seismic electric signals. Three types of signals have been reported from a network of monitoring stations in Greece (Varotsos et al., 1993a). First, a gradual variation in the electric field of the Earth (GVEF) has been recorded, on the order of weeks or more before an earthquake, and with voltage an order of magnitude higher than other purported precursory SES. These occur rarely. Second, presumed seismic electric signals, on the order of hours to 11 days before an earthquake, with an order of magnitude in the millivolt range, occur commonly. Third, a short duration pulse, 1 to 4 minutes precedent to seismic waves, with an order of magnitude in the volt range, occur rarely (Ralshovsky and Komarov, 1993; Varotsos et al., 1993a). All three are low-frequency signals, less than or equal to 1 Hz (Varotsos et al., 2011). Similar seismic signal data have been reported in Japan using the same method (Uyeda et al., 2009). 30  Fractoemission. Fractoemission, in which electrons escape from a freshly cleaved surface, has been described in James et al. (2000). Their observations show electrical charging of about 10-5 coulombs per kilogram for volcanic ash. Fracture experiments have recorded up to 10 parts per million (ppm) ozone production from the crushing of typical terrestrial crustal rock, with the ozone being generated by electricity from physical charge separation during fracture (Baragiola et al., 2011). The energy of the emitted electrons can be very high, up to tens of thousands of electron volts (keV) or higher. The electrons are produced as the surface attains and maintains a charge, often pulling electrons from deep inside, termed the Malter effect (Oster et al., 1999). Electromagnetic emission resulting from a single crack in ice under various stress regimes has a frequency of 103 to 105 Hz, with a change in potential of about 2 mV (Shibkov et al., 2005). Defect charging. Pressure can cause defects in materials. Defects can both liberate charge carriers, such as ions or electrons, and create charge acceptors, such as holes or lattice vacancies. Pressure changes can also result in the reorientation and charging of lattice defects, called defect charging. These processes have characteristic electromagnetic emissions, with frequencies in the range 102 to 106 Hz for crystals with predominantly ionic bonds (Shibkov et al., 2005). Defect charging has been studied as a candidate for the cause of electrical signals associated with earthquake phenomena (Freund, 2011; Varotsos et al., 1998). Takeuchi and Nagao (2013) demonstrate an electromotive force of 80 mV in gabbro with 50 MPa 31 of load. Freund (2011) proposes that peroxy defects present in silicate rocks, where the tetrahedral silicate bonds are O3Si – OO – SiO3 instead of O3Si – O – SiO3, can be a source of mobile charge carriers. Peroxy bonds commonly break under pressure. The new structure can accept an electron from a neighboring silica-oxygen tetrahedron. That transfer, in turn, creates a positive hole in the electron donor. Positive holes can also interact with negative ions liberated from the lattice by changes in pressure, e.g. from seismic waves. This condition may form paths for electric current to flow. Such defect phenomena are fundamental to how semiconducting materials work, and are probably widespread in nature. General terms for the process described above are "charge-vacancy coupling" or "defect and charge transport" (Raymond and Smyth, 1996). Peroxy bonds exist in silicate rocks in enough numbers to create measurable electricity. The process of charge-vacancy coupling is nontrivial in all rocks, given the right conditions. Typical electric currents from defect charging in rock are on the order of 1 nanoampere at 20 megapascals of pressure (Freund, 2011). The piezoelectric effect. The piezoelectric effect (electric field or charge caused by applied pressure) has been modeled as a crystal lattice effect, as deformation from stress or strain displaces the positions of shared electrical bonds (Mason, 1950; Cady, 1946). This is the mechanism first described by Voigt (1910) (Katzir, 2006). Stress is an internal pressure of particles acting on each other, caused by external load. Strain is a change to the shape of a material, caused by stress. Piezoelectricity is based on the symmetry of a crystal. 32  A more in-depth treatment of the ideas in the following paragraph can be found in Sands (1994). Crystals can have three types of symmetry. If the coordinates of a crystal lattice are hypothetically reflected through a point, a new inverse lattice with new inverse coordinates is created. If the inverse lattice is identical to the original crystal lattice, the crystal is centrosymmetric. If the inverse lattice is not identical to the original crystal lattice, but the inverse lattice can be rotated to match the original lattice, then the crystal is non-centrosymmetric. If the inverse lattice is not identical to the original crystal lattice, and the inverse lattice cannot be rotated to match the original lattice, then the crystal is chiral, also called enantiomorphic. The terms “chiral” and “enantiomorphic” are synonyms and refer to handedness. These crystals occur in both left-handed and right-handed forms. For a more in depth treatment of the following descriptions of piezoelectricity, see Cady (1946). A centrosymmetric crystal lattice ought not allow for any electrical charge to build up under pressure. Every bond displaced will be countered by another bond whose displacement can cancel the charge of the first. However, some minerals with centrosymmetric crystal lattices, such as zeolites and topaz, express electricity under stress and strain. No explanation has yet been proposed for this anomaly. Many chiral and non-centrosymmetric minerals display the piezoelectric effect. The most well-known is quartz, and the most intuitive application at one time was in record needles or microphones, to change variations in pressure into an electrical signal. The electrical signals in these devices are very small, on the order of 10-12 coulombs per 33 newton (C N-1) for a single crystal. Piezoelectric data for minerals are presented in Chapter 5, p. 109. The thermoelectric effect. A homogeneous conductor expresses a voltage when there is a temperature gradient, with electrons (the more negative) at the cold end. This is called the Seebeck effect (or the thermoelectric effect), and is directly observable as electric current when two dissimilar conductors are connected to each other under a thermal gradient (Goupil et al., 2011). Thermocouples are based on this effect. For more information on the following discussion, see von Baeckmann et al. (1997). Corrosion of bridges and other metal structures where dissimilar metals are found is caused by this phenomenon. In the crustal materials of the Earth, the thermoelectric effect is important in ore bodies, and in regions with high heat flux. The magnitude is on the order of 10-5 volts per degree Kelvin. (See Chapter 5, Mineral Data, p. 109.) Geologic case studies are abundant. Shankland (1975) describes measurements of thermoelectricity from rock samples in a laboratory setting. Leinov et al. (2010) describe thermoelectric effects in brine-saturated sandstone in situ. The thermoelectric effect from ore minerals, for example from pyrite during computer-aided resistivity surveys for gold (called pyrite-thermoelectric surveying), has also been described (Zhang Yun-qiang et al., 2010; Cao Ye et al., 2008), as has thermoelectricity from magnetite grains in the Earth’s crust, and especially in the middle-lower crust (Junfeng Shen et al., 2010). This widespread effect is similar to defect charging (described in the Defect Charging 34 subsection above, p. 31) in that both processes mobilize charge carriers and holes (acceptors), the one with a temperature gradient, the other with pressure. Note that both of the temperature effects listed in this section have sometimes been lumped together as the thermoelectric effect. They have been described as such by Corwin and Hoover (1979), who treat temperature effects as unwanted signal noise in self potential surveying. They are unwanted if one is looking for electrical indications of water flow (from the motion of ion-rich water, and from the electrokinetic effect) for geothermal use. The pyroelectric effect. Water is a polar molecule. Any material whose structure has an axis with dissimilar ends, and whose ends are of uneven electrical charge, is a polar material. The dissimilar ends are called a permanent electric dipole. In polar minerals, electric charges located at the ends of the permanent electric dipole are rapidly neutralized by the environment under normal conditions. During heating or cooling, however, the charges do not have time to dissipate, and are detectable. This phenomenon is called pyroelectricity, or the pyroelectric effect (Bhalla et al., 1993). It is sensitive to both the change in temperature and the rate of change in temperature of a polar material. Tourmalines are common minerals that exhibit this effect (Hawkins et al., 1995). Typical magnitudes are on the order of 10-6 coulombs per square meter per Kelvin for single crystal samples. Magma electrochemistry. The motion of magma during volcanic processes and also of volatiles can hypothetically create an electric signal. Volatiles can in some instances 35 ionize surrounding materials, and magma itself can be rich with ions. No study of these natural electrical phenomena is found in the literature, to the author's knowledge. Toramaru and Yamauchi (2012), in trying to create an analog to layered dikes and sills, used an externally applied electric field to create cyclically-layered structure in an artificial material, PbI2. Radioactive emission. Electric current can hypothetically be caused directly by the motion of charged particles released by the breakdown of radionuclides. For example, α- particle emission is a steady source of charged particles, and therefore creates an electric signal. Significant radioactive decay has been reported in natural fission reactors as having occurred in the past (Stille et al., 2003; Jensen and Ewing, 2001; Gauthier-Lafaye, 1997). Electrical observations of this phenomenon are not in the published literature, to the author’s knowledge. Deep Terrestrial Phenomena Geomagnetic jerk. Short-term changes to the second derivative of the geomagnetic field are termed geomagnetic jerks, and arise from electrical signals traveling through the mantle during deep (core) events (Nagao et al., 2003). Transmission of electricity from the upper mantle to the lower crust is likely, but has not been observed. Separate geomagnetic jerks of limited extent have been modeled as having been caused by single events originating in and traveling through Earth’s core, as described in Chulliat et al. (2009). The physical models suggest that quantifying mantle conductivity is still an open question (Malin and Hodder, 1982). 36  The electrical conductivity of the deep mantle is two orders of magnitude higher than that of the shallow mantle, with a transition depth of 670 km. Another region of higher conductivity transition occurs at 2700 km, the D’’ layer, so named as part of Keith Bullen’s Earth taxonomy from the 1940s (Duffy, 2008; Ohta et al., 2008; Constable and Constable, 2004; Chao, 2000). The increased conductivity has been modeled using a combination of proton conduction if hydrogen is present and polaron conduction, which is electron hole hopping between Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions in minerals that contain iron (Yoshino, 2010). Both of these are semiconductor phenomena. A wet mantle is not generally required to fit the observations (Yoshino et al., 2008). The increase at the D’’ layer is also related to the transition from perovskite, an orthorhombic mineral, to post- perovskite, a sheet mineral, that occurs at this depth (Duffy, 2008). Bulk rock responses to local changes in the geomagnetic field caused by changes in the Earth’s core ought to affect ore bodies or other rock with high conductivity. No articles are apparently available that report long-term telluric currents caused by fluctuations in the geomagnetic field originating in the Earth’s core. Monitoring Telluric Currents Thirty two distinct causes of telluric currents have been listed above. Mechanisms that occur with regular cycles include: artificial signals, eleven-year GIC, diurnal GIC, and seasonal phenomena in the atmosphere (such as storm charging and lightning strikes), in the oceans (such as ocean transport induction) and in groundwater (such as the electrochemical effect). Lightning phenomena, GIC, TID and the thermoelectric effect 37 are the mechanisms that have been of the greatest interest to society, since these can disrupt communications or destroy structures and equipment. The geomagnetic field is currently monitored by an extensive network of government-run observatories and includes a near-real-time international data repository (Intermagnet, 2012; Kerridge, 2001). The same is not the case for Earth’s telluric phenomena, but some national institutions and systems are in place and usually produce freely-available data. China, Russia, South Africa, Japan, Greece, the United States and Canada, for example, all have networks of magnetotelluric stations to monitor seismic events as they sometimes correlate with electrical and magnetic signals. References or websites exist for China (Xuhui Shen et al., 2011), Russia (ISTP SB RAS, 2012), South Africa (Facebook, 2012; Fourie, 2011), Japan (Geospatial Information Authority of Japan, 2010; Uyeshima et al., 2001; Kawase et al., 1993), Greece (Varotsos et al., 1993a), and the U.S. and Canada (Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology, 2012; Zhdanov et al., 2011). No global correlation network of electric signal data exists in real time, though the MTNet, maintained by a working group of the International Association of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy will likely assume this role (MTNET, 2012). This association houses research results and data, acts as an international forum, and hosts workshops and conferences. Magnetotelluric stations generally consist of portable magnetic and telluric sensors, and are used for economic geological exploration. Their application is widespread. A global, permanent network of dedicated electrical-measurement stations would be a 38 complement, as would enough data on how Earth electric currents are formed and transmitted to construct a mathematical model to correlate the magnetic and electrical phenomena. 39  CHAPTER 3 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY OVERVIEW Definition of a Crystal Among the various definitions of a crystal, the following from Dyson (2009, p. 214) is mathematically astute: “a [crystal] is a distribution of discrete point masses whose Fourier transform is a distribution of discrete point frequencies” in reciprocal space. Fourier transforms perform this: they take coordinates and create a new space out of them, where periodic patterns are easily recognized. The new space is called a reciprocal space. The arrangement of atoms in a crystal lattice is periodic. Their positions relative to the other atoms are specified, and the entire arrangement, called a unit cell, repeats itself, forming the crystal. The positions of atoms and the geometry of the unit cell are observable in X-ray diffraction patterns (XRD), made by shining X-rays through a crystal and exposing a film. X-ray diffraction is, for example, how Franklin, Watson and Crick were able to determine the double-helical structure of deoxyribonucleic acid crystals (DNA). Franklin made the films; Watson and Crick utilized them (Watson et al., 2012). A large percentage of crystallographers are currently engaged in biomedical pursuits; the 40 arrangement of atoms within molecules may indicate properties suited (or unsuitable) to medical applications. Dyson’s definition of a crystal, above, is generalizable to two-dimensional cases, such as tiling problems. For example: what regular tile shapes can cover a floor without leaving gaps or overlapping, in a periodic pattern? For another example: what regular tile shapes can cover a floor without leaving gaps or overlapping, in a non-periodic pattern? These latter are called Penrose tiles, and periodicity can sometimes be found in looking at the non-periodic tiling from a higher dimension, as a projection (Senechal, 1995). Dyson’s definition of crystal is generalizable to one-dimensional cases, such as the distribution of prime numbers among the natural numbers (Dyson, 2009). It is also generalizable to high-dimensional theoretical cases. Mathematics allows for this view. In three dimensions, atoms are connected in a crystal lattice, influencing the shape and parting of the material. By definition, all minerals are crystalline. In a crystal, atoms are connected by chemical bonds that repeat periodically. Patterns in these bonds influence the various forms of energy available to a system. A pyroelectric mineral, for example, will translate some heat energy into electricity, as shown by the line connecting “Temperature” and “Field” in the Heckmann diagram in Figure 1. A Heckmann diagram is a schematic representation of the coupling between mechanical energy and other physical effects (Ballato, 1995; Heckmann, 1925). 41 FIGURE 1. Heckmann diagram showing couplings among mechanical, electrical and thermal effects. Drawing © 1995 IEEE, from Figure 1 of Ballato, A., 1995, Piezoelectricity: Old effect, new thrusts: IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control, v. 42, p. 916–926. Reproduced with permission. 42  Minerals in a real setting serve as home to ions and elements, and these may be liberated or sequestered, depending on thermodynamic conditions. This is an activation process. Minerals host defects of form, vacancies, interstitials, lattice displacements and dislocations, including the newly discovered pleat dislocation (Irvine et al., 2010), and these hold energy. Mineral defects can serve as holes to carry electrical charge, such as is of utmost importance to materials science and computing. Also, minerals, being regular forms, are subject to resonant phenomena that may be important on various scales, from small to large (e.g., thin-film applications, radio oscillators, laser-beam generation, strain-hardening in metal fabrication, etc.) Crystal Systems For a more in-depth discussion of the following description, see Sands (1994). Minerals exist in different phases depending on external perturbations or the parameters of the system where they grow, such as temperature, pressure, or the abundance or mobility of various atoms and ions. Available energy can dictate the structure of the lattice, and the transitions between forms of different symmetries indicate different amounts of internal energy. Ideally, crystals are limited to forms that can fill the space continuously, without leaving gaps or overlapping. Periodic repetitions about an axis, so that six equal rotations return the unit cell to its original location, for example, constitutes a type of rotational symmetry. Six-fold rotational symmetry defines the hexagonal crystal system. If the unit cell is built upon a triangle instead of a hexagon, the crystal is part of the trigonal crystal system. These two crystal systems have a rotational axis, 43 labeled the c axis. Growth along the c axis forms a hexagonal or trigonal cylinder. In mineralogy, such cylinders are called prisms. If the prism has square sides instead, the crystal is tetragonal. If the unit cell is not prismatic, but the sides of the cell are perpendicular to each other, then the crystal is either cubic (equal side lengths), or orthorhombic (unequal side lengths). If the sides of the unit cell are not perpendicular to each other, but one set of sides is parallel, then the crystal is monoclinic. If none of the sides of the unit cell are parallel, the crystal is triclinic. The seven crystal systems are: hexagonal, trigonal, tetragonal, cubic, orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic. With three axes from which to work (in three-dimensional space), and also the possibilities of extra symmetries, such as mirrored forms, these seven crystal systems make up 32 crystal classes. Symmetry is an ordinal concept. Some symmetries are higher than others. A crystal with a six-fold rotational axis (angles are 60º, which is 360º/6) has higher symmetry than one with a two-fold axis (angles are 180º, which is 360º/2). Likewise, a crystal with three two-fold rotational axes has higher symmetry than a crystal with only two two-fold axes. The complexity is an indicator of internal energy (Slater, 1972). Thermodynamics For a deeper treatment of the following description, see Goodisman (1987). The thermodynamic relations of internal energy that determine transformations in rocks and minerals may be modeled using the equation for internal energy of a system: U = TS – PV + pE – MB + ∑ µXNX , (2) 44 where U is the internal energy of the system, T is the temperature, S is the entropy, P is the pressure, V is the volume, p is the electrical polarization tensor, E is the electrical field tensor, M is the magnetization tensor, B is the magnetic field tensor, µX is the chemical potential of each phase present, and NX is the number of constituent particles of each phase, with ∑ taking the mathematical meaning summation for the various values of the product µX times NX where a unique X corresponds to each phase present. For each pair of terms on the right side of Equation 2, the first term is intensive, and the second term extensive. Intensive parameters depend upon the amount of material in a system. Extensive parameters do not. Manning and Pichavant (1983), writing of thermodynamic properties, report that the presence of boron and fluorine greatly reduce the solidus temperature in wet granitic melts. This would imply the formation of tourmaline and topaz, materials in which fluorine and boron can sequestered, respectively, from the melt. (See Table 4 in Appendix A, p. 193, for a description of the minerals tourmaline and topaz.) Using their data, 15% boron oxide (B2O3) in a powdered sample (called a charge) of Qz-Ab-Or lowers the solidus temperature at 108 pascals (Pa) (1 kbar) from 715º Celsius (C) to less than 600º C. The solidus is the temperature (and/or pressure) below which a material is completely solid, and the mineral-name abbreviations are Qz as quartz, Ab as the plagioclase feldspar albite, and Or as orthoclase feldspar. In short, adding 15% boron oxide to the charge lowers the solidus temperature by 16% at the cited pressure. 45 Likewise, adding 4% fluorine to a separate Qz-Ab-Or charge lowers the solidus temperature by 23%. In the first case of adding boron oxide, tourmaline must take up 16% of the internal energy of the system, if the other parameters are constant. In the second case of adding fluorine, topaz must take up 23% of the internal energy of the system, if the other parameters are constant. Manning and Pichavant (1983) do not report any electrical or magnetic data in their study. Phase Transitions For a more thorough treatment of the following description, see Snider (1986). Physical parameters within a thermodynamic system may depend on each other. For example, in an ideal gas, PV = nmRT, (3) where P is the pressure, V is the volume, nm is the number of moles of the gas, R is the ideal gas constant (the product of the Boltzmann constant and Avogadro’s number) and T is the temperature. (An ideal gas is one where the physical interactions of the gas molecules are perfectly elastic; they behave as point masses.) The difference between the number of variables and the number of controlling conditions on those variables is the degrees of freedom of a system, and these can be used in descriptions of the history of a system or in materials fabrication: Nf = nv – nc , (4) 46 where Nf is the number of degrees of freedom, nv is the number of variables, and nc is the number of controlling conditions. The term nv includes both dependent and independent variables; the addition of a dependent variable to the system is accompanied by its controlling condition, so Nf stays the same. In a thermodynamic system, materials with different chemical compositions or physical states are called phases. Liquid water and water vapor are two separate phases in this conception. The number of phases coexisting at thermodynamic equilibrium within a simple substance is described by Gibbs’ phase rule: Φ = Nv + 2, (5) where Φ is the number of phases in equilibrium and Nv is the number of independent variables (Gibbs, 1878). Never has this been seen to be violated, but it is not clear why this arises if from anything other than the definitions of the system at equilibrium. Matsunaga and Tamaki (2008), for example, define a quasi-liquid state, composed of two phases (solid and liquid) taken as a single phase in the pre-melting regions of ionic crystals. Their system is not at equilibrium, but their definition is an attempt to bridge the gap. Their quasi-liquid will occur if the phase transition is continuous, with both phases coexisting during the transition (a first order transition) but not if it is discontinuous (a second order transition). Man (1986) presents a topological treatment of Gibbs’ phase rule, arguing mathematically that if the topological surface mapped from this rule is slightly perturbed, 47 there should be a nonempty set of spaces in which the phase rule is violated. This is true for any mathematical rule or use of language. Using Mathematics to Describe Crystal Properties Voigt notation is used for describing crystal phenomena (Bass, 1995). Here is an extended example to illustrate the notation: imagine a directed pressure acting on a crystal. The crystal might transmit the directed pressure in a few different ways. Stress (internal) and, perhaps, strain (external deformation) will occur, and some of the energy from these may now be available for other processes such as piezoelectric generation. The original directed pressure provides this energy to the crystal lattice. The orientation influences the outcome. There are two types of stress and strain: compression (being pressed together); and tension (being pulled apart). In Voigt notation, these two are described differently. For compression, with an x, y, and z axis (in the Cartesian basis, in three dimension), the indices 1, 2, and 3 are used. Compressional stress and strain along the x axis are described with the index 1, for example. Likewise, index 2 denotes (compressional) stress or strain directed along the y axis; the stress or strain squarely strike a crystal face if that face lies normal to the y axis. The same follows for 3, the z axis, and crystal faces perpendicular to the z axis. Tension is annotated differently. Tensional stress and strain are described as a shear. Two opposing forces (causing the shear) are laterally separated. In Voigt notation, the indices 4, 5, and 6 denote shear planes. Number 4 stress and strain indicate shear along 48 the plane made by the y and z axes (called the yz plane). Number 5 stress and strain indicate shear along the xz plane. Number 6 stress and strain indicate shear along the xy plane. The indices 4, 5, and 6 denote effects perpendicular to the x, y, and z axes, respectively. By using both sets of indices one can annotate both compression (1, 2, and 3) and tension (4, 5, and 6) to get an accurate description of forces and other coefficients acting on or through a crystal in three dimensions. In practice, crystals are cut into thin plates perpendicular to the x, y, and z axes, and the properties of these plates are reported, with their Voigt indices. Cut samples are called plates or crystal plates. Elastic Moduli Compliance (s) is the ability to turn stress into strain. Stiffness (c) is the ability to receive mechanical energy as stress and resist deformation. Together, the compliance and stiffness coefficients are termed the elastic moduli of a material. Equations for elastic moduli were developed conceptually from Hooke’s law, which states that the deformation in a spring is proportional to the load on it (Bentahar, 2000). The equation σ (i) = c (ij) η (j) (6) relates stress to strain, where σ (i) is stress in the i direction (whether 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6, in Voigt notation) η (j) is strain in the j direction (whether 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6), and c (ij) is the stiffness coefficient. Every and McCurdy (1992) offer a more thorough treatment of this and the following description. The coefficient c (ij) describes stress (σ) in the i direction and strain (η) in the j direction. The coefficient c (14) signifies the stiffness for stress (σ) along the x axis, and strain (η) along the yz plane. Values can be negative. As a 49 mnemonic, the sigma (σ) has an “s” sound, just like the last letters in “stress.” The eta (η) looks like an “n,” just like the last letter in “strain.” Likewise, η (i) = s (ij) σ (j) (7) relates strain to stress, where s (ij) is the compliance coefficient, and the other symbols are as above. Note that the coefficient s (14) signifies the compliance for strain (η) along the x axis, and stress (σ) along the yz plane. The elastic moduli described above have two indices, one for stress and one for strain. These moduli are denoted second-order because they have two indices. Elastic moduli may also be measured for one stress and two strain directions (denoted third-order, with three indices) or higher. For both stiffnesses and compliances in moduli higher than second-order, the first subscript denotes the direction of stress, and all of the following subscripts denote strain directions, so c (615), for example, denotes shear stress along the xy plane (perpendicular to the z axis), normal strain on the x plane, and shear strain along the xz plane (perpendicular to the y axis). If values are available for the two strains (1 and 5) and for the stiffness c (615), then the shear stress along the xy plane (6) can be calculated. The two strain values and the stiffness coefficient are multiplied. Voigt Notation for Other Crystal Coefficients Other terms use Voigt notation, and Nye (1957) offers a broader introduction. For example, relative dielectric strength (the ability to store electric charge) is written as K (i) with the index taking a value of 1, 2, or 3. Likewise, d (ij) denotes a piezoelectric strain 50 rate, with the location of the electricity shown by the first subscript, and strain by the second. It is called the piezoelectric strain coefficient and signifies change in strain per change in electrical field. The four piezoelectric coefficients are d (ij), e (ij), g (ij), and h (ij). The piezoelectric stress coefficient is e (ij) and signifies the same as d (ij), except that stress is denoted instead of strain. The other two coefficients, g (ij), and h (ij), are analogous to d (ij) and e (ij), but denote electric polarization instead of electric field. Strain versus electric field is the easiest to measure, and, in practice, d (ij) is the most widely reported. Piezoelectricity is also generalizable to a single coefficient, the electromechanical coupling factor, k (ij). In every instance, whether d (ij), e (ij), g (ij), h (ij), or k (ij), the first index indicates the location of the electricity. Piezoelectric phenomena occur in various crystals, and a number of specialized cuts can be made to examine electrical properties. A quartz plate with an AT orientation, for example, is cut in a plane that contains the x axis and is inclined 35°15’ from the z axis, and is used for quartz resonators (Reed et al., 1990). A Z-cut plate, for example, is cut perpendicular to the z axis, which corresponds to the c axis of the crystal. An X cut is similar, but perpendicular to the x axis. The crystallographic axes a, b, and c correspond to the x, y and z axes if the crystal form is orthogonal. If not, the c axis takes precedence as the z axis, and the rest of the Cartesian coordinate system is matched up according to the symmetry. If possible, an a axis of the crystal will be set to correspond with the x axis, as is the case with quartz, for example, which has three a axes and one c axis. 51  Measurements of other phenomena generally make use of Voigt notation. Those besides stress, strain, dielectricity, and piezoelectricity are discussed in the section Electrical and Magnetic Properties, p. 54. Terms in the following section make use of Voigt notation. Crystal Properties Across a Range of Temperatures and Pressures The following descriptions are from Every and McCurdy (1992). Measurements across several temperatures and pressures are termed temperature slopes and pressure slopes, respectively, if the functions are linear. For stiffness coefficients of the elastic moduli, these are defined as Tc (ij) = ∂ (ln c (ij)) / ∂ T, (8) where Tc (ij) is the temperature stiffness slope, c (ij) is the elastic stiffness, T is the temperature, ln signifies the natural log, and ∂ signifies the partial derivative. The natural log is used in Equation 8 to compare numbers of different magnitudes more easily. The partial derivatives are used in the same way that rise over run is used in generating the slope of any line. This equation is empirical (rather than theoretical); the natural log is used to make looking at a wide spread of values manageable. Likewise, the equation Pc (ij) = ∂ (ln c (ij)) / ∂ P, (9) where Pc (ij) is the pressure stiffness slope, P is the pressure, and the other terms are as above, gives a value for the change in stiffness with a change in pressure. Where the entropy or temperature are constant, the pressure stiffness slopes are 52  PcS (ij) = ∂ (ln cS (ij)) / ∂ P, and (10) PcT (ij) = ∂ (ln cT (ij)) / ∂ P, (11) where PcS (ij) is the adiabatic pressure stiffness slope, cS (ij) is the adiabatic stiffness coefficient, PcT (ij) is the isothermal pressure stiffness slope, cT (ij) is the isothermal stiffness coefficient, and the other terms are as above. The adjective "adiabatic" signifies constant entropy; the adjective "isothermal" signifies constant temperature. Where the relations are not linear as the slope of the natural log, polynomial terms are used, defined as Tc(n) (ij) = [1 / (n! c0 (ij))] [∂n c (ij) / ∂ Tn], (12) where Tc(n) (ij) is the polynomial temperature stiffness factor, c0 (ij) is a stiffness value (from observation), n is the degree of the derivative, ! signifies factorial, and the other terms are as above (Every and McCurdy, 1992). All the terms on the right side of Equation 12 constitute the coefficients of a MacLaurin series, which takes differentiable functions and breaks them into distinct parts for each dimension of analysis, with differentiation about the origin. The values of Tc(1) , Tc(2), Tc(3), and so on, are added together to give a result. Higher values of n give a more precise result. Like the equations above, Equation 12 is built upon the concept of rise over run, which, in this case, is change in the stiffness coefficient over change in temperature. Various properties of crystals are measured across a range of temperatures and pressures, and the equations for them take a similar form to the equations discussed here. Note that the compliance coefficient s can be substituted for c into any of these equations, 53 though they might still be termed “stiffness” slopes in the literature rather than compliance slopes. Generating empirical temperature and pressure equations requires more data than are often gathered. While graphs of temperature and pressure variation data are not uncommonly found, equations themselves are somewhat uncommon for minerals and other earth materials to date. Electrical and Magnetic Properties This section lists twenty-four mineral properties that produce electrical and magnetic phenomena or are related to them. Further information can be found in Sidebottom (2012) and Hoddeson et al. (1992). Conductivity and Dielectricity The inverse of resistance is called conductance and is measured in Ω-1 (called siemens, S, in le système international d’unités (SI) notation). Conductors generally have conductance values of 105 to 108 S, semiconductors of 10-7 to 105 S, and insulators of less than 10-7 S (Guéguen and Palciauskas, 1994). The range in conductance is about 32 orders of magnitude, from 1012 to 10-20 S. The charge carriers in conductors (metals) and semiconductors are electrons. The difference lies in the amount of energy it takes to mobilize the charge carrier, with semiconductors requiring energy to overcome the band gap. At extremely low temperatures, metals are optimized for conduction, while semiconductors behave nearly as insulators at extremely low temperatures, because the required activation energy is not present. Insulators are similar to semi-conductors in that 54 there is an activation energy required for the flow of electric charge, but the charge carriers are ions rather than electrons (Parkhomenko, 1967). Resistance in a material increases as more material is added. A standard measure for electric current flow is resistivity, measured in Ω m typically; this measure does not change with the size of the material. Resistivity can be measured by applying current to a material of known cross-section, and dividing by the length. Geophysical techniques exist for measuring resistivity in the ground (Loke and Barker, 2006). Conductivity is the inverse of resistivity and is typically measured in S m-1. A material which impedes the flow of electric current by storing some of the energy is characterized as being dielectric. Dielectric materials store charge, and this is termed capacitance. For materials subjected to alternating electric current, dielectric loss (as heat) is a measure of capacitance (Parkhomenko, 1967). Piezoelectricity, Piezomagnetism and Their Converse Effects Some minerals translate seismic energy into electrical signals, termed piezoelectricity. The converse effect is also observed. In the converse piezoelectric effect, an electric field (or polarization) will produce stress and strain (Cady, 1946). Both the piezoelectric effect and the converse piezoelectric effect have magnetic analogs. The piezomagnetic effect is the production of magnetization or a magnetic field caused by stress or strain. Under the converse piezomagnetic effect, a mineral exposed to a magnetic field will deform. All four effects are limited to materials whose lattices are asymmetrical, to allow for a net result caused by deformation. 55 Electrostriction and Magnetostriction For a more extensive treatment of the following, see Blinc (2011). All non- conducting materials will constrict under an applied electrical field, as the opposite charges on separated material faces attract; this phenomenon is called electrostriction. Ferromagnetic minerals will change shape as they magnetize; this is called magnetostriction. Pyroelectricity, the Seebeck Effect and Thermoelectricity A mineral that is by nature polar (e.g. water ice) ought to have a spontaneous electric charge on its c axis, but this charge commonly dissipates to the environment, and is not observed. A change in temperature will produce a new charge build-up, and this is termed pyroelectricity. Two types exist, namely, primary pyroelectricity, which arises from the contribution of polarity within the lattice, as described above, and secondary pyroelectricity, which is caused by the piezoelectric effect as the lattice expands or contracts while heated or cooled. Pyroelectricity is measured as p = ∆p / ∆T, (13) where p is the pyroelectric coefficient, p is the electric polarization in C m-2, T is the temperature in Kelvin or Celsius, and ∆ signifies change (Bhalla et al., 1993). From Equation 13, the product of the pyroelectric coefficient and the change in temperature will give the change in polarization. The Seebeck effect is seen at the junction of two dissimilar conductors subjected to a temperature gradient, and produces electric current (Gould et al., 2008). More 56 information related to the following description can be found in Goldsmid (2009). Thermoelectricity is a general term for the liberation of charge carriers in a material with heating, and includes both the Peltier effect and the Thomson effect. While the Seebeck effect describes how a termperature gradient within a material mobilizes charge carriers, the Peltier effect describes heating at the junction of two dissiilar conductors, that opposes the electricity generation; the Thomson effect is a generalization of the Peltier effect to a single material wherein the Seebeck effect varies with temperature, acting as if extra junctions exist. These three are thermoelectric effects. Ferroelectricity, Antiferroelectricity and Paraelectricity A more in-depth treatment of the ideas contained in the following three paragraphs can be found in Blinc (2011). Some materials may exhibit piezoelectricity. If the effect is reversible (so that the sign of the polarization can be switched by applying a larger electric field), then the material is termed ferroelectric. The name “ferroelectric” is akin to “ferromagnetic,” not for its reference to iron, but in signifying reversibility. Some magnets (ferromagnets) can have their magnetic polarity switched by the application of an external magnetic field. The analogous is true in ferroelectrics. The ferroelectric effect is due to the presence of two competing sublattice orientations in the crystal. A sublattice is a part of the crystal lattice, which, when taken separately, may have a different symmetry from the overall lattice. The applied field allows the sublattices to reorient, favoring one of these two. Ice is a common ferroelectric mineral (Cubiotti and Geracitano, 1967). The competing crystal sublattices are responsible for 57 ice being lighter than water and for other anomalies. A ferroelectric crystal need not be asymmetrical to express piezoelectricity; the sublattices provide the asymmetry. Antiferroelectricity and paraelectricity are also caused by sublattice competition. If the two competing crystal orientations are at right angles to each other, then the material is called antiferroelectric, and generally polarizes more strongly in one direction than the other. If an external electric field polarizes a mineral, but is unable to switch its polarity, and interacts with the mineral in such a way that the applied field then causes extra polarization (an increase that is more than linear), the material is termed paraelectric. In general, “linear” refers to functions whose graph is a line. If x is proportional to y, then y = mx + b, (14) where x and y are variables, m is the slope of the line (∆y / ∆x), and b is the value of y when x is zero. In a non-linear increase, m is an increasing or decreasing function, rather than a single value. Ferromagnetism, Ferrimagnetism, Paramagnetism and Diamagnetism A thorough treatment of magnetism in materials can be found in Morrish (1965). One type of magnetism is ferromagnetism; the polarity in ferromagnetism is based on a previous exposure to a magnetic field, but some minerals exhibit spontaneous magnetization whose orientation is set without a previous exposure. Ferromagnetism is also called remanent magnetization. A second type of magnetism is ferrimagnetism; ferrimagnetism is based on internal domain and lattice structure. It is not switchable. 58 Both ferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism are considered permanent magnetizations, in contrast to the next type, which is an induced magnetization. This third type of magnetism is paramagnetism; if a material cannot be magnetized, but can interact with an externally applied magnetic field, and makes an addition to the field that is non-linear (and, specifically, greater than linear), the material is called paramagnetic. Paramagnetism is the analog of paraelectricity. A fourth type of magnetism is diamagnetism; if a material can interact with an externally applied magnetic field to make it weaker, that material is termed diamagnetic. The Piezooptic, Rotooptic, Electrooptic and Magnetooptic Effects; Electrogyration and Magnetogyration For a more thorough treatment of the following subsection, see Nelson (1996). In transparent minerals, photons, whether of visible light or infrared, are transmitted in their original orientation. In refractive minerals, the frequency of the transmitted photon is changed. In birefringent minerals, the frequency of the transmitted photon is changed, dependent on its orientation within the crystal as it is being transmitted. Birefringent minerals have two axes for diffraction. Some minerals translate seismic energy into a change in the frequency of a photon being transmitted. This is called the piezooptic effect. Some minerals translate seismic energy into a change in the direction of a photon being transmitted. This is called the rotooptic effect. 59  Some photons are affected by the presence of an external electrical or magnetic field, and the energy results in a change in frequency for the transmitted photons. These phenomena are called the electrooptic effect and magnetooptic effect, respectively. If an applied electrical field rotates a transmitted photon, the rotation is called electrogyration. The analogous effect under a magnetic field is termed magnetogyration Gyration rotates the photons themselves, while a rotooptic effect changes the crystal lattice, rotating the transmission medium. These four “optic” and two “gyration” effects act upon photons. A distinction is made among these effects, which are called high-frequency electromagnetic effects, and the effects (such as piezoelectricity) described in the other subsections above. The latter are called low-frequency electromagnetic effects. High-frequency electromagnetic effects act upon electromagnetic radiation (photons). Low-frequency effects act via electric or magnetic fields. Computer Modeling The previous sections of this chapter have briefly examined mineral systems, thermodynamics, crystal notation, and crystal properties. For earth materials, the present notation system, and ones like it, though cumbersome, lend themselves easily to computer-based modeling. Kuo-An Wu et al. (2010), Elder and Grant (2004) and Long- Qing Chen (2002) use Phase Field Models (PFM) to explore stress and strain. Software packages using PFM are MICRESS (Microstructure Evolution Simulation Software) (MICRESS, 2013) and MMSP (Mesoscale Microstructure Simulation Project) (MMSP, 60 2013). Wang and Khachaturyan (1997) describe a different field model. Elmer, Code Aster and pdnMesh are free open-source finite element software modeling programs found on the OpenScience Project website, and are also potentially useful (OpenScience, 2012). Computers are necessary because of the size of the calculations needed to present the data cogently. 61  CHAPTER 4 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS Many techniques for gathering mineralogical and petrologic data are easy to perform, and most are accessible, for example, in a university material characterization laboratory (as a guest user) if specialized equipment is needed. This section provides an overview of methods for gathering material data relevant to Earth electricity. It is organized as sample identification, sample preparation, pressure and temperature techniques, elastic data, electrical data, magnetic data and simulating metamorphic reactions. Specific equipment details, such as model numbers and brand names, as well as the names of retail outlets where supplies may be purchased are listed in Tables 5 and 6 in Appendix F, p. 386 through 388. Sample Preparation Making Aligned Cuts For phenomena based on the symmetry of a crystal, it is often necessary to cut plates from the crystal that are oriented with respect to the crystal lattice, and are much thinner than their extent. Crystal plates can be used to measure the piezoelectric effect of pressure along the crystallographic c axis, for example, to see how much electricity is expressed along that axis. If strain measurements are to be taken, the piezoelectric 62 coefficient would be termed d (33), and a Z plate should be cut from the crystal. (See Chapter 3, Voigt Notation for Other Crystal Coefficients, p. 50.) With a track mount, X-ray diffraction can be used to calculate the arrangement of the atoms of a crystal, and then (with an alignment microscope) align the material to a preferred orientation. The same orientation is maintained so that a slow-speed cut off saw will then cut one or several layers from the material, as desired. If money is an object, and no laboratory is nearby that allows guest users can be found, the following strategy designed by the author works for a more approximate procedure. A sample box may be made from 6.35 mm (¼”) thick melamine-coated board, available in the U.S. at hardware stores. The sides and bottom may be glued together with a hot glue gun; a top is not needed. An angle gauge should be used to ensure that the sides of the box are orthogonal. (See Figure 2.) The digital angle gauge in the figure displays a readout to 0.1º and is accurate to better than 0.5º. The sample may be oriented in the sample box with water-based clay. (See Figure 3.) Once the sample is oriented as desired, a heat gun may be used to melt wax that will then be poured into the box. (See Figure 4.) The wax in Figure 4 is sold for making sprues in metal art casting, and can be purchased cheaply at an art store. The heat gun is rated at 1500 watts. The box is torn apart, and the resulting sample, encased in wax, is ready for cutting. (See Figure 5.) A pine board may be glued onto the wax-plus-sample with cyanoacrylate to make the cutting safer for holding by hand while cutting, and more stable, if using a jig or other holder. Practice samples were cut with a 1.5 horsepower wet 63 FIGURE 2. Sample box with digital angle gauge. The box is unfinished. Author image. 64 FIGURE 3. Sample box with oriented sample. The sample is a commercial granite scrap. Author image. 65 FIGURE 4. Sample ready to be encased in wax. Bottom left: sample ready to be encased in wax. Top left: sprue wax in a Sierra cup, ready for melting. Top right: heat gun. Author image. 66 FIGURE 5. Cut sample. Author image. 67 table saw fitted with a thin-kerf 0.635 mm thick (0.025”) diamond blade. Kerf is the term used in construction and industry to signify saw-blade thickness. As a cheaper alternative to expensive commercial diamond saw blades, a home-made brass (or other soft metal, such as copper) blade without teeth can be cut with a hole cutter or metal scribe, and then used in a dry saw with a slurry of glycerine and abrasive. The glycerine adheres to the saw blade, and holds the abrasive in place. (See Figures 6 and 7.) The teeth in Figure 6 were cut with a metal file after the image in Figure 7 was taken. The saw in Figure 7 operates up to 7800 rotations per minute (RPM). The motor is not power-rated in the documentation, but it is underpowered for this type of work, and not recommended. No usable sample cuts were made. A typical dry saw for cutting crystals is higher powered but slower speed, to prevent a sample from cracking during the cut. The glycerine used was a food-grade vegetable glycerine, and the added abrasive was 50.0 micron silicon carbide powder. Sample Lapping The next stage in sample preparation is lapping to making the thickness of the cut sample uniform; the etymology is obscure (OED Online, 2013), but the term may have the same root as the word for what dogs do with water, or from the Latin lapis meaning stone. Lapping can be done by hand using a glycerin slurry (as described in the section above) and a steel plate, such as the one shown in Figure 8. Lapping is done by placing the slurry on the steel plate, placing the crystal plate on top of the slurry, and then placing the fingers on the crystal and moving the crystal vigorously. The thickness of the crystal 68 FIGURE 6. Home-made mini saw blade from brass. Author image. 69 FIGURE 7. Home-made brass saw blade with slurry. The blade at the bottom right of the image is a commercial blade for cutting wood. Author image. 70 FIGURE 8. Steel plate for lapping and polishing by hand. Author image. 71 plate is measured with calipers. Tourmaline samples were lapped to less than 0.1 mm uniform thickness with this technique. Two calipers were used for measurements, and these have stated accuracies of 0.1 mm and 0.0254 mm (0.001”). Many material science perapartion labs will include a mechanical lapper, which is a motor-driven rotating disk housed in a stand that accommodates water. An abrasive pad fits on the lapper’s disk, and a jig made from a hard metal holds the sample. Typically, samples are held in the jig with a synthetic wax, or thermoplastic. The target thickness can be specified by moving the sample holder within the jig up or down relative to the jig’s base. The jig is placed on the pad on the wheel, and the lapper is turned on. Rubber bumpers keep the jig in place, generally rotating either clockwise or counterclockwise, or a combination of the two. The lapper’s wheel used should also be able to rotate in either direction, so that the jig may rotate in the same direction or the opposite from the wheel, according to the user’s preference. Sample Polishing As with lapping, crystal plates may be polished by hand, with successively finer grits in the slurry. Final polishing is accomplished with a buffing cloth and a colloidal suspension. Typically, colloidal silica and then colloidal diamond are used. Tourmaline samples were polished by hand with good results, excluding the colloidal diamond step. Abrasives used in the glycerine slurry were 50.0 micron (240 grit) silicon carbide powder, 600 grit silicon carbide powder, 1200 grit silicon carbide powder, and 0.5 72 micron precision alumina powder. Polishing with colloidal silica was accomplished with Colloidal Silica Type SBT. Colloidal diamond polishing of tourmaline samples was accomplished as a guest at the University of California Irvine’s Calit2 (LEXI) laboratory, equipped with a lapper. Rayon polishing cloths and 3 micron diamond suspension were used for polishing, with 0.05 micron alumina suspension used for final polishing. Diamond polishing was attempted at both 10 minutes per sample side and 5 minutes per sample side, before 7 minutes per side was chosen, which produced results as satisfactory as polishing for 10 minutes per sample side. Colloidal alumina was used at 2 minutes per sample side. Polishing cloths were changed between samples, and between abrasives. The heat from the thermoplastic fractured some of the samples as they were being affixed to the jig. Subsequently, carbon tape was used instead, with good results. Confirming Alignment Currently, the practice for examining a crystal lattice (and confirming its orientation) is X-ray diffraction. For a standard treatment of this technique, see Stout and Jensen (1989). Alternately, a scanning electron microscope (SEM) fitted with electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) may be used, and results are faster than with XRD. Figure 9 shows a tourmaline crystal plate cut perpendicular to the c crystallographic axis viewed in an SEM fitted with EBSD. The sample was identified as manganoan elbaite via the HKL Channel 5 Flamenco acquisition system and a standard inorganic crystal 73 FIGURE 9. Crystal lattice orientation with EBSD. The sample is a manganoan elbaite from the Pala mine in San Diego, California. The large image is the SEM view of the crystal surface. The three smaller windows are “Live EBSD,” “Band Detection” and “Solution” going counter-clockwise from the bottom left, respectively. The hexagon on the left is a computer generated image of the oriented crystal form. The acquisition software is Flamenco from Oxford Instruments, for use with EBSD. Author image. structure Kikuchi line database (Oxford Instruments, 2013). Kikuchi lines are detectable bands of electrons caused during electron microscopy by diffractions of the crystal lattice (von Heimendahl et al., 1964). The forms can be generated by computer simulation if the 74 lattice arrangement of atoms is known. The orientation of the elbaite is given as 109.1, 6.2, 44 (Euler angles) with a mean angular deviation (MAD) equal to 0.990º, as seen in the detail box titled “Solution” in the figure. Euler angles are a system of representing a form in three-dimensional Euclidean space based on three rotations. MAD numbers are calculated by comparing the observed Kikuchi lines with ones generated from a database of unit cells. MAD numbers less than 1 are preferred with EBSD. Practice data were gathered at UC Irvine during February and March, 2012. The technique described above produced results easily, with the drawback that SEM and EBSD use requires sputtering a thin layer (≈ 10 nm) of a conductive material onto the surface of the sample. The author used iridium, which allowed excess electrons from the electron beam of the microscope to disperse, as is necessary for imaging. Determining Error For linear properties of a crystal, the following formula, adapted from Hawkins et al. (1995), may be used to determine the error due to misorientation of a cut plate: (mt - mo) / mt = 1 – cos θ, (15) where mt is the true magnitude, mo is the observed magnitude, and θ is the angular difference between the true orientation and the actual orientation. One minus θ is the difference between the true orientation and the actual orientation. This relationship is shown graphically in Figure 10. 75  mt mo FIGURE 10. Geometric (vector) relationship between the true and observed magnitudes in a misoriented crystal plate. Drawing adapted from Hawkins, K.D., MacKinnon, I.D.R., and Schneeberger, H. (1995), Influence of chemistry on the pyroelectric effect in tourmaline: American Mineralogist, v. 80, p. 492. Reproduced with permission. Sample Identification Rao (2011) discusses the identification of minerals in hand sample. For more accuracy, the chemical composition of minerals can be identified in the laboratory: an SEM fitted with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) can perform this function, if the sample is prepared as above. Goldstein et al. (2003) contains a relevant summary. Phase transitions are evident in electrical and magnetic data. Capacitance (Gonzalo, 2006) and magnetic susceptibility (Fisher and Franz, 1995) have been widely used to determine these, and pyroelectricity (Fisher and Franz, 1995) and other phenomena may also be used. Rocks are identified according to their constituent minerals, based on the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) nomenclature guides. Bulk samples 76 of rock may also be chemically analyzed, and an article by Jeffrey and Hutchison (1981) contains a standard description. The orientation of minerals within rock samples lends a structural anisotropy to the rock. Anisotropy is a general term meaning that some property is not uniformly distributed or transmitted. Amadei (1983) discusses mechanical anisotropy in rocks. Temperature and Pressure Techniques Metamorphism in the Earth's crust occurs at temperatures from about 200°C to about 900°C, and at pressures from near-atmospheric to about 6 gigapascals (GPa) (Chopin, 2003). These correspond to depths well in excess of 100 km. The range is due to the presence of water in subduction zones, for example, and other subsurface features (Kearey et al., 2009). Some of these conditions can be simulated with commonly available laboratory equipment. Temperatures up to 260ºC (500ºF) (at which polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon®), a popular electrical insulator, starts to degrade) and 430ºC (800ºF) were easily attained with a heat gun heating an unsealed home-made sample holder. (See Figures 11 and 12.) The sample holder was made from 25 mm (1”) household copper pipe and copper plate (wall thickness is 1 mm) bought at a hardware store, and cut with a punch and die. The bottom was oversized and wedged in place with a punch; the top is loose. The hole is for a thermocouple lead, and measurements were taken with an Omega K- Type thermocouple (chromel (90% nickel / 10% chromium) attached to alumel (95% nickel / 2% manganese / 2% aluminum / 1% silicon)) connected to a laptop using an 77 FIGURE 11. Copper sample holder for heating at ambient pressure. Author image. 78 FIGURE 12. Sample heating with a heat gun. The curve for heating to 800ºF is similar to this. Author image. 79 Omega UTC-USB Universal Thermocouple Connector. Data logging and visualization were done with Omega software TRH Central, Version 1.02.10.907. For directed (not hydrostatic/uniform) pressure, sample holders were made modified from the design by Morgan et al. (1984). (See Figures 13 and 14., p. 81 and 82) The plungers in Figure 14 were cut from copper lightning rod material, and the springs were hand wound from copper wire. The polytetrafluoroethylene was carved and sanded down by hand. As a modification to the design by Morgan et al. (1984), the plungers can be fitted with holders, and masses of known weight can be added to these holders, thereby providing applied pressure. For shear stress, the polytetrafluoroethylene attached to the plunger and the base can be fitted with a slot in each, and torque may be applied to the sample by twisting the plunger. For a standard treatment of high temperature and pressure techniques, see Ulmer (1971). Elastic Data For a theoretical treatment of stress, strain and plasticity in earth materials, see Hai- Sui Yu (2006). For details of measuring stress and strain coefficients of materials, refer to the thorough overview by Suryanarayana (2011). Electrical and Magnetic Data A comparison of some electrode materials applied to crystals can be found in Glass (1969). He reports that fired gold provides an electrical signal of the greatest magnitude, 80 FIGURE 13. Sample holder for electrical measurements under applied pressure. The idea of adding weight or torque to the plunger is new. Reprinted with permission from Morgan, S.H., Silberman, E., and Springer, J.M., American Journal of Physics, Vol. 52, Page 543, (1984). Copyright 1984, American Association of Physics Teachers. The drawing is taken from Figure 2 in that article. 81 FIGURE 14. Plungers for sample holders of various sizes. Author image. 82 then evaporated gold or aluminum, next fired platinum, and, finally, air-dried silver paste is the least sensitive of the electrode materials. Care should be taken in choosing a wire to connect with this material. If it is of a dissimilar metal, then a separate experiment should be run to quantify the thermoelectric effect that is produced here. Several books and articles summarize methods for collecting ferroelectric, pyroelectric and piezoelectric data (Kang Min Ok et al., 2006; Bhalla et al., 1993; Ikeda, 1990; Lines and Glass, 1977). An innovative technique involves using XRD to determine piezoelectric coefficients (Yu et al., 2007; Annaka, 1977). Gathering electrical resistance, resistivity and capacitance data is discussed in Mason and Jaffe (1954), in Parkhomenko (1967) and in Bartnikas (1987). Pearce et al. (2006) present methods of measuring electric and magnetic properties of minerals. Laboratory requirements for determining magnetic data from different materials are described in Yimei Zhu (2005). Simulating Metamorphic Reactions It should be possible to simulate metamorphic reactions. An experimental setup for inducing a metamorphic reaction could include a pressure chamber containing a fluid with a composition of interest inside (such as excess silica or iron suspended in water). The experiment is run with the sample at an appropriate temperature and pressure. Such an experiment might be conducted at low pressures initially (300 kPa (3 bar; 43.5 psi)) and briefly (2 weeks), to test for the sensitivity of the reaction. Samples would have their chemical compositions examined, and electrical and magnetic properties tested before and after the pressure-chamber process. The data might be used to construct or refine 83 pressure-temperature-chemical composition (T-P-X) diagrams. This would add to the literature on metamorphism, and could provide data that would allow the inclusion of electric and magnetic values into metamorphic reaction modeling. Baxter (2003) provides a summary of laboratory simulations of metamorphic reactions, along with natural constraints. 84  CHAPTER 5 FERROELECTRIC, PYROELECTRIC, PIEZOELECTRIC, AND SELECTED THERMOELECTRIC, DIELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC DATA FROM THE SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE Introduction The literature sources of electrical and magnetic data for minerals are of two kinds: current and historic. Current sources available online include the Mineralogical Society of America’s Handbook of Mineralogy (Anthony et al., 2012), which maintains a list of piezoelectric and pyroelectric minerals (Shannon, 2011) with sixty-nine minerals given. None have measured electric constants included. Also, the websites mindat.org (Ralph and Chau, 2012) and webmineral.com (Barthelmy, 2012) are used: they are both incorporated into the International Mineralogical Association (IMA) Database of Mineral Properties on the RRUFF Project website, a comprehensive repository of Raman spectroscopy data to be used in planetary remote sensing (RRUFF Project, 2013; Downs, 2006). RRUFF is a proper name (for a cat), not an abbreviation. Another current source is the Landolt-Börnstein Database, which was recently renamed SpringerMaterials (Springer, 2012), and many of the data in the tables in this 85 chapter were taken from this resource. The Landolt-Börnstein Database (LBD) currently lists hundreds of thousands of substances and their properties (Madelung and Poerschke, 2008; Poerschke, 2002), though the data listed for minerals are sparse: 100 minerals for elastic moduli, and 33 for other electrical properties appear in the volume on piezoelectricity (Nelson, 1993). The coverage is expanded if a search is made by chemical formula rather than by mineral name. For magnetic data for minerals, LBD is voluminous, and includes data for silicates and many other rock-forming minerals. Historic sources for electrical properties in minerals include a comprehensive paper on piezoelectricity in minerals from Bell Laboratories (Bond, 1943), showing the results of 830 mineral tests, with 17 displaying strong piezoelectric properties; and also classic sources such as Nye (1957), Mason (1950), Cady (1946), and papers that reference these. Many of the piezoelectric minerals listed in these sources are unquantified, or are only partially quantified, with data often lying outside the temperature and pressure ranges that are of interest to geologists. In contrast, Parkhomenko (1971; 1967) and Parkhomenko and Bondarenko (1972) are classic texts that deal with rocks and minerals in geologic settings. Lists of Minerals Table 4 lists descriptions of minerals for reference, and is located in Appendix A, p. 193. It includes chemical formulas, crystal symmetry classes, a black-and-white drawing of each symmetry class, the Nickel-Strunz mineral classifications, and a brief description of the geologic settings for each mineral. Some phase transition temperatures are given, 86 as well. Nickel-Strunz is one of several classification systems for minerals, and is used commonly. Also included in Table 4, p. 193, is an entry describing whether each mineral is ferroelectric, pyroelectric, or piezoelectric; selected thermoelectric, dielectric, electrical conduction and magnetic properties are included where available. Table 4 lists 44 minerals that exhibit ferroelectricity, antiferroelectricity or paraelectricity, 175 that exhibit pyroelectricity, and 217 that exhibit piezoelectricity. All ferroelectric, antiferroelectric, or paraelectric minerals exhibit pyroelectricity and piezoelectricity, and all pyroelectric minerals are piezoelectric. Table 7 lists 44 ferroelectric minerals, Table 8 lists 131 pyroelectric (but not ferroelectric) minerals and Table 9 lists 42 piezoelectric (but not ferro- or pyroelectric) minerals. A key to the crystal symmetry notation is given in Table 10. Table 11 in Appendix G, p. 390 lists references for the crystal structure data in Table 4, the list of minerals. A group of minerals is a set whose members have the same crystal lattice arrangements, but with different atoms occupying some of the lattice sites. If the mineral group is very large, it will be turned into a group of groups, called a supergroup, by members of the International Mineralogical Association. The IMA is also responsible for approving the names of minerals. Tables 12, 13 and 14 in Appendix C, p. 317 through 331, relist the minerals in Tables 7, 8 and 9 by group, and show the other minerals in each group. Where mineral group taxonomy was equivocal, a frequently updated academic mineralogy resource was taken as definitive (Witzke, 2012). Thornasite is placed in the zeolite group, as per Yaping Li et al. (2000), though this may 87 TABLE 7. Ferroelectric, Antiferroelectric and Paraelectric Minerals Altaite Demicheleite-Cl Nitratine Alum-Na Demicheleite-I Oxycalciopyrochlore Archerite Diomignite Oxyplumbopyrochlore Barioperovskite Ericaite Perovskite Biphosphammite Gwihabaite Proustite Bismuthinite Heftetjernite Pyrargyrite Boracite Hydroxycalcioroméite Pyrolusite Cassiterite (Ferroan Variety) Russellite Cervantite Ice Schultenite Chalcocite Koechlinite Sillénite Chalcostibite Lakargiite Srebrodolskite Chambersite Lueshite Stibiotantalite Changbaiite Macedonite Stibnite Clinocervantite Mariinskite Tausonite Demicheleite-Br Niter Wakefieldite-Nd Notes: Underlined minerals have data associated with them. References are listed in Table 15 in Appendix G, p. 393. not reflect its IMA status. Bold typeface in Tables 12, 13 and 14 signifies that the mineral has been listed in a reference as having the electrical property in question. Tables 15, 16 and 17 in Appendix G, p. 393 through 395, list these references. The headings of the 10th edition of the Nickel-Strunz classifications of the IMA approved minerals are listed in Table 18 in Appendix C, p. 332, and the classification numbers are underlined for ferroelectric, pyroelectric and piezoelectric minerals, and also for the selected thermoelectric minerals included in this thesis. Table 18 also lists these minerals, the first class in bold, and the second in italic typeface. The 10th edition is the latest version of the Nickel-Strunz classification (Ralph and Chau, 2012). Finally, note 88 TABLE 8. Pyroelectric Minerals Afwillite Eosphorite Mordenite Alunite Epistilbite Murmanite Amesite Epistolite Muthmannite Ammoniojarosite Feruvite Nacrite Ardealite Finnemanite Natroalunite Argentojarosite Flagstaffite Natrojarosite Arsenogoyazite Fluor-dravite Natrolite Artinite Fluor-liddicoatite Nepheline Batisite Fluor-schorl Neptunite Benstonite Foitite Nickeline Berthierine Fresnoite Nolanite Bertrandite Georgbarsanovite Olenite Beryl Goyazite Oxy-schorl Bournonite Greenockite Parkerite Breithauptite Halloysite-7Å Pharmacolite Bromellite Halloysite-10Å Pickeringite Brucite Halotrichite Pinnoite Brushite Harmotome Pirssonite Buergerite Hartite Plumbojarosite Bultfonteinite Hemimorphite Povondraite Burbankite Heulandite-Ca Prehnite Cadmoselite Hilgardite Pyrochroite Caledonite Hydrocalumite Pyromorphite Cancrinite Innelite Pyrrhotite Childrenite Iodargyrite Quenselite Chromium-dravite Jarosite Röntgenite-Ce Clinohedrite Junitoite Sarcolite Colemanite Kaliborite Schorl Coquimbite Krennerite Scolecite Crandallite Larsenite Searlesite Creedite Liebigite Seligmannite Cronstedtite Marialite Shortite Dawsonite Meionite Sinoite Diaboleite Melanovanadite Spangolite Dravite Meliphanite Stephanite Dyscrasite Mesolite Stibiocolumbite Elbaite Millerite Struvite Elpidite Minyulite Suolunite Enargite Moissanite Swedenborgite 89 TABLE 8. Continued Syngenite Uranophane Wulfenite Thaumasite Ussingite Wurtzite Thomsonite-Ca Uvite Yugawaralite Tilasite Vermiculite Zinkenite Tourmaline Weloganite Tyrolite Whitlockite Notes: Though a mineral supergroup (and not a mineral), tourmaline is also listed above. Underlined minerals have data associated with them. References are given in Table 16 in Appendix G, p. 394. TABLE 9. Piezoelectric Minerals Aminoffite Gugiaite Rhodozite Analcime Helvine Roquesite Bastnäsite-Ce Jeremejevite Sal Ammoniac Bavenite Langbeinite Selenium Berlinite Leucophanite Sodalite Cinnabar Londonite Sphalerite Dioptase Mimetite Stilleite Edingtonite Morenosite Tellurium Epsomite Nitrobarite Thornasite Eulytine Olsacherite Tiemannite Gallite Paratellurite Topaz Gismondine-Ca Pharmacosiderite Tugtupite Gmelinite-Na Quartz Zincite Goslarite Retgersite Zunyite Notes: Underlined minerals have data associated with them. References are listed in Table 17 in Appendix G, p. 395. 90 TABLE 10. Crystal Symmetry Notation Key Symbol Meaning Rotational Symmetry 1 One-fold rotational symmetry axis 360° (trivial) 2 Two-fold rotational symmetry axis 180° 3 Three-fold rotational symmetry axis 120° 4 Four-fold rotational symmetry axis 90° 6 Six-fold rotational symmetry axis 60° m Mirror plane / Rotational axis (numerator) ⊥ to mirror plane (denominator), e.g. 6/m _ Rotoinversion about an axis Notes: The symbol ⊥ means perpendicular. The symbol for rotoinversion is typically a macron (bar over the number), but here it is written as an underline. Rotoinversion consists of a rotation about an axis and an inversion. Rotoinversion with a two-fold rotation (2) is written as m and is the most familiar: it is what mirrors do with light. that the long list of minerals in Table 4 includes 14 minerals exhibiting strong thermoelectricity, 46 minerals whose magnetic properties are given, and six extra, with dielectric properties. Centrosymmetric Minerals Exhibiting Symmetry-Based Electricity Ferroelectric, antiferroelectric, paraelectric, pyroelectric and piezoelectric minerals all may exhibit electrical phenomena based upon the symmetrical orientation of their crystal lattices. Table 19 in Appendix D, p. 373, lists these symmetry-based electrical minerals by crystal system, crystal class, and symmetry. Excerpted from these in Table 20 are minerals that are centrosymmetric. In a crystal with a centrosymmetric lattice, any displacement will be met with a complementary (orthogonal) displacement, and the electric charges should cancel out. In contrast, ferroelectric (or antiferroelectric, or 91 TABLE 20. Centrosymmetric Minerals That Exhibit Symmetry-Based Electricity Altaite Eosphorite Nitrobarite Alum-Na Epistolite Parkerite Aminoffite Finnemanite Perovskite Analcime Gismondine-Ca Pinnoite Arsenogoyazite Gmelinite-Na Plumbojarosite Artinite Goyazite Proustite Bavenite Gwihabaite Pyrochroite Benstonite Harmotome Pyrolusite Beryl Heftetjernite Pyromorphite Bismuthinite Heulandite-Ca Quenselite Breithauptite Hydroxycalcioroméite Sal Ammoniac Brucite Ice Sarcolite Bultfonteinite Innelite Seligmannite Cassiterite Jeremejevite Srebrodolskite Cervantite Kaliborite Stibnite Chalcocite Lakargiite Syngenite Chalcostibite Lueshite Tausonite Clinocervantite Marialite Thaumasite Coquimbite Mariinskite Thomsonite-Ca Crandallite Meionite Thornasite Creedite Melanovanadite Topaz Dawsonite Mimetite Tyrolite Demicheleite-Br Murmanite Ussingite Demicheleite-Cl Muthmannite Vermiculite Demicheleite-I Nickeline Wakefieldite-Nd Dioptase Niter Wulfenite Elpidite Nitratine Notes: Ferroelectric, antiferroelectric or paraelectric materials may be centrosymmetric if they have a sublattice that shows some asymmetry. Underlined minerals are not ferroelectric, antiferroelectric or paraelectric. References are listed in Table 11 in Appendix G, p. 390. paraelectric) minerals exhibit electrical phenomena based on the orientation of an asymmetrical sublattice. The sublattice bonds may allow for an expression of electricity, 92 even though the general lattice structure is symmetric (Blinc, 2011). The minerals that are not ferroelectric, antiferroelectric or paraelectric have been underlined in Table 20. For these minerals that are centrosymmetric and exhibit symmetry-based electrical phenomena (but are not ferroelectric, antiferroelectric or paraelectric) a reference has been provided below to confirm the structure, and to provide a possible explanation for further ordering, which in general reduces the symmetry of the mineral. The author believes that the reduction in symmetry allows for the electrical phenomena. The minerals are arranged alphabetically. Aminoffite Aminoffite’s chemical formula and crystal structure have been recently refined (Huminicki and Hawthorne, 2002a), and the authors of that study note that Pb, Mn and As are commonly incorporated into the ideal formula of Aminoffite. Piezoelectric phenomena are perhaps related to ordering in the placement of these ions. Analcime, Gismondine-Ca, Gmelinite-Na, Thomsonite-Ca and Thornasite The five minerals described in this subsection are zeolites. Zeolite minerals often exist in several forms, and multiple crystal class (and symmetry) references have been listed for these minerals in Table 15, p. 393. The zeolite group’s symmetries can be found in Armbruster and Gunter (2001). Ordering of ions within the structure is commonplace, and may explain the observed electric phenomena. For evidence that thornasite exhibits a microporous lattice, and should be included in the zeolite group, see Yaping Li et al. (2000). 93 Arsenogoyazite Frost et al. (2013a) report the results of Raman spectroscopy on the crandallite subgroup of alunite-group minerals, of which arsenogoyazite is a member. Raman spectroscopy is a non-invasive technique which uses lasers to obtain a unique emission spectrum for each material. They observed a signal band attributable to the interference of symmetric and antisymmetric vibrational stretching modes, supporting the assignment of a reduced symmetry for the crandallite minerals. Ordering of cations (in the strontium site) is likely. Artinite Frost et al. (2009), using Raman spectroscopy, report that the carbonate anions in artinite are disordered. They attribute this disorder to strong hydrogen bonding, and find evidence for this in their spectroscopic data. Bavenite Bavenite’s chemical formula and crystal structure have been recently refined (Lussier and Hawthorne, 2011), with assignment to the space group Cmcm. This is equivalent to orthorhombic crystal class mmm. Space groups are organized according to the configuration of the space; crystallographic space groups are one of several systems. Piezoelectric phenomena are perhaps related to ordering in the placement of cations. Typically, metals are common cations, since there are often easily-lost electrons in outer valence shells. (A cation is formed from an atom which has donated electrons, and carries a positive charge.) 94 Benstonite Scheetz and White (1977) report ordering in the cations calcium and barium in benstonite, therby reducing the symmetry of the mineral. Beryl Tančić et al. (2010) discuss the structure of beryl, whose lattice sites accommodate various impurities, including cations and water. Ordering in cations is present and is responsible for lowered symmetry in beryls. Orientation in the hydrogen and oxygen atoms (in constituent water) also contributes to lower symmetry (Libowitzky and Beran, 2006). Breithauptite No explanation for lowered symmetry was found in the literature, but Hewitt (1948) reports that the antimony site in breithauptite is shared with arsenic, forming a solid solution with nickeline. Ordering of impurities within this site may explain a lowered symmetry. Brucite The observed pyro- and piezoelectric effects are possibly attributed to short range bonds that hold together the negatively-charged hydroxyl anions in a layered structure. Hydroxyl is composed of hydrogen and oxygen (OH–). See Peterson et al. (1979) for more information on the layer structure of brucite. 95 Bultfonteinite McIver (1963) reports that the structures of bultfonteinite and afwillite are similar, while Malik and Jeffery (1976) report a reassignment of afwillite to the polar monoclinic (m) crystal class. Bultfonteinite’s structure has not been reevaluated, and may also belong to this polar class. Coquimbite Majzlan et al. (2010) report that H2O (hydrogen) in coquimbite occupies two different lattice sites, and these form a cyclohexane-like structure, having a vacancy in the middle. Cyclohexane is a saturated hydrocarbon with a six-carbon ring. Clockwise and anticlockwise symmetries are possible, thereby reducing the symmetry of coquimbite. The observed electrical phenomena are attributable to this asymmetry. Crandallite Goreaud and Raveau (1980) report that isochemical intergrowths are likely in alunite and crandallite, due to similar structures being easily interchangeable (i.e. those of crandallite, alunite and pyrochlore). In addition, Frost et al. (2013a) suggest that reduced symmetry observed in crandallite minerals is due to the ordering of impurities in the strontium lattice site. Finally, Breitinger et al. (2006) demonstrate with Raman spectroscopy that the sites occupied by PO4 and HPO4 are randomly distributed, and disturb the translational and site symmetries of crandallite. 96 Creedite Frost et al. (2013b) report that the symmetry of the sulfate ion in creedite is reduced by coordination with the water molecules attached to Al3+ in the crystal lattice. Dawsonite Frost and Bouzaid (2007) report on the Raman spectroscopy of dawsonite and attribute a lowered symmetry to it. This reduction in symmetry is due to ordering in carbonate and hydroxide ions in Dawsonite's crystal structure. Dioptase For more information on the crystal structure of the cyclosilicate dioptase, and of the Jahn-Teller effect producing lattice distortion, see Belokoneva et al. (2002). That effect is essentially caused by a natural degenerate configuration of electrons in the ground state, causing the lattice to distort itself, to achieve a lower, non-degenerate state. In a molecule, electron degeneracy consists of two or more electron bonds with identical energies. The presence of the lattice distortion due to this effect is a possible cause of the observed piezoelectricity in dioptase. Elpidite Zubkova et al. (2011) report that water in the elpidite lattice is ordered, with at least three different molecular arrangements, and that natural elpidite contains excess water not in the stoichiometric formula: 3.28 moles H2O instead of three, with the excess easily driven off by a flow of argon gas. Elpidite is an example of a microporous crystalline material, and this type of material is often used in industry to exchange ions. The 97 impurities (K, Nb, Hf, and Al) reported by Zubkova et al. (2011) are insignificant in quantity compared to the regular lattice components, and ordering of water or excess water seem the likely explanations for the observed pyro- and piezoelectricity. Eosphorite Hoyos et al. (1993) report that manganese and iron ions, which share a lattice-site in eosphorite, cause lattice deformation. Pyro- and piezoelectricity may be caused by this deformation, or by impurities, notably Cr3+, as was detected during a photoluminescence experiment. Epistolite Sokolova and Hawthorne (2004) in their refinement of the crystal structure of epistolite report on earlier work by Karup-Møller (1986) that describes an unidentified submicroscopic phase commonly forming intergrowths in epistolite. There are subsidiary cation sites within epistolite that are occupied about 10% of the time, ascribed to this unidentified phase. Pyro- and piezoelectricity in epistolite may be related to these intergrowths. Finnemanite Bahfenne and Frost (2010) report that the various (AsO3)3- units in finnemanite are not equivalent in the crystal lattice, as implied by the Raman spectroscopic data. Reduced symmetry and electrical phenomena in finnemanite can be attributed to the ordering of this ion. 98 Goyazite Breitinger et al. (2006) report that the HPO4 ions in goyazite are essentially randomly distributed with the PO4 ions. Their distribution perturbs the translational and site symmetries in the crystal lattice. Harmotome Armbruster and Gunter (2001) report that H2O in the harmotome crystal lattice is ordered, with only one in the four of these that coordinate with the barium ion being fixed with hydrogen bonding. Pyro- and piezoelectricity may be attributable to this ordering, or to ordering of vacancies in the Ca/Na lattice site. Heulandite-Ca Armbruster and Gunter (2001) summarize reports of lower symmetry in heulandites, and conclude that ordering in Si and Al within the lattice framework may be responsible. Further, Ruiz-Salvador et al. (2000) provide details for how slight changes in the Si:Al ratio produce different occupation rates of Al in the framework lattice, which, in turn, affects where the Ca2+ cation will reside, causing some displacement. Pyro- and piezoelectricity (plus lowered symmetry) are likely due to this displacement. Innelite For more information on the crystal structure of innelite, see Sokolova et al. (2011), where the intergrowth of the two coextant forms (triclinic 1, monoclinic 2/m) is described. The electrical bonding associated with this intergrowth may explain the observed pyro- and piezoelectric effects. 99 Jeremejevite According to Rodellas et al. (1983), the best method for assigning jeremejevite to the centrosymmetric 6/m structure was to model an absence of OH— groups, and assume fluorine (F—) occupancy of their sites. The presence of F— and OH— (whether ordered, or not) in jeremejevite reduces the symmetry of the mineral, and is a possible explanation for the observed piezoelectricity. Kaliborite Burns and Hawthorne (1994) report that kaliborite polymerizes chains of three B(O,OH)4 tetrahedra and three B(O,OH)3 triangles (what they call the fundamental building block) along the b axis. These chains along the b axis may be responsible for the observed pyro- and piezoelectricity. Marialite Sokolova et al. (1996) report that water molecules reside in the lattice of marialite in a preferred orientation. This orientation may be responsible for the observed pyro- and piezoelectricity. Meionite Sherriff et al. (2000) distinguish two framework-lattice sites which may contain Si and Al atoms in meionite. They report that Si and Al atoms occupy these sites in different ratios (1:3 and 5:3, respectively). This preference is a possible explanation to account for observed pyro- and piezoelectricity in meionite. 100 Melanovanadite Konnert and Evans (1987) describe the structure of melanovanadite, and divide it into vanadate layers and an interlayer structure composed of ordered Na+ and Ca2+ ions, as well as H2O. Schindler et al. (2000) echo this result. The layered structure of melanovanadite may account for the observed pyro- and piezoelectricity. Mimetite Piezoelectricity in mimetite is potentially attributable to ordering of the lead ions with minor impurities (see Pyromorphite, below), or perhaps due to the proximity of the transition temperature for monoclinic (m, polar) and hexagonal (6/m, centrosymmetric) polytypic forms in mimetite. A preliminary treatment can be found in Yongshan Dai et al. (1991). Murmanite Cámara et al. (2008) report that the murmanite lattice consists of titanium silicate blocks stacked in the c direction. This anisotropy may be sufficient to allow for the observed pyro- and piezoelectricity. Muthmannite Bindi and Cipriani (2004) report that the structure of muthmannite consists of Te layers alternating with gold and silver cations. The layers are aligned parallel to [100]. This anisotropy is consistent with pyro- and piezoelectricity. 101 Nickeline Gritsenko and Spiridonov (2005) report that nickeline from several sites contains 20% or more antimony. As with breithauptite, ordering of the arsenic and antimony may create a lowered symmetry and account for the observed pyro- and piezoelectricity. Nitrobarite Nowotny and Heger (1983) report that, previously, nitrobarite had been placed in chiral cubic class 23 by Birnstock (1967) according to very weak reflectors violating centrosymmetric cubic m3 symmetry during a neutron diffraction study, and though Nowotny and Heger dismissed that assignation on the basis of the decent fit of an m3 assignment and a lack of observed “piezoelectric, linear electrooptic and nonlinear optic effects or optical activity,” it seems possible that nitrobarite has been misassigned to centrosymmetric cubic class m3. The IMA Handbook of Mineralogy (Shannon, 2011) lists nitrobarite as piezoelectric. A new refinement of the structure of nitrobarite could provide some insight. Parkerite Although the unit cell of parkerite is centrosymmetric, Baranov et al. (2001) show that parkerite exhibits a superstructure of layers perpendicular to the c axis, and that empty channels of around 4Å length parallel to plane [110] are present. These observations are possible explanations for the observed pyro- and piezoelectricity in parkerite. 102 Pinnoite Heller (1970) reports that pinnoite's structure is built with islands of [B2O(OH)6]2- ions, though the [BO2]nn- ion in general can form chains. Lower symmetry and piezoelectricity are possibly due to either the interactions of the H2O molecule in the crystal lattice, or to polymerization of the diborate ion. The structure refinement of pinnoite has not been updated since the work of Krogh-Moe (1967). Plumbojarosite Szymanski (1985) describes the structure of plumbojarosite as composed of tilted layers of Fe(OH)4O2 octahedra combined with sulfate tetrahedra and alkali co-ordinated icosahedra. Lead in the lattice only partially occupies its lattice sites, and alternates along the c axis. This results in a preferred orientation for the layers, as a superstructure. The layering and lead-ion ordering are a plausible explanation for the observed electrical phenomena. Pyrochroite Like brucite, pyrochroite is composed of structural layers held together with hydrogen bonds (Parise et al., 1998). Compressibility along the c axis is twice as easy as along the a axis below 6 GPa, as is the case with brucite. The reason for the change at 6 GPa is not known. The hydrogen bonds and layered structure are consistent with the observed pyro- and piezoelectricity in pyrochroite. 103 Pyromorphite For a treatment of the structure of pyromorphite, and a description of ordering in the lead cation and minor cation impurities, refer to Hashimoto and Matsumoto (1998). Pyro- and piezoelectricity may be due to this ordering, or to the proximity of the transition temperature for monoclinic (m, polar) and hexagonal (6/m, centrosymmetric) polytypic forms in chlorapatites such as pyromorphite. Quenselite Rouse (1971) describes the structure of quenselite as a brucite-type layered lattice, with managanese-oxide layers and lead-hydroxide layers alternating, and this view is represented in Manceau et al. (2002). Hydrogen bonds hold the structure together, and the observed electrical phenomena may be related to these hydrogen bonds. Sal Ammoniac Gilberg (1981) describes anomalous frequencies in the electronic spectroscopy of sal ammoniac as attributable to the Jahn-Teller effect, which causes a structure to distort if the electron orbitals will be stabilized by that distortion. The Jahn-Teller effect, and its associated distortion of the lattice of sal ammoniac are consistent with the observed electrical phenomena. Sarcolite Maras and Paris (1987) summarize the work on the structure of sarcolite, and refine the structure and chemistry. Fluorine can substitute for OH–, and the F, OH– and H2O are in a relationship with the site of CO3 or SO4 occupancy, such that a sulfate ion causes a 104 double vacancy of (F, OH–, or H2O) and a carbonate ion causes a single vacancy there. Absent carbonate or sulfate, two units of (F, OH, or H2O) will be present. Pyro- and piezoelectricity may be due to ordering in these, or in other constituents that are typically present in sarcolite, namely (Ca, Na), (Na, K, Sr, Ti, Mn), (Al, Fe, Mg) and (Si, P). Seligmannite Takeuchi and Haga (1969) report on the crystal structure of seligmannite as being formed by sheets of Cu-S4 tetrahedra, connected by Pb and As, stacked along the c direction. The larger layered structure may account for the observed pyro- and piezoelectricity. Syngenite Kloprogge et al. (2002) report that the Ca-O polyhedra in syngenite form a zigzag chain along the c direction, and also that distinct overtones and other modes in the Raman spectra of OH– in syngenite indicate a complexity in its hydrogen bonding. Both of these are fruitful preliminary explanations for the observed electrical phenomena in syngenite. Thaumasite Barnett et al. (2000) describe the structure of thaumasite as consisting of columnar Ca3[Si(OH)6•12H2O]3+ units oriented parallel to the c axis, with sulfate and carbonate ions in the channels alongside. This orientation may explain the observed electrical phenomena, as may complexities in the hydrogen bonding. 105 Topaz Piezoelectricity in topaz is likely due to ordering of the fluorine and hydroxide, which is well-established, as described in Akizuki et al. (1979). Topaz is geometrically centrosymmetric, but (F,OH) lattice ordering reduces its symmetry, and allows for anomalous properties. Tyrolite Krivovichev et al. (2006) detail the structure of two polytypes of tyrolite, which consist of different sequences of stacking nanolayers held together with hydrogen bonds. Electrical phenomena in tyrolite are consistent with these structural observations. Ussingite Johnson and Rossman (2004) report that two of the nine oxygen atoms in ussingite are involved in strong hydrogen bonding, while the others are bridging oxygens, linking Al and Si tetrahedra. They call this an "interrupted" aluminosilicate framework structure. Hydrogen bonding in ussingite may account for the observed electrical phenomena. Vermiculite Badreddine et al. (2002) report on the structure of vermiculites. Electrical phenomena may be due to layer stacking, or to ordering in the Fe2+ and Fe3+ cations, which each contribute to the electrical gradient. Wulfenite For more information on the structure of wulfenite and ordering of the molybdenum ions, see Hibbs et al. (2000). 106  Explanations for the Apparent Violations of Piezoelectric Theory In the minerals above, the exceptions fall into ten categories. These are: 1. The mineral has been assigned to the wrong point group. This is possible for bultfonteinite and nitrobarite, and should be investigated further. 2. Intergrowths of two chemically-equivalent phases may occur commonly in a mineral, and the observed effect may be caused by the phase whose symmetry allows for pyro- or piezoelectricity, or the phenomenon may be related to the structure of their contact. Evidence exists that innelite belongs to this class. Crandallite may, as well. 3. Intergrowths of a submicroscopic phase occur in the mineral, and pyro- or piezoelectricity may be caused by the contact between the host and intergrowth phase, or by the intergrowth phase itself. This explanation is consistent with what is known of epistolite. 4. The mineral undergoes a lattice transition to a crystal class that does exhibit pyro- or piezoelectricity near the temperature where the electricity is observed, and the phenomenon is attributable to that other phase. Evidence exists for this in mimetite and pyromorphite. 5. Multi-atomic constituents (such as OH, H2O or carbonate) are present in the lattice structure, and the disorder or preferred orientation of these larger groups reduces the symmetry of the crystal as they interact with the other lattice constituents. Evidence exists for this in artinite, beryl, brucite, coquimbite, crandallite, creedite, dawsonite, elpidite, finnemanite, goyazite, harmotome and marialite, and this is a potential 107 explanation for electrical phenomena in pinnoite, sarcolite, syngenite, thaumasite and ussingite, as well. 6. Equivalent lattice sites are shared by more than one type of atom, ion, or group from the chemical formula of the mineral, and the ordering of these components may reduce the symmetry of the lattice to allow for pyro- or piezoelectricity. Evidence of this exists for marialite, meionite, topaz, vermiculite, wulfenite, and the minerals of the zeolite group. It is also a plausible explanation for the electric phenomena in bavenite, jeremejevite, eosphorite and sarcolite. 7. Impurities not in the officially recognized chemical formula of the mineral share some of the lattice sites with the mineral, and the ordering of these components likewise reduces the symmetry of the lattice to allow for pyro- or piezoelectricity. Evidence exists for this in aminoffite and pyromorphite, and, by extension, in mimetite, which belongs to the same mineral subgroup as pyromorphite and shares some properties with it. This explanation is consistent with what is known of arsenogoyazite, breithauptite, crandallite, eosphorite, nickeline and sarcolite but further study is needed. 8. A pattern or order in the distribution of vacancies in specific lattice site in the mineral may be present. This ordering may reduce the symmetry of the crystal, and account for observed pyro- or piezoelectricity. This mechanism has been suggested for the pyro- and piezoelectric effects in harmotome. See Chapter 6, p. 134 for more information related to lattice vacancies. 108  9. The mineral has a larger structure (e.g. layering) or polymerization which is not centrosymmetric. This is the case for kaliborite, parkerite and vermiculite, and possibly for brucite, melanovanadite, murmanite, muthmannite, pinnoite, plumbojarosite, pyrochroite, quenselite, seligmannite, syngenite, thaumasite and tyrolite. If the mineral has a layered structure, the short-range bonds holding the layers together may be the source of the observed electric effects. 10. The Jahn-Teller effect, where a ground-state configuration of the electrons is degenerate, and the energy relations favor a distorted lattice to resolve the electron state, can be responsible for a lowering of symmetry in a crystal, and allow for piezoelectricity. Evidence suggests that dioptase and sal ammoniac belong to this class. The above findings are summarized in Table 21. They are consistent with Voigt’s (1910) original explanation of piezoelectricity as a crystal-lattice based phenomenon. The effect is a feature of intact lattices, and of the geometry of the electron bonds that comprise the crystal. It is thus a function of both chemistry and symmetry, as well as of the crystalline environment, under an influence of intergrowths, impurities and transition temperatures and pressures. Mineral Data Mineral data are listed in Appendix B, and are organized according to physical phenomena: 1. Ferroelectricity, pyroelectricity and thermoelectricity data are presented. (See 109 TABLE 21. Explanations for Pyro- and Piezoelectricity in Centrosymmetric Minerals Category Explanation Brief Explanation 1 Wrong Point Group Trivial 2 Intergrowths of Chemically-Equivalent Phases Intergrowths 3 Intergrowths of Submicroscopic Phases Intergrowths 4 Lattice Transition Creates Electricity Lattice Transition 5 Large Ions Distort the Lattice Lattice Organization 6 Ordering of Atoms, Ions or Groups Lattice Organization 7 Ordering of Impurities Lattice Organization 8 Ordering of Vacancies Lattice Organization 9 Large-Scale Structure Lattice Organization 10 Jahn-Teller Effect Electron Bonding Tables 22 through 26 in Appendix B, p. 293 through 296.) These relate closely to temperature as the proximal cause of the electrical charge, current or voltage. The references for the data are listed separately. (Data references: see Tables 27, 28 and 29 in Appendix G, p. 396 through 397.) 2. Piezoelectricity data are provided. (See Tables 30 through 36, p. 297 through 305.) These relate closely to pressure and physical displacement. (Data references: see Table 37 in Appendix G, p. 397.) 3. Capacitance data are presented. (See Tables 38 and 39, p. 306 and 311.) Capacitance, measured as dielectric coefficients, relates to the electrical environment near minerals. (Data references: see Table 40 in Appendix G, p. 398.) 4. Magnetic data are provided. These relate to the magnetic environment near minerals. (See Tables 41 through 44, p. 312 through 315.) 110  A description of some credible features in the data follows. The paper on tourmalines by Hawkins et al. (1995) reports that the strength of pyroelectricity in tourmalines is inversely related (linearly) to the abundance of the Fe2+ ion in the Y site of the lattice. Their equations are listed in the pyroelectricity data (Table 25, p. 295) under the Tourmaline entry, The chemical formula for tourmaline is X(Y)3Z6(BO3)3Si6O18(V)3W. The letters V, W, X, Y and Z signify lattice sites where a variety of atoms may be present. The greater the iron in the Y site, the less the pyroelectric effect. Schorl, for example, with its high Fe2+ content, has a much smaller pyroelectric coefficient than other tourmalines. For some minerals in Tables 30 through 36, p. 297 through 305, piezoelectric coefficients are given showing the effects of both stress and strain. None of these indicates what happens when stress and strain are so great or long-acting that they lead to pressure dissolution or to fracture. Further study is indicated. Additional minerals have not yet been tested. Icosahedrite (Al63Cu24Fe13), the only naturally occurring quasicrystal, identified recently in Russia, was tested for physical and chemical properties, as well as for its lattice parameters (Bindi et al., 2011). A quasicrystal shows a regular tiling pattern when the atoms are arranged within a higher- dimensional framework, but not when the lattice is constructed in three dimenstions. Icosahedrite was not tested for electrical or magnetic effects, though other man-made quasicrystals have been, and are known to be piezoelectric. Wang and Pan (2008) give a summary of the work through 2008 for devising appropriate tensor notation for the 111 coefficients, and for the various symmetries explored so far; research is ongoing. Chengzheng Hu et al. (1997) describe icosahedral quasicrystals specifically, and demonstrate non-negative piezoelectric coefficients. It is likely that icosahedrite is piezoelectric. Electrical and Magnetic Mineral Data in Metamorphic Settings Table 45 in Appendix E, p. 380, arranges the minerals from the prior tables by petrologic localization, e.g. mafic igneous intrusions, granitic pegmatites, and similar. This classification is based on descriptions of mineral occurrence in the Mineralogical Society of America’s Handbook of Mineralogy (Anthony et al., 2012). Figures 15 through 25 on the next seven pages take each metamorphic setting and graphically display the associated data. In these figures, a blank field indicates no data. If there are data, electrical and magnetic values vary according to the diameters of the circles, according to the equations in Table 46, p. 119. Where there were no thermoelectric data, pyroelectric or ferroelectric data were used instead. Where several kinds of piezoelectric data were known, only one was used (d, which treats strain and charge density). In a few cases where d was unknown, another coefficient was used (e, which treats stress and charge density). All the data are at or near room temperature except for the minerals shown in Table 47, p. 120. Data were excluded if the temperatures were not likely in a metamorphic or metasomatic setting; that is, data taken below the freezing point of water were excluded. Metasomatism is a solid-state chemical transformation similar to 112 FIGURE 15. Electricity and magnetism in metamorphic and hydrothermal ore minerals. 113 FIGURE 16. Electricity and magnetism in secondary ore minerals. 114 FIGURE 17. Electricity and magnetism in primary minerals from metamorphism of mafic rock. FIGURE 18. Electricity and magnetism in secondary minerals from metamorphism of mafic rock. 115 FIGURE 19. Electricity and magnetism in primary minerals from high-grade metamorphism of silica-rich rock. FIGURE 20. Electricity and magnetism in minerals from contact or low-grade metamorphism of silica-rich rock. 116 FIGURE 21. Electricity and magnetism in secondary minerals from metamorphism of silica-rich rock. FIGURE 22. Electricity and magnetism in secondary minerals from metamorphism of alkalic, silica-poor rock. 117 FIGURE 23. Electricity and magnetism in minerals from regional metamorphism of carbonate-rich rock. FIGURE 24. Electricity and magnetism in skarn minerals and minerals from contact metamorphism of carbonate-rich rock. 118 FIGURE 25. Electricity and magnetism in metasomatic minerals. TABLE 46. Constructing the Circles in Figures 15 through 25, Pages 113 through 119 Data Category Circle Diameter = Data x Factor Heat Electricity 0.0001 Pressure Electricity 0.001 Capacitance 0.001 Magnetism 0.001 Notes: All data units are as given in Table 22, p. 293, Table 25, p. 295, Table 26, p. 296, Table 30, p. 297, Table 31, p. 300, Table 38, p. 306 and Table 41, p. 312, except for the magnetic data, which is normalized to 10-5. The circles for löllingite and nisbite in Figures 15 and 23, p. 113 and 118, represent diamagnetism rather than paramagnetism. 119 TABLE 47. Mineral Data, with Measurement Temperatures, in Figures 15 through 25, Pages 113 through 119 Mineral Data Temperature: °C Cervantite All 565 Clinocervantite All 565 Lueshite Capacitance 350 Magnesioferrite Magnetism 425 Magnetite All 1000 Russellite Capacitance 920 Spinel All 500 Srebrodolskite All 450 Notes: All other data in Figures 15 through 25 were taken at or near room temperature. metamorphism, but it occurs at near-surface temperatures and pressures, and often involves fluids. Bulk Rock Electrical Phenomena For materials that are semiconductors, the band gap is the minimum voltage that must be present to allow for an outer valence electron to act as a charge carrier. If a voltage equal to the band gap is available, the electron will conduct. This is relevant for the transmission of electricity, to create a natural circuit. Minerals in aggregate form are termed rocks, and these are mostly semiconductors, with the notable exception of ore bodies, which are conductors. Conductivity ranges from about 10-14 to 102 S m-1 for minerals, and minerals typically have three values, varying by the crystallographic axes (Parkhomenko, 1967). 120  For rocks, electrical conductivity varies according to the rock type. For non- weathered rocks, conductivity in sulfides ranges from about 10 to 103 S m-1, while igneous and metamorphic non-weathered rocks generally have conductivities in the range of 10-5 to 10-3 S m-1, though values can be as low as 10-14 S m-1. Weathered rocks generally have conductivities in the range 10-4 to 10-1 S m-1. Water has values from around 10-2 to 1 S m-1, and brine is higher, nearly up to 10 S m-1 (Guéguen and Palciauskas, 1994). Notably, water content greatly influences rock conductivity values. Capacitance is the ability to store charge, and is synonymous with the dielectric strength of materials. Capacitance occurs by the rearrangement of electric dipoles in two settings: first, from elementary particles with a combined net electric dipole moment of zero (i.e. in a neutral material), and from polar molecules whose net electric dipole moment is constant (i.e. in a polar material) (Parkhomenko, 1967). Polarization itself may be caused by one of four mechanisms (Guéguen and Palciauskas, 1994): 1. Electronic polarization is caused by the displacement of electrons. 2. Ionic polarization is caused by the displacement of atoms or ions. 3. Electric dipole polarization is caused by coherent orientations of polar molecules. 4. Space-charge polarization is caused by migration of charged particles through a substance. The amount of time it takes to store or release electric charge depends on the mechanism involved, whether electronic, ionic, electric dipole or space-charge. These are also affected by the frequency of an incident electric signal. Capacitance in space- 121 charging (and in the other mechanisms) is reduced when the signal frequency is high (Parkhomenko, 1967). Space-charging is the most sensitive to frequency, electronic charging is the least and the other mechanisms having intermediate sensitivities according to the order listed here. For dielectric materials where polarization is due entirely to electronic charging, the dielectric permittivity is approximately equal to the square of the index of refraction for the material (Parkhomenko, 1967). Photons, as gauge bosons for the electromagnetic force, are fundamentally connected to electrons, so it makes sense that the state of electrons in a material would affect both the transmission of light through that material and the transmission of electric charge. Thus, dielectric values may sometimes be approximated with refraction data, and one may imagine the indicatrix for the dielectric constant of biaxial and uniaxial crystals as being similar to the indicatrix for the refractive index of those crystals (Parkhomenko, 1967). More optically refractive minerals have higher capacitance, provided that the dielectricity is caused by the electron configuration. For ionic materials, dielectric permittivity varies inversely with the hardness of crystals: salts and other softer crystals have a higher capacitance. Ionic materials have lower capacitance than electronic materials. The minerals with the highest capacitance are oxides and sulfides, generally (Parkhomenko, 1967). Dielectric permittivity may also increase with the coordination number of metal ions present in the crystal lattice (Parkhomenko, 1967). 122  The dielectric permittivity of minerals varies over about two orders of magnitude, from about three (for several minerals) to 173 (for rutile) (Parkhomenko, 1967). This is the relative dielectric permittivity, which refers to the ability of a substance to store electrical energy from an externally applied electric field. Permittivity values for rocks range from three to about 20 (Parkhomenko, 1967). The dielectric permittivity for carbonate is about 1.5 times that for quartz, and carbonate-bearing rock will have higher capacitance than silicate rock, with an important caveat: the presence of mafic (and ultramafic) minerals, such as olivine and pyroxene, can increase the capacitance of any rock considerably, e.g. an increase in the dielectric coefficient from five to 15 (Parkhomenko, 1967). Likewise, the presence of carbon (in coals, for example) increases the capacitance of rock. Water Water can have conductivity values of 10 orders of magnitude larger than those of rock. For rock bodies near the surface of the Earth, water content is the prime consideration in determining the transmission of electricity, or the storage of electric charge. The effective conductivity of saturated rock is calculated from the conductivity of water, divided by the formation factor for the rock, which depends on the pore structure of the rock and also on the conductivity ratio of the dry rock versus water (Guéguen and Palciauskas, 1994). 123  Conductivity can also be used as a proxy for strength in rock. The more conductive rock has a higher water content, and, hence, is weaker (Parkhomenko, 1967). Note that oil, natural gas, and air have much lower conductivities than water, and can also lower rock strength. The fraction of these or other volatiles in the pore space of rock will complicate the rock-strength calculations (Guéguen and Palciauskas, 1994). Volatiles are substances with low boiling points compared with other materials, and tend to vaporize under ambient or moderate geologic temperatures. Further, the presence of a clay coating along mineral grains will increase the residence time of solute ions there because of the charge of the clay, and this will necessitate adding another term to the calculations (Guéguen and Palciauskas, 1994). The interaction of rock and water is complex. Regarding capacitance: the dielectric coefficient of water is 81, and for saline water, the value is even higher. There is some anomalous behavior reported of very high values (103 to 105) for the dielectric permittivity of sedimentary rock with 10 to 12% water if the signal frequency is below 10,000 Hz (Parkhomenko, 1967). The capacitance is not as high with higher signal frequencies, nor with dry samples. The sensitivity to frequency implies that this anomaly may be related to a space-charge mechanism (from the migration of charged particles) or to an electric dipole mechanism (from the orientation of polar molecules) but further study is needed. There is no difference in low- and high- frequency capacitance if the rock is dry (Parkhomenko, 1967). 124 Piezoelectric Effect in Rock Electric circuits in rock are typically made by either the electrokinetic effect, based on the transfer of water and electrolyte, or through an activation potential, a solid-state effect wherein lattice holes are the positive charge carriers. Of relatively minor significance is the piezoelectric effect from individual piezoelectric minerals in crustal rocks. Most minerals are not strongly piezoelectric or ferroelectric. For rocks containing quartz, which is strongly piezoelectric, the bulk effect is often much less (e.g. by three orders of magnitude) than the effect of the individual grains (Sasaoka et al., 1998; Tuck et al., 1977). Even for quartz-rich rocks that show a crystallographic (oriented) fabric, it is exceptional for a rock to show a true piezoelectric effect due to fabric; most of the electrical effects have a non-polar statistical distribution (Bishop, 1981). The same is true for tourmaline-rich rocks (Baird and Kennan, 1985). Moreover, piezoelectricity is observed in rocks that contain no piezoelectric minerals, such as limestones (Frid et al., 2009) and marble (Kuksenko and Makhmudov, 2004). Some other mechanism must be at work. Teisseyre et al. (2001) provide an introductory treatment of piezoelectric effects in rocks with no piezoelectric components (e.g. limestone, tuff), and conclude that there are at least two (one slow, one fast) mechanisms acting on these materials. They do not identify what these two mechanisms are. Temperature and Pressure Effects Rocks have electrical conductivity that may vary markedly with temperature and pressure. For metamorphism, a few considerations are notable. 125  High temperatures lower capacitance generally. With increased temperature, thermal agitation will displace particles, and the polarizability (and capacitance) of the materials will decrease. Further, if the source of capacitance is electron or hole conductivity, higher temperature will allow for more mobility of the charge carrier or hole, and act to reduce the effective capacitance (Parkhomenko, 1967). On the other hand, conductivity increases with temperature. Both impurities and lattice atoms will have greater mobility, and different charge carriers (requiring higher activation energies) may become mobile at higher temperatures (Parkhomenko, 1967). An increase in temperature from 25 to 400 ºC can increase the conductivity of dry rock by several orders of magnitude (Parkhomenko, 1967). This change corresponds to a depth of about 10 or 12 km. With increased pressure, the dielectric permittivity of rock may increase or decrease (Parkhomenko, 1967). Increased pressure may close pore spaces, and increase density, and this will allow for increased capacitance, if the cause is electronic (and not ionic) charging (Parkhomenko, 1967). Increased pressure may also cause lattice defects in the material, and that will serve to increase capacitance. (See Chapter 6, p. 142). Dielectric anisotropies in mylonites have been modeled by Muto and Nagahama (2004) with an equation to relate strain to anisotropic dielectric behavior. These anisotropies are observed in shear zones. A similar treatment has also been done for the upper mantle (Shaocheng Ji et al., 1996), where olivine is thought to control the electrical 126 conductivity. Both microanisotropy and macroanisotropy are involved. The mechanisms whereby pressure influences capacitance in rock is done on a case-by-case basis. Electrical conductivity in rocks generally increases with depth (Parkhomenko, 1967). Some rock types, e.g. pyroxenite, serpentinized dunite and augite porphyry, reach a maximum value of conductivity at some pressure, and then the value begins to decrease (Parkhomenko, 1967). This variance may be caused by changes in the type of deformation mechanism active in the constituent minerals in the rock. (See Chapter 6, p. 131). Here are two cases: the breaking of peroxy bonds, which are a common defect in silicates, allows oxygen to accept electrons from nearby atoms, creating positive-charge holes. Peroxy is a theoretically-consistent pathway for describing an increase in conductivity with pressure (Takeuchi et al., 2011). On the other hand, if fluid is providing the electrical conductivity, then deformation will increase the length of the fluid path. A longer fluid path will reduce conductivity (Büttner, 2005). An increase in pressure from ambient to 4 x 109 pascals can increase the conductivity of dry rock by about 70% (Parkhomenko, 1967). This change corresponds to a depth of about 150 km. Bulk Rock Magnetic Phenomena Most minerals have low magnetic susceptibilities (lower than 10-4), and they will not induce a noticeable magnetic anomaly (Guéguen and Palciauskas, 1994). Typical values for rock vary by type. The magnetic susceptibility of sedimentary rock is generally less 127 than 10-4, for granites and gneisses it is 10-4 to 10-3, and for intrusive mafic rocks it is often greater than 10-3 (Guéguen and Palciauskas, 1994). Iron-rich minerals contribute much to the magnetic susceptibility of rock. Magnetic susceptibility varies inversely with temperature. Thermal agitation tends to disorder the magnetic domains of crystals (Guéguen and Palciauskas, 1994). The effect of pressure on the magnetic domains is not simple, and will be addressed in Chapter 6. 128  CHAPTER 6 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM WITHIN METAMORPHIC REACTIONS AND DEFORMATION MECHANISMS Introduction Three parameters define metamorphic conditions: temperature, pressure and chemistry. Constructed figures are denoted T-P-X models and are a reference for defining geologic conditions to construct the natural history of deformation and rock formation (Spear, 1995). Metamorphism may be accompanied by deformation. Chemical Reactions in Metamorphism Metamorphism is a solid-state (as opposed to liquid or gas) change in chemical composition or form, related to the intrinsic parameters of temperature and pressure. The process necessarily requires time for diffusion of atoms and ions for mineralogical transformations. It is distinguished from metasomatism, which is also a solid-state change, and consists of a fluid-based transfer of mass (Harlov and Austrheim, 2012). For sedimentary rock, metasomatism takes place at or near the temperature of the original rock formation. Metamorphic temperatures are higher, and include all the transformations until melting (whether from temperature or pressure) is complete. 129  Fluid phases may be present in metamorphism, and aqueous solutions often contain CO2, and peripherally CH4, N2, F and B. Fluids can greatly reduce rock melting temperatures and pressures. Models for diffusion range over varying time scales are often most focused on determining when a reaction has stopped (closure) and on dating (Hudgins et al., 2011; Gardés and Montel, 2009). Below are three examples of metamorphic reactions, from Miyashiro (1994), out of hundreds known. For fine-grained clastic sedimentary rock, also called pelitic rock, with increasing temperature, muscovite + chlorite → biotite + quartz + H2O. (16) For pelitic rocks containing dolomite, with increasing temperature, muscovite + dolomite + quartz + H2O → biotite + chlorite + calcite + CO2 ; (17) muscovite + calcite + chlorite + quartz → biotite + epidote + H2O + CO2 . (18) The thermodynamic systems of metamorphism are modeled in relation to temperature (T), pressure (P) and chemistry (X). Computational resources for thermodynamic properties associated with these types of reactions are available. SUPCRT92 includes data for minerals from 1 to 5000 bar and 0 to 1000°C (Johnson et al., 1992) and has been updated in SUPCRT96. Other currently available software seems to be focused on aqueous (hydrologic) geochemistry, e.g. Geochemist’s Workbench (Aqueous Solutions, 2013), EQ3/6 (Wolery et al., 1990). These are models to develop P-T-X relations. Chemical changes are rearrangements to the bonds between atoms and ions, and new bonds and compounds are created during the process. Though none of the computational packages described above include electricity or magnetism, electric fields do promote (or 130 retard) chemical reactions. For example, electric or magnetic fields can influence the diffusion of ions in mineral systems (Frantz and Popp, 1979), and introduce new lattice orientations (Rüssel, 1997; Keding and Rüssel, 1996). In the field of chemistry generally, changes in chemical reactions with the application of electricity have been described involving ions (Agladze and De Kepper, 1992), the growth of carbon filaments and the decomposition of organic compounds (Calderón- Moreno et al., 2006; Pol et al., 2006), and the crystallization of amorphous silicon (Kim, 2002). Applied magnetic fields also affect chemical reaction rates (Hyun-Sik Seo et al., 2008; Fejfar et al., 2005). A summary of the examples above, quantifying how electric or magnetic fields can affect chemical reaction rates, is given in Table 48. In a geologic setting, electric or magnetic fields ought to speed the timing of certain chemical reactions, and metamorphic reactions specifically. An initial diffusion of material may be promoted by an electric or magnetic field, and the resulting new mineral growth may conform with the field. Electricity and magnetism affect both the kinetics and geometry of chemical reactions. Deformation Mechanisms Temperature and pressure influence the form of minerals, and mineral grains are subject to distinct deformation mechanisms that depend on these parameters. If strain rates outstep recovery rates, as occurs in fault zones, mylonites and other fault-related metamorphic rocks will be formed. Passchier and Trouw (2005) list several categories of deformation mechanisms working on a grain-sized scale. These deformations are 131 TABLE 48. Electric and Magnetic Influences on Chemical Reactions Parameters Effect 50 mA DC current Initiates crystallization in Ba2TiSi2O8-SiO2 glass at 1300 ºC 36 mA DC current Increases wave propagation rate in HBrO2 gel reaction by 400% 1.5 to 5 A DC Alters shape of carbon precipitate (filament) from mesitylene gas 1.5 to 5 A AC Alters shape of carbon precipitate (zig-zag) from mesitylene gas 360 V cm-1 field Lowers annealing temperature of amorphous silicon to 380 ºC 0.4 T magnetic field Initiates crystallization in amorphous silicon thin film at 100 ºC 0.05 T magnetic Initiates crystallization in amorphous silicon thin film at 430 ºC summarized here, in order of increasing pressure and temperature. The lowest temperature and pressure mechanism (brittle fracturing) is listed first. The text that follows, from Brittle Fracturing through Granular Flow, is based on Passchier and Trouw (2005). Brittle Fracturing Brittle fracturing includes intergranular fractures (between grains), transgranular fractures (across grains), impingement microcracks (at grain contacts), subcritical microcrack growth (a slow process depending on stress and temperature), and stress corrosion cracking (due to chemical reactions). Dissolution-Precipitation The primary mechanism of dissolution-precipitation, another class of deformation mechanism, is pressure solution, occurring at grain boundaries. If there is solution transfer, the resulting precipitation may be described as an incongruent pressure solution. 132 Crystal Plastic Deformation Crystal plastic deformation is intracrystalline and occurs through the movement of lattice defects. These are point defects (vacancies, interstitial atoms) and line defects (edge dislocations, screw dislocations, and pleat dislocations). Edge dislocations are formed at the edge of an extra lattice plane, whose growth disrupts a crystal lattice. Screw dislocations form as a twist about an axis made to accommodate three-dimensional lattice defects. Pleat dislocations are a distinct combination of screw and edge dislocation that look like a pleat. Line defects in combination can form a circle or loop, (dislocation loops), or misfitted crystal lattice edges (stacking faults). Ductile deformation is accomplished by the movement of these dislocations and vacancies. Deformation by dislocation alone is called dislocation glide, and a crystal changes shape as the dislocations migrate within the crystal lattice. The conditions necessary for deformation glide are unique for each mineral. Dislocation glide may occur under different conditions for each crystallographic axis, and are named according to the crystal geometry. Basal dislocation glide on the c plane in the a direction is written as (c)<a> glide. This combination of slip plane and slip direction is known as a slip system. Dislocation glide depends strongly on temperature. For example, quartz at low grade conditions (300 to 400ºC) exhibits (c)<a> glide. The temperature for other slip systems in quartz are higher. Vacancies in a lattice can move during crystal plastic deformation, and allow a glide plane or other defect to migrate to a different position while maintaining its original 133 orientation in the crystal. This migration is called dislocation climb. Dislocation climb can allow a glide plane to climb over a site blocked by an interstitial, for example. If glide and climb of dislocations are active, the deformation is termed dislocation creep. These processes tend to create a similar alignments in an aggregate of like crystals as deformation occurs, termed lattice-preferred orientation. This lattice-preferred orientation is quantifiable with a scanning electron microscope (if it is equipped with electron backscatter diffusion equipment). The SEM builds a map of the alignment of the crystal grains. That alignment is determined by the active slip system. Twinning and Kinking Twinning and kinking can occur from deviatoric stress. Deformation twinning generally follows crystallographic axes and is often concentrated at high strain sites; kinking does not. Such twinned (or kinked) regions are often microscopic. They may be visible only as constituents within grains in thin section. Recovery Deformation mechanisms that lower the internal stress of a crystal are called recovery mechanisms. These include the formation of deformation bands and subgrains. As lattice dislocations migrate and collect in one place, they form dislocation bands. If these are dense enough with dislocations, subgrains will form and the deformation band will become a boundary between subgrains. Each subgrain has a slightly different lattice orientation, and this can be observed as undulose extinction under cross-polarized light 134 (as the polarized light aligns with the optic axis of the crystal) in thin section. Annealing includes both recovery and recrystallization, discussed below. Dynamic Recrystallization Like recovery, dynamic recrystallization acts to reduce the dislocation density in an aggregate of crystals. It may alter the size, shape or orientation of crystal grains or grain boundaries to produce an environment in which crystal lattices have fewer (or minimal) defects. Dynamic recrystallization mechanisms include bulging recrystallization (BLG), subgrain rotation (SGR) and grain boundary migration (GBM). Bulging recrystallization occurs when small appendages bulge from one grain into an adjacent grain, capturing material. Subgrain rotation completes the creation of new grains from subgrains. Grain boundary migration gives a “jigsaw puzzle” aspect to an aggregate of crystals. These three listed above are in order of increasing temperature of formation. If all else is equal, BLG occurs at lower temperatures than SGR, and SGR occurs at lower temperatures the GBM. Diffusion Creep Diffusion creep can be thought of as the random movement of vacancies in the solid state. There are two types: Coble creep refers to vacancy migration along grain boundaries, and Nabarro-Herring creep signifies vacancy migration throughout the crystal lattice. Diffusion creep occurs at high temperatures, close to the melting temperature of the constituent minerals. 135 Granular Flow Granular flow denotes crystals sliding past one another in a fine-grained aggregate. Superplasticity refers to the same process, but without the development of any lattice- preferred orientation. Granular flow is the most intensive strain mechanism of the eight mechanisms listed. Electric and Magnetic Phenomena Associated with Deformation Mechanisms A selection of articles relating to all of these mechanisms is presented below. The articles describe electric and magnetic phenomena associated with each deformation mechanism. Observed phenomena are summarized in Table 49, and Table 50 lists relevant data from the articles. Electric and Magnetic Phenomena with Brittle Fracture Mechanisms Electric. Makarets et al. (2002) show that fracturing of piezoelectric minerals in rocks causes transient magnetization due to the moving crack, and that this causes electromagnetic emission. The frequency of the electromagnetic emission is in the kHz range, and the radiation energy is proportional to the energy that causes the crack. Takeuchi and Nagahama (2002) summarize research showing that fracturing and frictional sliding in quartz and granite under dry conditions generates fractoluminescence, charged particle emission, and electromagnetic radiation. Surface charge density is approximately 10-4 to 10-2 C m-2. Baragiola et al. (2011), James et al. (2000) and Oster et al. (1999) describe fractoemission of electric charge. Baragiola et al. (2011) describe ozone formation from the electric energy emitted at the fracture, and demonstrate that the 136 TABLE 49. Deformation Mechanisms and Associated Electric and Magnetic Phenomena Summarized Mechanism Summary Brittle Fracture Brittle fracture can cause electrical and electromagnetic emission and fractoluminescence. Magnetic fields weaken materials and promote fracture. Dissolution- The presence of electrolyte-bearing fluids can promote Precipitation pressure solution. Mineral precipitation is responsible both for the conductivity anisotropy in the upper mantle shear zone and for magnetic fabrics in some slate, migmatites and granites. Crystal Plastic Dislocations allow for greater charge transfer and conductivity, Deformation while high-current discharge can create dislocations in metals. Crystal plastic deformation alters the orientations of magnetic domains and is used to create permanent magnets. It is responsible for similar changes in minerals. It is the cause of magnetic fabrics in some migmatites and other rock. Pressure Twinning Twinning is responsible for some piezoelectric fabric in rock. and Kinking Kinking is controlled by the energy to turn bonding into anti- bonding electrons. Pressure twinning can create magnetic anisotropy in materials with ferromagnetic dopants. Recovery / Annealing An applied direct electric current can increase the rate of Mechanisms recovery processes at the expense of grain growth rate. The presence of subgrains decreases magnetic susceptibility in ferromagnetic materials. Dynamic An applied electric field can increase the rate of dynamic Recrystallization recrystallization in metals, but direct current will decrease the occurrence of grain boundary migration in the direction of the applied current. Grain boundary migration decreases electrical conductivity. An applied magnetic field makes fine-scale grain boundary structure more uniform. Dynamic recrystallization can be used to create permanent magnets in metals. Diffusion Creep Vacancies increase both electrical conductivity and magnetic susceptibility. 137 TABLE 49. Continued Mechanism Summary Granular Flow An applied electric field promotes superplasticity. If lattice- preferred orientation is destroyed (as with superplastic deformation), other earlier anisotropies will be destroyed as well. The process whereby grains slide past each other in granular flow can create magnetic fabrics. Notes: Pressure solution–precipitation, crystal plastic deformation, and granular flow have each been singled out as the major cause of magnetic fabrics in different rocks by different authors. TABLE 50. Data on Deformation Mechanisms and Associated Electric and Magnetic Phenomena Mechanism Data Phenomenon Brittle Fracture Electric Emission 10-6 to 10-5 C kg-1 Electric charge (volcanic ash) 10-4 to 10-2 C m-2 Surface charge density (granite) > 30 kV cm-1 Electric field (crustal rock) Electromagnetic kHz range Frequency (mineral 32 class) 3 5 Emission 10 to 10 Hz Frequency (ice) Radiation energy ∝ applied force Weakness Caused > 25% Loss of tensile strength (nickel) by Magnetism Dissolution-Precipitation Dissolution Rate 45 pm hr-1 Fused silica, 10-12 to 10-10 A 0.1 nm hr-1 Silica glass-gold, 500 mV Precipitation Rate 1 to 4 nm min-1 (start) Quartz-mica, 50 to 150 mV 0.01 nm min-1 Quartz-mica, 50 to 150 mV 138 TABLE 50. Continued Mechanism Data Phenomenon Crystal Plastic Deformation Edge Dislocations 3 x 10-12 C m-2 Charge density (rock, estimate) Electrically Induced 4 x 104 A cm-2 Current density (aluminum wire) Plasticity 1 x 105 A cm-2 Current density (copper wire) Magnetic Anisotropy 1.3 Susceptibility (max/min) (magnetite) Pressure Twinning and Kinking Twinning ≤ 0.7 mV Electric field (quartz vein) Recovery Mechanisms Recovery 105 A cm-2 DC enhances annealing (Cu) Dynamic Recrystallization Recrystallization +10 to 30% Zone width (Fe-Al-Ni-Co alloy, 6 kV) 1.2 MA m-1 Magnetic field enhances growth (Ni) Grain Boundary +400% Resistivity increase (halite, fluid path) Migration Upset Forging 9.55 x 102 A m-1 Hc (Pr-Fe-B-Cu alloy) 1.05 T Br (Pr-Fe-B-Cu alloy) Diffusion Creep Vacancies and 8 x 10-5 S m-1 Strained conductivity (talc-rich rock) Proton Mobility 3 x 10-4 S m-1 Strained conductivity (serpentinite) Granular Flow Superplasticity 105 Strain rate increase (metal, 106 A cm-2) Notes: The material associated with the data for dissolution (or precipitation) is underlined above for clarity, as some experimental systems have more than one component. 139 electric field must be greater than the electricity needed to chemically decompose air (30 kV cm-1). James et al. (2000) describe fracture charging of volcanic rock to simulate ash formation, with electric charge approximately equal to 10-6 to 10-5 C kg-1. For ice, electromagnetic emission resulting from a single crack under various stress regimes has a frequency of 103 to 105 Hz (Shibkov et al., 2005). Magnetic. Jagasivamani (1987) shows how previous reports of magnetic field emission during fracture of ferromagnetic materials are flawed, the result of mistakes in the experimental set up. Li Xiangde (1997) shows decreasing strength in diamond with an applied magnetic field. Tian et al. (2009) describe a decrease in tensile strength (by at least 25%) in nickel with an applied magnetic field. Electric and Magnetic Phenomena with Dissolution-Precipitation Mechanisms Electric. Shaocheng Ji et al. (1996) describe how electrical anisotropy and seismic anisotropy are oblique to each other in an upper mantle shear zone, with the magnetotelluric component following the foliation, and the seismic component following the shear plane, which coincides with slip in the a direction in olivine. According to the articles below (in the Magnetic part of this subsection, and then in the Crystal Plastic Deformation subsection), these results are due to solution-precipitation and crystal plastic deformation, respectively. If dynamic recrystallization is active, the crystallographic data are reset, and the strain markers give only a minimum strain value of the last event. Greene et al. (2009) describe increased rates of pressure solution at mica-quartz contacts due to the addition of aqueous electrolyte solutions plus acid. The electrostatic 140 potential resulting from the contact (or proximity) of the plates (at pH 3) is 50 to 150 mV. The precipitation rate onto the quartz plate is initially 1 to 4 nm min-1, and then (after several hours) settles into a stable rate of 0.01 nm min-1. Andersen et al. (2011) describe such solutions, driven by a pressure differential (and a streaming potential), as dissolving fused silica. The dissolution rate is approximately 45 pm hr-1 under a streaming current (from fluid flow) of about 10-12 to 10-10 amperes. The pressure differential is about 8 MPa to set up the streaming potential, and pH values are 5.6 and 9.2 for various experimental trials. Kristiansen et al. (2012) describe the role of surface potential in pressure solution. Silica glass (in contact with a gold electrode) is dissolved at a rate of approximately 0.1 nm hr-1 in an electrolyte solution and acid (pH 3) under a few atmospheres of pressure. The difference in potential between the silica glass and the gold electrode is about 500 mV. The gold must carry the more negative sign for the dissolution rate to be this high. Laubach et al. (2010) review the literature on low- temperature diagenesis. Magnetic. Borradaile et al. (1988) describe pressure solution and precipitation of magnetite in a slate, as an explanation of the observed magnetic fabric, while Borradaile and Tarling (1981) describe the influence of pressure solution (forming stylolites) and grain boundary sliding on magnetic fabrics, and suggest that the process initiates a tectonic magnetic fabric within cleavage surfaces. Kratinová et al. (2007) report a magnetic fabric in successively-emplaced granite sheets, with some migmatites (and granites) showing quartz ribbons alternating with 141 regions of biotite flakes, the result of strong recrystallization processes. Most of the field from the magnetic fabric is attributable to the paramagnetic silicate (e.g. biotite) phases. Electric and Magnetic Phenomena with Crystal Plastic Deformation Mechanisms Electric. Dubovitskaia et al. (1980) describe electric discharge in a molybdenum single crystal as generating dislocations and dislocation pile-ups. Slifkin (1993) posits that charged dislocations in rock may be responsible for seismic electric signals, and describes the thermodynamics involved. Excess charge density in rock due to edge dislocations in the constituent minerals are estimated at 3 x 10-12 C m-2. This estimate is based on dislocation density and a dislocation charge model of 3 x 10-11 C m-1 for the crystal surface, with a potential of a few tenths of a volt on the surface relative to the interior (as measured for edge defects in alkali and silver halides, and then generalized) and a lattice spacing of about 5 Å for the constituent minerals. Shibkov et al. (2006) and Shibkov et al. (2009) discuss electromagnetic emission signals from single-crystal and polycrystalline ice undergoing plastic deformation and fracture, and describe how lattice dislocations allow for charge transfer. Shibkov et al. (2005) provides an atlas of waveforms correlated with electromagnetic emission caused by various processes (e.g. the generation of a slip band) in ice. A list of previous work on the subject of electromagnetic emission in relaxation processes (deformation and fracture) in crystals is also given in Shibkov et al. (2005). Savenko and Shchukin (2006) describe the role of dislocations in creating electromechanical effects in halite. Eremenko et al. (2007) describe electrically-active 142 layers formed by dislocation glide in silicon, and Eremenko et al. (2009) describe further the increased conduction in silicon subjected to crystal plastic deformation. Crystal plastic deformation creates a very dense system of extended (electrically active) defects trailing from the dislocations that comprise the slide, climb and glide of the crystal plastic deformation. Conrad (2000) reports plastic deformation initiated in aluminum wire under an applied electric current desnity of 4 x 104 A cm-2 and in copper wire under an applied electric current density of 1 x 105 A cm-2. Magnetic. Borradaile (1988) observed that the alignment of magnetic domains change rapidly with advancing strain, especially as minerals undergo crystal plastic deformation. This affects the the magnetic susceptibility. Shang-Shiang Hsu and Tein- Tai Chang (1995), in their work characterizing nuclear pressure vessels with magnetic methods, summarize research that shows how the stability of pinning walls for magnetic domains in ferromagnetic materials is correlated inversely with the flow of dislocations in such materials. Grünberger (2001) reports on deformation-induced RE-TM-B (rare earth - transition metal - boron) permanent magnets, invoking crystal plastic deformation in the c direction (perpendicular to the growth direction for these crystals) as one method of producing anisotropy. Several papers in the materials science literature relate to the subject of upset forge magnet fabrication. Upset forge fabrication includes any forge process that compresses the length of the material and increases the cross-sectional area (Dadras and Thomas, 1983). 143  Ferré et al. (2003) and Ferré et al. (2004) describe the development of magnetic fabrics in migmatites. Titanomagnetite (ferrimagnetic) and biotite (paramagnetic) change their magnetic orientations while undergoing crystal plastic deformation under deviatoric stresses and magnetic fields. The earlier work describes anisotropy in magnetite grains as being about 1.3 (the ratio of maximum to minimum magnetic susceptibility) (Ferré et al., 2003). For one migmatite studied, the magnetic anisotropy in the melanosome occurred via crystal plastic deformation, while in the leucosome, it occurred via this and granular flow (Ferré et al., 2004). The melanosome and leucosome are regions in rock in which dark- and light-colored minerals predominate, respectively. The terms are used to describe rocks where minerals are segregated. Electric and Magnetic Phenomena with Pressure Twinning and Kinking Mechanisms Electric. Essen (1935) describes what is now known to be Dauphiné twinning in quartz. These are twins rotated by 60º about the c axis, such that mechanical pressure along the a axis produces electrical signals from each twin that either interfere or cancel each other. Dauphiné twins in quartz, also called electrical twins, are optically indistinguishable. Nikitin and Ivankina (1995) describe a mechanism whereby polycrystal aggregate (vein) β-quartz that formed at high temperature may undergo deformation and acquire a lattice-preferred orientation, as is commonly observed. The quartz may then be brought to a cooler setting, where it makes a transformation to α-quartz. The resulting grains undergo twinning. If the twinning follows a combined twin law with twinning on both 144 [0001] and [1120], then the twinned grains will share their polarity, and the rock will become piezoelectrically active. The Dauphiné twin law refers to twins along the plane [0001] and this contains the c axis. The Brazil twin law refers to twins along the plane [1120]. Neither of these twins alone will create a piezoelectrically active structure under isotropic pressures. If there is some non-hydrostatic, directed stress, the growth of one crystal will be favored over the other under either twin law. The resulting distributions of twinned quartz will be unequal in mass, and result in piezoelectricity. In their sample of vein quartz, the measured electric field values are up to 0.7 mV and vary according to the orientation of the pressure with respect to the lattice-preferred orientation (Nikitin and Ivankina, 1995). Bertagnolli et al. (1981) produced stress-induced twins in X-cut quartz plates when stress was applied non-uniformly. X-cut crystal plates are named for the x axis and are perpendicular to the a axis of the crystal. Arlt (1990) describes the relationship between twin-wall energy and grain size in ferroelectric and ferroelastic ceramics, and shows that a minumum grain size exists for each mineral system, below which twinning won’t further minimize the local energy. Gilman (2008) describes kinking in covalent crystals as requiring the excitation of bonding electrons into anti-bonding states, as measured by the band-gap density. For a kink to move, it must shear covalent bonds, and does so via this excitation. Magnetic. Evans (2006) reports on the anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility in a ferroan calcite cement related to twinning deformation. 145 Electric and Magnetic Phenomena with Recovery Mechanisms Electric. Conrad et al. (1988) report that pulses of DC current (105 A cm-2 for short durations) enhanced the rate of recovery and recrystallization, but retarded the rate of grain growth in 99.9% copper wires. Magnetic. Bose (1986) attributes a decrease in magnetic induction in ferromagnetic materials during strain to subgrain formation and changes in dislocation density. Electric and Magnetic Phenomena with Dynamic Recrystallization Mechanisms Electric. Fu et al. (2003) describe how an applied electric field (6 kV) can accelerate the nucleation of dynamic recrystallization grains in a metal weld under pressure, resulting in a wider area of recrystallization (10 to 30%) and a more equant aspect ratio for the new grains. Kemmochi and Hiramo (1975) demonstrate that an applied DC current (6 x 103 A cm-2) reduces grain boundary migration in the current direction in aluminum and enhances grain boundary migration in the direction perpendicular to the current direction. This result is consistent with data cited in Bose (1986). The process of grain boundaries being influenced by an applied electrical field is called electromigration. Watanabe and Peach (2002) describe increased resistivity (+400%) with deformation in halite. Wet samples deformed via dynamic recrystallization (grain boundary migration) exhibited more resistivity than dry samples, which showed no recrystallization structures. The experiments were undertaken at 125 ºC and 50 MPa. This type of increase in resistivity is likely caused by deformation and consequent lengthening of the fluid paths (Watanabe, 2010). 146  Magnetic. Harada et al. (2003) report that an applied magnetic field (1.2 MA m-1) can affect the grain boundary microstructure in nanocrystalline nickel, making it more homogenous and increasing the rate of grain growth during annealing. The standard deviation in the grain sizes decreased by about 10% in experiments with an applied magnetic field as compared to those without an applied field. Watanabe et al. (2006) follow up on this with a summary of magnetic field applications for grain boundary engineering in metals. Kwon et al. (1992) report that dynamic recrystallization is responsible for alignment of the magnetic field in upset forge cast ingots for permanent Pr-Fe-B-Cu magnets. The measured strengths were Hc ≈ 9.55 x 102 A m-1 and Br ≈ 1.05 T. Electric and Magnetic Phenomena with Diffusion Creep Mechanisms Electric. Conrad (2000) reports that a current density of 2.5 x 103 A cm-2 increases the rate of creep in V3Si. Xinzhuan Guo et al. (2011) cite hydrogen mobility and vacancies in talc- and serpentine-rich rocks as the mode for creating electrical conductivity in the mantle lithosphere, with experimental results taken at 3 GPa. The conductivities due to hydrogen and vacancy mobility for talc-rich rock and serpentinite were 8 x 10-5 S m-1 and 3 x 10-4 S m-1, respectively, parallel to lineation. Xiaozhi Yang (2012) describes enhanced electrical conductivity of hydrated olivine, clinopyroxene, and hydrated plagioclase under conditions of 10 kbar at 200°C to 800°C as being caused by point defects. The hydrated plagioclase exhibits a large electrical anisotropy, but the 147 other two minerals do not. The anisotropy (ratio of the maximum to the minimum conductivity) ranges from 3 to 8 for the strained plagioclase. Magnetic. Osorio-Guillén et al. (2007) tackle the problem of ferromagnetic behavior in oxides (such as CaO and HfO2) that lack unpaired electrons in the d-orbital, and show that vacancies, while they can create a magnetic moment, are insufficient to produce the observed bulk magnetic moment, which they attribute to nonstoichiometric factors. These are overgrowths and grain boundaries that lead to a net violation of the stoichiometry. Antiferromagnetic coupling of nearby vacancies precludes them from being the sole source of ferromagnetism. Electric and Magnetic Phenomena with Granular Flow Mechanisms Electric. Conrad (2000) details how applied electric fields influence plastic deformation in metals and oxides. The results showing that a decrease in flow stress during superplasticity (making deformation easier), cavitation and grain growth are all positively correlated with applied electric fields. Cavitation is the formation and subsequent collapse of voids. At current densities of 106 A cm-2, strain rates in metals abruptly increased by five orders of magnitude. Magnetic. Egydio-Silva et al. (2005) use granulites exhibiting magnetic anisotropies to orient models of deformation regimes for their sample regions. Both ferromagnetic oxides (e.g. titanohematite), sulphides (e.g. pyrrhotite) and paramagnetic components (e.g. ferromagnesian silicates) are discussed. 148  CHAPTER 7 SEISMIC ELECTRIC SIGNAL (SES) RESEARCH Introduction Geophysical research in the 1960s and 1970s had a significant focus on the coupling between earthquake and electrical phenomena, especially in the United States, Soviet Union, China and Japan. Significantly, observational evidence shows that compression is associated with a marked decrease in rock resistivity, oriented parallel to the compressive force (Dmowska, 1977). Similar work is ongoing; a study in Greece shows the superposition of twenty-four-hour wavelet variations in signals preceding and following an earthquake (Thanassoulas and Tselentis, 1993). See Figure 26. It is not suggested in their study, but such superposition of twenty-four-hour wavelets may be the result of decreased rock resistivity during the seismic event, combined with the typical telluric variation caused by solar flux. Varotsos-Alexopoulos-Nomicos (VAN) Method In 1981, a network of eighteen electrical stations was set up in Greece, and then connected by telephony in 1983, for earthquake prediction (Varotsos et al., 1993a), with mixed results. The typical VAN method (named for the three co-authors, Varotsos, 149 FIGURE 26. Record of electric field variations before and after the magnitude 4.8 earthquake of February 9, 1982 in the North Aegean. The onset of the twenty-four-hour field variations are indicated with an arrow captioned "START." SP refers to self potential. Filtering was accomplished via a moving average. The image is adapted from Figure 2 in Thanassoulas, C., and Tselentis, G., 1993, Periodic variations in the Earth’s electric field as earthquake precursors: Results from recent experiments in Greece: Tectonophysics, v. 224, p. 103–111. Reproduced with permission. Alexopoulos and Nomicos) includes choosing a site, laying down sets of short-separation (50 m to 400 m apart) and long-separation (2 to 20 km apart) electrodes in north-south and east-west orientations, along with magnetometers to measure the concurrent changes in the magnetic field (Varotsos et al., 1993a). The multiple electrodes are important in distinguishing noise, and the longer electrodes can demonstrate whether changes in voltage increase with the length of the area measured. 150 These length data, combined with polarity data of the pulses, can distinguish local from regional events. Finding a location that is relatively insensitive to magnetotelluric variation is important, since variations in the geomagnetic field can introduce electric field variations that are unrelated to seismic activity (Varotsos et al., 2011). As a first filter for the electric data, the magnetotelluric data are examined and electric field variations are calculated based on changes to the geomagnetic field. These calculated regional electric field variations are subtracted from the electrical field measurements, yielding a baseline from which to look for seismic electric signals (Arvidsson and Kulhánek, 1993; Hadjioannou et al., 1993). A time lag between the electric and magnetic signals is sometimes measured at the magnetometers. If there is some difference in the rate of transmission of magnetic and electric fields in the rock, then the time lag can also be used to discriminate against local electrical noise for the following reason: it may indicate that the signal has traveled some distance. For some monitoring stations in Greece, comparison with the seismic record indicates that a 1 second time lag is caused by approximately 100 km of travel (Varotsos et al., 2011). An early procedure is calibrating the measuring station. A station’s electric data are checked against seismic data, to see whether seismic events are recorded in the electric data, and from which region. This procedure is used to build the selectivity map of the 151 station. The selectivity map should show the area where seismic signals produce electrical phenomena detectable at a station. In Greece, major ophiolite suture zones divide the occurrence and character of purported seismic electrical phenomena (Papanikolaou, 1993). See Figure 27. Electric transmission through crystalline rock is affected by chemistry and form, with mafic rock being more suitable than felsic, and dikes being much better locations for stations than sills. Because of selectivity, a station may be sensitive to seismic activity at a distance (150 to 200 km), but not to local activity. The station is then used to gather predictive data. The location of a signal is deduced from the variance between north-south and east-west trending electrode pairs, correlated with previous seismic detection history. Magnitude is calculated according to the following equation: log (∆V / L) ≈ (0.34 to 0.37) ML + b, (19) where ∆V is the change in electric potential in millivolts, L is the length of the electrode spacing in meters, ML is the local magnitude and b is empirical and based on previous data, with values different for NS or EW electrodes, but the slope (0.34 to 0.37) is the same for both (Varotsos et al., 1993a). No vertical (z) component of the electric field was observed in the above studies, nor have correlations been made to rule out atmospheric and weather influences on the fields. Other sources of electrical phenomena, such as man-made interference (e.g. heavy use of electrical lines for a planned 152 FIGURE 27. Selectivities of three SES stations, Greece. Areas covered by Ioannina (IOA), Assiros (ASS) and Keratea (KER) are shown by textures 1, 2 and 3, respectively; events for each are shown by symbols 5, 6 and 7, respectively. Stations are at symbol 4. Ophiolite zones separate IOA and ASS; and KER is sited on a granitic dike. Reproduced with permission from Papanikolaou, D., 1993, The effect of geological anisotropies on the detectability of seismic electric signals: Tectonophysics, v. 224, p. 181–187. 153 construction project), or local electrochemical alterations (e.g. corrosion of the electrodes) are tracked manually. Several sites in the French Alps have been set up following this method, with some preliminary selectivity completed (Maron et al. 1993), as has a set of stations in Japan, where telephone cables were used for the electrodes (Kawase et al., 1993). Both show correlative results between seismic activity and electric phenomena. Criticism of the VAN Method Critical work in 1993 (Tectonophysics, Volume 224) and 1996 (Lighthill, 1996) highlights seven features of this VAN method: 1. There is no one-to-one correlation between signals recorded and earthquakes, with perhaps 50% of the larger events being missed (Hamada, 1993). 2. The temporal correlation of the signals is of two types: a single signal for a single event, and multiple signals for a period of seismic activity. The second of these yields no definite timing for the prediction (Varotsos et al., 1993a). 3. The transmission of purported seismic electric signals is selective, and a station may only receive seismic signals for a specific region, perhaps not strictly related to distance. The selectivity bias needs to be calibrated with other stations in the network and is subject to human error (Varotsos et al., 1993a). 4. Inaccuracy of location, based on selectivity, highlights the unknown origin of supposed SES (Dologlou, 1993a). 154  5. Confusion exists between man-made and so called seismic signals (Pham et al., 1998). 6. Building the selectivity map of a station is prone to a lack of falsifiability, in a region where earthquakes are common enough that correlation is a given (Kagan, 1997). 7. Some problems of scientific rigor have been noted, especially regarding conflicts in choosing whose calculated earthquake seismic data to use for correlations (Drakopoulos et al., 1993; Varotsos et al., 1993b). These difficulties are significant. Note that there is a difference of opinion between Uyeda (1996) and Hamada (1993), on the one hand, and Kagan (1997) and Wyss (1996) on the other, relating to statistical significance, in the main because correlations are only very strong with ML ≥ 5.0 (or perhaps 5.5) earthquakes, whose occurrence is infrequent enough that the data population is too small for statistical analysis. For example, eight ML ≥ 5.5 earthquakes occurred in Greece from January 1, 1984 through September 10, 1995, and the VAN network forecast six of these (Uyeda, 1996). Finally, all of the above are less damaging than the blow to public opinion that false alarms issued by the VAN team have generated. More than anything else, these have generated ill will. In short, using presumed SES to predict earthquakes did not have unqualified success. Time Series Analysis of Presumed SES In 2001 Varotsos et al. (2001) published work with SES using a novel time series analysis, and this new method is summarized in Varotsos et al. (2011). For testing the coherence of the electric signal data, Varotsos et al. use a detrended fluctuation analysis 155 (DFA) (Bashan et al., 2008), breaking the data into time-segments which can be graphed separately with polynomial modeling functions of various orders, generally one (linear), two (quadratic) and three (cubic). A measure of the variation in the data (as expressed by the square root of the sum of the squares of the lengths of data where there are no polynomial trends) is then taken as a power law of the time-segment size chosen: Var(s) ≈ sa, (20) where s is the time-segment size, Var(s) is the variation in the data described above, and a is an indicator variable. If a ≈ 0.5 then the signal is incoherent and there is no pattern on a range of scales. If a < 0.5 then the data are anticorrelated, with scaling indicating some change in the trend according to scale. If a > 0.5 then trends in the data are correlated across a range of scales, and therefore coherent. (Varotsos et al., 2011). For SES, DFA leads to a ≈ 1 for four orders of magnitude in s. For variations in the magnetic field (spikes of alternating sign) which accompany major earthquakes (moment magnitude approximately equal to 6.5 or greater), a ≈ 0.5 for s < 12 seconds (indicating white noise), and a ≈ 0.89 for s > 12 seconds (indicating a coherent trend) (Varotsos et al., 2011). White noise is ubiquitous in natural signals, due to the nature of how random distributions occur (Ming Li and Lim, 2006). For looking at the signals themselves, Varotsos et al. introduce two quantities, χi and Qi : χi = i/n, (21) 156 where χi is the natural time coefficient, i is an integer based on the order of events (i.e., the i-th event), and n is the total number of events. Qi is the quantity of energy (electric, seismic or other) released by the process being studied. The product χiQi assigns more weight to the most recent and the largest energy events. A related quantity, pi , is the fractional quantity of energy, defined by pi = Qi/Qtot , (22) where pi is the fractional quantity of energy of the i-th event, Qi is the energy released by the i-th event, and Qtot is the total energy released during the period of study. This mathematical framework is called natural time analysis by Varotsos et al. (2011). The normalized power spectrum of a set of events in natural time is given by Π(v) = (∑ pi eiv(i/n))2, (23) where Π(v) is the power spectrum, ∑ signifies summation, for i = 1 to n, pi is the fractional quantity of energy for the i-th event, e is the euler number, 2.71828, i is the square root of negative one, v is an angle in radians times 2π, and is present to model sinusoidal variation, i is the event index, and n is the number of events. The quantity v is plotted versus Π(v) to get an indication of signal variation (Varotsos et al., 2011). Sinusoidal variation is an explicit assumption of this formula. One variance term used for critical discrimination in natural time is given by κ1 = [ ∑ pi (i/n)2 ] - [ ∑ (i/n) pi ]2, (24) 157 where κ1 is the variance in natural time, ∑ signifies summation, for i = 1 to n, pi is the fractional quantity of energy for the i-th event, i is the event index, and n is the number of events. This variance puts extra weight on pi. For a uniform distribution of data, with χi and pi each taking values between 0 and 1, κ1 ≈ 0.0833... or 1/12. Empirically, with SES data, if κ1 ≈ 0.070 or less the SES are valid and indicate an impending seismic event (Varotsos et al., 2011). SES datasets with values of κ1 between 0.070 and 0.083 can be considered noise. Typically, a time period of at least three weeks passes between the detection of true SES in a region and the occurrence of the largest associated seismic event (Varotsos et al., 2011). Another variance term for exploring criticality in natural time is given by Sn = [ ∑ [(i/n) ln (i/n) pi ]] - [[ ∑ (i/n) pi ] ln [ ∑ (i/n) pi ]], (25) where Sn is the entropy in natural time analysis, ∑ signifies summation, for i = 1 to n, i is the event index, n is the number of events, ln signifies the natural log function, and pi is the fractional quantity of energy for the i-th event. This variance also puts extra weight on the energy term, pi. The term Sn , entropy in natural time, is based on numerical signal data and does not indicate a thermodynamic relation. It is related to the field of information entropy (Shannon, 1948). For a uniform distribution of data, with χi and pi each taking values between 0 and 1, Sn ≈ 0.0966. Empirically, with SES data, if Sn values (and reversed-order Sn values) are markedly lower than this, the SES are valid and indicate an impending seismic event (Varotsos et al., 2011). 158  A third variance term in natural time analysis is calculated by reversing the order of the energy data, and subtracting the value of this new inverted Sn from the original Sn . This is the time-reversal entropy in natural time analysis, ΔSn . This variance is most sensitive to the ordering of the signal data. For all these terms in natural time, Qi can be any energy term, and need not be the magnitude of electric signals. For example, the moment magnitude of seismic events may be subsituted for Qi, and the evolution of seismic data may be analyzed in natural time. The value of κ1 ≈ 0.066 indicates that the time series may have reached a critical state, and a large seismic event might be imminent in the region being studied: the results outperform chance, but not by very much. The current protocol for earthquake prediction is as follows. SES are analyzed for κ1 ≈ 0.070, indicating criticality. Once a critical state is found, the region for the impending seismic activity is calculated based on the geometry of the SES occurrences. The differences between the long and short electrodes of NS and EW orientation are plotted using the sensitivity map for the detection station, which was previously made from correlations between electric signals and seismic signals in the public record, and an estimate of the critical area is made. The predictive magnitude is estimated with Equation 19. Then the SES are set aside. The next focus is to use natural time analysis on the seismic (not electric) signals occurring in the critical region. 159  The procedure is as follows. The order index i is set to zero, and a new time series is constructed as new seismic data are recorded. The difference is noted between Π(v) of this seismic data and Π(v)ideal ≈ 1 – 0.070v2, (26) where Π(v)ideal is an ideal power spectrum, v is an angle in radians times 2π. Values of v for Π(v)ideal are restricted to between 0 and 0.5. If Π(v) approaches Π(v)ideal from below for the seismic data, or if κ1 ≈ 0.070 for the seismic data, then the critical state is indicated, and a major earthquake is imminent, generally occurring within a few days. The location and magnitude of the impending earthquake are taken from the SES data analysis, described above. For increased accuracy, an updated method (Varotsos et al., 2011), which splits all the seismic data into overlapping regions (like a giant Venn diagram of rectangles, where each region includes at least two seismic epicenters), indicates an impending critical seismic state when the distributions of κ1 values for the regions that include the last seismic event have a maximum at 0.070. The above methods and parameters described are based on empirical attempts to optimize the data, and have been successful in predicting all but three of the 28 major earthquakes from N36 to N41 latitude and E19 to E27 longitude between 2001 and 2010 (Varotsos et al., 2011). SES were recorded for two of the three missed events. New predictions are uploaded to arXiv, a pre-print archive of scientific papers hosted by 160 Cornell University. These predictions can be searched for with the following terms: seismic, prediction, Greece. If there is severe data corruption in the SES detection protocol, as happens, for example, in regions with electric trains running from 06:00 to 22:00 causing ground electrification during that time, the corrupted data are discarded. The remaining data are then used for SES analysis. Even with partial data, this protocol has been successful in predicting earthquakes, notably the Izu Island regional earthquake swarm in Japan in 2000 (Varotsos et al., 2011; Uyeda et al., 2009). Mechanisms Causing SES The presence of co-seismic electric signals during some earthquake events is well- established (Matsumoto et al., 1998). There is no unequivocal evidence that pre-seismic electric signals are SES. The Gutenberg-Richter law predicts the frequency of occurrence of earthquakes based on their magnitude, with an exponential relationship, log10 n = k1 – (k2mt), (27) where n is the number of events with magnitude less than or equal to mt , k1 and k2 are constants, and mt is the true magnitude of an earthquake event. This law holds true down to small magnitude earthquakes. All SES might be co-seismic. Alternately, all electric signals preceding major earthquakes may be related to some other phenomena. The following text makes the conjecture that some electric signals preceding major earthquakes are SES. 161  The primary mechanism for generating presumed seismic electric activity, if one takes into account the selectivity of various stations and the time lag between electric and magnetic signals, might be distinguished from among four proposed categories, which are given below (Gershenzon et al. 1993; Gershenzon and Gokhberg 1993; Varotsos et al. 1993a). These four categories are: solid state and pressure, solid state and temperature, groundwater, and ore bodies. Solid state and pressure. Electrical signals might be formed from changes in the effective stress acting on the rock, and the signals might travel to the observation sites. There are four mechanisms within this category. 1. The charge-vacancy hypothesis proposes that the strain liberates crystal lattice vacancies to carry electric charge. 2. The displacement hypothesis proposes that ions carrying charge are displaced by the strain and this is the major source of electric current. 3. The piezoelectric hypothesis proposes that the signal is generated from the pressure acting on crystal lattices and symmetry is the major consideration. 4. The piezomagnetic hypothesis proposes that a magnetic field, which induces the electric signal, is generated from the pressure acting on crystal lattices. Solid state and temperature. The thermoelectric hypothesis proposes that changes in temperature act to generate charge-carrying holes in the rock material, and also to liberate other charge carriers. These are responsible for the observed electric signals. 162  Groundwater. There are three mechanisms in which groundwater might generate SES. 1. The location of fluids, notably groundwater, will be affected by changes in pore pressure with changes to both position and saturation. These changes can generate electric signals. This is the streaming-potential hypothesis. 2. Rock strain might release radon gas, and this can ionize surrounding material to form ions (Jordan et al., 2011). This is the radon-decay hypothesis. 3. Ground motion is introduced by the passage of seismic waves. This motion displaces water in the pore space of rock. The water contains ions, and the relation of the motion of the ions to the geomagnetic field creates electric fields. These are circularly polarized, depending on the charge of the ion. This is the seismic-dynamo hypothesis (Honkura et al., 2009). Ore bodies. Crystals in bodies might be displaced during strain, and create an electrical signal by induction with the Earth’s magnetic field. This is the induction hypothesis. Data Relating to the Mechanisms of SES Generation The charge-vacancy hypothesis has some literature support in the following: 1. Takeuchi and Nagahama (2002) show that the magnitude of surface charge density from fracture or frictional slip in quartz or granite under dry conditions is consistent with the data for hole- and electron-trapping centers in semiconductors. 163  2. Chapter 6 in this thesis lists several deformation mechanisms which can produce charge-carrying vacancies in crystal lattices or allow for their migration. The thermoelectric hypothesis has some literature support in the following: 1. Enomoto et al. (1993) confirm that thermally-stimulated exo-electron emission in granites occurs at temperatures ranging from 300 to 400°C. 2. Dologlou (1993b) shows that thermally-stimulated electric currents in rocks follow the Arrhenius equation, that is, the currents are a function of e to the power of the ratio of the energy to a function of the temperature. The streaming-potential hypothesis has some literature support in the following: 1. Lazarus (1993) describes the hypothesis that a pressure-induced transition from hydrous to anhydrous mineralogy may result in the liberation of water contemporaneous with earthquake phenomena. 2. Hautot and Tarits (1998) measured electric potential variations on a ridge separating two lakes in the French Alps, and these lakes underwent water-level variations of several tens of meters on a yearly cycle, enough to induce stress variations and fluid percolation. Electric-potential variations were linearly related to water-level variations, with an expression of 2 mV per meter of water level change. 3. Hunt et al. (2007) show that electric conductivity and electrokinetic current in a porous water-saturated medium are proportional to the square of the difference between the porosity of the medium and the porosity required for percolation, and also to the square of the difference between the moisture content of the medium and the moisture 164 content required for percolation. Hence, an increase in porosity or moisture content can markedly increase both electrical conductivity and electrokinetic current. 4. Jouniaux and Pozzi (1997) demonstrate that observed 0.1 Hz and 0.5 Hz co- seismic electric signals may be attributed to generation by streaming potentials, based on laboratory experiments on saturated sediments. The seismic-dynamo has strong support in the following: 1. Honkura et al. (2009) report observations of the seismic dynamo effect in both artificial and natural seismic events. The streaming-potential hypothesis, often referred to as the electrokinetic hypothesis, was historically favored, along with a mechanism for earthquake formation, the dilatancy-diffusion model (DD), in the 1970s and 1980s, although DD has since fallen out of favor. It describes earthquake nucleation as a process of strain cracking (dilation), and then fluid motion (diffusion) into the new pore space. The dilatancy-diffusion model does perhaps account for some results, for example, increased radon gas emission (Dutta et al., 2012) and an increase in seismic wave velocity immediately prior to rock failure. It also accounts for the positive correlation between variance in high frequency seismic noise and diurnal ground temperature, as described in Gordeev et al. (1992), since surface heating causes diurnal fluctuations in groundwater pressure. Some problems exist with DD, notably (Bakhmutov and Groza, 2008), that strain cracks are on the order of microns, and are perhaps too small for water to penetrate; that the variation of underground fluid levels (10 to 15 cm) is too large to be caused by the 165 deformation alone (typically η = 10-6); and that no mechanism has been found to describe the return of the groundwater to pre-dilatancy levels. The Lazarus (1993) hypothesis, that hydrous to anhydrous transitions in minerals may make up these discrepancies, has not been investigated. Transmission of SES The solid-state hypotheses and the seismic-dynamo hypothesis make use of groundwater running through faults to account for the electric signals travelling to observation sites. Faults have high measured conductivities (Wannamaker et al., 2004), as much as 100 to 1000 times that of surrounding rock (Varotsos et al., 2011). Further, the termination of a conductive path (such as a fault) will result in an increase in the electric field near the termination (Varotsos et al., 2011). Proponents of the ore body hypothesis could also make use of the the increased conductivity in faults to account for the transmission of the signal, but there is an additional consideration: the possibility that ore bodies are not present at some sites where SES are produced. Mechanisms Acting in Concert There are also some reports of several mechansims acting in concert. Yoshida et al. (1998) demonstrate that a water-saturated sandstone will accept extra water immediately before rupture (i.e. 9 seconds prior in their experiment) and, based on the magnitudes, timing and polarity of the voltage signals, that both piezoelectric and electrokinetic effects are present in the observed electric potential changes. 166  It is reasonable to assume that several effects come into play with presumed seismic electric signals. Rock resistivity is reduced by strain. Groundwater and other fluids or volatiles are liberated prior to some earthquakes. Deformation mechanisms do create charge-vacancies, and liberate ions. Seismicity is characterized by numerous small and very small seismic events in a region, and the seismic-dynamo effect is driven thereby. Heat flow may be increased during earthquakes (Jordan et al., 2011), and heat does generate charge carriers in rock. Piezoelectric effects may be large enough to detect in some rocks. For SES that occur long before an earthquake, the combination of fluids, deformation, heat and rock chemistry act in concert. Electricity, from whatever source, weakens rock. Also, artificial electrical signals can regulate seismic dynamics (Chelidze and Matcharashvili, 2003). Short-Duration SES during an Earthquake During rupture, fractoemission can produce the triboluminescence and radio signals characteristic of short-duration SES that occur near the time of the earthquake (Chapter 2, Seismic electric signals, p. 30). Further, a mechanism similar to short-duration SES may cause earthquake lightning, which, like storm-caused lightning, can be associated with radio emissions. Localized fracture can generate the charge. Other Ongoing Research Current research in electric prediction of earthquakes is ongoing in China, with a satellite launch planned for 2014 to determine whether observed ionospheric phenomena 167 already known to precede earthquakes by a few hours to days are in fact caused by electric phenomena on the ground (Xuhui Shen et al., 2011). Chinese scientists favor a thermoelectric (charge-vacancy) mechanism for SES generation, with magnetite- temperature interactions as the proposed source (Xuhui Shen et al., 2011; Junfeng Shen et al., 2010). For both the charge-vacancy and groundwater mechanisms, lattice and phase transitions in minerals play an essential role. 168  CHAPTER 8 DISCUSSION AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER WORK Introduction The text of this chapter addresses four areas: earthquake prediction, planetary science research, energy dependence and global warming, and science eduction. A summary at the end includes important results. Chapter references are given in parentheses. Earthquake Prediction Earthquake prediction is a pressing need. The VAN method of earthquake prediction has had preliminary success, predicting 25 out of 28 major earthquakes within N36 and N41 latitude and E19 to E27 longitude between 2001 and 2010 (Chapter 7, Time Series Analysis of Presumed SES, p. 155). That is an 89% success rate. The margin of error in location and earthquake magnitude are, respectively, 100 km and 0.7, while the lead time is a few days (Chapter 1, p. 3). These values fall within public safety requirements. These results should be tested by other researchers. The VAN method ought to be attempted in several regions, to see whether the results are reproducible. The equipment needed, such as electrodes, magnetic field sensors, data loggers, computers and cable networking, do not seem prohibitive in economic or technical terms, nor does access to relevant seismic data once the SES indicate criticality in a region. Seismic data are available in real time online from several sources, including the U.S. Geological Survey 169 (USGS Earthquake Hazards Program, 2013), the European-Mediterranean Seismological Center (European-Mediterranean Seismological Center, 2013), the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention in Japan (NIED, 2013), and the Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS, 2013). IRIS links to several other sites for seismic data (IRIS, 2010). A major consideration for the set up of SES monitoring stations involves correlating observations of SES with seismic data, to build a selectivity map of the area of study. There are some pitfalls with building a selectivity map. First, SES are well-correlated with seismic events when they are the type that coincide with the event, such as the signals associated with the 1995 Kobe earthquake in Japan (Chapter 7, Short-Duration SES during an Earthquake, p. 167). Telluric currents in an area are not necessarily correlated with contemporaneous seismic activity. Distinguishing the causes of telluric currents from the thirty two mechanisms listed in Chapter 2 seems very important. Except for the short-duration SES that occur during an earthquake, SES might be spurious, caused by other phenomena. Although the empirical result of the predictions seems promising, with 25 out of 28 major events in a region predicted between 2001 and 2010 (Chapter 7, Time Series Analysis of Presumed SES, p. 155), the sample size is still small. Other areas might have geological constraints that would diminish the success rate. Verification of supposed SES in a region, to build the selectivity map, seems like a difficult step. The proof currently resides only in the results. Therefore, it may be useful 170 to have a better electrical conductivity map of the Earth. A conductivity map could help to assess the validity of the selectivity map. Selectivity Mapping for SES and Testing the Groundwater Hypotheses for SES Rock conductivity is fundamental to understanding seismic electric signal propogation. Parkhomenko’s works are classic (e.g., Parkhomenko and Bondarenko, 1972), but more research ought to be done to determine the conductivity of crustal rock. Likewise, the conductivity values for water and brine are as many as ten orders of magnitude higher than for crustal rock, and this highlights the role of groundwater in conductivity (Chapter 5, Bulk Rock Electrical Phenomena, p. 120). Since conductivity is to a large degree a function of water content, a comprehensive system of groundwater data ought to be organized, and hosted online. This is a current area of work, and the U.S. Geological Survey (ACWI, 2013) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (IGRAC, 2013) have preliminary websites currently. Further, if the streaming-potential hypothesis, the radon-decay hypothesis or the seismic-dynamo hypothesis for SES generation might be valid, then studies may be undertaken to determine the electrical signals from various fluids and volatiles traveling in different types of rock. The streaming-potential hypothesis states that SES are generated and transmitted by the motion of groundwater prior to a major earthquake. The radon-decay hypothesis states that SES are generated by the interaction of radon gas with other elements as it is released into groundwater by geotectonic strain. The seismic- dynamo hypothesis states that SES are generated by the passage of seismic waves 171 through rock. SES are also transmitted by the motion of groundwater. Experimental data comparing the electrical response of different fluids and volatiles traveling through rock could be compared with on site monitoring of groundwater and volatiles. Similarly, radon is currently studied as a tracer for modeling the flows of air masses, to record data relevant to pollution, weather and climate (Zahorowski et al., 2004). Ground-based radon collection stations exist but their numbers ought to be increased; this will help to clarify the relationship between radon and earthquakes. If conductivity data are insufficiently correlated with the selectivity maps that are to be generated for new SES monitoring stations, then a more rigorous study of electric signal generation based on broader parameters is indicated. These include an examination of the minerals within the rock, of the chemical reactions occurring, and of the deformation mechanisms active within the rock in the region at depth. This is a major undertaking. Some of the experimental methods the author has outlined in Chapter 4 may be useful (Chapter 4, Making Aligned Cuts, p. 62, Sample Polishing, p. 72, Confirming Alignment, p. 73, Temperature and Pressure Techniques, p. 77 and Simulating Metamorphic Reactions, p. 83). An online repository for relevant information ought to be established. Geomagnetic and Telluric Data A network of satellites measuring ionospheric disturbances are already in place, but the accuracy of modeled ionospheric activity between satellites is low. The launch in 2014 of a satellite for ionospheric monitoring by the Chinese space agency may inspire 172 more satellite launches to allow for increased measurements (Chapter 7, Other Ongoing Research, p. 167). Access to ionospheric data may help to distinguish potential seismic electric signals. Other than the siesmic dynamo induction, any number of the thirty-one other mechanisms that cause telluric currents may be mistaken for SES or may interfere with SES (Chapter 2: Telluric Currents, p. 10). The data from a network of satellites measuring the ionosphere plus a careful examination other causes for Earth electricity might be used in conjunction with a map of conductivity in the Earth to help identify and pinpoint SES and thereby provide a theoretical basis to the VAN group's natural time analysis. Earthquake Prevention It is not known to what extent artificial electric fields could enhance the monitoring of SES. A colleague, "Todd" Edward Tyler of the Department of Geological Sciences, California State University, Long Beach suggests that an artificial electric field at a site might allow for a stable baseline and enhance signal analysis. More study is needed. It is possible that artificial electric or magnetic fields might trigger earthquakes. Earthquakes can be triggered by the injection of fluid into wells at high pressure (Raleigh et al., 1976). The legal difficulties with triggering earthquakes are likely to be complex. For this reason, to the best of the author's knowledge, prophylactic triggering of earthquakes has not been carried out. Likewise, a study involving SES and artificial electric fields ought to be sited far from human habitation, industry or other source of risk. 173  If artificial electric or magnetic fields are effective triggers for earthquakes, and if the timing of the seismic events after the application of the field is well-constrained, then earthquakes could be manageable. Regions of a fault might be induced to rupture under controlled conditions in the same way that forest fires are managed with controlled burns to limit long-term fuel supply. Inhabited regions might be triggered after planned evacuations. The potential for legal liability due to property damage from this course of action is trememdous, and forecasting seismic events seems to be a more realistic goal. Electricity and Magnetism as Hypothetical Causes for Seismic Events No mechanism to explain earthquake rupture currently has widespread acceptance by the scientific community. Earthquakes are caused by directed stresses that overcome rock strength. The proximal trigger that allows a seismic event to happen today, for example, and not next week, is not well understood. The dilatency diffusion model has been rejected by some researchers typically for three reasons. First, dilation from microcracking is not large enough to allow for the diffusion of groundwater to match the observed changes in groundwater height. Second, no mechanism is accepted to account for the return of groundwater heights to pre-earthquake levels after a seismic event has occurred. Third, no mechanism is accepted to account for why groundwater changes do not always occur with an associated earthquake (Chapter 7, Data Relating to the Mechanisms of SES Generation, p. 163). Earthquakes might be triggered by electricity or magnetism, and SES imply this. It is also known both that magnetic fields can weaken earth materials (Chapter 6, Electric and 174 Magnetic Phenomena with Brittle Fracture Mechanisms: Magnetic, p. 140), and that applied electric fields have some effect on seismic events (Chapter 7, Mechanisms Acting in Concert, p. 166). That earthquakes may be triggered in nature by electricity or magnetism is a testable hypothesis. The mechanical process of applying electric or magnetic fields is straightforward. If the results of laboratory testing of rock are conclusive, and a threshold of electric or magnetic field is found to trigger seismic rupture in rock under directed stress, then two further considerations are worth examining. First, can the required field strength be generated in rock from natural processes? Second, is there evidence that this field strength is being attained in nature, and by what means? To answer these questions it may be necessary to determine the various net electrical effects of the deformation mechanisms described in Chapter 6 (Deformation Mechanisms, p. 131), of the temperature changes associated with fault zones (Chapter 7, Data Relating to the Mechanisms of SES Generation, p. 163), and to have more data relating to the magnitudes of the electrochemical potentials of the chemical reactions that occur during metamorphism (Chapter 6, Chemical Reactions in Metamorphism, p. 129). Mineral Lattices or Fluid Path Tortuosity as Hypothetical Causes of Groundwater Fluctuations Associated with Earthquakes Hydrous to anhydrous transitions in minerals might account for some of the observed fluctuations in groundwater levels around the time of earthquake events (Chapter 7, Data Relating to the Mechanisms of SES Generation, p. 163). Further study is needed to 175 determine whether minerals can reincorporate enough volatiles into crystal lattice sites once pressures and stresses are reduced after seismicity to match the range of observed drops in groundwater levels. If so, crystal lattice dyanamism is a strong candidate to account for the observed fluctuations in groundwater levels associated with earthquakes. On the other hand, the tortuosity of the pore space in rock may be the more important influence on groundwater fluctuation relative to earthquake phenomena. Rock deformation from strain might create short paths for fluid flow. These short paths should allow for more rapid fluid flow. Faster fluid flow might account for the observed rise in groundwater levels. What happens to sequester groundwater after an earthquake is unknown. The seismic waves might increase the pore-space volume and close some of the short fluid paths described above. Changes to the volatile content of mineral latices or to the fluid path length and volume in rock might either or both be responsible for groundwater fluctuations proximal to earthquake events. Differences in rock composition would then account for regional differences in the presence of volatiles contemporaneous with earthquake activity. Laboratory study is needed to determine the volatile-crystal-lattice dynamics for a wide range of minerals. Additionally, further laboratory study is needed to determine the evolution of pore space geometries and volume in rock under seismic conditions. Electricity, Magnetism and Volatiles as Hypothetical Causes for Seismic Events For earthquakes, a mechanism involving electricity, magnetism and chemistry might be responsible for criticality. A simplified overview may be thought of as follows. 176 Directed pressure creates deformation, and the deformation generates electric charge. The electric charge may provide some energy to minerals systems, to liberate water, radon and other volatiles from minerals within a source rock. The presence of these volatiles generates more electric charge via a groundwater effect. The resulting magnetic field weakens the rock making it more susceptible to deformation. The additional volatiles and fluid in the rock pore space also weaken the rock, making it more susceptible to deformation. The rock again deforms and generates electric charge, and again creates the conditions favorable for the liberation of water and other volatiles. The process repeats itself until the rock strength is overcome and an earthquake occurs. Testing this feedback hypothesis may require a more intimate knowledge of the process whereby volatiles are liberated from minerals. For example, a significant number of centrosymmetric minerals that exhibit piezoelectricity do so because of the locations of volatiles such as CO2 or H2O in their crystal lattices (Chapter 5, Centrosymmetric Minerals Exhibiting Symmetry-Based Electricity, p. 89). Whether applied electricity or magnetism can influence crystal lattices to release volatiles from minerals, and whether this release can weaken rock sufficiently to support an electrical-magnetic-volatile trigger hypothesis are open questions. These depend on a body of data that has not yet been gathered. If the release of water before an earthquake is caused by changes to the geometry of rock pore space, then the influence of electricity on the tortuosity of fluid paths ought to be determined, as well. 177  Here is a related case. Volcanic criticality is based on the liberation of volatiles. The release of gases from a magma is due to decreased hydrostatic pressure as the magma ascends. Their release both lowers the tensile strength of the magma and provides sites for the further exsolution of gases. When there are enough sites, the rate of volatile exsolution increases exponentially. The exponential release of volatiles causes the force of the volcanic eruption. While it is volatiles that cause volcanic criticality, it might be a combination of electricity, magnetism and volatiles that causes earthquake criticality. If this is the case, then the analytical techniques described by Varotsos et al. (2011), which allow one to distinguish predictable SES data, may be valid because the SES are, in fact, the trigger to seismic rupture. A Heckmann diagram would be useful for this type of modeling (Chapter 3, Definition of a Crystal, p. 40). The time delay between regional SES and large seismic events might hypothetically be attributed to the interplay of electricity, magnetism and volatiles in rock weakening. Planetary Science Research This section examines various features relevant to planetary science. These include details of the dielectric strengths of minerals and the influence of frequency in an applied electric field; mantle anisotropy and the possibility of using mineral data to constrain the composition of the mantle; the possibility that electrical and magnetic data will make thermodynamic models of metamorphic reactions more accurate; a hypothesis that the ability to transmit infrared photons in earth materials is related to the conditions of their 178 formation; the importance of creating an online, collaborative model of the Earth's electric field; some possibilities for magnetotellurics as they relate to Solar dynamics; and the application of rock electrification to astrobiology. A brief treatment of each of these follows. Dielectric Strengths of Minerals Relative dielectric strength data are given in Table 38, where changes to the dielectric properties of minerals with temperature and pressure are available (Appendix B: Electrical and Magnetic Mineral Data, p. 292). Dielectric strength is a measure of a material to store electric charge, and the increase in lattice defects in crystals increases dielectric strength. The dielectric behavior of crystals under changes in pressure and temperature is complicated by differences in strain regime: some deformation mechanisms serve to increase lattice defects, while others lower the internal energy of a crystal by reducing the number of defects (Chapter 7, Deformation Mechanisms, p. 131). Phase transitions are described by a physical quantity that diverges at transition with a certain power of the parameter called the critical exponent, as with E ∝ TD , (28) where E is the electric field tensor, T is temperature, D is the critical exponent, and ∝ signifies “is proportional to.” In this case, E is the physical quantity, T is the parameter, and D determines when criticality is reached. Equation 27 is a power law, and is determined empirically (Newman, 2005). One looks for changes to the values of the 179 physical quantity, such as peak values. Several peak values are evident in Table 38 and these data were originally gathered to constrain the phase transitions. In contrast, the general trend of the dielectric behavior of earth materials with variations in temperature and pressure is not well-constrained in this set of data. With quartz, for example, temperature zones exist within which the correlation is negative, i.e. relative dielectric strength decreases as temperature increases. Within other temperature zones in quartz, and also in most minerals in Table 38 (p. 306 through 310) in which data exist across a range of temperatures, variation is positively correlated with relative dielectric strength for the minerals given. The hotter it is, the stronger the dielectric property. The sample size is small, and the trend might be attributed to natural variations in sample material and experimental variations. In addition, the dielectric strength of minerals might be closely related to changes in water content with heating. The question remains open. Here is a further consideration. Dielectric values show some variation with changes to the frequency of the applied electric field. Lower dielectric strength with higher frequency electric fields are evident in Table 38 in the entries for greenockite, lecontite, sphalerite, stibnite and wurtzite, with the entries for berlinite and quartz being equivocal. This is another open question. 180 Mantle Anisotropy The Earth’s upper mantle is known to be both seismically and electrically anisotropic (Wolfe and Silver, 1998; Backus, 1965). It reflects and transmits seismic and electrical waves preferrentially, according to their orientation. This effect is notable under most continental cratons at a depth range of 250–400 km, comprising the Benioff-Gutenberg low velocity zone (Yuancheng Gung et al., 2003; Fouch et al., 2000), named for seismic velocity anomalies. The observed anisotropies might help determine mantle composition if a more thorough knowledge of mineral elastic and electrical properties were available. Models of the Earth's mantle could be constructed for a range of mineral compositions, to see which are consistent with both types of anisotropy data. Metamorphic Models Deformation mechanisms create changes in rock conductivity and dielectric strength, and can generate energy. It makes sense to see whether the energy terms are large enough to have an influence on chemical reaction rates. The inclusion of electricity and magnetism in thermodynamic models ought to match the observations of P-T-X diagrams. In each of the eight deformation mechanisms described in Chapter 6, p. 131, the energy contributions of electric and magnetic fields have not been described systematically. The extant work is preliminary only. Further study would be useful for gaining a deeper understanding of how deformation occurs. For example, in grain boundary migration, individual minerals are likely influenced by the electrical or 181 magnetic expressions of their nearest mineral neighbors while undergoing deformation. This influence may account for why one grain grows at another's expense when the grains themselves are nearly identical (Chapter 6, Dynamic Recrystallization, p. 135). The contributions of electricity and magnetism in metamorphism are worthwhile in their own right, and ought to be pursued. Phase diagrams that take into account electrical and magnetic fields are worth constructing. Quantitative data for minerals at a range of geologic temperatures and pressures are needed. Heat Environment Since heat drives plate tectonics, it is worthwhile to note which minerals are favored in metamorphic reactions, and whether these are refractory to heat, or if they transmit heat well. For crystals whose electron bonding is principally covalent, the dielectric coefficient is a function of the refractive index for visible light (Chapter 5, Bulk Rock Electrical Phenomena, p. 120). Dielectric strength is a link between low frequency electrical phenomena, such as the voltage of an electric field, and high frequency electrical phenomena, such as electromagnetic transmission. A trend might exist relating the dielectric strength of minerals, the optic transmission of infrared photons, and P-T-X diagrams. This trend, if it exists, might suggest a framework for determining which chemical reactions are favored in the solid state. A framework like this would be useful in determining the mineral compositions of rock at high temperatures and pressures, where data are scarce. 182 Online Model of the Electrical Fields of the Earth It would be useful to set up an online institute and model the possible electrical states of the different regions of the Earth’s crust, based on mechanisms of telluric current generation. Predictions of telluric currents could be compared to actual data. Models might reasonably be constructed with time-stepping, much as the weather is modeled, and would be more data intensive than the predictions for the weather. Applications to fluid flow, tectonics, earthquake prediction, volcanism, hydrology, solar weather, storm activity, planetary exploration, ocean salinity, man-made energy transmission, geothermal resources, mineral exploration, mineralogy and petrology might be generated. The complexity of data required to model metamorphic reactions and deformation in a rock is high. Notwithstanding, it is reasonable to assume that a block of rock could undergo brief metamorphism in a laboratory setting, and many of the relevant parameters could be observed. An online framework would allow for collaboration. Weather forecasting takes an immense amount of computer space. It is reasonable to assume that electrical modeling of the Earth's crust would take a similar amount of space. The benefit of modeling the weather is to prevent human tragedy and economic losses. The benefit of modeling the Earth’s electrical phenomena is much broader, and includes such things as could take humanity to the edges of the solar system and beyond. Generalization to Other Planets The Earth-Moon system is connected via space weather with the Sun. The various electrical frequencies involved in GIC may be worth studying in conjunction with 183 geomagnetic data, as is done by the Polar Geophisical Institute of the European Union (EURISGIC Project, 2013) to see whether patterns may be used to model space plasma (ECLAT Project, 2013). Also, since the magnetic field of the Sun encompasses the entire Solar System, magnetotelluric studies may provide more information about Solar processes. Application to Astrobiology Rock electricity is relevant to astrobiology and the origin of life. Organic molecules can be created from the application of electricity on a primordial Earth atmosphere (Miller and Urey, 1959). Research is ongoing (Green, 2009; Hill and Nuth, 2003), and more may be done to explore the thermodynamics of various reactions and the electrical contributions of minerals, deformation and metamorphism. Energy Dependence and Climate Change This thesis started as an exploration to see whether minerals might be useful in generating electricity, and whether that generation would be applied somehow to help prevent climate change. The initial idea was to take advantage of the diurnal freeze-thaw cycle of water in some locations. Water would freeze and generate pressure, which would then generate electricity if a piezoelectric material were present. Ice itself is ferroelectric, so the setup might be even simpler than originally conceived. The magnitudes of the electricity involved are tiny, but this does not preclude further study. It is hoped that the electrical data for minerals listed in Chapter 5, p. 109 will be 184 useful in this regard or in a related project. For example, the strength of piezoelectricity in greenockite is influenced by the presence of photons. Further study is warranted. Here is a second idea. Streaming potential is generated from the flow of fluid in rock due to differences in pressure. This phenomenon might be worth study for electricity generation. In short, the force of gravity from the orbit of the moon might create enough motion of an electrolyte-rich fluid in a porous medium to generate some usable electricity. As the "groundwater" level rises and falls with the tides, electric current is generated through the electrokinetic effect as well as from the motion of the ions themselves (Chapter 2, The electrokinetic effect, p. 27; Chapter 7, Mechanisms Causing SES: Groundwater: 3, p. 163). A series of insulated containers with porous media and electrolyte solutions might be fabricated to take advantage of the Moon's motion without any other energetic inputs needed. Science Education Studies of Earth electricity and of electrification of minerals are useful for promoting the outreach of science to children and adults. Notwithstanding the intrinsic interest, the need for mineral data is great. For example, the observed piezoelectric phenomena in centrosymmetric minerals follow any of ten mechanisms (Chapter 5, Centrosymmetric Minerals Exhibiting Symmetry-Based Electricity, p. 89), and these exceptional materials open the possibility that there are many more minerals that may have interesting electrical properties, currently untested. Crowdsourcing the work is a reasonable plan, since there are more than 4,000 minerals now approved by the IMA. Classroom work 185 might generate some of the data needed, as well. If there were an online repository of these data, some of the projects described in this chapter would benefit, e.g. a model of electric fields of the Earth would be more feasible. Some of the experimental techniques outlined in Chapter 4, p. 62 are relevant for classroom and laboratory activities, since they are simple and/or inexpensive. These might be useful: if an approximate orientations of samples is acceptable, then the techniques of using a wet tile saw and a wax box are worthwhile. Polishing samples by hand on a steel plate works well. Lapping by hand is not recommended. Machines can generate a more uniform thickness. Using a heat gun to heat samples is very simple. The sample holders after Morgan et al. (1984) remain untested for applying a directed load or torque, but they are straightforward to fabricate. The following major groups of minerals are prominent and seismoelectrically active: alunite, apatite, beryl, cancrinite, epsomite, galena, ice, nepheline, prehnite, pyrochlore, quartz, rutile, serpentine, sodalite, sphalerite, topaz, tourmaline and zeolite (Appendix C, Tables 12, 13 and 14, p. 317 through 331). Minerals of the spinel group, including magnetite, are thermoelectrically active. Minerals of the tourmaline supergroup are formed in igneous, metamorphic and metasomatic conditions, and might be used either to demonstrate how electrical data can be gathered, or to explore electrical changes during metasomatism or metamorphism. Members of several of the above mineral groups can be collected without much difficulty from many locales. Other materials might be procured for free from museums, 186 universities, or research institutes. Schools would have the opportunity to perform scientific observations where the outcome is not known. In short, gathering electrical and magnetic data for minerals is a real opportunity for science education. Summary In order to aid the reader, important results from this thesis are summarized in Table 51. The possibilities for earthquake prediction seem extremely useful. Likewise, the addition of electric and magnetic fields generated by deformation mechanisms ought to deepen peoples' understandings of metamorphism and of telluric currents, both for the Earth, and for other planets. Further, there are potential discoveries to be made in minerals and electricity. The study of electricity in earth materials and in the Earth's crust might be promoted, as well, for this inherent joy of discovery. 187 TABLE 51. Important Results, Hypotheses and Recommendations for Further Study Chapter Result 2* List of 32 mechanisms that generate telluric currents 2 Further study: A global, permanent network of electrical measurement stations might be established, to correlate and contrast geomagnetic data 3 List of 24 mineral properties that generate electricity or magnetism or are related to them 4 Carbon tape can be used instead of thermoplastic to affix a sample to the jig for lapping 4* EBSD can give crystal orientation reliably, and is quicker than XRD 4 A heat gun can be used safely to heat samples to high temperature 4* Further study: Sample holders modified from Morgan et al. (1984) should be tested for their use in generating the directed loads or torques needed to measure piezoelectric phenomena 5 List of 44 minerals exhibiting ferroelectricity, with data for 24 5 List of 131 other minerals exhibiting pyroelectricity, with data for 11 5 List of 42 other minerals exhibiting piezoelectricity, with data for 18 5* List of 53 noncentrosymmetric minerals that exhibit pyro- or piezoelectricity despite having a center of symmetry 5* List of 10 mechanisms to account for pyro- or piezoelectricity in minerals that have a center of symmetry 5 Further study: Elastic moduli, conductance, capacitance, magnetic susceptibility and symmetry-based electrical and magnetic data should be gathered for more minerals at a range of temperatures and pressures 5 Further study: More data should be gathered to explain why the dielectric strengths of some minerals and rocks are sensitive to frequency 5 Further study: Geomagnetic data from the ionosphere should be gathered via satellite 6* Examples for how each of eight different deformation mechanisms either produce electricity or magnetism, or are influenced by electricity or magnetism 6* Further study: Electricity and magnetism generated by different deformation mechanisms should be measured for different minerals under various conditions 7* Hypothesis: Wavelets with a twenty-four-hour period in purported SES are due to greater rock conductivity from increased strain, and the diurnal signal itself is due to solar radiation 188 TABLE 51. Continued Chapter Result 7 Hypothesis: Groundwater fluctuations and the release of other volatiles at about the time of major seismic activity are caused by hydrous-anhydrous transitions in minerals 7* Hypothesis: SES are caused by the release of radon gas into groundwater, and the subsequent ionization and motion of material. 7 Further study: The seismic-dynamo effect and correlations with SES should be verified by other researchers 7 Further study: The VAN method of earthquake prediction should be verified by other researchers and at other locations 8 Further study: More conductivity values of crustal rock should be measured, with data available online 8 Further study: More groundwater levels should be measured, with data available online 8 Hypothesis: An applied electric field enhances presumed SES data collection 8* Hypothesis: An applied magnetic field enhances presumed SES data collection 8* Further study: Magnitudes of electric signals generated from various ions and volatiles in various rock types should be measured 8 Further study: The number of ground-based radon monitoring stations should be increased 8 Hypothesis: Electric and/or magnetic phenomena are the trigger mechanisms for earthquakes 8 Hypothesis: The controlled triggering of earthquakes can be used to manage earthquake damage as controlled burns manage wildfires, but only if the legal problems can be resolved 8* Hypothesis: Electricity, magnetism and volatile liberation form a trigger mechanism for earthquakes 8* Hypothesis: The time lag of several weeks to several months between purported SES and major seismic events are due to the time it takes for volatiles to be released from the rock and the interaction of electricity, magnetism and volatiles 8 Hypothesis: Groundwater fluctuations and the release of other volatiles at about the time of major seismic activity are caused by changes to the geometry of the fluid paths in rock 8* Hypothesis: The formation of highly refractive minerals is favored in regions where heat flow is high 189 TABLE 51. Continued Chapter Result 8 Further study: An online model of the Earth's electrical field should be constructed 8 Further study: The Earth's intrinsic magnetic field and solar activity should be compared to look for long term patterns 8 Further study: The amount of electrical energy potentially generated by rock should be compared with the energy needed for generating organic molecules 8 Further study: Electrical properties of minerals should be studied to see whether any alternative energy projects are implied 8* Further study: A test apparatus should be built to see whether ferroelectricity in ice could be used to generate significant electricity from diurnal freeze- thaw cycles 8* Further study: A test apparatus should be built with suspended ions in porous media, to see whether the electrokinetic effect, electrochemistry, the geomagnetic field and the moon's gravity can be used to generate significant electricity Notes: Entries with an asterisk are original to this thesis, to the best of the author's knowledge. 190 APPENDICES 191  APPENDIX A LIST OF MINERALS EXHIBIING SYMMETRY-BASED ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES, PLUS SOME MINERALS WITH THERMOELECTRIC OR MAGNETIC PROPERTIES 192 TABLE 4. List of Minerals Exhibiting Symmetry-Based Electrical Properties, plus Some Minerals with Thermoelectric or Magnetic Properties AFWILLITE Ca3( HSiO4 )2 • 2H2O m Monoclinic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.AG.75 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Nesosilicates with additional anions, cations in greater than [6] coordination. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - From contact metamorphism of limestones. ALTAITE PbTe Galena Group m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 2.CD.10 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites, and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal:Sulfur = 1:1] with Sn, Pb and Hg. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Typically found in hydrothermal vein Au–Te-bearing deposits. ALUM-NA NaAl( SO4 )2 • 12H2O Alum Group m3 Cubic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 7.CC.20 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates, wolframates) - Sulfates (and selenates) without additional anions, with H2O, with medium-sized and large cations. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - From the combustion of coal, or as a precipitate near coal. 193 TABLE 4. Continued ALUNITE KAl3( SO4 )2( OH )6 Alunite Supergroup: Alunite Subgroup 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 7.BC.10 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates, wolframates) - Sulfates (and selenates) with additional anions, without H2O, with medium-sized and large cations. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - From the action of sulfate and sulfuric acid on aluminous rocks at moderate temperatures, commonly accompanied by kaolinitization and silicification. AMESITE Mg2Al( AlSiO5 ) Serpentine Group 1 Triclinic Chiral Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.ED.15 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Phyllosilicates with kaolinite layers composed of tetrahedral and octahedral nets. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - From low-grade metamorphism of aluminum- and magnesium-rich source rock. AMINOFFITE Ca3Be( OH )2Si3O10 4/m Tetragonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.BH.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Sorosilicates with Si3O10, Si4O11 and similar anions, with cations in tetrahedral [4] and greater coordination. - Piezoelectric - Found in cavities in massive magnetite; in fluorite veins at the contact between marbles and hornblende granites; and in fluorite veins in dikes. 194 TABLE 4. Continued AMMONIOJAROSITE ( NH4 )Fe33+( SO4 )2( OH )6 Alunite Supergroup: Jarosite Subgroup 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 7.BC.10 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates, wolframates) - Sulfates (and selenates) with additional anions, without H2O, with medium-sized and large cations. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Formed in shales containing both lignite and pyrite. ANALCIME Na8( Al8Si16O48 ) • 8H2O Zeolite Group 3 Trigonal Centrosymmetric Note that several forms of ANALCIME coexist at standard temperature and pressure: Cubic (m3m Centrosymmetric), Tetragonal (4/mmm Centrosymmetric), Orthorhombic (mmm Centrosymmetric), as well as Trigonal (shown here). The trigonal form is likely the most stable. At 12 kbar of pressure and ambient temperature, ANALCIME undergoes a phase transition to a Triclinic form. Nickel-Strunz: 9.GB.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Tectosilicates with zeolitic H2O, zeolite family - Chains of singly connected four-membered rings. - Piezoelectric - In the groundmass or vesicles of silica-poor intermediate and mafic igneous rocks. In lake beds, altered from pyroclastics or clays, or as a primary precipitate; authigenic in sandstones and siltstones. 195 TABLE 4. Continued ARCHERITE K( H2PO4 ) Biphosphammite Group 2 or 2/m Monoclinic (Not Known) Polar and Chiral, or Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 450 K 42m Tetragonal Non-centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 123 K mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Below 123 K ARCHERITE undergoes a phase transition to a ferroelectric form. Nickel-Strunz: 8.AD.15 - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES - Phosphates, without additional anions, without H2O, with only large cations. - Paraelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A component of stalactites and crusts on the walls of caves containing bat guano deposits. ARDEALITE Ca2( HPO4 )( SO4 ) • 4H2O m Monoclinic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 8.CJ.50 - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES - Phosphates without additional anions, with H2O, with only large cations. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - From the breakdown of bat guano in calcitic caves. ARGENTOJAROSITE AgFe33+( SO4 )2( OH )6 Alunite Supergroup: Jarosite Subgroup 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 7.BC.10 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates and wolframates) - Sulfates (and selenates) with additional anions, without H2O, with medium-sized and large cations. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A secondary mineral in oxidized deposits with both silver and sulfide. 196 TABLE 4. Continued ARSENOGOYAZITE SrAl3( AsO4 )2( OH )5 • H2O Alunite Supergroup: Crandallite Subgroup 3m Trigonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 8.BL.10 - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES - Phosphates, with additional anions, without H2O, with medium-sized and large cations, [OH : XO4 = 3 : 1]. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found as a secondary mineral in polymetallic hydrothermal barite-fluorite deposits. ARTINITE Mg2( CO3 )( OH )2 • 3H2O Artinite Group 2/m Monoclinic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 5.DA.10 - CARBONATES (NITRATES) - Carbonates with additional anions, with H2O, with medium-sized cations. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A low-temperature alteration product found as veinlets or crusts in serpentinized ultramafic rocks. 197 TABLE 4. Continued BARIOPEROVSKITE BaTiO3 Perovskite Group 6/mmm Hexagonal Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 1733 K m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 396 K 4mm Tetragonal Polar Transition Temperature: 278 K mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Transition Temperature: 183 K 3m Trigonal Polar Above 396 K BARIOPEROVSKITE undergoes a phase transition to paraelectric forms. BARIOPEROVSKITE is an electrical semiconductor. Nickel-Strunz: 4.CC.30 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites, iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 2 : 3 and 3 : 5] with large and medium-sized cations. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in benitoite as micro- to submicroscopic inclusions. BASTNÄSITE-CE ( Ce,La )( CO3 )F Bastnäsite Group 6m2 Hexagonal Non-centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 5.BD.20a - CARBONATES (NITRATES) - Carbonates with additional anions, without H2O, with rare earth elements. - Piezoelectric - The most abundant rare-earth-bearing mineral, typically hydrothermal, although primary igneous occurrences are known. In granite and alkali syenites and pegmatites; in carbonatites; in contact-metamorphic deposits; rarely as a detrital mineral in placers. 198 TABLE 4. Continued BATISITE BaNa2Ti2( Si4O12 )O2 Batisite Group (mm2) Orthorhombic Polar Symmetry group mm2 is an estimate. Nickel-Strunz: 9.DH.20 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Inosilicates with four-periodic single chains, Si4O12. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - In pegmatites in dunites. BAVENITE Ca4Be2Al2Si9O26( OH )2 Bavenite – Bohseite Series mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.DF.25 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Inosilicates with two-periodic multiple chains. - Piezoelectric - As druses in cavities in granite and associated pegmatites, formed by alteration of beryl and other beryllium-bearing minerals. Also in hydrothermal veins and skarns. BENSTONITE ( Ba,Sr )6( Ca,Mn )6Mg( CO3 )13 3 Trigonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 5.AB.55 - CARBONATES (NITRATES) - Carbonates without additional anions, without H2O - Alkali-earth (and other metal2+) carbonates. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in barite and as veins in carbonatite deposits. 199 TABLE 4. Continued BERLINITE AlPO4 Berlinite Group 622 Hexagonal Chiral Transition Temperature: 857 K 32 Trigonal Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 8.AA.05 - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES - Phosphates, without additional anions, without H2O, with small cations (some also with larger ones). - Piezoelectric - High-temperature hydrothermal or metasomatic. BERTHIERINE ( Fe2+,Fe3+,Al,Mg )2-3[ ( Si,Al )2O5 ]( OH )4 Serpentine Group m Monoclinic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.ED.15 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Phyllosilicates with kaolinite layers composed of tetrahedral and octahedral nets. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in unmetamorphosed marine sediments and in tropical (lateritic) and polar soils. BERTRANDITE Be4Si2O7( OH )2 mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.BD.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Sorosilicates - Si2O7 groups, with additional anions, with cations in tetrahedral [4] and greater coordination. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - In fissures in granites, pegmatites and in miarolitic cavities; commonly an alteration product of beryl, more rarely as a primary mineral. 200 TABLE 4. Continued BERYL Be3Al2( Si6O18 ) Beryl Group 6/mmm Hexagonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.CJ.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Cyclosilicates - [Si6O18]12 six- membered single rings, without insular complex anions. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in granites, granite pegmatites, nepheline syenites, rhyolite vugs, mafic metamorphic rocks, and in low- to high-temperature hydrothermal veins. BIPHOSPHAMMITE NH4( H2PO4 ) Biphosphammite Group Melting Temperature: 463 K 42m Tetragonal Non-centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 148 K 222 Orthorhombic Chiral Below 148 K BIPHOSPHAMMITE undergoes a phase transition to an antiferroelectric form. Nickel-Strunz: 8.AD.15 - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES - Phosphates, without additional anions, without H2O, with only large cations. - Paraelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - An alteration product of phosphammite in guano, or a reaction product of bat guano with urea. 201 TABLE 4. Continued BISMUTHINITE Bi2S3 Stibnite Group (Not Known) (Not Known) Transition Temperature: 290 to 330 K mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 2.DB.05 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites, and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 2 : 3]. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Typically found in low- to high-temperature hydrothermal vein deposits, as well as in some tourmaline-bearing copper deposits in granite, and in some gold veins formed at high temperatures, and also in recent volcanic exhalation deposits. BORACITE Mg3B7O13Cl Boracite Group 43m Cubic Non-centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 538 K mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Above 538 K BORACITE undergoes a phase transition to a paraelectric form. Nickel-Strunz: 6.GA.05 - BORATES - Heptaborates and other megaborates - Tecto- heptaborates. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in bedded sedimentary salt and potash deposits of marine and salt spring evaporite origin, with boron probably derived from nearby volcanic activity. 202 TABLE 4. Continued BOURNONITE CuPbSbS3 Bournonite Group mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 2.GA.50 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites, and sulfbismuthites) - Sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites, sulfbismuthites - Neso-sulfarsenites, without additional sulfur. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - In hydrothermal veins subjected to moderate temperatures. BREITHAUPTITE NiSb NIckeline Group 6/mmm Hexagonal Centrosymmetric BREITHAUPTITE is paramagnetic and is a metallic electrical conductor. Nickel-Strunz: 2.CC.05 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites, and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 1] with Ni, Fe, Co and platinum group elements. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Associated with Co–Ni–Ag ores in hydrothermal calcite veins. BROMELLITE BeO Zincite Group 6mm Hexagonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 4.AB.20 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 1, and up to 1 : 1.25] with small to medium-sized cations only. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in hydrothermal calcite veins in hematite skarn and skarnized limestones; in vugs in natrolite, hydrothermally altered from nepheline, and in syenite pegmatite. 203 TABLE 4. Continued BRUCITE Mg( OH )2 Brucite Group 3m Trigonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 4.FE.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - Hydroxides (without vanadium or uranium) - Hydroxides with OH, without H2O, with sheets of edge-sharing octahedra. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - From alteration of periclase in marble; also a low-temperature hydrothermal vein mineral in metamorphic limestones and chlorite schists; and formed during serpentinization of dunites. BRUSHITE Ca( HPO4 ) • 2H2O m Monoclinic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 8.CJ.50 - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES - Phosphates without additional anions, with H2O, with only large cations. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Formed at low pH by reaction of phosphate-rich solutions with calcite and clay, a cave mineral, in guano deposits and in phosphorites. BUERGERITE Na( Fe33+ )Al6( BO3 )3Si6O18O3F Tourmaline Supergroup: Alkali Group 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.CK.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Cyclosilicates - [Si6O18]12 six- membered single rings, with insular complex anions. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Pneumatolytic origin in cavities in rhyolite. 204 TABLE 4. Continued BULTFONTEINITE Ca2( HSiO4 )F • H2O 1 Triclinic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.AG.80 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Nesosilicates with additional anions, with cations in greater than [6] coordination. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in the contact zones of thermally-metamorphosed limestone, and in kimberlite dikes. BURBANKITE ( Na,Ca )3( Sr,Ba,Ce )3( CO3 )5 6mm Hexagonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 5.AC.30 - CARBONATES (NITRATES) - Carbonates without additional anions, without H2O - Alkali and alkali-earth carbonates. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Accessory mineral in carbonatites and intrusive syenite gabbros. CADMOINDITE CdIn2S4 Linnaeite Group: Thiospinel Group m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 2.DA.05 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites, and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 3 : 4]. - Thermoelectric - Found close to the vents of some high-temperature fumaroles. 205 TABLE 4. Continued CADMOSELITE CdSe Wurtzite Group 6mm Hexagonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 2.CB.45 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites, and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 1] with Zn, Fe, Cu, and Ag. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in sedimentary rocks, in alkaline, reducing environments. CALEDONITE Pb5Cu2( SO4 )3( CO3 )( OH )6 mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 7.BC.50 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates and wolframates) - Sulfates (and selenates) with additional anions, without H2O, with medium-sized and large cations. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Secondary mineral in the oxidized zones of copper-lead deposits. CANCRINITE NaxCay( AlSiO4 )6( CO3 ) • nH2O Cancrinite Group 6 Hexagonal Polar and Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 9.FB.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Tectosilicates without zeolitic H2O - Tectosilicates with additional anion. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A primary mineral in some alkalic igneous rocks, including pegmatites in nepheline syenites; also as an alteration product of nepheline. 206 TABLE 4. Continued CARROLLITE Cu( Co,Ni )2S4 Linnaeite Group: Thiospinel Group m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric CARROLLITE is paramagnetic and is a metallic electrical conductor. Nickel-Strunz: 2.DA.05 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites, and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 3 : 4]. - Thermoelectric - From hydrothermal vein deposits. CASSITERITE SnO2 Rutile Group 4/mmm Tetragonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 4.DB.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites, iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 2] with medium-sized cations, with chains of edge-sharing octahedra. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in medium- to high-temperature hydrothermal veins and greisen, in granites, granite pegmatites, rhyolites, and rarely in contact metamorphic deposits. CERVANTITE Sb2O4 Cervantite Group mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Transition Temperature: 838 K mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Below 838 K CERVANTITE undergoes a phase transition to CLINOCERVANTITE, a ferroelectric form. Nickel-Strunz: 4.DE.30 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 2] with medium-sized cations, with various polyhedra. - Paraelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A secondary mineral formed from the oxidation of stibnite. 207 TABLE 4. Continued CHALCOCITE Cu2S Chalcocite-Digenite Group 6/mmm Hexagonal Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 377 K 2/m Monoclinic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 2.BA.05 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur > 1 : 1 (mainly 2 : 1)] with Cu, Ag and Au. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in or below the zone of oxidation in hydrothermal veins and in large low-grade porphyry copper ore bodies, and an uncommon primary hydrothermal mineral. CHALCOSTIBITE CuSbS2 Chalcostibite Group (Not Known) (Not Known) Transition Temperature: 366 K mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 2.HA.05 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Sulfosalts of SnS structure, with Cu, Ag and Fe (without Pb). - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found with other sulfides in hydrothermal veins. 208 TABLE 4. Continued CHAMBERSITE Mn3B7O13Cl Boracite Group Cubic (Not Known) Transition Temperature: 680 K mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Above 680 K CHAMBERSITE undergoes a phase transition to a paraelectric form. Nickel-Strunz: 6.GA.05 - BORATES - Heptaborates and other megaborates - Tecto- heptaborates. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in the brine residues of extraction wells in salt domes. CHANGBAIITE PbNb2O6 Melting Temperature: 1626 K 4/mmm Tetragonal Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 833 K mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Above 833 K CHANGBAIITE undergoes a phase transition to a paraelectric form. Nickel-Strunz: 4.DF.10 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 2] with large (± medium-sized) cations, with dimers and trimers of edge-sharing octahedra. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in kaolinite-filled veins and cavities in some potassic granites. CHILDRENITE ( Fe2+,Mn2+ )Al( PO4 )( OH )2 • H2O Childrenite—Eosphorite Series mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 8.DD.20 - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES - Phosphates, with additional anions, with H2O, with only medium-sized cations, [OH : XO4 = 2 : 1]. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A low-temperature alteration product of phosphate minerals, and also found in some granite pegmatites. 209 TABLE 4. Continued CHROMIUM-DRAVITE Na( Mg3 )Cr63+( BO3 )3Si6O18( OH )3OH Tourmaline Supergroup: Alkali Group 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.CK.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Cyclosilicates - [Si6O18]12 six- membered single rings, with insular complex anions. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in metasomatic micaceous clay-carbonate rocks. CINNABAR HgS Hexagonal (Not Known) Transition Temperature: ≈ 800 K 43m Cubic Non-centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: ≈ 600 K 32 Trigonal Chiral Note that the low temperature phase is CINNABAR, the middle temperature, METACINNABAR, and the high temperature phase, HYPERCINNABAR. Electrical data in this paper refer to CINNABAR only. Nickel-Strunz: 2.CD.15a - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites, sulfbismuthites and similar) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 1] with Sn, Pb and Hg. - Piezoelectric - Formed from low-temperature hydrothermal solutions in veins, and in sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic host rocks. 210 TABLE 4. Continued CLINOCERVANTITE Sb2O4 Cervantite Group mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Transition Temperature: 838 K mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Above 838 K CLINOCERVANTITE undergoes a phase transition to CERVANTITE, a paraelectric form. Nickel-Strunz: 4.DE.30 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites, iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 2] with medium-sized cations, with various polyhedra. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in small cavities associated with some antimony-iron-lead ore bodies. CLINOFERROSILITE FeSiO3 Pyroxene Group: Clinopyroxene Subgroup 2/m Monoclinic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: (Not Known) mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 43 K (Not Known) (Not Known) CLINOFERROSILITE is paramagnetic. The lower temperature phase, above 43 K, is FERROSILITE. Nickel-Strunz: 9.DA.10 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Inosilicates with two-periodic single chains, Si2O6 - Pyroxene family. Found as acicular crystals in cavities in some obsidian. 211 TABLE 4. Continued CLINOHEDRITE CaZnSiO4 • H2O m Monoclinic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.AE.30 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Nesosilicates with additional anions (oxygen, OH, fluorine and H2O), with cations in tetrahedral [4] coordination. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in metamorphic zinc ore. COLEMANITE Ca[ B3O4( OH )3 ] • H2O 2/m Monoclinic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 266 K 2 Monoclinic Polar and Chiral Note that COLEMANITE is the higher temperature phase. Nickel-Strunz: 6.CB.10 - BORATES - Triborates - Ino-triborates. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A common constituent in borate deposits formed in arid alkaline lacustrine environments, deficient in sodium and carbonate. COQUIMBITE Fe2-xAlx( SO4 )3 • 9H2O (x ≈ 0.5) Coquimbite Group 3m Trigonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 7.CB.55 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates and wolframates) - Sulfates (and selenates) without additional anions, with H2O, with only medium-sized cations. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found as a secondary mineral in weathering iron-sulfide deposits in arid regions, and in fumaroles. 212 TABLE 4. Continued COULSONITE FeV2O4 Spinel Group m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 4.BB.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 3 : 4] with only medium-sized cations. - Thermoelectric - Found in veinlets of magnetite, with silicate minerals, cutting metamorphosed andesites, or exsolved from magnetite in mantle xenoliths in basalt. CRANDALLITE CaAl3( PO4 )2 • H2O Alunite Supergroup: Crandallite Subgroup 3m Trigonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 8.BL.10 - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES - Phosphates, with additional anions, without H2O, with medium-sized and large cations, [OH : XO4 = 3 : 1]. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in phosphate-rich rocks, including aluminous sedimentary rock, carbonatites, and phosphatic nodules, as well as some granite pegmatites and amphibolite-grade metaquartzites, plus as an authigenic mineral in anoxic marine sediments or depleted tropical clays. CREEDITE Ca3SO4Al2F8( OH )2 • 2H2O 2/m Monoclinic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 3.CG.15 - HALIDES - Complex halides - Aluminofluorides with CO3, SO4 and PO4. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in fluorite-rich hydrothermal deposits. 213 TABLE 4. Continued CRONSTEDTITE Fe22+Fe3+[ ( SiFe3+ )2O5 ]( OH )4 Serpentine Group 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.ED.15 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Phyllosilicates with kaolinite layers composed of tetrahedral and octahedral nets. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A low-temperature hydrothermal product in ore veins CUPROKALININITE CuCr2S4 Linnaeite Group: Thiospinel Group (Not Known) (Not Known) Transition Temperature: 398 K m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric CUPROKALININITE is ferromagnetic and is a metallic electrical conductor. Nickel-Strunz: 2.DA.05 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 3 : 4]. - Thermoelectric - Found in metamorphic rock with Cr-V-bearing quartz diopside. CUPRORHODSITE ( Cu,Fe )Rh2S4 Linnaeite Group: Thiospinel Group m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 25 K (Not Known) (Not Known) CUPRORHODSITE is paramagnetic and is a metallic electrical conductor. Nickel-Strunz: 2.DA.05 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 3 : 4]. - Thermoelectric - Found as alluvial placer deposits derived from dunite massifs. 214 TABLE 4. Continued CUPROSPINEL CuFe2O4 Spinel Group (Not Known) (Not Known) Transition Temperature: 747 K m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 4.BB.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 3 : 4] with only medium-sized cations. - Thermoelectric - In highly oxidized material in some ore. DAUBRÉELITE FeCr2S4 Linnaeite Group: Thiospinel Group m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 171 K (Not Known) (Not Known) DAUBRÉELITE is paramagnetic. Below 171 K DAUBRÉELITE undergoes a phase transition to a ferrimagnetic form. DAUBRÉELITE is an electrical semiconductor. Nickel-Strunz: 2.DA.05 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 3 : 4]. - Thermoelectric - Found in small amounts in many meteorites. DAWSONITE NaAlCO3( OH )2 mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 5.BB.10 - CARBONATES (NITRATES) - Carbonates with additional anions, without H2O, with alkalies. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found as hydrothermal minerals associated with nepheline syenites, and in alkaline shales and coal-bearing rocks. 215 TABLE 4. Continued DEMICHELEITE-BR BiSBr Demicheleite Group mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 103 K (Not Known) (Not Known) Below 103 K DEMICHELEITE-BR undergoes a phase transition to a ferroelectric form. DEMICHELEITE-BR is diamagnetic. Nickel-Strunz: 2.FC.25 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Sulfides of arsenic, alkalies; sulfides with halide, oxide, hydroxide and H2O, with Cl, Br and I (halide-sulfides). - Paraelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - An alteration product of fumarolic pyroclastic breccia. DEMICHELEITE-CL BiSCl Demicheleite Group mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric DEMICHELEITE-CL is diamagnetic. Nickel-Strunz: 2.FC.25 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Sulfides of arsenic, alkalies; sulfides with halide, oxide, hydroxide and H2O, with Cl, Br and I (halide-sulfides). - Paraelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - An alteration product of fumarolic pyroclastic breccia. 216 TABLE 4. Continued DEMICHELEITE-I BiSI Demicheleite Group mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 113 K (Not Known) (Not Known) Below 113 K DEMICHELEITE-I undergoes a phase transition to a ferroelectric form. DEMICHELEITE-I is diamagnetic. Nickel-Strunz: 2.FC.25 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Sulfides of arsenic, alkalies; sulfides with halide, oxide, hydroxide and H2O, with Cl, Br and I (halide-sulfides). - Paraelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - An alteration product of fumarolic pyroclastic breccia. DIABOLEITE Pb2CuCl2( OH )4 4mm Tetragonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 3.DB.05 - HALIDES - Oxyhalides, hydroxyhalides and related double halides, with Pb and Cu. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in oxidized manganese ores and as a secondary mineral in highly-oxidized Pb-Cu ores, as well as in slag exposed to seawater. DIOMIGNITE Li2B4O7 4mm Tetragonal Polar DIOMIGNITE melts at 1190 K at ambient pressure. Nickel-Strunz: 6.DD.05 - BORATES - Tetraborates - Tecto-tetraborates. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in some granite pegmatite, within fluid inclusions in spodumene. 217 TABLE 4. Continued DIOPTASE CuSiO3 • H2O 3 Trigonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.CJ.30 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Cyclosilicates - [Si6O18]12 six- membered single rings, without insular complex anions. - Piezoelectric - In the oxidized zone of some copper deposits. DRAVITE Na( Mg3 )Al6( BO3 )3Si6O18( OH )3OH Tourmaline Supergroup: Alkali Group 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.CK.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Cyclosilicates - [Si6O18]12 six- membered single rings, with insular complex anions. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in metamorphosed limestones or mafic igneous rocks with metasomatically introduced boron; rarely in pegmatites; as authigenic overgrowths in sedimentary rocks DYSCRASITE Ag3Sb mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 2.AA.35 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Alloys - Alloys of metalloids with Cu, Ag and Au. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found as both a primary and secondary mineral in hydrothermal veins with other silver minerals. 218 TABLE 4. Continued EDINGTONITE BaAl2Si3O10 • 4H2O Zeolite Group 222 Orthorhombic Chiral Some authors have also listed EDINGTONITE as Tetragonal (42m Non-centrosymmetric), and the two forms coexist, along with triclinic zones. Ordering of the (Si, Al) atoms generally reduces the orthorhombic symmetry to tetragonal. Nickel-Strunz: 9.GA.15 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Tectosilicates with zeolitic H2O, zeolite family - Zeolites with X5O10 units, the fibrous zeolites. - Piezoelectric - Found in cavities in mafic igneous rocks and nepheline syenites; in carbonatites; and in hydrothermal veins ELBAITE Na( Li1.5Al1.5 )Al6( BO3 )3Si6O18( OH )3OH Tourmaline Supergroup: Alkali Group 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.CK.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Cyclosilicates - [Si6O18]12 six- membered single rings, with insular complex anions. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in granites, granite pegmatites, and some metamorphic rocks; and in high- temperature hydrothermal veins. ELPIDITE Na2ZrSi6O15 • 3H2O mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.DG.65 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Inosilicates with three-periodic single and multiple chains. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in albitized nepheline syenites and other alkalic rocks, as well as in granites rich in aegirine. 219 TABLE 4. Continued ENARGITE Cu3AsS4 Enargite Group mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 2.KA.05 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Sulfarsenates with (As, Sb)S4 tetrahedra. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in medium-temperature hydrothermal vein deposits, and as a late-stage mineral in low-temperature deposits. EOSPHORITE ( Mn2+,Fe2+ )Al( PO4 )( OH )2 • H2O Childrenite—Eosphorite Series mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 8.DD.20 - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES - Phosphates, with additional anions, with H2O, with only medium-sized cations, [OH : XO4 = 2 : 1]. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found as a secondary mineral in phosphate-rich granite pegmatites. EPISTILBITE CaAl2Si6O16 • 5H2O Zeolite Group 2 Monoclinic Polar and Chiral EPISTILBITE has also been analyzed as Triclinic (1, Polar and Chiral). Both forms are seen as equally stable under current knowledge, and both exist at standard temperatures and pressures. Nickel-Strunz: 9.GD.45 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Tectosilicates with zeolitic H2O, zeolite family - Chains of six-membered rings, the tabular zeolites. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in cavities in basalts and gneisses 220 TABLE 4. Continued EPISTOLITE Na2( Nb,Ti )2( Si2O7 )O2 • nH2O Murmanite Group 1 Triclinic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.BE.30 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Sorosilicates - Si2O7 groups, with additional anions; cations in octahedral [6] and greater coordination. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in alkalic pegmatites, albitites, sodalite xenoliths, and hydrothermal veins. EPSOMITE MgSO4 • 7H2O Epsomite Group 222 Orthorhombic Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 7.CB.40 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates and wolframates) - Sulfates (and selenates) without additional anions, with H2O, with only medium-sized cations. - Piezoelectric - Found as efflorescences on the walls of mines, caves, and outcrops of sulfide-bearing magnesian rocks; a product of evaporation at mineral springs and saline lakes; a hydration product of kieserite and langbeinite; and rarely as a fumarolic sublimate. 221 TABLE 4. Continued ERICAITE Fe3B7O13Cl Boracite Group 43m Cubic Non-centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 610 K mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Transition Temperature: 543 K Monoclinic (Not Known) Transition Temperature: 523 K 3m Trigonal Polar Transition Temperature: 11.5 K (Not Known) (Not Known) Above 523 K ERICAITE undergoes a phase transition to a paraelectric form. ERICAITE is paramagnetic. Below 11.5 K ERICAITE undergoes a phase transition to an antiferromagnetic form. Nickel-Strunz: 6.GA.05 - BORATES - Heptaborates and other megaborates - Tecto- heptaborates. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - An uncommon constituent of marine evaporite deposits. ESKOLAITE Cr2O3 Hematite Group 3m Trigonal Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 307 K (Not Known) (Not Known) ESKOLAITE is paramagnetic. Below 307 K ESKOLAITE undergoes a phase transition to an antiferromagnetic form. This transition temperature varies with pressure as 1.50 K / kbar. Nickel-Strunz: 4.CB.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 2 : 3 and 3 : 5] with medium-sized cations. Found in chromium-rich tremolite skarns, metaquartzites, and chlorite veins; on greywacke pebbles in some glacial boulder clay deposit; and as a very rare component in chondritic meteorites. 222 TABLE 4. Continued EULYTINE Bi4( SiO4 )3 43m Cubic Non-centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.AD.40 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Nesosilicates without additional anions, with cations in [6] and/or greater coordination. - Piezoelectric - Found in bismuth-rich hydrothermal veins. FAYALITE Fe2SiO4 Olivine Group mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 66 K (Not Known) (Not Known) FAYALITE is paramagnetic. Below 66 K FAYALITE undergoes a phase transition to an antiferromagnetic form. Nickel-Strunz: 9.AC.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Nesosilicates without additional anions, with cations in octahedral [6] coordination. Found in ultramafic volcanic and plutonic rocks, less commonly in felsic plutonic rocks; rarely in granite pegmatite; in cavities in obsidian; in metamorphosed iron-rich sediments; and in impure carbonate rocks. FERBERITE FeWO4 Wolframite Group 2/m Monoclinic Centrosymmetric Below 66 K FERBERITE undergoes a phase transition. FERBERITE is paramagnetic. Nickel-Strunz: 4.DB.30 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 2] with medium-sized cations; chains of edge-sharing octahedra. Found in high-temperature hydrothermal veins, greisens, and granitic pegmatites. 223 TABLE 4. Continued FERUVITE Ca( Fe32+ )MgAl5( BO3 )3Si6O18( OH )3OH Tourmaline Supergroup: Calcic Group 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.CK.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Cyclosilicates - [Si6O18]12 six- membered single rings, with insular complex anions. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Formed by hydrothermal replacement of silicates in pegmatitic rock FINNEMANITE Pb5( AsO3 )5Cl 6/mmm Hexagonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 4.JB.45 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - Arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, with additional anions, without H2O. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in contact with hematite in metamorphosed Fe-Mn ore. FLAGSTAFFITE C10H22O3 mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 10.CA.10 - ORGANIC COMPOUNDS - Miscellaneous Organic Minerals. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Lining cracks in decomposing buried pine logs. FLUOR-DRAVITE Na( Mg3 )Al6( BO3 )3Si6O18( OH )3F Tourmaline Supergroup: Alkali Group 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.CK.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Cyclosilicates - [Si6O18]12 six- membered single rings, with insular complex anions. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found at or near the boundary of granitic pegmatite and surrounding country rock. 224 TABLE 4. Continued FLUOR-LIDDICOATITE Ca( Li2Al )Al6( BO3 )3Si6O18( OH )3F Tourmaline Supergroup: Calcic Group 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.CK.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Cyclosilicates - [Si6O18]12 six- membered single rings, with insular complex anions. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Detrital in soil, from pegmatites. (Nearly all liddicoatite is now classed as fluor- liddicoatite.) FLUOR-SCHORL Na( Fe32+ )Al6( BO3 )3Si6O18( OH )3F Tourmaline Supergroup: Alkali Group 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.CK.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Cyclosilicates - [Si6O18]12 six- membered single rings, with insular complex anions. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - In granites and granite pegmatites, high-temperature hydrothermal veins, and some metamorphic rocks; also detrital. FOITITE ( [ ],Na )( Fe22+Al )Al6( BO3 )3Si6O18( OH )3OH Tourmaline Supergroup: X-Vacant Group 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.CK.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Cyclosilicates - [Si6O18]12 six- membered single rings, with insular complex anions. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in granite pegmatites. 225 TABLE 4. Continued FRANKLINITE ZnFe2O4 Spinel Group: Fe-Series m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 15 K (Not Known) (Not Known) FRANKLINITE is paramagnetic. Nickel-Strunz: 4.BB.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 3 : 4] with only medium-sized cations. Found in beds and veins formed by high-temperature metamorphism of Fe, Zn, Mn-rich marine carbonate sediments, and also as a minor mineral in some manganese and iron deposits. FRESNOITE Ba2Ti( Si2O7 )O 4mm Tetragonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.BE.15 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Sorosilicates - Si2O7 groups, with additional anions, with cations in octahedral [6] and greater coordination. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Disseminated in gneissic metamorphic rocks composed mainly of sanbornite and quartz. GALLITE CuGaS2 Chalcopyrite Group 42m Tetragonal Non-centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 2.CB.10a - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 1] with Zn, Fe, Cu and Ag. - Piezoelectric - Found in base-metal vein deposits with relatively high gallium content. 226 TABLE 4. Continued GEORGBARSANOVITE Na12( Mn,Sr,REE )3Ca6Fe32+Zr3NbSi25O76Cl2 • H2O Eudialyte Group 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.CO.10 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Cyclosilicates - [Si9O27]18 nine- membered rings. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in nepheline-feldspar pegmatites. GISMONDINE-CA CaAl2Si2O8 • 4H2O Zeolite Group 2/m Monoclinic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.GC.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Tectosilicates with zeolitic H2O, zeolite family - Chains of doubly-connected four-membered rings. - Piezoelectric - Found in cavities in nepheline and olivine basalt and leucite tephrite. GMELINITE-NA ( Na2,Ca )Al2Si4O12 • 6H2O Zeolite Group 6/mmm Hexagonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.GD.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Tectosilicates with zeolitic H2O, zeolite family - Chains of six-membered rings, the tabular zeolites. - Piezoelectric - Formed from sodium-rich fluids, in basalts and related igneous rocks, also pegmatites. 227 TABLE 4. Continued GOSLARITE ZnSO4 • 7H2O Epsomite Group 222 Orthorhombic Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 7.CB.40 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates and wolframates) - Sulfates (and selenates) without additional anions, with H2O, with only medium-sized cations. - Piezoelectric - A secondary mineral in oxidized portions of zinc-sulfide deposits, particularly as coatings on walls of mine passages. GOYAZITE SrAl3( PO4 )2( OH )5 • H2O Alunite Supergroup: Crandallite Subgroup 3m Trigonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 8.BL.10 - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES - Phosphates, with additional anions, without H2O, with medium-sized and large cations, [OH : XO4 = 3 : 1]. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in granite pegmatites, as an alteration product in hydrothermal or tuffaceous claystones, in carbonatites, and as a detrital mineral. GREENOCKITE CdS Wurtzite Group 6mm Hexagonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 2.CB.45 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 1] with Zn, Fe, Cu and Ag. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found as earthy coatings, especially on sphalerite; also rarely as crystals in cavities in mafic igneous rocks; and in high-temperature hydrothermal vein deposits. 228 TABLE 4. Continued GUGIAITE Ca2BeSi2O7 Melilite Group 42m Tetragonal Non-centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.BB.10 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Sorosilicates - Si2O7 groups, without non-tetrahedral anions, with cations in tetrahedral [4] and greater coordination. - Piezoelectric - Found in cavities in skarns and melanite adjacent to an alkalic syenite. GWIHABAITE ( NH4,K )NO3 mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 5.NA.15 - CARBONATES (NITRATES) - NITRATES - Without OH or H2O. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Formed by bacterial action on bat guano in caves, and found as crusts or efflorescences. HALLOYSITE-7Å Al2( Si2O5 )( OH )4 Serpentine Group m Monoclinic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.ED.10 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Phyllosilicates with kaolinite layers composed of tetrahedral and octahedral nets. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Formed by hydrothermal alteration or surface weathering of aluminosilicate minerals, plus dehydration at 110°C (of Halloysite-10Å). HALLOYSITE-10Å Al2( Si2O5 )( OH )4 • 2H2O Serpentine Group m Monoclinic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.ED.10 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Phyllosilicates with kaolinite layers composed of tetrahedral and octahedral nets. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Formed by hydrothermal alteration or surface weathering of aluminosilicate minerals. 229 TABLE 4. Continued HALOTRICHITE FeAl2( SO4 )4 • 22H2O Halotrichite Group 2 Monoclinic Polar and Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 7.CB.85 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates and wolframates) - Sulfates (and selenates) without additional anions, with H2O, with only medium-sized cations. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in arid climates as efflorescences in weathered sulfide deposits or pyrite-rich coal rocks, and as a precipitate around volcanic fumaroles and hot springs. HARMOTOME ( Ba0.5,Ca0.5,K,Na )5( Al5Si11O32 ) • 12H2O Zeolite Group 2/m Monoclinic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.GC.10 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Tectosilicates with zeolitic H2O, zeolite family - Chains of doubly-connected four-membered rings. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Formed hydrothermally in cavities in basalts, phonolites and trachytes, as well as in gneisses and ore veins. HARTITE C20H34 1 Triclinic Polar and Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 10.BA.10 - ORGANIC COMPOUNDS - Hydrocarbons. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Formed by reprecipitation of lignite, often in coalified or silicified tree trunks and in lignite seams. 230 TABLE 4. Continued HAUERITE MnS2 Pyrite Group m3 Cubic Centrosymmetric HAUERITE is paramagnetic and is an electrical semiconductor. Nickel-Strunz: 2.EB.05a - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 2] with Fe, Co, Ni and platinum group elements. A low-temperature mineral commonly associated with solfataric waters, in clay deposits rich in sulfur, and from decomposed extrusive rocks. HEFTETJERNITE ScTaO4 Wolframite Group Melting Temperature: 2613 K 2/m Monoclinic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 280 K 2 Monoclinic Polar and Chiral Below 280 K HEFTETJERNITE undergoes a phase transition to a ferroelectric form. Nickel-Strunz: 4.DB.30 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 2] with medium-sized cations; chains of edge-sharing octahedra. - Paraelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in some cleavelandite-amazonite pegmatites. HELVINE Mn42+( Be3Si3O12 )S Helvine Group 43m Cubic Non-centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.FB.10 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Tectosilicates without zeolitic H2O - Tectosilicates with additional anions. - Piezoelectric - Found in granites, granite pegmatites, gneisses, and contact zones and skarns. 231 TABLE 4. Continued HEMATITE Fe2O3 Hematite Group (Not Known) (Not Known) Transition Temperature: 950 K 3m Trigonal Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 263 K 3m Trigonal Centrosymmetric HEMATITE is (incompletely) antiferromagnetic. Below 263 K HEMATITE undergoes a phase transition to a (complete) antiferromagnetic form. There are several forms of Fe2O3: HEMATITE is the α-Fe2O3 form, while the γ-Fe2O3 form is MAGHEMITE (p. 244). Nickel-Strunz: 4.CB.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 2 : 3 and 3 : 5] with medium-sized cations. Found as an accessory mineral in felsic igneous rocks, a late-stage sublimate in volcanic rocks, and in high-temperature hydrothermal veins; and as a product of contact metamorphism and in metamorphosed banded iron formations; as well as a common cement in sedimentary rocks and a major constituent in oolitic iron formations; also, abundant on weathered iron-bearing minerals. HEMIMORPHITE Zn4Si2O7( OH )2 • H2O mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.BD.10 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Sorosilicates - Si2O7 groups, with additional anions; cations in tetrahedral [4] and greater coordination. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A secondary mineral typically found in the oxidized zone of zinc-bearing mineral deposits. 232 TABLE 4. Continued HEULANDITE-CA ( Ca,Na )2-3Al3( Al,Si )2Si13O36 • 12H2O Zeolite Group 2/m Monoclinic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.GE.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Tectosilicates with zeolitic H2O, zeolite family - Chains of X10O20 tetrahedra. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found as a devitrification product in tuffs and volcanic glasses, as well as in cavities in basalts, and in weathered andesites and diabases. HILGARDITE Ca2B5O9Cl • H2O Hilgardite Group 1 Triclinic Polar and Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 6.ED.05 - BORATES - Pentaborates - Tecto-pentaborates. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in marine evaporite deposits. HYDROCALUMITE Ca2Al( OH )7 • 2H2O 2 Monoclinic Polar and Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 4.FL.10 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - Hydroxides (without vanadium or uranium) - Hydroxides with H2O ± (OH), with sheets of edge-sharing octahedra. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A late-stage hydrothermal mineral in skarns formed from contact metamorphism of limestone or in xenoliths in lava. 233 TABLE 4. Continued HYDROXYCALCIOROMÉITE: FERROAN VARIETY ( Ca,Sb3+ )2( Sb5+,Fe,Ti )2O6( OH ) Pyrochlore Supergroup: Roméite Group m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 4.DH.20 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 2] with large (± medium-sized) cations, with sheets of edge-sharing octahedra. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A secondary mineral found in some hydrothermal deposits that commonly have undergone metamorphism. ICE H2 O Melting Temperature: 273 K 6/mmm Hexagonal Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 173 K m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 72 K mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Below 72 K ICE undergoes a phase transition to a ferroelectric form. Nickel-Strunz: 4.AA.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 2 : 1 and 1.8 : 1]. - Paraelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in glacial flows and thick masses of near-continental dimensions, and formed at low temperatures by sublimation in the atmosphere and in layers over open bodies of water. 234 TABLE 4. Continued ILMENITE FeTiO3 Ilmenite Group 3 Trigonal Centrosymmetric Below (55 to 70 K) ILMENITE undergoes a phase transition. ILMENITE is paramagnetic. Nickel-Strunz: 4.CB.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 2 : 3 and 3 : 5] with medium-sized cations. A common accessory mineral disseminated in igneous rocks, as granites, gabbros, and kimberlites, and in granite pegmatites, carbonatites, and high-grade metamorphic rocks. INDITE FeIn2S4 Linnaeite Group: Thiospinel Group m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 2.DA.05 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 3 : 4]. - Thermoelectric - Generally of hydrothermal origin, replacing botryoidal cassiterite. INNELITE Na2CaBa4Ti3( Si2O7 )2( SO4 )2O4 1 Triclinic Centrosymmetric INNELITE is also listed as Monoclinic (2/m, Centrosymmetric), a similarly stable phase at standard temperature and pressure. Nickel-Strunz: 9.BE.40 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Sorosilicates - Si2O7 groups, with additional anions; cations in octahedral [6] and greater coordination. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in miarolitic cavities of aegirine-eckermannite-microcline pegmatites in dunites; in pulaskite and shonkinite 235 TABLE 4. Continued IODARGYRITE AgI 6mm Hexagonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 3.AA.10 - HALIDES - Simple halides, without H2O - [Metal : Halogen = 1 : 1, 2 : 3 and 3 : 5]. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A secondary mineral in the oxidized portions of silver-bearing deposits. JACOBSITE MnFe2O4 Spinel Group Jacobsite-Magnetite Series m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Above 573 K JACOBSITE undergoes a phase transition. JACOBSITE is ferromagnetic. Nickel-Strunz: 4.BB.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 3 : 4] with only medium-sized cations. - Thermoelectric - Found as a primary mineral or an alteration product of other manganese-bearing minerals in metamorphosed ore deposits. JAROSITE KFe33+( SO4 )2( OH )6 Alunite Supergroup: Jarosite Subgroup 3 Trigonal Polar and Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 7.BC.10 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates and wolframates) - Sulfates (and selenates) with additional anions, without H2O, with medium-sized and large cations. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A secondary mineral in oxidized portions of sulfide-bearing rocks, typically altering from pyrite; less common as a low-temperature, primary hydrothermal mineral, including as deposits around hot springs. 236 TABLE 4. Continued JEREMEJEVITE Al6( BO3 )5( F,OH )3 6/m Hexagonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 6.AB.15 - BORATES - Monoborates - BO3, with additional anions, with single triangles plus OH. - Piezoelectric - A late hydrothermal mineral formed in granitic pegmatites. JUNITOITE CaZn2Si2O7 • H2O mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.BD.15 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Sorosilicates - Si2O7 groups, with additional anions, with cations in tetrahedral [4] and greater coordination. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - In a retrogressively altered tactite zone, closely related to the breakdown of sphalerite. KALIBORITE KMg2H[ B6O8( OH )5 ]2( H2O )4 2/m Monoclinic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 6.FB.10 - BORATES - Ino-hexaborates. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in potassium-bearing marine salt deposits, and as efflorescences. KALININITE ZnCr2S4 Linnaeite Group: Thiospinel Group m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Below 15.5 K KALININITE undergoes a phase transition. KALININITE is paramagnetic and is an electrical semiconductor. Nickel-Strunz: 2.DA.05 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 3 : 4]. - Thermoelectric - Found in metamorphic diopside-quartz-calcite rock, generally in garnet-pyroxene regions. 237 TABLE 4. Continued KAMIOKITE Fe2Mo3O8 Nolanite Group 6mm Hexagonal Polar Transition Temperature: 59 K (Not Known) (Not Known) KAMIOKITE is paramagnetic. Nickel-Strunz: 4.CB.40 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 2 : 3 and 3 : 5] with medium-sized cations. Found in molybdenite-rich quartz veins associated with granite porphyry dikes, and also in fissure veins filled during low-grade regional metamorphism of basalt. KARELIANITE V2 O3 Hematite Group 3m Trigonal Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: (Not Known) Monoclinic (Not Known) Transition Temperature: 160 K 3 Trigonal Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 10 K (Not Known) (Not Known) The semiconducting phase of KARELIANITE above 160 K is 7 orders of magnitude more electrically resistant than the metallic conducting phase below that transition. KARELIANITE is paramagnetic. Nickel-Strunz: 4.CB.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 2 : 3 and 3 : 5] with medium-sized cations. Found in sulfide-rich, resistant portions of glacial boulders derived from high-grade metamorphic rocks, as schists and quartzites, as well as in primary unoxidized uranium- vanadium ores, and in vanadiferous bitumen. 238 TABLE 4. Continued KOECHLINITE Bi2MoO6 Koechlinite Group Melting Temperature: 1201 K 2/m Monoclinic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 843 K mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Above 843 K KOECHLINITE undergoes a phase transition to a paraelectric form. Nickel-Strunz: 4.DE.15 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 2] with medium-sized cations; with various polyhedra. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found as an alteration product in the oxidation zone of Bi–Mo deposits. KRENNERITE ( Au,Ag )Te2 mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 2.EA.15 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 2] with Cu, Ag, Au. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in hydrothermal veins with other telluride minerals. 239 TABLE 4. Continued KRUT’AITE CuSe2 Pyrite Group m3 Cubic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 30 K (Not Known) (Not Known) Transition Temperature: 2.40 K (Not Known) (Not Known) KRUT’AITE is paramagnetic. Below 30 K the mineral becomes (incompletely) antiferromagnetic and is a metallic electrical conductor. Below 2.40 K KRUT’AITE is an electrical superconductor. Nickel-Strunz: 2.EB.05a - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 2] with Fe, Co, Ni and platinum group elements. A hydrothermal mineral. LAKARGIITE Ca( Zr,Sn,Ti )O3 Perovskite Group mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 4.CC.30 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 2 : 3 and 3 : 5] with large and medium-sized cations. - Paraelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found as xenoliths in ignimbrites from some high temperature calc-silicate skarns. LANGBEINITE K2Mg2( SO4 )3 Langbeinite Group 23 Cubic Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 7.AC.10 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates and wolframates) - Sulfates (and selenates) without additional anions, without H2O, with medium-sized and large cations. - Piezoelectric - Found in marine salt deposits. 240 TABLE 4. Continued LARSENITE PbZnSiO4 mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.AB.10 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Nesosilicates without additional anions, with cations in [4] and greater coordination. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A secondary mineral found in veins in metamorphosed zinc deposits LECONTITE ( NH4,K )NaSO4 • 2H2O 222 Orthorhombic Chiral Transition Temperature: 101 K (Not Known) (Not Known) Nickel-Strunz: 7.CD.15 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates and wolframates) - Sulfates (and selenates) without additional anions, with H2O, with only large cations. An early product of the breakdown of bat guano LEUCOPHANITE NaCaBeSi2O6F 222 Orthorhombic Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 9.DH.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Inosilicates with four-periodic single chains, Si4O12. - Piezoelectric - Found in pegmatites in augite syenite; and in albitization zones in pegmatites at the contact of alkalic massifs intruding carbonaceous quartz-sericite schists. LIEBIGITE Ca2( UO2 )( CO3 )3 • 11H2O mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 5.ED.20 - CARBONATES (NITRATES) - Uranyl Carbonates - [UO2 : CO3 = 1 : 3]. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Formed as a secondary mineral as an alteration product of uraninite through the action of an alkaline carbonate solution. 241 TABLE 4. Continued LINNAEITE Co2+Co23+S4 Linnaeite Group: Thiospinel Group m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 95 K (Not Known) (Not Known) LINNAEITE is paramagnetic and is a metallic electrical conductor. Nickel-Strunz: 2.DA.05 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 3 : 4]. - Thermoelectric - Found in hydrothermal veins with other cobalt and nickel sulfides. LÖLLINGITE FeAs2 Löllingite Group Löllingite – Safflorite Series mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric LÖLLINGITE is diamagnetic and is an electrical semiconductor. Nickel-Strunz: 2.EB.15a - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 2] with Fe, Co, Ni and platinum group elements. Found in mesothermal deposits associated with other sulfides and with calcite gangue, and also in pegmatites. LONDONITE ( Cs,K,Rb )Al4Be4( B,Be )12O28 Rhodizite Group Londonite – Rhodizite Series 43m Cubic Non-centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 6.GC.05 - BORATES - Heptaborates and other megaborates - Tecto- dodecaborates. - Piezoelectric - From the central zones of granite pegmatites; and in miarolitic cavities. 242 TABLE 4. Continued LUESHITE NaNbO3 Perovskite Group (m3m) Cubic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 916 K 4/mmm Tetragonal Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 845 K mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 793 K mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 753 K mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 638 K mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 73 K 3m Trigonal Polar Above 916 K LUESHITE is paraelectric; below 73 K it is ferroelectric. Note that the various orthorhombic phases of LUESHITE have different atomic arrangements, with different space group notations: Pbma, Pmnm, Pnmm, Ccmm, from low temperature to high temperature, respectively. Nickel-Strunz: 4.CC.30 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 2 : 3 and 3 : 5] with large and medium-sized cations. - Antiferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in veins cutting nepheline syenites, and in sodalite xenoliths in alkalic gabbro- syenites, as well as in contacts between syenite and carbonatite, and as a common accessory mineral in fenites formed from pyroxenite or gabbro. 243 TABLE 4. Continued MACEDONITE PbTiO3 Perovskite Group m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 763 K 4mm Tetragonal Polar Below 763 K MACEDONITE undergoes a phase transition to a ferroelectric form. Structural transitions at 298, 158 and 90 K are reported for MACEDONITE, all within the 4mm Tetragonal system. Nickel-Strunz: 4.CC.35 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 2 : 3 and 3 : 5] with large and medium-sized cations. - Paraelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A rare accessory mineral in syenite pegmatite veins cutting pyroxene amphibole schist, and as inclusions in hematite and magnetoplumbite in a metamorphosed Fe–Mn orebody. MAGHEMITE Fe2O3 Maghemite Group Transition Temperature: 1020 K 23 Cubic Chiral MAGHEMITE is ferrimagnetic and is an electrical semiconductor. Nickel-Strunz: 4.BB.15 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 3 : 4] with only medium-sized cations. Formed by weathering or low-temperature oxidation of spinels containing ferrous iron, commonly magnetite or titanian magnetite. 244 TABLE 4. Continued MAGNESIOCOULSONITE MgV2O4 Spinel Group m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric MAGNESIOCOULSONITE is paramagnetic. Nickel-Strunz: 4.BB.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 3 : 4] with only medium-sized cations. - Thermoelectric - An accessory mineral in chromium-vanadium-bearing metamorphic rocks. MAGNESIOFERRITE MgFe2O4 Spinel Group Magnesioferrite-Magnetite Series Transition Temperature: 679 K m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric MAGNESIOFERRITE is ferrimagnetic. Nickel-Strunz: 4.BB.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 3 : 4] with only medium-sized cations. Most commonly of fumarolic origin, also found in high-grade (sanidinite facies) combustion-metamorphosed marls and burning coal heaps, in metamorphosed dolostones. as an accessory mineral in some kimberlites, carbonatites, and alkali gabbros, and as skeletal inclusions in glassy spherules in sediments attributed to bolide impact debris. 245 TABLE 4. Continued MAGNETITE Fe2+Fe23+O4 Spinel Group Transition Temperature: 850 K m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 119 K (Not Known) (Not Known) Transition Temperature: 45 K (Not Known) (Not Known) Electrical conduction in MAGNETITE operaters via exchanges between the Fe2+ and Fe3+ centers. Below 119 K MAGNETITE is paraelectric; below 45 K it is ferroelectric. MAGNETITE is ferrimagnetic. Nickel-Strunz: 4.BB.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 3 : 4] with only medium-sized cations. A common accessory mineral in igneous and metamorphic rocks, in which magmatic segregation or contact metamorphism may produce economic deposits; in sedimentary banded iron formations; a biogenic product; and detrital. MARIALITE Na4Al3Si9O24Cl Scapolite Group 4/m Tetragonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.FB.15 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Tectosilicates without zeolitic H2O - Tectosilicates with additional anions. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in regionally metamorphosed calcareous rock, and in skarns as well as some mafic igneous rock, ejecta and pegmatites as an alteration product. 246 TABLE 4. Continued MARIINSKITE BeCr2O4 Chrysoberyl Group mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 28 K Orthorhombic (Not Known) MARIINSKITE is paramagnetic. Below 28 K MARIINSKITE undergoes a phase transition to a ferroelectric, antiferromagnetic form. Nickel-Strunz: 4.BA.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 3 : 4] with small and medium-sized cations. - Paraelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Associated with emerald deposits in pegmatite or hydrothermal-metamorphic complexes. MATTAGAMITE CoTe2 Marcasite Group Frohbergite-Mattagamite Series mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric MATTAGAMITE is paramagnetic and is an electrical semiconductor. Nickel-Strunz: 2.EB.10a - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 2] with Fe, Co, Ni and platinum group elements. Found in telluride zones of some zinc-rich stratiform volcanic deposits. MEIONITE Ca4Al6Si6O24CO3 Scapolite Group 4/m Tetragonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.FB.15 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Tectosilicates without zeolitic H2O - Tectosilicates with additional anions. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in regionally metamorphosed calcareous rock, and in skarns as well as some mafic igneous rock, ejecta and pegmatites as an alteration product. 247 TABLE 4. Continued MELANOVANADITE Ca( V5+,V4+ )4O10 • 5H2O 1 Triclinic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 4.HE.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - V[5,6] Vanadates - Phyllo-vanadates. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found as an alteration product in vanadium-rich shale and in uranium-vanadium deposits. MELIPHANITE ( Ca,Na )2( Be,Al )[ Si2O6( OH,F ) ] 4 Tetragonal Non-centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.DP.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Inosilicates - Transitional ino- phyllosilicate structures. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in augite syenite. MESOLITE Na2Ca2Al6Si9O30 • 8H2O mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.GA.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Tectosilicates with zeolitic H2O, zeolite family - Zeolites with X5O10 units, the fibrous zeolites. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in cavities of volcanic rocks, typically basalt; also in andesites, porphyries, and hydrothermal veins. 248 TABLE 4. Continued MILLERITE NiS Millerite Group 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 2.CC.20 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 1] with Ni, Fe, Co and platinum group elements. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in cavities in limestones, carbonate veins and barite as a low-temperature mineral, and as an alteration product of nickel minerals, as well as in association with coal, and uncommonly with serpentines. MIMETITE Pb5( AsO4 )3Cl Apatite Supergroup: Pyromorphite Subgroup 6/m Hexagonal Centrosymmetric An m Monoclinic polytype form originally called clinomimetite, now called mimetite-M, is also common. Nickel-Strunz: 8.BN.05 - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES - Phosphates, with additional anions, without H2O, with only large cations, [OH : XO4 = 0.33 : 1]. - Piezoelectric - A secondary mineral found in the oxidized zone of arsenic-bearing lead deposits. MINYULITE KAl2( PO4 )2( OH,F ) • 4H2O mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 8.DH.05 - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES - Phosphates, with additional anions, with H2O, with large and medium-sized cations, [OH : XO4 < 1 : 1]. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found as a weathering product in phosphate-rich ironstones. 249 TABLE 4. Continued MOISSANITE SiC Moissanite Group 6mm Hexagonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 1.DA. - ELEMENTS (Metals and intermetallic alloys; metalloids and nonmetals; carbides, silicides, nitrides and phosphides) - Nonmetallic carbides. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in iron meteorites, as inclusions in diamond, in kimberlites and eclogite, as well as in rhyolite, and in alluvium. MORDENITE ( Na2,Ca,K2 )Al2Si10O24 • 7H2O Zeolite Group mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.GD.35 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Tectosilicates with zeolitic H2O, zeolite family - Chains of six-membered rings, the tabular zeolites. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Formed as a secondary mineral in various igneous rocks, including volcanic glasses, and as an authigenic mineral in sediments. MORENOSITE NiSO4 • 7H2O Epsomite Group 222 Orthorhombic Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 7.CB.40 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates and wolframates) - Sulfates (and selenates) without additional anions, with H2O, with only medium-sized cations. - Piezoelectric - A low-temperature hydrothermal mineral found in Nickel-bearing deposits. 250 TABLE 4. Continued MURMANITE Na2Ti2( Si2O7 )O2 • 2H2O Murmanite Group 1 Triclinic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.BE.27 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Sorosilicates - Si2O7 groups, with additional anions, with cations in octahedral [6] and greater coordination. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in alkalic pegmatites and associated igneous rocks. MUTHMANNITE AuAgTe2 2/m Monoclinic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 2.CB.85 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 1] with Zn, Fe, Cu and Ag. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A low-temperature hydrothermal mineral found in association with other tellurides. NACRITE Al2( Si2O5 )( OH )4 Serpentine Group m Monoclinic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.ED.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Phyllosilicates with kaolinite layers composed of tetrahedral and octahedral nets. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Formed by hydrothermal processes. 251 TABLE 4. Continued NATROALUNITE ( Na,K )Al3( SO4 )2( OH )6 Alunite Supergroup: Alunite Subgroup 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 7.BC.10 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates and wolframates) - Sulfates (and selenates) with additional anions, without H2O, with medium-sized and large cations. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Formed by solfataric or hydrothermal sulfate-bearing solutions reacting with clays, rarely with sillimanite; or as an authigenic sedimentary mineral. NATROJAROSITE NaFe3( SO4 )2( OH )6 Alunite Supergroup: Jarosite Subgroup 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 7.BC.10 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates and wolframates) - Sulfates (and selenates) with additional anions, without H2O, with medium-sized and large cations. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Formed by the alteration of pyrite in the presence of sodium, and rarely as a volcanic sublimate. NATROLITE Na2Al2Si3O10 • 2H2O Zeolite Group mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.GA.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Tectosilicates with zeolitic H2O, zeolite family - Zeolites with X5O10 units, the fibrous zeolites. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in cavities in amygdaloidal basalts and related igneous rocks, one of the last minerals to form; fills seams in granite, gneiss, and syenite. 252 TABLE 4. Continued NEPHELINE ( Na,K )AlSiO4 6 Hexagonal Polar and Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 9.FA.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Tectosilicates without zeolitic H2O - Tectosilicates without additional non-tetrahedral anions. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in alkalic rocks, including syenites, gabbros, tuffs, lavas, pegmatites and gneisses; and, as a product of sodium-rich metasomatism. NEPTUNITE Na2KLi( Fe2+,Mn2+ )2Ti2( Si8O24 ) m Monoclinic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.EH.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Phyllosilicates - Transitional structures between phyllosilicate and other silicate units. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in serpentinite in natrolite veins cutting glaucophane schist. NICKELINE NiAs Nickeline Group 6/mmm Hexagonal Centrosymmetric NICKELINE is Pauli paramagnetic, with the (weak) paramagnetism arising from the spins of the valence electrons. Nickel-Strunz: 2.CC.05 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 1] with Ni, Fe, Co and platinum group elements. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found as a minor component of Ni–Cu ores in high-temperature hydrothermal veins, and in disseminations in peridotite and norite. 253 TABLE 4. Continued NISBITE NiSb2 Löllingite Group mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric NISBITE is diamagnetic and is a metallic electrical conductor. Nickel-Strunz: 2.EB.15a - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 2], with Fe, Co, Ni and platinum group elements. Found very rarely in altered mafic rock, and in Pb–Zn–Cu–Ag ore deposits remobilized by hydrothermal solutions from younger granite emplacement. NITER KNO3 Melting Temperature: 606 K 3m Trigonal Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 398 K 3m Trigonal Polar Transition Temperature: 388 K mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Above 398 K NITER is paraelectric. Nickel-Strunz: 5.NA.10 - CARBONATES (NITRATES) - NITRATES - Without OH or H2O. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in some caves, typically formed by bacterial action on animal matter, such as bat guano, or from vegetable matter, such as humus, exposed to seeping groundwater, and an efflorescence on soils or cliff faces in arid regions. 254 TABLE 4. Continued NITRATINE NaNO3 Melting Temperature: 581 K 3m Trigonal Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 547.4 K 3m Trigonal Centrosymmetric The phase transition at 547.7 K in NITRATINE is from space group R3c to R3m as the temperature rises. A ferroelectric high pressure 3m Trigonal (polar) phase of NITRATINE exists for P > 4.3 GPa at ambient temperatures. Nickel-Strunz: 5.NA.05 - CARBONATES (NITRATES) - NITRATES - Without OH or H2O. - Paraelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Principally found in bedded deposits formed in playas, and in caves, deposited from seeping groundwater leaching nitrates from overlying rocks, especially in very dry and cold climates. NITROBARITE Ba( NO3 )2 m3 Cubic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 5.NA.05 - CARBONATES (NITRATES) - NITRATES - Without OH or H2O. - Piezoelectric - Found in nitrate deposits. NOLANITE ( V3+,Fe3+,Fe2+,Ti )10O14( OH )2 Nolanite Group 6mm Hexagonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 4.CB.40 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 2 : 3 and 3 : 5] with medium-sized cations. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found as a hydrothermal mineral in uranium deposits, and in gold deposits in greenstone belts. 255 TABLE 4. Continued OLENITE Na( Al3 )Al6( BO3 )3( Si6O18 )O3( OH ) Tourmaline Supergroup: Alkali Group 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.CK.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Cyclosilicates - [Si6O18]12 six- membered single rings, with insular complex anions. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in pegmatitic veins crosscutting metasediments. OLSACHERITE Pb2( Se6+O4 )( SO4 ) Baryte Group 222 Orthorhombic Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 7.AD.35 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates and wolframates) - Sulfates (and selenates) without additional anions, without H2O, with only large cations. - Piezoelectric - A secondary mineral found in the oxidized zone of selenium-bearing hydrothermal mineral deposits. OXYCALCIOPYROCHLORE Ca2Nb2O7 Pyrochlore Supergroup: Pyrochlore Group Melting Temperature: 1853 K 2 Monoclinic Polar and Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 4.DH.15 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 2] with large (± medium-sized) cations, with sheets of edge-sharing octahedra. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in pegmatites in nepheline syenites, in granitic pegmatites and greisens, and in carbonatites. 256 TABLE 4. Continued OXYPLUMBOPYROCHLORE Pb2Nb2O7 Pyrochlore Supergroup: Pyrochlore Group (Not Known) (Not Known) Nickel-Strunz: 4.DH.15 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 2] with large (± medium-sized) cations, with sheets of edge-sharing octahedra. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in pegmatites in nepheline syenites, in granitic pegmatites and greisens, and in carbonatites. OXY-SCHORL Na( Fe2+,Al )3Al6( BO3 )3Si6O18( OH )3O Tourmaline Supergroup: Alkali Group 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.CK.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Cyclosilicates - [Si6O18]12 six- membered single rings, with insular complex anions. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in granitic pegmatites. PARATELLURITE TeO2 Rutile Group 422 Tetragonal Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 4.DE.25 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 2] with medium-sized cations, with various polyhedra. - Piezoelectric - As thin seams in tellurium from hydrothermal Au–Te deposits. 257 TABLE 4. Continued PARKERITE Ni3Bi2S2 2/m Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 2.BE.20 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur > 1 : 1, mainly 2 : 1] with Pb and Bi. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found as grains in hydrothermal sulfide and arsenide minerals. PENROSEITE ( Ni,Co,Cu )Se2 Pyrite Group m3 Cubic Centrosymmetric PENROSEITE is weakly paramagnetic, and is a metallic electrical conductor. Nickel-Strunz: 2.EB.05a - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 2] with Fe, Co, Ni and platinum group elements. Found in hydrothermal veins. PEROVSKITE CaTiO3 Perovskite Group Melting Temperature: 2233 K (m3m) Cubic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 1533 K mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 4.CC.30 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 2 : 3 and 3 : 5] with large and medium-sized cations. - Paraelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - An accessory mineral found in alkaline mafic rocks, such as nepheline syenites, kimberlites, carbonatites, commonly deuteric; also found in calcareous skarns, and as a common accessory in Ca–Al-rich inclusions in some carbonaceous chondrites. 258 TABLE 4. Continued PHARMACOLITE Ca( HAsO4 ) • 2H2O m Monoclinic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 8.CJ.50 - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES - Phosphates without additional anions, with H2O, with only large cations. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found as a secondary mineral in oxidized arsenic-rich rock. PHARMACOSIDERITE KFe43+( AsO4 )3( OH )4 • 6−7H2O Pharmacosiderite Supergroup: Pharmacosiderite Group 43m Cubic Non-centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 8.DK.10 - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES - Phosphates, with additional anions, with H2O, with large and medium-sized cations, [OH : XO4 > 1 : 1 and < 2 : 1]. - Piezoelectric - An oxidation product of arsenic-bearing sulfides. PICKERINGITE MgAl2( SO4 )4 • 22H2O Halotrichite Group 2 Monoclinic Polar and Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 7.CB.85 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates and wolframates) - Sulfates (and selenates) without additional anions, with H2O, with only medium-sized cations. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Formed by the alteration of pyrite in aluminous rocks and coal seams, and in fumaroles. PINNOITE Mg[ B2O( OH )6 ] 4/m Tetragonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 6.BB.05 - BORATES - Diborates - Neso-diborates with double tetrahedra B2O(OH)6. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in marine salt deposits and around salt springs and lakes. 259 TABLE 4. Continued PIRSSONITE Na2Ca( CO3 )2 • 2H2O mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 5.CB.30 - CARBONATES (NITRATES) - Carbonates without additional anions, with H2O, with large cations (alkali and alkali-earth carbonates). - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in saline lake-bed sediments and oil shales PLUMBOJAROSITE Pb0.5Fe33+( SO4 )2( OH )6 Alunite Supergroup: Jarosite Subgroup 3m Trigonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 7.BC.10 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates and wolframates) - Sulfates (and selenates) with additional anions, without H2O, with medium-sized and large cations. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Formed by a reaction between galena and lead, especially in arid regions. POVONDRAITE Na( Fe33+ )Mg2Fe43+( BO3 )3Si6O18( OH )3O Tourmaline Supergroup: Alkali Group 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.CK.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Cyclosilicates - [Si6O18]12 six- membered single rings, with insular complex anions. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in fractures and lining cavities in schist metamorphosed from sedimentary rocks. 260 TABLE 4. Continued PREHNITE Ca2Al2Si3O10( OH )2 mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.DP.20 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Inosilicates - Transitional ino- phyllosilicate structures. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Formed from low-grade metamorphism, and as a secondary or hydrothermal mineral in mafic volcanic rocks, as well as in granite gneiss and syenite. PROUSTITE Ag3AsS3 Proustite Group 3m Trigonal Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 210 K 3m Trigonal Polar Transition Temperature: ≈ 55 K m Monoclinic Polar Transition Temperature: 28.7 K 1 Triclinic Polar and Chiral Below approximately 55 K PROUSTITE undergoes a phase transition to a ferroelectric form. Nickel-Strunz: 2.GA.05 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites, sulfbismuthites - Neso-sulfarsenites, without additional sulfur. - Paraelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Associated with other silver minerals and sulfides in hydrothermal deposits, in the oxidized and enriched zone. 261 TABLE 4. Continued PYRARGYRITE Ag3SbS3 Proustite Group 3m Trigonal Polar Paraelectric Transition Temperature: 75 K (m) Monoclinic Polar Transition Temperature: 4.8 K 1 Triclinic Polar and Chiral Symmetry group m is an estimate. Nickel-Strunz: 2.GA.05 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites, sulfbismuthites - Neso-sulfarsenites, without additional sulfur. - Paraelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Formed in hydrothermal veins as a primary late-stage, low-temperature mineral; also formed by secondary processes. PYRITE FeS2 Pyrite Group Cattierite – Pyrite Series Pyrite – Vaesite Series m3 Cubic Centrosymmetric PYRITE is paramagnetic and is an electrical semiconductor. Nickel-Strunz: 2.EB.05a - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 2] with Fe, Co, Ni and platinum group elements. Formed under a wide variety of conditions, including hydrothermal veins as very large bodies, as magmatic segregations, as an accessory mineral in igneous rocks, in pegmatites, in contact metamorphic deposits, also in metamorphic rocks, and as diagenetic replacements in sedimentary rocks. 262 TABLE 4. Continued PYRITE VARIETY: BRAVOITE ( Fe,Ni )S2 Pyrite Group Pyrite – Vaesite Series m3 Cubic Centrosymmetric BRAVOITE is paramagnetic to antiferromagnetic, depending on composition. It is an electrical semiconductor. Nickel-Strunz: 2.EB.05a - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 2] with Fe, Co, Ni and platinum group elements. Found in some sulfide ore localities. PYROCHROITE Mn( OH )2 Brucite Group 3m Trigonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 4.FE.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - Hydroxides (without vanadium or uranium) - Hydroxides with OH, without H2O, with sheets of edge-sharing octahedra. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Formed as a primary mineral in sulfide deposits and as a hydration mineral in manganese-rich metamorphic rock. PYROLUSITE MnO2 Rutile Group 4/mmm Tetragonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 4.DB.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 2] with medium-sized cations, with chains of edge-sharing octahedra. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Commonly an alteration product of manganite, or formed under highly oxidizing conditions in manganese-bearing hydrothermal deposits and rocks, or in bogs, lakes, or shallow marine conditions. 263 TABLE 4. Continued PYROMORPHITE Pb5( PO4 )3Cl Apatite Supergroup: Pyromorphite Subgroup 6/m Hexagonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 8.BN.05 - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES - Phosphates, with additional anions, without H2O, with only large cations, [OH : XO4 = 0.33 : 1]. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A secondary mineral found in the oxidized zone of lead deposits; rarely a volcanic sublimate. PYROPHANITE MnTiO3 Ilmenite Group 3 Trigonal Centrosymmetric PYROPHANITE is paramagnetic. Nickel-Strunz: 4.CB.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 2 : 3 and 3 : 5] with medium-sized cations. Found principally in metamorphosed manganese deposits, and less commonly as an accessory mineral in granite, amphibolite, serpentinite, and also as a very rare component in chondritic meteorites. 264 TABLE 4. Continued PYRRHOTITE Fe1-xS (x = 0 to 0.17) Pyrrhotite Group Transition Temperature: 578 K m Monoclinic Polar There are monoclinic and hexagonal pyrrhotite polytypes reported: PYRRHOTITE-4M Fe7S8 Monoclinic PYRRHOTITE-5H Fe9S10 Hexagonal PYRRHOTITE-6M Fe11S12 Monoclinic PYRRHOTITE-7H Fe9S10 Monoclinic PYRRHOTITE-11H Fe10S11 Hexagonal. PYRRHOTITE ferrimagnetic with varying magnetic powers, depending on the number of Fe vacancies in the crystal structure. A related species with no vacancies (and therefore non- magnetic), is called TROILITE. The temperature dependent magnetic spin direction is as follows: the angle with respect to the c axis = 73º at 0 K and 180º at 300 K. PYRRHOTITE is a metallic electrical conductor. Nickel-Strunz: 2.CC.10 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 1] with Ni, Fe, Co and platinum group elements. - Pyroelectric (Hexagonal), Piezoelectric (Hexagonal) - Found mainly in mafic igneous rocks, typically as magmatic segregations, also in pegmatites, and in high-temperature hydrothermal and replacement veins, and in sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, as well as in iron meteorites. 265 TABLE 4. Continued QUARTZ SiO2 622 Hexagonal Chiral Transition Temperature: 846 K 32 Trigonal Chiral The low temperature phase is α-QUARTZ. The high temperature phase is β-QUARTZ. Nickel-Strunz: 4.DA.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 2] with small cations - Silica family. - Piezoelectric - Found in hydrothermal veins, epithermal to alpine; characteristic of granites and granite pegmatites; in sandstones and quartzites, less abundant in other rock types; in hydrothermal metal deposits. Common in carbonate rocks; a residual mineral in soils and sediments. QUENSELITE PbMnO2( OH ) 2/m Monoclinic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 4.FE.30 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - Hydroxides (without vanadium or uranium) - Hydroxides with OH, without H2O, with sheets of edge-sharing octahedra. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in metamorphosed iron-manganese ore bodies. RETGERSITE NiSO4 • 6H2O 422 Tetragonal Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 7.CB.30 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates and wolframates) - Sulfates (and selenates) without additional anions, with H2O, with only medium-sized cations. - Piezoelectric - A low-temperature secondary hydrothermal mineral found in nickel-rich deposits. 266 TABLE 4. Continued RHODIZITE ( K,Cs )Al4Be4( B,Be )12O28 Rhodizite Group Londonite – Rhodizite Series 43m Cubic Non-centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 6.GC.05 - BORATES - Heptaborates and other megaborates - Tecto- dodecaborates. - Piezoelectric - A late-stage accessory mineral found in alkali-rich granite pegmatites. RÖNTGENITE-CE Ca2( Ce,La )3( CO3 )5F3 3 Trigonal Polar and Chiral Along with BASTNÄSITE-CE, synchesite-Ce and parisite-Ce, this mineral is composed CeF layers that alternate with carbonate layers whose geometry are still undetermined for all but BASTNÄSITE-CE. Nickel-Strunz: 5.BD.20d - CARBONATES (NITRATES) - Carbonates with additional anions, without H2O, with rare earth elements. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in granite and alkalic pegmatites, as a late-stage hydrothermal mineral. ROQUESITE CuInS2 Chalcopyrite Group 42m Tetragonal Non-centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 2.CB.10a - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 1] with Zn, Fe, Cu and Ag. - Piezoelectric - Found in association with copper sulfides in high-temperature Sn–W–Bi–Mo hydrothermal veins in highly metamorphosed rocks; a late-stage mineral in a skarn Fe–W ore pipe; in magnetite-bearing massive chalcopyrite ore. 267 TABLE 4. Continued RUSSELLITE Bi2WO6 Koechlinite Group Melting Temperature: 1313 K m Monoclinic Polar Transition Temperature: 1023 K Orthorhombic (Not Known) Transition Temperature: 973 K mm2 Orthorhombic Polar The high-temperature phase of RUSSELLITE is paraelectric. Nickel-Strunz: 4.DE.15 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 2] with medium-sized cations, with various polyhedra. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - An alteration product of earlier bismuth minerals in Sn–W-bearing high-temperature hydrothermal mineral deposits, greisens, or granite pegmatites. RUTILE TiO2 Rutile Group 4/mmm Tetragonal Centrosymmetric RUTILE is one of five polymorphs of TiO2 found in nature, the others being brookite, anatase, akaogiite, and an α-PbO2 type high-pressure form (TiO2 II), not yet approved by the IMA. Nickel-Strunz: 4.DB.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 2] with medium-sized cations, with chains of edge-sharing octahedra. A common high-temperature, high-pressure accessory mineral in igneous rocks, anorthosite, and granite pegmatite, also found in hydrothermally-altered rocks, in gneiss, schist, contact metamorphosed limestone, and in clays and shales. 268 TABLE 4. Continued SAL AMMONIAC NH4Cl Sal Ammoniac Group m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 3.AA.25 - HALIDES - Simple halides, without H2O - [Metal : Halide = 1 : 1, 2 : 3 and 3 : 5]. - Piezoelectric - Found in fumarolic deposits (from sublimation), as a combustion product in coal seams and waste piles, and in guano deposits. SARCOLITE Na2Ca12( Ca,K,Fe,Sr,Mg )2Al8Si12( P,Si )O52F2 4/m Tetragonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.EH.15 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Phyllosilicates - Transitional structures between phyllosilicate and other silicate units. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in limestone-bearing volcanic ejecta subjected to contact metamorphism. SCHORL Na( Fe32+ )Al6( BO3 )3Si6O18( OH )3OH Tourmaline Supergroup: Alkali Group 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.CK.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Cyclosilicates - [Si6O18]12 six- membered single rings, with insular complex anions. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in granites and granite pegmatites, high-temperature hydrothermal veins, and some metamorphic rocks; also detrital. 269 TABLE 4. Continued SCOLECITE CaAl2Si3O10 • 3H2O Zeolite Group m Monoclinic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.GA.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Tectosilicates with zeolitic H2O, zeolite family - Zeolites with X5O10 units, the fibrous zeolites. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found primarily in cavities in basalts; in gneisses and amphibolites, and in laccoliths and dikes derived from syenitic and gabbroic magmas. SCHULTENITE Pb( HAsO4 ) Monoclinic (Not Known) Transition Temperature: 313.7 K m Monoclinic Polar Above 313.7 K undergoes a phase transition to a paraelectric form. Nickel-Strunz: 8.AD.30 - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES - Phosphates, without additional anions, without H2O, with only large cations. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A rare secondary mineral in the oxidized zone of some Pb–As-rich hydrothermal deposits. SEARLESITE Na( H2BSi2O7 ) 2 Monoclinic Polar and Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 9.EF.15 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Phyllosilicates - Single nets with six-membered rings, connected by metal [4] coordination, and metal [8] coordination. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Commonly interbedded with oil shales or marls; in boron-bearing evaporite deposits; rarely in vugs in phonolite. 270 TABLE 4. Continued SELENIUM Se Selenium Group 32 Trigonal Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 1.CC.10 - ELEMENTS (Metals and intermetallic alloys; metalloids and nonmetals; carbides, silicides, nitrides and phosphides) - Metalloids and Nonmetals - Sulfur-selenium-iodine. - Piezoelectric - From the sublimation of fumarolic vapors, as well as from the oxidation of selenium-rich organic compounds in sandstone deposits with uranium and vanadium, and from the combustion of coal or pyrite ores. SELIGMANNITE PbCuAsS3 Bournonite Group mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 2.GA.50 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites - Neso-sulfarsenites, without additional sulfur. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in cavities in dolostone. SHORTITE Na2Ca2( CO3 )3 mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 5.AC.25 - CARBONATES (NITRATES) - Carbonates without additional anions, without H2O - Alkali and alkali-earth carbonates. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in saline dolomitic marl; in kimberlite dikes; in carbonatite; in differentiated alkalic massifs; and associated with intrusive alkalic gabbro-syenite complexes. 271 TABLE 4. Continued SIDERITE FeCO3 Calcite Group 3m Trigonal Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 20 to 60 K (Not Known) (Not Known) SIDERITE is paramagnetic. Nickel-Strunz: 5.AB.05 - CARBONATES (NITRATES) - Carbonates without additional anions, without H2O - Alkali-earth (and other metal2+) carbonates. Found as a common component of bedded sedimentary iron ores and metamorphic iron formations, as well as in hydrothermal metallic veins, and rarely in granite and nepheline syenite pegmatites, in carbonatites, and also as an authigenic mineral and in concretions. SIEGENITE CoNi2S4 – NiCo2S4 Linnaeite Group: Thiospinel Group m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric SIEGENITE is paramagnetic and is a metallic electrical conductor. Nickel-Strunz: 2.DA.05 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 3 : 4]. - Thermoelectric - Found in hydrothermal veins with other Cu–Ni–Fe sulfides. SILLÉNITE Bi12SiO20 23 Cubic Chiral Transition Temperature: 92 K (Not Known) (Not Known) Nickel-Strunz: 4.CB.70 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 2 : 3 and 3 : 5] with medium-sized cations. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A secondary mineral formed by the oxidation of bismuth-bearing minerals; also found in hydrothermal veins in skarns. 272 TABLE 4. Continued SINOITE Si2N2O mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 1.DB.10 - ELEMENTS (Metals and intermetallic alloys; metalloids and nonmetals; carbides, silicides, nitrides and phosphides) - Nonmetallic Carbides and Nitrides - Nonmetallic nitrides. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found embedded in enstatite in chondritic meteorites. SODALITE Na8( Al6Si6O24 )Cl2 Sodalite Group 43m Cubic Non-centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.FB.10 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Tectosilicates without zeolitic H2O - Tectosilicates with additional anions. - Piezoelectric - Found in nepheline syenites, phonolites and related rocks, in cavities in volcanic ejecta, and in metasomatized calcareous rocks. SPANGOLITE Cu6Al( SO4 )Cl( OH )12 • 3H2O 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 7.DD.15 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates and wolframates) - Sulfates (and selenates) with additional anions, with H2O, with only medium-sized cations, with sheets of edge-sharing octahedra. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A secondary mineral found in the oxidization zone of hydrothermal copper deposits. 273 TABLE 4. Continued SPHALERITE ZnS Sphalerite Group 43m Cubic Non-centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 2.CB.05a - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 1] with Zn, Fe, Cu and Ag. - Piezoelectric - Formed under a wide range of low- to high-temperature hydrothermal conditions; in coal, limestone, and other sedimentary deposits. SPINEL MgAl2O4 Spinel Group m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 4.BB.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 3 : 4] with only medium-sized cations. A common mineral, formed at high-temperatures as an accessory in igneous rocks, principally basalts, kimberlites, peridotites, and in xenoliths, also, in regionally metamorphosed aluminum-rich schists, and in regionally and contact metamorphosed limestones. 274 TABLE 4. Continued SREBRODOLSKITE Ca2Fe2O5 Brownmillerite Group Brownmillerite-Srebrodolskite Series (Not Known) (Not Known) Transition Temperature: 725 K mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric SREBRODOLSKITE is (incompletely) antiferromagnetic. Nickel-Strunz: 4.AC.10 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 1 and up to 1 : 1.25] with large cations (± smaller ones). Found in some skarns, as well as in some coal deposits as a combustion product, and as a hardpan formation component from mining waste. STEPHANITE Ag5SbS4 Stephanite Group mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 2.GB.10 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites - Neso-sulfarsenites, with additional sulfur. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A late-stage mineral in hydrothermal silver deposits STIBIOCOLUMBITE Sb( Nb,Ta )O4 Cervantite Group Stibiocolumbite – Stibiotantalite Series mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 4.DE.30 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 2] with medium-sized cations, with various polyhedra. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A rare accessory mineral in complex granite pegmatites. 275 TABLE 4. Continued STIBIOTANTALITE Sb( Ta,Nb )O4 Cervantite Group Stibiocolumbite – Stibiotantalite Series (Not Known) (Not Known) Transition Temperature: 695 K mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Ferroelectric Above 695 K undergoes a phase transition to a paraelectric form. Nickel-Strunz: 4.DE.30 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 2] with medium-sized cations, with various polyhedra. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - An uncommon accessory mineral in complex granite pegmatites. STIBNITE Sb2S3 Stibnite Group mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 420 K mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Transition Temperature: 292 K (Not Known) (Not Known) Nickel-Strunz: 2.DB.05 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 2 : 3]. - Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Of hydrothermal origin, formed in veins through a wide range of temperatures. 276 TABLE 4. Continued STILLEITE ZnSe Sphalerite Group 43m Cubic Non-centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 2.CB.05a - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 1] with Zn, Fe, Cu and Ag. - Piezoelectric - Found with other selenides, or as an inclusion in linnaeite. STRUVITE ( NH4 )Mg( PO4 ) • 6H2O Struvite Group mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 8.CH.40 - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES - Phosphates without additional anions, with H2O, with large and medium-sized cations, [XO4 : H2O < 1 : 1]. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in peaty earth intermixed with cattle dung; also formed in bird or bat guano in caves and surface deposits. SUOLUNITE Ca2( H2Si2O7 ) • H2O mm2 Orthorhombic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.BE.10 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Sorosilicates - Si2O7 groups, with additional anions, with cations in octahedral [6] and greater coordination. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in veins cutting harzburgites in ultramafic intrusives; as a precipitate from alkaline springs in fault zones in basalts overlying ultramafic intrusives. 277 TABLE 4. Continued SWEDENBORGITE NaBe4Sb5+O7 6mm Hexagonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 4.AC.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites, iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 1 and up to 1 : 1.25] with large cations (± smaller ones). - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in skarn deposits with iron-manganese ores. SYNGENITE K2Ca( SO4 )2 • H2O Syngenite Group 2/m Monoclinic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 7.CD.35 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates and wolframates) - Sulfates (and selenates) without additional anions, with H2O, with only large cations. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Formed from diagenesis in marine salt deposits, and from volcanic vent processes, as well as from bat guano. 278 TABLE 4. Continued TAUSONITE SrTiO3 Perovskite Group Melting Temperature: 2353 K m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Paraelectric Transition Temperature: 105 K 4/mmm Tetragonal Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 40 K (Not Known) (Not Known) Transition Temperature: 0.1 to 0.6 K (Not Known) (Not Known) Below 40 K TAUSONITE undergoes a phase transition to a ferroelectric form. TAUSONITE can exhibit a ferroelectric phase at low temperatures with stress along [100] and [110]. Variation in the lowest transition temperature is due to charge-carrier concentration differences. TAUSONITE is an electrical semiconductor. Below 0.1 to 0.6 K, TAUSONITE is an electrical superconductor. Nickel-Strunz: 4.CC.35 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 2 : 3 and 3 : 5] with large and medium-sized cations. - Paraelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in some alkalic massifs and in some carbonatite complexes within fenite dikes. TELLURIUM Te Selenium Group 32 Trigonal Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 1.CC.10 - ELEMENTS (Metals and intermetallic alloys; metalloids and nonmetals; carbides, silicides, nitrides and phosphides) - Metalloids and Nonmetals - Sulfur-selenium-iodine. - Piezoelectric - Found in hydrothermal veins, as a primary or secondary mineral, and from sublimation of vapor in fumaroles. 279 TABLE 4. Continued THAUMASITE Ca3( SO4 )[ Si( OH )6 ]( CO3 ) • 12H2O Ettringite Group 6/m Hexagonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 7.DG.15 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates and wolframates) - Sulfates (and selenates) with additional anions, with H2O : With large and medium-sized cations, with NO3, CO3, B(OH)4, SiO4 and IO3. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in sulfide ore deposits as a late-stage mineral, and in contact metamorphic zones where basalt or tuff have reacted with seawater or geothermal waters. THOMSONITE-CA NaCa2Al5Si5O20 • 7H2O Zeolite Group mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.GA.10 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Tectosilicates with zeolitic H2O, zeolite family - Zeolites with X5O10 units, the fibrous zeolites. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in amygdules and fractures in mafic igneous rocks, typically basalts; in some alkalic igneous rocks, contact metamorphic zones, and hypabyssal rocks; and as an authigenic cement in some sandstones. THORNASITE ( Na,K )12Th3( Si8O19 )4 • 18H2O Zeolite Group 3m Trigonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz (10th edition): 9.GF.50 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Tectosilicates with zeolitic H2O, zeolite family - Other rare zeolites. - Piezoelectric - Found in intrusive alkalic gabbro-syenite complexes, and in cavities in nepheline syenite sills. 280 TABLE 4. Continued TIEMANNITE HgSe Sphalerite Group 43m Cubic Non-centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 2.CB.05a - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 1] with Zn, Fe, Cu and Ag. - Piezoelectric - Found in hydrothermal veins with other selenides and calcite. TILASITE CaMg( AsO4 )F Tilasite Group m Monoclinic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 8.BH.10 - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES - Phosphates, with additional anions, without H2O, with medium-sized and large cations, [OH : XO4 = 1 : 1]. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in metamorphosed manganese or zinc deposits containing arsenic. TISTARITE Ti2O3 Hematite Group 3m Trigonal Centrosymmetric TISTARITE is paramagnetic. Nickel-Strunz: 4.CB.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 2 : 3 and 3 : 5] with medium-sized cations. Found in the Pueblito de Allende meteorite. 281 TABLE 4. Continued TOPAZ Al2SiO4( F,OH )2 mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.AF.35 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Nesosilicates with additional anions, with cations in [4], [5] and/or only [6] coordination. - Piezoelectric - Found in veins and cavities in granite, granite pegmatite, rhyolite, and in greisen, formed from high-temperature, volatile-rich pneumatolytic hydrothermal fluids; from high-grade metamorphism of aluminous, quartz-rich, and fluorine-bearing sediments; as a heavy detrital mineral. TOURMALINE SUPERGROUP XY3Z6( BO3 )3Si6O18V3W 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.CK.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Cyclosilicates - [Si6O18]12 six- membered single rings, with insular complex anions. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Tourmaline is a supergroup of minerals in solid solution, found in a variety of igneous and metamorphic settings. TREVORITE NiFe2O4 Spinel Group (Not Known) (Not Known) Transition Temperature: 860 K m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 4.BB.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 3 : 4] with only medium-sized cations. - Thermoelectric - Found in nickeliferous serpentinite, from contact metamorphism between quartzite and an ultramafic intrusion, as well in gabbro intruding peridotites. 282 TABLE 4. Continued TUGTUPITE Na4AlBeSi4O12Cl Sodalite Group 4 Tetragonal Non-centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.FB.10 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Tectosilicates without zeolitic H2O - Tectosilicates with additional anions. - Piezoelectric - Replaces chkalovite in hydrothermal veins cutting sodalite syenite and syenite; an alteration product in pegmatites in differentiated alkalic massifs. TYROLITE Ca2Cu9( AsO4 )4( CO3 )( OH )8 • 11H2O mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 8.DM.10 - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES - Phosphates, with additional anions, with H2O, with large and medium-sized cations, [OH : XO4 > 2 : 1]. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found as a secondary mineral in oxidized hydrothermal copper deposits. URANINITE UO2 Uraninite Group Thorianite-Uraninite Series m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 30 K (Not Known) (Not Known) URANINITE is paramagnetic. Nickel-Strunz: 4.DL.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 2] with large (± medium-sized) cations; fluorite-type structures. Found in granite and syenite pegmatites, in hydrothermal high-temperature tin and moderate-temperature Co–Ni–Bi–Ag–As and other sulfide veins, in Colorado Plateau- type sandstone-hosted U–V deposits, and in uraniferous conglomerates. 283 TABLE 4. Continued URANOPHANE Ca( UO2 )2( HSiO4 )2 • 5H2O Uranophane Group 2 Monoclinic Polar and Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 9.AK.15 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Nesosilicates - Uranyl neso- and polysilicates. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in uranium deposits as an alteration product of uraninite. USSINGITE Na2AlSi3O8OH 1 Triclinic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.EH.20 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Phyllosilicates - Transitional structures between phyllosilicate and other silicate units. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in alkalic pegmatites and in sodalite xenoliths. UVITE Ca( Mg3 )MgAl5( BO3 )3Si6O18( OH )3OH Tourmaline Supergroup: Calcic Group 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.CK.05 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Cyclosilicates - [Si6O18]12 six- membered single rings, with insular complex anions. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Typically found in calcium-rich rocks subjected to contact metamorphism and metasomatic processes that have added boron. 284 TABLE 4. Continued VAESITE NiS2 Pyrite Group Cattierite – Vaesite Series Pyrite – Vaesite Series m3 Cubic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 37 to 160 K (Not Known) (Not Known) Transition Temperature: 30 K (Not Known) (Not Known) VAESITE is paramagnetic and is an electrical semiconductor. Below a phase transition at 37 to 160 K, VAESITE is antiferromagnetic; below 30 K it is (incompletely) antiferromagnetic. Nickel-Strunz: 2.EB.05a - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 2] with Fe, Co, Ni and platinum group elements. Found in some dolostone, and as an alteration product of some hydrothermal vein minerals. VERMICULITE ( Mg,Fe,Al )3[ ( Al,Si )4O10 ]( OH )2 • 4H2O Montmorillonite-Vermiculite Group 2/m Monoclinic Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.EC.50 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Phyllosilicates with mica sheets, composed of tetrahedral and octahedral nets. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Formed as an alteration product of biotite or phlogopite, and found in the contact between felsic and mafic rocks, as well as in carbonatites, metamorphosed limestones and soils. 285 TABLE 4. Continued WAKEFIELDITE-ND NdVO4 Xenotime Group 4/mmm Tetragonal Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 293 K Tetragonal (Not Known) Below 293 K WAKEFIELDITE-ND undergoes a phase transition to a ferroelectric form. Nickel-Strunz: 8.AD.35 - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES - Phosphates, without additional anions, without H2O, with only large cations. - Paraelectric, Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A product of metamorphism, in manganese-bearing deposits. WELOGANITE Na2Sr3Zr( CO3 )6 • 3H2O Donnayite Group 1 Triclinic Polar and Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 5.CC.05 - CARBONATES (NITRATES) - Carbonates without additional anions, with H2O - With rare earth elements. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - In alkalic sills or associated with intrusive alkalic gabbro-syenite complexes. WHITLOCKITE Ca9( Mg,Fe2+ )( PO4 )6[ PO3( OH ) ] Whitlockite Group 3m Trigonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 8.AC.45 - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES, VANADATES - Phosphates, without additional anions, without H2O, with medium-sized and large cations. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A secondary mineral in complex, zoned granite pegmatites; in phosphate rock deposits, or formed in caves from leached guano. 286 TABLE 4. Continued WULFENITE PbMoO4 Scheelite Group Stolzite – Wulfenite Series 4/m Tetragonal Centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 7.GA.05 - SULFATES (selenates, tellurates, chromates, molybdates and wolframates) - Molybdates, wolframates and niobates without additional anions or H2O. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - A secondary mineral formed in the oxidized zone of hydrothermal lead deposits, the molybdenum commonly introduced externally. WURTZITE ( Zn,Fe )S Wurtzite Group 6mm Hexagonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 2.CB.45 - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Metal Sulfides, [Metal : Sulfur = 1 : 1] with Zn, Fe, Cu and Ag. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Of hydrothermal origin in veins with other sulfides; also along shrinkage fractures in clay-ironstone concretions, of low-temperature origin. 287 TABLE 4. Continued WÜSTITE FeO Periclase Group m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 198 K (Not Known) (Not Known) WÜSTITE is paramagnetic. Nickel-Strunz: 4.AB.25 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 1 and up to 1 : 1.25] with small to medium-sized cations only. Formed as an alteration product of other iron-bearing minerals at high temperatures in a highly reducing environment, in highly-reduced iron-bearing basalts, as inclusions in diamonds in kimberlites, in precipitates from deep-sea hot brines and in Fe–Mn nodules, in microspherules of likely extraterrestrial origin found in a variety of geological environments, and in some meteorites. XIEITE FeCr2O4 mmm Orthorhombic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 50 to 90 K (Not Known) (Not Known) XIEITE is paramagnetic; below 50 to 90 K, it is ferrimagnetic. XIEITE is a high-pressure polymorph of chromite. The P-T conditions for the phase transformation to XIEITE from chromite are estimated at 20–23 GPa and 1800°C to 2000°C, respectively. Nickel-Strunz: 4.BB.25 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 3 : 4] with only medium-sized cations. Found in a chondrite meteorite. 288 TABLE 4. Continued YUGAWARALITE CaAl2Si6O16 • 4H2O Zeolite Group m Monoclinic Polar Nickel-Strunz: 9.GB.15 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Tectosilicates with zeolitic H2O, zeolite family - Chains of singly connected four-membered rings. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - As crystals lining cavities, and veinlets, typically deposited in active geothermal areas. ZINCITE ( Zn,Mn2+,Fe2+ )O Zincite Group 6mm Hexagonal Polar Nickel-Strunz: 4.AB.20 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 1 : 1 and up to 1 : 1.25] with small to medium-sized cations only. - Piezoelectric - Found both as a primary mineral in layered metamorphic zinc ore and as a secondary mineral in oxidized zinc-rich deposits; also volcanic. ZINCOCHROMITE ZnCr2O4 Spinel Group m3m Cubic Centrosymmetric Transition Temperature: 17 K (Not Known) (Not Known) ZINCOCHROMITE is paramagnetic. Nickel-Strunz: 4.BB.05 - OXIDES (Hydroxides, V[5,6] vanadates, arsenites, antimonites, bismuthites, sulfites, selenites, tellurites and iodates) - [Metal : Oxygen = 3 : 4] with only medium-sized cations. Replacing chromian aegirine (itself an alkalic igneous and metamorphic mineral) in some micaceous metasomatites. 289 TABLE 4. Continued ZINKENITE Pb9Sb22S42 Zinkenite-Scainiite Group 6 Hexagonal Polar and Chiral Nickel-Strunz: 2.JB.35a - SULFIDES and SULFOSALTS (sulfides, selenides, tellurides; arsenides, antimonides, bismuthides; sulfarsenites, sulfantimonites and sulfbismuthites) - Sulfosalts of PbS structure - Galena derivatives, with Pb. - Pyroelectric, Piezoelectric - Found in hydrothermal veins associated with base metal and tin sulfides and sulfosalts. ZUNYITE Al13Si5O20Cl( OH,F )18 43m Cubic Non-centrosymmetric Nickel-Strunz: 9.BJ.55 - SILICATES (Germanates) - Sorosilicates with Si3O10, Si4O11 and similar anions, cations in octahedral [6] and greater coordination. - Piezoelectric - Found in highly aluminous shales and hydrothermally altered volcanic rocks. Notes: All of the minerals are listed under IMA approved names, except for tourmaline, which is a supergroup, rather than a single mineral, and is included for interest. For minerals of the tourmaline supergroup, formulas are given as X(Y)3Z6(BO3)3Si6O18(V)3W with the extra parentheses to aid the reader. Also note that a similar convention of having the empirical formula denote structural data has been followed for other minerals in this table, including those for batisite, fresnoite, londonite, magnetite, rhodizite, and whitlockite. Small figures representing crystal lattice unit cells for each of the 32 crystal classes are shown by each mineral, and these are taken from webmineral.com (Barthelmy, 2012), originally drawn using software called FACES by Georges Favreau, no longer accessible. Reproduced with permission. Transition temperatures are given at ambient pressures unless otherwise specified. The Nickel-Strunz categories are from the 10th edition, available at mindat.org (Ralph and Chau, 2012). 290 TABLE 4. Continued Notes, continued: The crystal system notation in the table above has one modification to it: Superscripted numbers are represented here as underlined numbers, so that the rhombohedral crystal class is written as 6, for example. The descriptions under each mineral name are a combination of direct quotation and paraphrase from the Mineralogical Society of America’s (MSA) Handbook of Mineralogy (Anthony et al., 2012), reproduced with permission, except for the descriptions of barioperovskite, cadmoindite, demicheleite-Br, demicheleite-Cl, demicheleite-I, fluor-dravite, mariinskite, oxycalciopyrochlore, oxyplumbopyrochlore, oxy-schorl, srebrodolskite, tistarite, and xieite, which are a combination of direct quotation, paraphrase and inference (based on geographical location of specimens) from mindat.org (Ralph and Chau, 2012), reproduced with permission, and halloysite-7Å, which is paraphrased from webmineral.com (Barthelmy, D., 2012), while the description of the pyrite variety bravoite is paraphrased from El Baz and Amstutz (1963), and clinocervantite, where the description is summarized from Basso et al. (1999), as well as cuprorhodsite, from Martin and Blackburn (2001), and lakargiite, from Guskin et al. (2008), plus wakefieldite-Nd from Moriyama et al. (2011). References for the structural data in this table are given in Table 11 in Appendix G, p. 380. 291  APPENDIX B ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC MINERAL DATA 292 TABLE 22. Spontaneous Polarization (q) Data in Ferroelectric Minerals Mineral q: 10-3 C m-2 T: °C Notes [T: °C] [P: GPa] Archerite 48 -183 PeakT [-183 to -150] Barioperovskite* 200 ≤ 135 Boracite 8.0 267 PeakT [-173 to 327] Demicheleite-Br 85 RT Demicheleite-I 85 RT Gwihabaite 7 120 PeakT [140 to 60, cooling] 8 118 PeakT [60 to 140, heating] Heftetjernite ≈0 5 500 -35 PeakT [-45 to 5] Lueshite 120 RT Macedonite 400 to 800 500 to 0 Cooling 120 210 to 225 Heating Niter 80 118 PeakT [115.0 to 130.0] Nitratine 0.6 P = 5.8 GPa RT PeakP [4.7 to 5.8] Pyrolusite 0.12 50 PeakT [-60 to 110] Stibiotantalite 130 300 PeakT [250 to 550] Wakefieldite-Nd 30 0 Notes: The spontaneous polarization (q) is the charge density per area caused by a change in temperature or pressure. P signifies pressure. T signifies temperature. RT signifies (ambient) room temperature. At 135°C Barioperovskite* undergoes a paraelectric phase transition. There is no ferroelectric spontaneous polarization exhibited above this temperature. References are listed in Table 27 in Appendix G, p. 396. 293 TABLE 23. Electrocaloric Effect, Ferroelectric Minerals Mineral ΔT : °C E: 103 V m-1 T: °C Notes [E: 103 V m-1] [T: °C] Archerite Δ 1.0° 1250 RT PeakE [0 to 1250] Barioperovskite Δ 0.43° 750 120 Tausonite Δ 0.11° 1000 -255 PeakE Δ 0.3° 199 -261 PeakT [-263 to -243] Notes: The electrocaloric effect is a change in temperature due to the application of an electric field (E). T signifies temperature. RT signifies (ambient) room temperature. References are listed in Table 27 in Appendix G, p. 396. TABLE 24. Other Electrical Data, Ferroelectric Minerals Mineral Magnitude T: °C Notes [T: °C] Activation Energy for DC Conductivity Tausonite 1.037 eV RT Pyroelectric Potential Barioperovskite 50 V 109 PeakT Pyroelectric Current Chalcostibite 2 x 10-10 A 93 PeakT [-15 to 135] Remanent Field Oxyplumbopyrochlore 1.5 x 105 V m-1 RT PeakT Coercive Field Heftetjernite 4 x 103 V m-1 5 2 x 104 V m-1 -35 PeakT [-45 to 5] Pyrolusite 1 x 104 V m-1 -60 PeakT [-60 to 110] Stibiotantalite 10 V m-1 350 PeakT [250 to 550] Notes: T signifies temperature. RT signifies (ambient) room temperature. The Activation Energy for DC Conductivity is the strength of the electric signal necessary to initiate the flow of electric charge. The Pyroelectric Potential is the magnitude of an electic potential caused by changes in temperature. The Pyroelectric Current is the 294 TABLE 24. Continued Notes, continued: magnitude of an electic current caused by changes in temperature. The Remanent Field is the strength of electric field remaining when no applied field is present. The Coercive Field is the strength of electric field needed to reverse the polarity of a ferroelectric material. References are listed in Table 27 in Appendix G, p. 396. TABLE 25. Pyroelectric Polarization (p) Data for Minerals Mineral p: 10-6 C m-2 K-1 T: °C Notes [T: °C] Boracite 7.5 267 PeakT -2.4 RT Cadmoselite 3.7 RT Chambersite 850 135 PeakT [40 to 160] Diomignite -30 25 -120 -150 Fresnoite 10 RT Greenockite 4.0 Primary: 3.0 RT Macedonite 250 100 Proustite 8.0 RT Tourmaline* 4.0 Primary: 0.8 RT p = 4.791 – 0.103 x (wt% FeO) 110 p = 3.949 – 0.094 x (wt% FeO) 23 p = 2.594 – 0.077 x (wt% FeO) -80 Wurtzite 0.43 Primary: 0.34 RT Notes: The pyroelectric polarization (p) is electrical polarization due to they pyroelectric effect. “Primary” is the amount of charge expressed via the primary pyroelectric effect. The secondary effect (due to piezoelectricity from lattice expansion during heating) has been calculated from a model of the crystal lattice. This value is then subtracted from the observed value to obtain the primary effect. Pyroelectric phenomena in Tourmaline* are correlated to Fe2+ occupancy of the Y site of the tourmaline crystal lattice, in an inverse linear relationship: more Fe2+ results in a weaker pyroelectric effect. Tourmaline is a mineral supergroup, described by the formula X(Y)3Z6(BO3)3Si6O18(V)3W. The letters V, W, X, Y and Z signify lattice sites where a variety of atoms may be present. The formulas and observations for the pyroelectric polarization in tourmaline are from Hawkins et al. (1995). T signifies temperature. RT signifies (ambient) room temperature. Complete references are listed in Table 28 in Appendix G, p. 396. 295 TABLE 26. Thermoelectric Potential (t) Data for Minerals Mineral t: 10-6 V K-1 T: °C Notes [T: °C] Cadmoindite -400 RT Carrollite 12.7 RT Endmember CuCo2S4 Coulsonite 340 RT Cuprokalininite 16.0 RT Cuprorhodsite 25 RT Endmember CuRh2S4 Cuprospinel -164 27 Daubréelite 483 RT 475 -35 PeakT [-235 to 265] Indite 360 RT Jacobsite -450 25 to 375 Kalininite 222 RT Linnaeite 4.8 RT Lueshite 2.5 260 PeakT Macedonite 200 350 to 700 Magnesiocoulsonite 450 RT Magnetite -85 to -120 600 to 1500 -50 -100 to -35 Siegenite -17.7 RT Endmember NiCo2S4 Trevorite -110 125 to 725 Notes: The thermoelectric potential (t) is an electrical potential from the thermoelectric effect. “Endmember” signifies that the value has only been measured for the end member indicated for a mineral that forms a solid solution. T signifies temperature. RT signifies (ambient) room temperature. References are listed in Table 29 in Appendix G, p. 397. 296 TABLE 30. Piezoelectric (Electric Charge) Strain Rates (d) for Minerals Mineral d: 10-12 C N-1 T: °C Notes [T: °C] Analcime (31) 0.2 to 0.5 RT Archerite (36) 16.8 100 (36) 25.4 0 Barioperovskite (31) -520 (33) 1,000 130 PeakT [15 to 130] (15) 392 (31) -34.5 (33) 85.6 25 (15) 700 15 PeakT [15 to 130] Berlinite (11) -3.0 (14) 1.3 RT (11) -5.56 (14) 1.19 25 Biphosphammite (36) 43.2 100 (36) 51.7 0 Boracite* (14) 13.5 (33) 3.9 265 PeakT (14) 8.5 264.5 Near Transition T (33) 1.4 150 (14) 4.5 25 (33) 0.6 RT (14) -2.0 (25) -2.4 (36) 3.60 RT Bromellite (31) 0.1 (33) 0.2 RT Cadmoselite (15) -10.52(31) -3.92 (33) 7.85 RT Cancrinite (15) -9.0 (31) -0.6 (33) 4.3 RT (15) 9.01 (31) 0.7 (33) 4.3 RT Changbaiite (33) 81 RT Cinnabar (11) -0.6 (14) ≈ |1.7| RT Diomignite (31) 0.92 (33) 7.2 RT Epsomite (14) -2.0 (25) -2.4 (36) -3.6 RT (14) -2.06 (25) -2.72 (36) -3.8 20 Eulytine (14) 1.6 RT Fresnoite (31) 2.7 (33) 7.8 (h) 12.7 RT (15) 18 (31) 2.7 (33) 3.8 RT (15) 9.3 (31) 3.1 (33) 4.0 20 Goslarite (14) -1.9 (25) -3.5 (36) -3.07 20 Greenockite* (15) -13.98(31) -5.18 (33) 10.32 25 (15) -7.55 (31) -4.36 (33) 6.49 (h) <0.05 RT (15) -14 (31) -3.7 (33) 11 RT (15) -11.91(31) -5.09 (33) 9.71 20 In the Dark (15) -11.4 (31) -4.8 (33) 9.5 -269 Ice (33) 2 0 Macedonite (15) 6.5 (31) -2.5 (33) 11.7 RT 297 TABLE 30. Continued Mineral d: 10-12 C N-1 T: °C Notes [T: °C] Magnetite (11) ≈ 0.16 (12) ≈ 0.63 (13) ≈ 0.19 (31) ≥ 0.11 (32) ≥ 0.06 (33) ≥ 0.25 -269.0 Morenosite (14) 1.99 (25) -2.95 (36) -3.21 RT Nepheline (33) 0.5 to 1.3 RT Paratellurite (14) 8.13 20 Proustite (15) -20 (22) 12.1 (31) -13.8 (33) 30 20 Pyrargyrite (15) 31.6 (22) 16.2 (31) -19.5 (33) 62.2 27 (22) 13.8 (31) -23 (33) 35 20 Pyrolusite (?) 800 to 930 RT β-Pyrolusite Quartz* (14) -1.82 626 β-Quartz (14) -1.86 612 β-Quartz (14) -1.89 585 β-Quartz (11) 1.27 (14) -1.87 570 (11) 2.05 100 (11) 2.16 100 (11) 2.18 100 Synthetic (11) 2.3 (14) -0.67 RT (11) 2.22 RT (11) 2.20 to 2.30 RT (11) -2.232 RT Brazilian (11) 2.31 (14) -0.670 RT (11) -2.252 RT Synthetic (11) 2.27 20 to 22 Brazilian (11) 2.31 (14) -0.72 20 (11) 2.31 < -196 (11) 2.13 < -196 Synthetic (11) 2.32 -269 and -271.7 (111) 5.0 x 10-20 C2 N-2 RT Brazilian -20 2 -2 (111) 3.6 x 10 C N RT Synthetic (112) 7.1 x 10-20 C2 N-2 RT (112) 14.2 x 10-20 C2 N-2 RT Brazilian (1112) -9.6 x 10-26 C3 N-3 RT (1112) -57 x 10-26 C3 N-3 RT Brazilian Sal Ammoniac (14) 0.112 RT Retgersite (14) 6.0 RT Russellite (11) 40 (13) -8.7 (12) 14 RT 298 TABLE 30. Continued Mineral d: 10-12 C N-1 T: °C Notes [T: °C] Schorl* (33) 1.6 (h) 2.2 -192 to 16 Selenium (11) 30 to 200 RT Sillénite (14) 40.5 -196 to 227 (14) 37.8 RT Sodalite (14) 1.3 RT Sphalerite (14) 3.18 25 (31) -1.13 (33) 1.92 (15) -2.52 20 10% Wurtzite (14) 3.46 -196 Stibiotantalite (33) 150 380 (33) 370 RT (33) 117 RT Stilleite (14) 1.1 RT Tausonite (33) 150 RT PeakT with an applied electric field of 5 x 10 V m-1 along [001] 5 Tellurium (11) 3,000 RT Tourmaline (22) -0.3 (31) -0.34 (33) -1.8 (15) -3.6 25 (h) 4.00 RT (15) 3.64 (22) -0.3 (31) 0.3 (33) 1.8 RT Wurtzite* (31) -1.1 (33) 3.2 (15) -2.8 RT (31) 2.0 (33) 3.9 (15) 5.1 20 0.30:0.70::Mg:Zn (31) -2.14 (33) 3.66 (15) -4.37 20 0.10:0.90::Mg:Zn (31) 0.95 (33) 3.3 (15) 2.6 -273 Zincite (15) -10 (31) -4.6 (33) 12 RT Notes: The piezoelectric strain rate (d) is electric charge per unit force due to the piezoelectric effect. Parentheses signify the lattice directions in Voigt notation. The location of electricity is shown by the first number, and strain by the second. (See Chapter 3, p. 50.) The entries d(h) present the strain rate under hydrostatic pressure, according to d(i1) + d(i2) + d(i3), where i is the polar axis. “Brazilian” is a natural quartz specimen from Brazil. Boracite* undergoes a ferroelectric to paraelectric phase transition near T = 265ºC. Greenockite* exhibits changes in piezoelectric rates with light intensity, as per Ogawa and Kojima (1966). For Quartz*, d(11) is reported to have a flat maximum near T = RT, decreasing as T rises, and zero at T = 573ºC, which is the transition temperature to β-quartz structure. Also note the units of the higher order piezoelectric strain rates for quartz. With Schorl*, also see the tourmaline entry for more numerical data listings. The colons by two of the Wurtzite* entries signify percent ratios. Complete references are listed in Table 37 in Appendix G, p. 397. 299 TABLE 31. Piezoelectric (Electric Charge) Stress Rates (e) for Minerals Mineral e: C m-2 T: °C Notes Archerite* (36) 0.097 100 (36) 0.158 0 (345) 0.07 RT Berlinite (11) -0.192 (14) 0.143 RT Biphosphammite (36) 0.254 100 (36) 0.318 0 Bournonite (33) 0.85 RT Cancrinite (14) 0.12 (15) -0.28 16 Cinnabar (11) 0.315 RT Diomignite (15) 0.472 (31) 0.290 (33) 0.928 RT Eulytine (14) 0.083 RT Greenockite (15) -0.210 (31) -0.244 (33) 0.440 25 (15) -0.21 (31) -0.24 (33) 0.434 RT (15) -0.183 (31) -0.262 (33) 0.385 20 Langbeinite (14) 0.021 RT Paratellurite (14) 0.216 20 Proustite (15) -0.18 (22) 0.32 (31) -0.29 (33) 0.27 20 Pyrargyrite (15) 0.38 (22) 0.44 (31) 0.20 (33) 1.12 27 Quartz (11) 0.062 568 (11) 0.138 494 (11) 0.170 118 (11) 0.17 (14) 0.04 RT (11) 0.171 (14) -0.0406 20 (11) 0.170 18 Sphalerite (14) 0.147 25 10% Wurtzite (15) -0.072 (31) -0.137 (33) 0.165 20 (14) 0.162 -196 Tourmaline (15) 0.246 (22) -0.017 (31) -0.103 (33) 0.320 RT (15) 0.25 (22) -0.018 (31) 0.103 (33) 0.32 RT Wurtzite (15) 0.07 (33) 0.14 RT (15) -0.08 (31) -0.09 (33) 0.34 RT (15) 0.13 (33) 0.34 RT .30:.70::Mg:Zn (15) -0.118 (31) -0.238 (33) 0.265 20 .10:.90::Mg:Zn Notes: The piezoelectric stress rate (e) is the product of electric charge per unit force and pressure, caused by the piezoelectric effect. Parentheses signify the directions in Voigt notation. The location of electricity is shown by the first number, and stress by the 300 TABLE 31. Continued Notes, continued: second. The third-order value for Archerite* shows electricity at the first number, and stress at the second and third. (See Chapter 3, p. 50.) T signifies temperature. RT signifies (ambient) room temperature. References are listed in Table 37 in Appendix G, p. 397. TABLE 32. Piezoelectric (Electric Field) Strain Rates (g) for Minerals Mineral g: 10-3 V m N-1 T: °C Notes Archerite (36) 110 100 (36) 119 0 Barioperovskite (15) 15.3 (31) -23.1 (33) 57.6 25 Biphosphammite (36) 354 100 (36) 360 0 Boracite* (14) 90 265 (14) 83 264.5 Near Transition T (14) 60 25 Fresnoite (33) 88 (h) 110 RT (33) 82 (h) 130 RT Paratellurite (14) 40.1 20 Quartz (11) 57.8 (14) 18.2 20 Sphalerite (14) 41 RT Notes: The piezoelectric field strain rate (g) is the electric potential per unit force (per unit area) due to the piezoelectric effect. Parentheses signify the lattice directions in Voigt notation. The location of electricity is shown by the first number, and strain by the second. (See Chapter 3, p. 50.) The entries g(h) present the strain rate under hydrostatic pressure, according to g(i1) + g(i2) + g(i3), where i is the polar axis. Boracite* undergoes a ferroelectric to paraelectric phase transition near T = 265ºC. T signifies temperature. RT signifies (ambient) room temperature. References are listed in Table 37 in Appendix G, p. 397. 301 TABLE 33. Piezoelectric (Electric Field) Stress Rates (h) for Minerals Mineral h: 108 V m-1 T: °C Archerite (36) 6.48 100 (36) 7.50 0 Biphosphammite (36) 22.4 100 (36) 25.1 0 Eulytine (14) 5.78 RT Paratellurite (14) 10.7 20 Pyrargyrite (22) 25 (31) 11 (33) 61 (15) 21 27 Quartz (11) 43.6 (14) -10.4 20 Notes: The piezoelectric field stress rate (h) is the product of the electric potential per unit force (per unit area) and pressure, caused by the piezoelectric effect. T signifies temperature. RT signifies (ambient) room temperature. References are listed in Table 37 in Appendix G, p. 397. 302 TABLE 34. Electromechanical Coupling Factors (k) for Minerals Mineral k: 10-2 T: °C Barioperovskite (15) 0.570 (31) 0.315 (33) 0.560 25 Berlinite (11) 0.162 (14) 0.240 RT (26) 0.232 RT (11) 0.111 (26) 0.175 (t) 0.11 RT Bournonite (33) 0.16 RT Cancrinite (14) 0.065 (15) 0.216 (31) 0.020 (33) 0.065 RT Changbaiite (t) 0.26 RT Cinnabar (11) 0.235 RT Diomignite (15) 0.21 (31) 0.093 (33) 0.42 RT Eulytine (14) 0.0305 RT Fresnoite (p) 0.14 (t) 0.225 RT (15) 0.28 (31) 0.10 (33) 0.11 RT (15) 0.34 (t) 0.23 20 Greenockite (15) 0.1885 (31) -0.1191 (33) 0.262 (t) 0.154 25 (15) 0.166 (31) 0.117 (33) 0.256 (t) 0.135 20 Langbeinite (14) 0.015 RT Macedonite (15) 0.43 (31) 0.24 (33) 0.64 (p) 0.40 RT Paratellurite (14) -0.093 20 Proustite (31) 0.18 (33) 0.29 20 Pyrargyrite (15) 0.26 (22) 0.14 (31) 0.17 (33) 0.40 27 (13) 0.363 20 (33) 0.38 -173 to 117 (33) 0.345 -183 to -128 Quartz (11) 0.092 (26) 0.137 (t) 0.0084 RT (11) 0.10 (14) 0.03 20 Sillénite (14) 0.31 (31) 0.28 (t) 0.20 RT Sphalerite (14) 0.0795 25 10% Wurtzite (15) 0.049 (31) 0.039 (33) 0.075 (t) 0.051 20 (14) 0.089 -196 Stephanite (33) 0.21 Tourmaline (15) 0.131 (22) 0.02 (31) 0.0214 25 Wurtzite* (15) 0.09 (31) 0.05 (33) 0.13 (t) 0.10 20 .30:.70::Mg:Zn (15) 0.084 (31) 0.072 (33) 0.14 (t) 0.080 20 .10:.90::Mg:Zn Notes: The electromechanical coupling factor (k) is a calculated value from which any of the piezoelectric coefficients can be determined. Parentheses signify the directions in 303 TABLE 34. Continued Notes, continued: Voigt notation. The location of electricity is shown by the first number, and strain or stress by the second. (See Chapter 3, p. 50.) The poled electromechanical coupling factor k(p) is taken from a thin disk of the crystal cut normal to the z axis while under an externally applied electric field. The thickness compressional coupling factor k(t) is taken from a thin disk cut normal to a symmetry axis or parallel to a symmetry plane, so that the compressional component is not coupled to the shear component. The colons by two of the Wurtzite* entries signify percent ratios. T signifies temperature. RT signifies (ambient) room temperature. The References are listed in Table 37 in Appendix G, p. 397. TABLE 35. Ferroelectric Piezoelectric Strain and Stress Rates for Minerals Mineral Magnitude T: °C Strain Rate m4 C-2 Sillénite (11) 0.28 (12) -0.125 (13) -0.025 (44) 0.18 (h) 0.12 RT (12) 2160 -181 Stress Rate 10-18 m2 V-2 Sillénite (11) 0.042 (12) -0.019 (13) -0.037 (44) 0.028 RT Notes: These square values are used in calculations for ferroelectric materials. Parentheses signify the directions in Voigt notation. The location of electricity is shown by the first number, and strain by the second. (See Chapter 3, p. 50.) T signifies temperature. RT signifies (ambient) room temperature. References are listed in Table 37 in Appendix G, p. 397. 304 TABLE 36. Piezoelectric Rates (d, e and k) During Temperature Variations for Minerals Mineral Magnitude T: °C Notes Δ(d)/dΔT 10-4 K-1 Berlinite (11) -3.2 (14) 8.7 25 Boracite (14) -10 320 Epsomite (14) ≈ 20 (25) < 2 (36) < 2 -10 to 30 Proustite (22) -18.5 (31) -5.6 (33) -50 (15) -4.2 -40 to 20 Quartz (14) -12.8 585 to 625 β-Quartz (11) -2.0 (14) 17.7 20 to 100 (11) -2.3 (14) 13.6 25 to 80 (11) -2.15 (14) 12.9 15 to 45 (11) 9.7 -60 to 0 Δ(e)/eΔT 10-4 K-1 Berlinite (11) -2.7 (14) -5.6 RT Fresnoite (31) 25.81 (15) -1.28 RT Proustite (22) -23 (31) -210 (33) -90 (15) -4.3 -40 to 20 Quartz (11) -1.6 15 to 45 (Δk)2/k2ΔT 10-4 K-1 Pyrargyrite (13) 55 -40 to 20 Notes: The piezoelectric strain rate (d) is electric charge per unit force due to the piezoelectric effect. The piezoelectric stress rate (e) is the product of electric charge per unit force and pressure, caused by the piezoelectric effect. The electromechanical coupling factor (k) is a calculated value from which any of the piezoelectric coefficients can be determined. T signifies temperature. RT signifies (ambient) room temperature. Parentheses signify the directions in Voigt notation. The location of electricity is shown by the first number, and strain or stress by the second. (See Chapter 3, p. 50.) References are listed in Table 37 in Appendix G, p. 397. 305 TABLE 38. Relative Dielectric Strength (K) of Minerals Mineral K1 K2 K3 T: °C f: kHz Notes [T: °C][f: kHz] Archerite 80 50,000 -150 0.8 PeakT [-225 to 25] Barioperovskite 1,783.00 130 RT 10,000 10,000 120 PeakT [-90 to 120] 168.0 25 7,000 300 -5 PeakT [-90 to 120] 4,000 200 -90 PeakT [-90 to 120] Berlinite 6.47 200 RT 1 6.40 200 RT 1000 6.05 25 4.73 4.62 RT 1 6.32 20 1 6.32 20 1000 6.15 -175 1 6.22 -175 1000 Biphosphammite 57.6 14.0 18.5 10 100 35 -125 PeakT [-180 to 0] 54 -220 PeakP = 3.0 GPa Boracite K110= 16.5 265 100 PeakT [0 to 350] 8.0 40 100 Constant Stress 8.1 20 50 Constant Stress 5.4 5.23 5.79 RT Bournonite 40 27 1.5 x 104 Constant Stress Cadmoselite 9.7 10.65 RT Cancrinite 9.5 11.2 RT Constant Stress Cervantite 1,400 565 PeakT [100 to 700] Chambersite 16 410 1000 PeakT [0 to 500] 28 135 PeakT [40 to 160] Changbaiite* 24,000 24,000 560 PeakT 260 27 1 to 104 Cinnabar 15.0 25.5 RT Constant Stress 14.0 25.5 RT Constant Strain Clinocervantite 1,400 565 PeakT [100 to 700] Colemanite ≈ 20 -20 to 20 50 RT Cuprospinel K = 8.65 RT Diomignite* 25 505 0.1 PeakT [25 to 505] 1,800 195 0.1 PeakT [25 to 325] 306 TABLE 38. Continued Mineral K1 K2 K3 T: °C f: kHz Notes [T: °C][f: kHz] 8.90 8.07 RT Constant Strain Epsomite 5.40 5.23 5.79 RT 5.26 6.05 8.28 RT Ericaite* K111 = 43 340 300 PeakT [150 to 450] Eulytine 16.2 RT Franklinite 70,000 RT 10 Peakf [10 to 107] Fresnoite 11.0 RT 1 Constant Stress 15 11 RT Constant Stress 9 RT 1 Constant Stress 12.5 8.55 20 1 x 104 Greenockite* 8.7 9.25 27 Constant Strain 9.02 9.53 25 Constant Strain 10.55 7.80 25 0.05 9.74 7.48 25 1 9.35 10.33 25 10 Constant Stress 9.43 7.77 25 10 9.25 7.68 25 100 8.82 7.96 25 1000 7.96 7.67 25 4 x 104 10.33 RT Constant Stress in the dark 8.94 9.96 RT Constant Stress in the dark 8.88 9.93 RT Constant Strain in the dark 8.92 10.20 20 Constant Stress in the dark 8.67 9.53 20 Constant Strain 9.33 6.76 -65 0.05 8.76 7.02 -65 1 9.17 6.97 -65 10 9.63 6.95 -65 100 8.02 6.60 -65 300 8.48 9.48 -196 10 Constant Stress 8.45 9.12 -248 8.37 9.00 -265 Constant Strain Heftetjernite 7,500 5 1 PeakT [-75 to 25] Koechlinite K = 105 570 PeakT [0 to 700] 102 RT 1.2 x 104 Unpoled Crystal Lakargiite K = 24.6 RT 1000 Endmember CaZrO3 Langbeinite 6.9 RT 307 TABLE 38. Continued Mineral K1 K2 K3 T: °C f: kHz Notes [T: °C][f: kHz] Lecontite 14.7 -161 10 Constant Stress 9.3 -161 107 to 1010 Constant Stress Lueshite* K = 1,600 350 1 PeakT [100 to 460] K = 1,500 350 PeakT Macedonite K = 9,500 490 PeakT K = 3,200 232 PeakT [200 to 265] 210 126 RT Constant Stress 115 51 RT Constant Strain Magnesioferrite K = 30,000 0.020 Peakf [0.020 to 900] K = 8.53 Natrolite 6.0 RT 1 Nitratine K = 110 p = 4.3 GPa RT PeakP [0 to 5.5] Oxycalciopyrochlore 120 580 PeakT [0 to 580] 170 500 RT PeakT [0 to 500] 180 450 PeakT [0 to 600] Oxyplumbopyrochlore K = 300 -260 1 PeakT [-270 to 25] Paratellurite 21.4 24.9 RT 22.7 Constant Strain 22.9 24.7 20 100 Constant Stress Perovskite K = 186 RT 1 Proustite 22 22 RT Constant Strain 44.5 21.4 RT Static Measurement 20 20 RT 2 x 104 20.2 20.2 20 Constant Strain 21.5 22.0 20 1 x 103 Constant Stress 22 -243.2 250 12 -244.5 Monoclinic (m) Pyrargyrite 21.7 24.7 20 ≈1 Constant Stress Quartz 4.5208 4.6368 27 1 Constant Stress 4.5208 4.6368 27 10 Constant Stress 4.435 27 Constant Strain 4.51 4.60 20 1 4.520 4.640 20 Constant Stress 4.435 4.640 20 Constant Strain 4.51 4.63 20 9 x 103 Constant Strain 4.430 -193 Constant Strain Retgersite 6.2 6.8 RT 308 TABLE 38. Continued Mineral K1 K2 K3 T: °C f: kHz Notes [T: °C][f: kHz] Russellite 3,100 400 920 PeakT [0 to 1000] Rutile 86 170 RT 100 Schorl* 6.4 30 100 Schultenite 42 35 PeakT Sillénite 50.0 30 Constant Stress 47 RT Constant Stress 42 RT Constant Strain 56 RT Constant Stress 41 RT Constant Strain Sphalerite 10.49 25 0.1 Constant Stress 9.41 25 1 Constant Stress 8.37 25 10 Constant Stress 8.32 25 10 Constant Strain 8.12 25 100 7.29 25 1 x 103 7.12 25 1.6 x 104 7.92 25 4 x 107 Constant Strain 10% Wurtzite 8.60 8.57 20 Constant Stress 10% Wurtzite 8.58 8.52 20 Constant Strain 8.14 -196 Constant Stress 8.08 -196 Constant Strain Spinel K = 8.5 500 PeakT [0 to 500] K = 8.64 RT 0.1 to 10 Stephanite 20 RT 9.2 x 106 Constant Strain Stibiotantalite 16,000 420 PeakT K = 22 400 PeakT [250 to 550] 300 to 450 20 Stibnite 150 44 103 108 44 1 to 4.2 x 106 Stilleite K = 9.1 RT Tausonite K = 0.1 25 K = 700 RT 2.5 x 109 PeakP [(1 to 7) x 109] K = 17,000 -263 K = 22,000 -263 100 PeakT [-263 to -168] Tourmaline 6.4 30 100 Schorl 6.3 7.1 RT 8.2 7.5 RT 1 Constant Stress 309 TABLE 38. Continued Mineral K1 K2 K3 T: °C f: kHz Notes [T: °C][f: kHz] Trevorite K = 19 RT Wakefieldite-Nd K = 100 22 1 PeakT [2 to 42] Wurtzite* 8.64 8.393 25 0.05 8.54 8.170 25 1 8.58 8.001 25 10 Constant Stress 8.48 7.877 25 100 8.58 8.037 25 300 0.103:0.897::Mg:Zn 8.25 8.59 20 Constant Strain 0.103:0.897::Mg:Zn 8.31 8.76 20 Constant Stress 8.92 8.224 -65 0.05 8.65 7.912 -65 1 8.49 7.877 -65 10 8.50 7.895 -65 100 8.81 8.090 -65 300 Zincite K = 8.2 RT Notes: K signifies relative dielectric strength, with the subscript representing the x, y, or z axis. T signifies temperature. RT signifies (ambient) room temperature. The frequency f is of the alternating current used to test the crystal. “Constant Strain” signifies measurements taken under constant strain conditions. “Constant Stress” signifies measurements taken under constant stress conditions. The hysteresis loop in Changbaiite* is not saturated by 6.0 x 106 V m-1 at RT, signifying that the actual value is higher than what is written. Measurements in Diomignite* displayed a critical point at 445°C where the dielectric strength starts to rise quickly. Measurements for Ericaite* were taken under a biased electrical field of 5 x 103 V m-1. Greenockite* exhibits changes in piezoelectric rates (and therefore also dielectric behavior) with light intensity, as per Ogawa and Kojima (1966). Measurements for Lueshite* were taken under an electric field of +5 x 103 V m-1. For Schorl*, also see the Tourmaline entry for more numerical data listings. The colons by two of the Wurtzite* entries signify percent ratios. References are listed in Table 40 in Appendix G, p. 398. 310 TABLE 39. Relative Dielectric Strength (K) of Minerals During Temperature Variation Mineral ∆K1/K1∆T ∆K3/K3∆T T: °C Notes Fresnoite 0.05 3.29 RT Constant Strain Greenockite 1.92 2.12 -93 to 27 Proustite* 3.0 5.8 -40 to 20 Constant Stress 5.3 3.2 -40 to 20 Constant Strain Pyrargyrite 16.7 8.44 -40 to 20 Constant Stress Quartz 0.025 0.16 300 to 380 -0.029 0.056 140 to 240 0.28 0.39 25 to 100 Sillénite* K1 = 58.26 – (12.48 x 10-2 T) + (3.04 x 10-4 T2) T > 200 K1 = 45.57 + (6.14 x 10-4 T) T = 130 to 200 6 30 to 150 Sphalerite 3.8 2.2 RT 10% Wurtzite Wurtzite 1.7 1.8 RT .10:.90::Mg:Zn Notes: K signifies relative dielectric strength, with the subscript representing the x, y, or z axis. T signifies temperature. RT signifies (ambient) room temperature. “Constant Strain” signifies measurements taken under constant strain conditions. “Constant Stress” signifies measurements taken under constant stress conditions. Proustite* values (i=1 and i=3) seem suspect: They appear to have been transposed for stress and strain for one set of measurements. The formulas for Sillénite* take T values in °C. References are listed in Table 40 in Appendix G, p. 398. 311 TABLE 41. Magnetic Susceptibility (χ) Data for Minerals Mineral χ: 10-3 T: °C Notes [T: °C] Breithauptite 0.104 RT Carrollite 0.07 RT Chambersite 0.002 -155 PeakT [-155 to 375] Clinoferrosilite 31 RT PeakT Cuprorhodsite 0.0554 RT Demicheleite-Br -0.0268 -195 to 75 Demicheleite-Cl -0.0242 -195 to 75 Demicheleite-I -0.0283 -195 to 75 Ericaite 20 -195 PeakT [-195 to 725] Eskolaite 1.6 30 PeakT [-200 to 400] Fayalite 14 -250 PeakT [-269 to -95] Ferberite 0.00377 20 PeakT [20 to 260] Franklinite 3 -185 PeakT [-185 to 525] Hauerite 1.95 20 2.51 -225 Néel temperature Hematite 1.3 RT Ilmenite 40 -217 Néel temperature Kalininite 20 -26 3 PeakT [-269 to 510] Kamiokite 1.392 RT 94.5 -214 PeakT Karelianite 400 -98 PeakT [-263 to 65] Krut’aite 0.02 RT Löllingite -0.0064 RT Magnesiocoulsonite 0.9 -20 PeakT [-20 to 20] Magnesioferrite 0.365 425 PeakT [425 to 1075] Mattagamite 0.313 20 Nickeline 0.024 > 25 Nisbite -0.10 RT Penroseite 0.087 25 Endmember NiSe2 Pyrite 0.020 RT Pyrite Variety: Bravoite 0.095 to 0.55 25 0.15 to 0.927 -269 Pyrophanite 45 -173 PeakT Siderite 4.7 20 Srebrodolskite 0.71 450 PeakT Tistarite 0.076 340 PeakT [-180 to 340] Uraninite 3.2 -227 PeakT [-253 to -227] 312 TABLE 41. Continued Mineral χ: 10-3 T: °C Notes [T: °C] Wüstite 8.4 RT Zincochromite 32 to 17 -263 to 27 Notes: The magnetic susceptibility (χ) of a material is its ability to strengthen (or weaken) an applied magnetic field. T signifies temperature. RT signifies (ambient) room temperature. The Néel temperature is a magnetic transition to a paramagnetic state. Data were taken from Landolt-Börnstein New Series volumes (Hellwege and Hellwege, 1970a, 1970b, 1978, 1980; Wijn, 1988, 1991a, 1991b, 1994, 1995, 1996a, 1996b, 2005). Units were converted using the chart in Goldfarb and Fickett (1985). To convert mass and molar magnetic susceptibilities into volume magnetic susceptibilities, density and molecular weight data for minerals were taken from webmineral (Barthelmy, 2012), mindat.org (Ralph and Chau, 2012), as well as from Demartin et al. (2009) for demicheleite-Cl. Cost was prohibitive for obtaining much of the extant, relevant magnetic data available online (e.g., Springer, 2012). Only a small selection is included here. TABLE 42. Spontaneous Magnetization (M0) Data for Minerals Mineral M0: A m-1 T: °C Pyrrhotite 6.1 RT Vaesite 4,400 -269 Xieite 5,000 -183 to 27 96,000 -273 to -233 Notes: Spontaneous magnetization (M0) is a measure of magnetic field strength without an externally applied magnetic field. T signifies temperature. RT signifies (ambient) room temperature. References are listed in the notes of Table 41. Cost was prohibitive for obtaining much of the extant, relevant magnetic data available online (e.g., Springer, 2012). Only a small selection is included here. 313 TABLE 43. Saturation Magnetization (MS) Data for Ferromagnetic Minerals Mineral MS: A m-1 T: °C Notes [T: °C] Coulsonite 179,000 RT Cuprokalininite 400,000 525 PeakT [75 to 525] Cuprospinel 148,400 RT Hematite ≈ 2,000 RT Maghemite 370,000 RT Magnetite 485,000 11.32 492,000 -16.62 496,000 -40.41 500,000 -64.65 504,000 -89.23 506,000 -113.44 508,000 -141.98 509,000 -163.12 510,000 -183.26 511,000 -211.31 511,000 -243.38 512,000 -268.94 Trevorite 245,900 RT Notes: Saturation magnetization (MS) is the field strength needed to reverse the magnetic polarity of a ferromagnetic material. T signifies temperature. RT signifies (ambient) room temperature. References are listed in the notes of Table 41, p. 312. Cost was prohibitive for obtaining much of the extant, relevant magnetic data available online (e.g., Springer, 2012). Only a small selection is included here. 314 TABLE 44. Magnetostriction Data for Minerals Mineral H: A m-1 Strain Hematite 625,000 9 x 10-7 Expansive -625,000 7 x 10-7 Expansive 0 to -150,000 2 x 10-7 Contractive Notes: H is the strength of an applied magnetic field. T signifies temperature. RT signifies (ambient) room temperature. Values were obtained at ambient room temperature. References are listed in the notes of Table 41, p. 312. Cost was prohibitive for obtaining much of the extant, relevant magnetic data available online (e.g., Springer, 2012). Only a small selection is included here. 315  APPENDIX C MINERALS ARRANGED BY MINERAL GROUP AND CHEMISTRY 316 TABLE 12. Ferroelectric Mineral Groups, with All Ferroelectric, Antiferroelectric or Paraelectric Minerals in Bold Type - Alum Group - Alum-K Lanmuchangite Alum-Na Tschermigite - Biphosphammite Group - Archerite Biphosphammite - Boracite Group - Boracite Congolite Trembathite Chambersite Ericaite - Brownmillerite Group - Brownmillerite Srebrodolskite - Cervantite Group - Bismutocolumbite Cervantite Stibiocolumbite Bismutotantalite Clinocervantite Stibiotantalite - Chalcocite-Digenite Group - Chalcocite Djurleite Digenite Roxbyite - Chalcostibite Group - Chalcostibite Emplectite - Changbaiite - - Chrysoberyl Group - Chrysoberyl Mariinskite - Demicheleite Group - Demicheleite-Br Demicheleite-Cl Demicheleite-I - Diomignite - - Galena Group - Alabandite Clausthalite Niningerite Altaite Galena Oldhamite 317 TABLE 12. Continued - Gwihabaite - - Ice - - Koechlinite Group - Koechlinite Russellite Tungstibite - Niter – - Nitratine - - Perovsksite Group - Barioperovskite Lueshite Perovskite Isolueshite Macedonite Tausonite Lakargiite Megawite Shulamitite is an intermediate mineral between Perovskite and the Brownmillerite – Shrebrodolkite series. - Proustite Group - Proustite Pyrostilpnite Pyrargyrite Xanthoconite - Pyrochlore Supergroup - - Betafite Group - Oxycalciobetafite Oxyuranobetafite - Elsmoreite Group - Hydrokenoelsmoreite - Microlite Group - Fluorcalciomicrolite Hydroxycalciomicrolite Oxystannomicrolite Fluornatromicrolite Hydroxykenomicrolite Oxystibiomicrolite Hydrokenomicrolite Kenoplumbomicrolite Hydromicrolite Oxycalciomicrolite - Pyrochlore Group - Fluorcalciopyrochlore Hycroxycalciopyro- Oxycalciopyrochlore Fluorkenopyrochlore chlore Oxynatropyrochlore Fluornatropyrochlore Hydroxymanganopyro- Oxyplumbopyrochlore Fluorstrontiopyrochlore chlore Oxyyttropyrochlore-(Y) Hydropyrochlore Kenoplumbopyrochlore 318 TABLE 12. Continued - Pyrochlore Supergroup (Continued) - - Roméite Group - Cuproroméite Fluornatroroméite Oxycalcioroméite Fluorcalcioroméite Hydroxycalcioroméite Oxyplumboroméite - Rutile Group - Argutite Cassiterite Paratellurite Plattnerite Rutile Tripuhyite Pyrolusite Stishovite - Schultenite - - Sillénite - - Stibnite Group - Antimonselite Guanajuatite Stibnite Bismuthinite Metastibnite Pääkkönenite - Wolframite Group – Ferberite Huanzalaite Sanmartinite Heftetjernite Hübnerite - Xenotime Group - Chernovite-Y Wakefieldite-Ce Wakefieldite-Y Dreyerite Wakefieldite-La Xenotime-Y Pretulite Wakefieldite-Nd Xenotime-Yb Notes: Individual italicized mineral names are from "groups" that have only a single member, and thus bear no group name. Minerals in bold type are listed in the references indicated in Table 15 in Appendix G, p. 393. 319 TABLE 13. Pyroelectric Mineral Groups, with All Pyroelectric Minerals in Bold Type - Afwillite - - Alunite Supergroup - - Alunite Subgroup - Alunite Beaverite-Zn Ammonioalunite Natroalunite - Beudantite Subgroup - Beudantite Hidalgoite Schlossmacherite Corkite Hinsdalite Svanbergite Gallobeudantite Kemmlitzite Woodhouseite - Crandallite Subgroup - Arsenocrandallite Dussertite Philipsbornite Arsenogorceixite Gorceixite Plumbogummite Arsenogoyazite Goyazite Segnitite Crandallite Kintoreite Springcreekite - Jarosite Subgroup - Ammoniojarosite Hydroniumjarosite Natrojarosite Argentojarosite Jarosite Plumbojarosite - Ardealite - - Artinite Group - Artinite Chlorartinite - Batisite Group - Batisite Shcherbakovite Noonkanbahite Benstonite - Bertrandite - - Beryl Group - Bazzite Pezzottaite Beryl Stoppaniite - Bournonite Group - Bournonite Seligmannite Součekite - Brucite Group - Brucite Portlandite Pyrochroite 320 TABLE 13. Continued - Brushite - - Burbankite Varieties - Burbankite Calcioburbankite Strontioburbankite - Caledonite - - Cancrinite Group - Afghanite Depmeierite Marinellite Alloriite Franzinite Microsommite Biachellaite Giuseppettite Pitiglianoite Bystrite Hydroxycancrinite Quadridavyne Cancrinite Kircherite Sacrofanite Cancrisilite Kyanoxalite Tounkite Davyne Liottite Vishnevite - Childrenite—Eosphorite Series - - Clinohedrite - - Colemanite - - Coquimbite Group - Coquimbite Aluminocoquimbite Paracoquimbite - Creedite - - Dawsonite - - Diaboleite - - Donnayite Group - Donnayite-Y Weloganite - Dyscrasite - - Elpidite - 321 TABLE 13. Continued - Enargite Group - Enargite Petrukite - Ettringite Group - Bentorite Ettringite Micheelsenite Buryatite Hielscherite Sturmanite Carraraite Jouravskite Thaumasite Charlesite Kottenheimite - Eudialyte Group Alluaivite Georgbarsanovite Oneillite Andrianovite Golyshevite Raslakite Aqualite Ikranite Rastsvetaevite Carbokentbrooksite Johnsenite-Ce Taseqite Davinciite Kentbrooksite UM1998-21- Dualite Khomyakovite SiO:CaCeClHMnNaZr Eudialyte Labyrinthite Voronkovite Feklichevite Manganoeudialyte Zirsilite-Ce Fengchengite Manganokhomyakovite Ferrokentbrooksite Mogovidite - Finnemanite - - Flagstaffite - - Fresnoite - - Halotrichite Group - Apjohnite Dietrichite Pickeringite Bilinite Halotrichite Wupatkiite - Hartite - - Hemimorphite - - Hilgardite Group - Hilgardite Leucostaurite Kurgantaite Tyretskite 322 TABLE 13. Continued - Hydrocalumite - - Innelite - - Iodargyrite - - Junitoite - - Kaliborite - - Krennerite Polymorphs - Calaverite Krennerite - Larsenite - - Leucophanite - - Liebigite - - Melanovanadite - - Meliphanite - - Mesolite - - Millerite Group - Millerite Mäkinenite - Minyulite - - Moissanite Group - Moissanite (-6H) Moissanite-4H Moissanite-33R Moissanite-3C Moissanite-5H Moissanite-2H Moissanite-15R - Montmorillonite-Vermiculite Group - Montmorillonite Vermiculite - Murmanite Group - Epistolite Murmanite Vuonnemite 323 TABLE 13. Continued - Muthmannite - - Nepheline - - Neptunite - - Nickeline Group - Achavalite Freboldite Nickeline Breithauptite Langisite - Nolanite Group - Nolanite Rinmanite Kamiokite - Parkerite - - Pharmacolite - - Pinnoite - - Pirssonite - - Prehnite - - Quenselite - - Röntgenite-Ce - - Sarcolite - - Scapolite Group - Marialite Meionite Silvialite - Scheelite Group - Fergusonite-Y Powellite Wulfenite Fergusonite-Ce Scheelite Fergusonite-Nd Stolzite - Searlesite - 324 TABLE 13. Continued - Serpentine Group - Amesite Dickite Lizardite Antigorite Fraipontite Manandonite Berthierine Greenalite Nacrite Brindleyite Halloysite-7Å Népouite Caryopilite Halloysite-10Å Odinite Chrysotile Kaolinite Pecoraite Cronstedtite Kellyite - Shortite - - Sinoite - - Spangolite - - Stephanite Group - Selenostephanite Stephanite - Struvite Group - Hazenite Struvite Struvite-K - Suolunite - - Swedenborgite - - Syngenite Group - Syngenite Koktaite - Tilasite Group - Durangite Maxwellite Tilasite Isokite Panasqueiraite - Tourmaline Supergroup - - Alkali Group - Buergerite Elbaite Luinaite-OH Chromium-dravite Fluor-dravite Olenite Chromo-alumino- Fluor-elbaite Oxy-dravite povondraite Fluor-schorl Oxy-schorl Dravite K-Tourmaline 325 TABLE 13. Continued - Tourmaline Supergroup (Continued) - - Alkali Group (Continued) - Pb-dominant Povondraite Tsilaisite Tourmaline Schorl Vanadium-dravite - Calcic Group - Feruvite Fluor-liddicoatite Uvite Fluor-feruvite Liddicoatite - X-Vacant Group - Foitite Oxy-rossmanite Magnesiofoitite Rossmanite - Tyrolite - - Uranophane Group - Boltwoodite Uranophane Natroboltwoodite β-Uranophane - Ussingite - - Whitlockite Group - Bobdownsite Merrillite Whitlockite Ferromerrillite Strontiowhitlockite - Wurtzite Group - Buseckite Greenockite Wurtzite Cadmoselite Rambergite - Zeolite Group - Amicite Chabazite-Mg Edingtonite Ammonioleucite Chabazite-Na Epistilbite Analcime Chabazite-Sr Erionite-Ca Barrerite Chiavennite Erionite-K Bellbergite Clinoptilolite-Ca Erionite-Na Bikitaite Clinoptilolite-K Faujasite-Ca Boggsite Clinoptilolite-Na Faujasite-Mg Brewsterite-Ba Cowlesite Faujasite-Na Brewsterite-Sr Dachiardite-Ca Ferrierite-K Chabazite-Ca Dachiardite-Na Ferrierite-Mg Chabazite-K Direnzoite Ferrierite-Na 326 TABLE 13. Continued - Zeolite Group (Continued) - Flörkeite Lévyne-Ca Phillipsite-K Garronite Lévyne-Na Phillipsite-Na Gaultite Lovdarite Pollucite Gismondine-Ba Maricopaite Roggianite Gismondine-Ca Mazzite-Mg Scolecite Gmelinite-Ca Mazzite-Na Stellerite Gmelinite-K Merlinoite Stilbite-Ca Gmelinite-Na Mesolite Stilbite-Na Gobbinsite Montesommaite Terranovaite Gonnardite Mordenite Thomsonite-Ca Goosecreekite Mutinaite Thomsonite-Sr Gottardiite Natrolite Thornasite Harmotome Offretite Tschernichite Heulandite-Ba Pahasapaite Tschörtnerite Heulandite-Ca Paranatrolite Wairakite Heulandite-K Parthéite Weinebeneite Heulandite-Na Paulingite-Ca Wenkite Heulandite-Sr Paulingite-K Willhendersonite Hsianghualite Paulingite-Na Yugawaralite Laumontite Perlialite Leucite Phillipsite-Ca - Zincite Group - Bromellite Zincite - Zinkenite-Scainiite Group - Zinkenite Pillaite Chovanite Scainiite Pellouzite Tazieffite Notes: Individual italicized mineral names are from "groups" that have only a single member, and thus bear no group name. Minerals in bold type are listed in the references indicated in Table 16 in Appendix G, p. 394. 327 TABLE 14. Piezoelectric Mineral Groups, with All Piezoelectric Minerals in Bold Type - Aminoffite - - Apatite Supergroup - - Apatite Subgroup - Carbonate-rich Fluorapatite Fluorapatite Carbonate-rich Hydroxylapatite Fluorstrophite Chlorapatite Hydroxylapatite - Pyromorphite Subgroup - Mimetite Pyromorphite Vanadinite - Svabite Subgroup - Fluorphosphohedyphane Hedyphane Phosphohedyphane Svabite - Baryte Group - Celestite Baryte Anglesite Olsacherite - Bastnäsite Group - Bastnäsite-Ce Bastnäsite-La Bastnäsite-Y Hydroxylbastnäsite-Ce - Bavenite–Bohseite Series - - Berlinite Group - Berlinite Rodolicoite Alarsite - Chalcopyrite Group - Chalcopyrite Gallite Lenaite Eskebornite Laforêtite Roquesite - Cinnabar Polymorphs - Cinnabar Hypercinnabar Metacinnabar - Dioptase - - Edingtonite - - Epsomite Group - Epsomite Goslarite Morenosite 328 TABLE 14. Continued - Eulytine - - Helvine Group - Danalite Genthelvine Helvine - Jeremejevite - - Langbeinite Group - Langbeinite Manganolangbeinite Efremovite - Leucophanite - - Melilite Group - Åkermanite Gehlenite Hardystonite Alumoåkermanite Gugiaite Okayamalite - Nitrobarite - - Pharmacosiderite Supergroup - - Ivanyukite Group - Ivanyukite-Cu Ivanyukite-K Ivanyukite-Na-C - Pharmacoalumite Group - Bariopharmacoalumite Natropharmacoalumite Pharmacoalumite - Pharmacosiderite Group - Bariopharmacosiderite Pharmacosiderite Hydroniumpharmacosiderite Strontiopharmacosiderite Natropharmacosiderite - Quartz Polymorphs - Coesite α-Quartz Stishovite Cristobalite β-Quartz Tridymite Mogánite Seifertite - Retgersite Polymorphs - Nickelhexahydrite Retgersite - Rhodizite Group - Londonite Rhodizite 329 TABLE 14. Continued - Sal Ammoniac Group - Sal Ammoniac Lafossaite - Selenium Group - Selenium Tellurium - Sodalite Group - Haüyne Sodalite Vladimirivanovite Lazurite Tsaregorodtsevite Nosean Tugtupite - Sphalerite Group - Coloradoite Metacinnabar Stilleite Hawleyite Sphalerite Tiemannite - Topaz - - Zeolite Group - Amicite Direnzoite Gonnardite Ammonioleucite Edingtonite Goosecreekite Analcime Epistilbite Gottardiite Barrerite Erionite-Ca Harmotome Bellbergite Erionite-K Heulandite-Ba Bikitaite Erionite-Na Heulandite-Ca Boggsite Faujasite-Ca Heulandite-K Brewsterite-Ba Faujasite-Mg Heulandite-Na Brewsterite-Sr Faujasite-Na Heulandite-Sr Chabazite-Ca Ferrierite-K Hsianghualite Chabazite-K Ferrierite-Mg Laumontite Chabazite-Mg Ferrierite-Na Leucite Chabazite-Na Flörkeite Lévyne-Ca Chabazite-Sr Garronite Lévyne-Na Chiavennite Gaultite Lovdarite Clinoptilolite-Ca Gismondine-Ba Maricopaite Clinoptilolite-K Gismondine-Ca Mazzite-Mg Clinoptilolite-Na Gmelinite-Ca Mazzite-Na Cowlesite Gmelinite-K Merlinoite Dachiardite-Ca Gmelinite-Na Mesolite Dachiardite-Na Gobbinsite Montesommaite 330 TABLE 14. Continued - Zeolite Group (Continued) - Mordenite Paranatrolite Perlialite Mutinaite Parthéite Phillipsite-Ca Natrolite Paulingite-Ca Phillipsite-K Offretite Paulingite-K Phillipsite-Na Pahasapaite Paulingite-Na Pollucite Roggianite Thomsonite-Ca Weinebeneite Scolecite Thomsonite-Sr Wenkite Stellerite Thornasite Willhendersonite Stilbite-Ca Tschernichite Yugawaralite Stilbite-Na Tschörtnerite Terranovaite Wairakite - Zunyite - Notes: Individual italicized mineral names are from "groups" that have only a single member, and thus bear no group name. Minerals in bold type are listed in the references indicated in Table 17 in Appendix G, p. 395. 331 TABLE 18. The 10th Edition Nickel-Strunz Classification of Minerals, with All Ferroelectric, Pyroelectric or Piezoelectric Minerals in Bold Type and Thermoelectric Minerals in Italic 1.A - ELEMENTS: METALS AND INTERMETALLIC ALLOYS Copper-Cupralite 1.AC.10 Iron-Chromium 1.AG.15 Family 1.AC.15 Family 1.AG.20 1.AA.05 1.AE.05 1.AG.25 1.AA.10a Mercury-Amalgam 1.AE.10 1.AG.30 1.AA.10.b Family 1.AE.15 1.AG.35 1.AA.15 1.AD.05 1.AE.20 1.AG.40 1.AA.20 1.AD.10 1.AE.25 1.AG.45 1.AA.25 1.AD.15a 1.AE.30 1.AG.50 1.AD.15b 1.AG.55 Zinc-Brass Family 1.AD.15c Platinum Group 1.AG.60 1.AB.05 1.AD.15d Elements (PGE) 1.AG.65 1.AB.10 1.AD.20a 1.AF.05 1.AG.70 1.AB.10a 1.AD.20b 1.AF.10 1.AB.10b 1.AD.25 Miscellaneous 1.AD.30 PGE-Metal Alloys Elements, Indium-Tin Family 1.AG.05 Alloys 1.AC.05 1.AG.10 1.AH 1.B - ELEMENTS: METALLIC CARBIDES, SILICIDES, NITRIDES AND PHOSPHIDES Carbides Silicides 1.BB.35 1.BC.20 1.BA.05 1.BB. 1.BB.40 1.BA.10 1.BB.05 Phosphides 1.BA.15 1.BB.10 Nitrides 1.BD.05 1.BA.20 1.BB.15 1.BC. 1.BD.10 1.BA.25 1.BB.20 1.BC.05 1.BD.15 1.BA.30 1.BB.25 1.BC.10 1.BD.20 1.BB.30 1.BC.15 1.C - ELEMENTS: METALLOIDS AND NONMETALS Arsenic Group 1.CA.10 Carbon-Silicon 1.CB.05b Elements 1.CA.15 Family 1.CB.05c 1.CA.05 1.CB.05a 1.CB.10a 332 TABLE 18. Continued 1.C - ELEMENTS: METALLOIDS AND NONMETALS, CONTINUED Carbon-Silicon 1.CB.15 1.CC.05 Se Family (Continued) Sulfur-Selenium- 1.CC.10 Tellurium 1.CB.10b Iodine Selenium Te 1.D - ELEMENTS: NONMETALLIC CARBIDES AND NITRIDES Nonmetallic Moissanite Nonmetallic 1.DB.10 Carbides SiC Nitrides Sinoite 1.DA. 1.DB.05 Si2N2O 2.A - SULFIDES AND SULFOSALTS: ALLOYS Alloys of Ag3Sb 2.AC.05a 2.AC.25d Metalloids with 2.AA.40 2.AC.05b 2.AC.25e Copper, Silver or 2.AA.45 2.AC.10a 2.AC.25f Gold 2.AC.10b 2.AC.30 2.AA.10a Nickel-Metalloid 2.AC.10c 2.AC.35a 2.AA.10b Alloys 2.AC.15a 2.AC.35b 2.AA.10d 2.AB.10 2.AC.15b 2.AC.40 2.AA.15 2.AB.15 2.AC.20a 2.AC.45a 2.AA.20 2.AC.20b 2.AC.45b 2.AA.25 Alloys of 2.AC.20c 2.AC.45c 2.AA.30 Metalloids with 2.AC.25a 2.AA.35 Platinum Group 2.AC.25b Dyscrasite Elements 2.AC.25c 2.B - SULFIDES AND SULFOSALTS: METAL SULFIDES, METAL:SULFUR > 1:1 (MAINLY 2:1) With Copper, Silver 2.BA.20 2.BA.50 With Nickel and Gold 2.BA.25 2.BA.55 2.BB. 2.BA.05 2.BA.30 2.BA.60 2.BB.05 Chalcocite 2.BA.35 2.BA.65 2.BB.10 Cu2S 2.BA.40 2.BA.70 2.BB.15 2.BA.10 2.BA.40d 2.BA.75 2.BA.15 2.BA.45 2.BA.80 333 TABLE 18. Continued 2.B - SULFIDES AND SULFOSALTS: METAL SULFIDES, METAL:SULFUR > 1:1 (MAINLY 2:1), CONTINUED With Rhodium, 2.BC.35 2.BD.05 Palladium, 2.BC.40 2.BD.10 With Lead and Platinum and 2.BC.45 2.BD.15 Bismuth Similar 2.BC.50 2.BD.20 2.BE.05 2.BC. 2.BC.55 2.BD.25 2.BE.10 2.BC.05 2.BC.60 2.BD.30 2.BE.15 2.BC.10 2.BC.65 2.BD.35 2.BE.20 2.BC.15 2.BD.40 Parkerite 2.BC.20 With Mercury and 2.BD.45 Ni3Bi2S2 2.BC.25 Thallium 2.BD.50 2.BE.25 2.BC.30 2.BD. 2.BD.55 2.BE.30 2.C - SULFIDES AND SULFOSALTS: METAL SULFIDES, METAL:SULFUR = 1:1 AND SIMILAR With Copper 2.CB.10a 2.CB.55a NiAs 2.CA.05a Gallite 2.CB.55b 2.CC.10 2.CA.05b CuGaS2 2.CB.60 Pyrrhotite 2.CA.05c Roquesite 2.CB.65 Fe1-(0 to 0.17)S 2.CA.05d CuInS2 2.CB.70 2.CC.15 2.CA.10 2.CB.10b 2.CB.75 2.CC.20 2.CA.15 2.CB.15a 2.CB.80 Millerite 2.CB.15b 2.CB.85 NiS With Zinc, Iron, 2.CB.15c Muthmannite 2.CC.25 Copper, Silver 2.CB.20 AuAgTe2 2.CC.30 and Similar 2.CB.30 2.CC.35a 2.CB.05 2.CB.35a With Nickel, 2.CC.35b 2.CB.05a 2.CB.35b Iron, Cobalt, Sphalerite 2.CB.40 Platinum Group With Tin, Lead, ZnS 2.CB.45 Elements and Mercury and Stilleite Cadmoselite Similar Similar ZnSe CdSe 2.CC. 2.CD.05 Tiemannite Greenockite 2.CC.05 2.CD.10 HgSe CdS Breithauptite Altaite 2.CB.05b Wurtzite NiSb PbTe 2.CB.05c (Zn,Fe)S Nickeline 334 TABLE 18. Continued 2.C - SULFIDES AND SULFOSALTS: METAL SULFIDES, METAL:SULFUR = 1:1 AND SIMILAR, CONTINUED With Tin, Lead, 2.CD.15a 2.CD.15b Mercury and Cinnabar Similar (Continued) HgS 2.D - SULFIDES AND SULFOSALTS: METAL:SULFUR = 3:4 AND 2:3 Metal:Sulfur = 3:4 FeCr2S4 2.DA.15 2.DB.15 2.DA.05 Indite 2.DA.20 2.DB.20 Cadmoindite FeIn2S4 2.DA.25 2.DB.25 CdIn2S4 Kalininite 2.DB.30 Carrollite ZnCr2S4 Metal:Sulfur = 2:3 2.DB.35 Cu(Co,Ni)2S4 Linnaeite 2.DB.05 Cuprokalininite Co3S4 Bismuthinite Variable CuCr2S4 Siegenite Bi2S3 Metal:Sulfur Cuprorhodsite CoNi2S4 – Stibnite Ratio (Cu,Fe)Rh2S4 NiCo2S4 Sb2S3 2.DC.05 Daubréelite 2.DA.10 2.DB.10 2.E - SULFIDES AND SULFOSALTS: METAL SULFIDES, METAL:SULFUR ≤ 1:2 Metal:Sulfur = 1:2 2.EA.30 2.EB.10b 2.EB.30 with Copper, Silver 2.EB.10c 2.EB.35 and Gold Metal:Sulfur = 1:2 2.EB.10d 2.EA.05 with Iron, Cobalt, 2.EB.10e Metal:Sulfur = 2.EA.10 Nickel, Platinum 2.EB.10f 1:(>2) 2.EA.15 Group Elements 2.EB.15a 2.EC.05 Krennerite and Similar 2.EB.15b 2.EC.10 (Au,Ag)Te2 2.EB.05a 2.EB.15c 2.EA.20 2.EB.05b 2.EB.20 2.EA.25 2.EB.10a 2.EB.25 335 TABLE 18. Continued 2.F - SULFIDES AND SULFOSALTS: SULFIDES OF ARSENIC, ALKALIES; SULFIDES WITH HALIDE, OXIDE, HYDROXIDE AND H2O With Arsenic, 2.FA.35 With Chlorine, 2.FC.25 Antimony and 2.FA.40 Bromine and Iodine Demicheleite- Sulfur (Halide-Sulfides) Br 2.FA.05 With Alkalies, 2.FC.05 BiSBr 2.FA.10 Without Chlorine 2.FC.10 Demicheleite- 2.FA.15a and Similar Halides 2.FC.15a Cl 2.FA.15b 2.FB.05 2.FC.15b BiSCl 2.FA.15c 2.FB.10 2.FC.15c Demicheleite-I 2.FA.15d 2.FB.15 2.FC.15d BiSI 2.FA.20 2.FB.20 2.FC.20a 2.FA.25 2.FB.25 2.FC.20b 2.FA.30 2.FC.20c 2.F - SULFIDES AND SULFOSALTS: SULFIDES OF ARSENIC, ALKALIES; SULFIDES WITH HALIDE, OXIDE, HYDROXIDE AND H2O, CONTINUED With Oxygen, 2.FD.05 2.FD.25 2.FD.40 OH and H2O 2.FD.10 2.FD.30 2.FD.45 2.FD. 2.FD.20 2.FD.35 2.FD.50 2.G - SULFIDES AND SULFOSALTS: SULFARSENITES, SULFANTIMONITES AND SULFBISMUTHITES Neso-Sulfarsenites 2.GA.30 Neso-Sulfarsenites 2.GC.10 and Similar Without 2.GA.35 and Similar with 2.GC.15 Additional Sulfur 2.GA.40 Additional Sulfur 2.GC.20 2.GA.05 2.GA.45 2.GB.05 2.GC.25 Proustite 2.GA.50 2.GB.10 2.GC.30 Ag3AsS3 Bournonite Stephanite 2.GC.35 Pyrargyrite CuPbSbS3 Ag5SbS4 2.GC.40a Ag3SbS3 Seligmannite 2.GB.15 2.GC.40b 2.GA.10 PbCuAsS3 2.GB.20 2.GC.40c 2.GA.15 2.GC.40d 2.GA.20 Poly-Sulfarsenites 2.GC.40e 2.GA.25 2.GC.05 2.GC.45 336 TABLE 18. Continued 2.G - SULFIDES AND SULFOSALTS: SULFARSENITES, SULFANTIMONITES AND SULFBISMUTHITES, CONTINUED Poly-Sulfarsenites 2.GC.50 (Continued) 2.H - SULFIDES AND SULFOSALTS: SULFOSALTS OF SNS ARCHETYPE With Copper, Silver 2.HB.10b 2.HC.10b 2.HD.45 and Iron, Without 2.HB.10c 2.HC.10c 2.HD.50 Lead 2.HB.15 2.HC.10d 2.HD.55 2.HA.05 2.HB.20a 2.HC.15 2.HD.60 Chalcostibite 2.HB.20b 2.HC.20 CuSbS2 2.HB.20c 2.HC.25 With Alkalies 2.HA.10 2.HB.20d 2.HC.30 and H2O 2.HA.20 2.HB.20e 2.HC.35 2.HE.05 2.HA.25 2.HC.40 2.HE.10 With Only Lead With Copper, 2.HC.05a With Thallium With SnS and Silver, Iron, Tin and 2.HC.05b 2.HD.05 PbS Archetype Lead 2.HC.05c 2.HD.15 Structure Units 2.HB.05 2.HC.05d 2.HD.20 2.HF.20 2.HB.05a 2.HC.05e 2.HD.25 2.HF.25a 2.HB.05b 2.HC.05f 2.HD.30 2.HF.25b 2.HB.05c 2.HC.05g 2.HD.35 2.HF.30 2.HB.10a 2.HC.10a 2.HD.40 2.J - SULFIDES AND SULFOSALTS: SULFOSALTS OF PBS ARCHETYPE Galena Derivatives 2.JA.05f 2.JA.15 2.JB.25a with Little or No 2.JA.05g 2.JA.20 2.JB.25b Lead 2.JA.05h 2.JB.25c 2.JA.05 2.JA.05i Galena Derivatives 2.JB.25d 2.JA.05a 2.JA.10a with Lead 2.JB.25f 2.JA.05b 2.JA.10b 2.JB.05 2.JB.25g 2.JA.05c 2.JA.10c 2.JB.10 2.JB.25h 2.JA.05d 2.JA.10d 2.JB.15 2.JB.25i 2.JA.05e 2.JA.10e 2.JB.20 2.JB.25j 337 TABLE 18. Continued 2.J - SULFIDES AND SULFOSALTS: SULFOSALTS OF PBS ARCHETYPE, CONTINUED Galena Derivatives Pb9Sb22S42 2.JB.40d Galena with Lead 2.JB.35b 2.JB.40e Derivatives with (Continued) 2.JB.35d 2.JB.55 Thallium 2.JB.30a 2.JB.35e 2.JB.60 2.JC.05 2.JB.30b 2.JB.40 2.JB.65 2.JC.10 2.JB.30c 2.JB.40a 2.JC.25e 2.JB.35a 2.JB.40b 2.JC.40a Zinkenite 2.JB.40c 2.K - SULFIDES AND SULFOSALTS: SULFARSENATES AND SULFANTIMONATES Sulfarsenates with Enargite Sulfarsenates with (As,Sb)S4 Cu3AsS4 Additional Sulfur Tetrahedra 2.KA.10 2.KB.05 2.KA.05 2.KA.15 2.L - SULFIDES AND SULFOSALTS: UNCLASSIFIED SULFOSALTS Without Essential 2.LA.30 2.LA.60 2.LB.35 Lead 2.LA.35 2.LA.65 2.LB.40 2.LA.10 2.LA.40 2.LB.45 2.LA.15 2.LA.45 With Essential Lead 2.LA.20 2.LA.50 2.LB.05 2.LA.25 2.LA.55 2.LB.30 2.M - SULFIDES AND SULFOSALTS: OXYSULFOSALTS Oxysulfosalts 2.MA.05 2.MA.10 3.A - HALIDES: SIMPLE HALIDES WITHOUT H2O Metal:Halogen = 3.AA.05 AgI 3.AA.25 1:1, 2:3, 3:5 and 3.AA.10 3.AA.15 Sal Ammoniac Similar Iodargyrite 3.AA.20 NH4Cl 338 TABLE 18. Continued 3.A - HALIDES: SIMPLE HALIDES WITHOUT H2O, CONTINUED Metal:Halogen = 3.AA.50 3.AB.10 Metal:Halogen 1:1, 2:3, 3:5 and 3.AA.55 3.AB.15 = 1:3 Similar 3.AA.60 3.AB.20 3.AC.05 (Continued) 3.AB.25 3.AC.10 3.AA.30 Metal:Halogen = 3.AB.30 3.AC.15 3.AA.35 1:2 3.AB.35 3.AC.20 3.AA.40 3.AB. 3.AA.45 3.AB.05 3.B - HALIDES: SIMPLE HALIDES WITH H2O Metal:Halogen = 3.BB.10 Metal:Halogen = 3.BD.10 1:1 and 2:3 3.BB.15 1:3 3.BD.15 3.BA.05 3.BB.20 3.BC.05 3.BD.20 3.BA.10 3.BB.25 3.BD.25 3.BB.30 Simple Halides with Metal:Halogen = 3.BB.35 H2O and Additional 1:2 OH 3.BB.05 3.BD.05 3.C - HALIDES: COMPLEX HALIDES Borofluorides 3.CB.35 Ino- 3.CF.05 3.CA.05 3.CB.40 Aluminofluorides 3.CF.10 3.CA.10 3.CB.45 3.CD.05 3.CF.15 3.CB.50 3.CD.10 Neso- Alumino- Aluminofluorides Soro- Phyllo- fluorides with 3.CB.05 Aluminofluorides Aluminofluorides CO3, SO4 and 3.CB.15 3.CC.05 3.CE.05 PO4 3.CB.20 3.CC.10 3.CG.05 3.CB.25 3.CC.15 Tecto- 3.CG.10 3.CB.30 3.CC.20 Aluminofluorides 339 TABLE 18. Continued 3.C - HALIDES: COMPLEX HALIDES, CONTINUED Alumino-fluorides Silicofluorides Iron, Manganese Halides of with CO3, SO4 and 3.CH.05 and Copper; X = Bismuth and PO4 (Continued) 3.CH.10 Halogen Similar 3.CG.15 3.CH.15 3.CJ.05 3.CK.05 Creedite 3.CH.20 3.CJ.10 Ca3SO4Al2F8 3.CH.25 3.CJ.15 (OH)2•2H2O 3.CJ.20 3.CG.20 With MX6 3.CJ.25 3.CG.25 Complexes; M = 3.CJ.30 3.D - HALIDES: OXYHALIDES, HYDROXYHALIDES AND RELATED DOUBLE HALIDES With Copper and With Lead, Copper 3.DC.05 With Mercury Similar, Without and Similar 3.DC.10 3.DD.05 Lead 3.DB. 3.DC.15 3.DD.10 3.DA.05 3.DB.05 3.DC.20 3.DD.15 3.DA.10a Diaboleite 3.DC.25 3.DD.20 3.DA.10b Pb2CuCl2(OH)4 3.DC.30 3.DD.25 3.DA.10c 3.DB.10 3.DC.35 3.DD.30 3.DA.10d 3.DB.15 3.DC.37 3.DD.35 3.DA.15 3.DB.20 3.DC.40 3.DD.40 3.DA.20 3.DB.25 3.DC.45 3.DD.45 3.DA.25 3.DB.30 3.DC.50 3.DD.50 3.DA.30 3.DB.35 3.DC.55 3.DD.55 3.DA.35 3.DB.40 3.DC.60 3.DD.60 3.DA.40 3.DB.45 3.DC.65 3.DD.65 3.DA.45 3.DB.50 3.DC.70 3.DA.50 3.DC.75 With Rare Earth 3.DA.55 With Lead, Arsenic, 3.DC.80 Elements 3.DA.60 Antimony and 3.DC.85 3.DE.05 Bismuth, Without 3.DC.90 Copper 3.DC.95 340 TABLE 18. Continued 4.A - OXIDES: METAL:OXYGEN = 2:1 AND 1:1 Cation:Anion Metal:Oxygen = 1:1 BeO (± Smaller (Metal:Oxygen) = (and up to 1:1.25) Zincite Ones) 2:1 (and 1.8:1) with Small to (Zn,Mn,Fe)O 4.AC.05 4.AA.05 Medium-Sized 4.AB.25 Swedenborgite Ice Cations Only 4.AB.30 NaBe4SbO7 H2O 4.AB.05 4.AC.10 4.AA.10 4.AB.10 Metal:Oxygen 4.AC.15 4.AA.15 4.AB.15 = 1:1 (and up 4.AC.20 4.AB.20 to 1:1.25) with 4.AC.25 Bromellite Large Cations 4.B - OXIDES: METAL:OXYGEN = 3:4 AND SIMILAR With Small and With Only Magnesiocoulsonite With Medium- Medium-Sized Medium-Sized MgV2O4 Sized and Large Cations Cations Trevorite Cations 4.BA.05 4.BB.05 NiFe2O4 4.BC.05 Mariinskite Coulsonite 4.BB.10 4.BC.10 BeCr2O4 FeV2O4 4.BB.15 4.BA.05 Cuprospinel 4.BB.20 With Only CuFe2O4 4.BB.25 Large Cations Jacobsite 4.BD.05 MnFe2O4 4.C - OXIDES: METAL:OXYGEN = 2:3, 3:5 AND SIMILAR With Small Cations 4.CB.30 4.CB.65 4.CC.05 4.CA 4.CB.35 4.CB.70 4.CC.10 4.CB.40 Sillénite 4.CC.15 With Medium- Nolanite Bi12SiO20 4.CC.20 Sized Cations (V,Fe,Fe,T)10O14 4.CB.75 4.CC.25 4.CB.05 (OH)2 4.CB.80 4.CC.30 4.CB.10 4.CB.45 Barioperov- 4.CB.15 4.CB.50 With Large and skite 4.CB.20 4.CB.55 Medium-Sized BaTiO3 4.CB.25 4.CB.60 Cations 341 TABLE 18. Continued 4.C - OXIDES: METAL:OXYGEN = 2:3, 3:5 AND SIMILAR, CONTINUED With Large and Ca(Zr,Sn,Ti)O3 4.CC.35 4.CC.40 Medium-Sized Lueshite Macedonite 4.CC.45 Cations (Continued) NaNbO3 PbTiO3 4.CC.50 4.CC.30 Continued Perovskite Tausonite 4.CC.55 Lakargiite CaTiO3 SrTiO3 4.CC.60 4.D - OXIDES: METAL:OXYGEN = 1:2 AND SIMILAR With Small Cations, 4.DB.20 With Medium-Sized Dimers and Silica Family 4.DB.25 Cations, with Trimers of 4.DA.05 4.DB.30 Various Polyhedra Edge-Sharing Quartz Heftetjernite 4.DE.05 Octahedra SiO2 ScTaO4 4.DE.10 4.DF.05 4.DA.10 4.DB.35 4.DE.15 4.DF.10 4.DA.15 4.DB.40 Koechlinite Changbaiite 4.DA.20 4.DB.45 Bi2MoO6 PbNb2O6 4.DA.25 4.DB.50 Russellite 4.DF.15 4.DA.30 4.DB.55 Bi2WO6 4.DA.35 4.DB.60 4.DE.20 With Large (± 4.DA.40 4.DE.25 Medium-Sized) 4.DA.45 With Medium-Sized Paratellurite Cations and 4.DA.50 Cations and Sheets TeO2 Chains of Edge- of Edge-Sharing 4.DE.30 Sharing With Medium-Sized Octahedra Cervantite Octahedra Cations and Chains 4.DC.05 Sb2O4 4.DG.05 of Edge-Sharing 4.DC.10 Clinocervantite 4.DG.10 Octahedra Sb2O4 4.DG.15 4.DB.05 With Medium-Sized Stibiocolumbite 4.DG.20 Cassiterite Cations and Sb(Nb,Ta)O4 SnO2 Frameworks of Stibiotantalite With Large (± Pyrolusite Edge-Sharing Sb(Ta,Nb)O4 Medium-Sized) MnO2 Octahedra 4.DE.35 Cations and 4.DB.10 4.DD.05 Sheets of Edge- 4.DB.15a 4.DD.10 With Large (± Sharing 4.DB.15b Medium-Sized) Octahedra 4.DB.15c Cations and 4.DH.05 342 TABLE 18. Continued 4.D - OXIDES: METAL:OXYGEN = 1:2 AND SIMILAR, CONTINUED With Large (± Hydroxycalcio- 4.DJ.05 Fluorite-Type Medium-Sized) roméite Structures Cations and Sheets (Ca,Sb)2(Sb,Fe, With Large (± 4.DL.05 of Edge-Sharing Ti)2O6(OH) Medium-Sized) 4.DL.10 Octahedra 4.DH.25 Cations and (Continued) 4.DH.30 Tunnel Structures With Large (± 4.DH.10 4.DH.35 4.DK.05 Medium-Sized) 4.DH.15 4.DH.40 4.DK.05a Cations, Oxycalciopyro- 4.DH.45 4.DK.05b Unclassified chlore 4.DK.10 4.DM.05 Ca2Nb2O7 With Large (± 4.DM.15 Oxyplumbopyro- Medium-Sized) With Large (± 4.DM.20 chlore Cations and Medium-Sized) 4.DM.25 Pb2Nb2O7 Polyhedral Cations and 4.DH.20 Frameworks 4.E - OXIDES: METAL:OXYGEN ≤ 1:2 Metal:Oxygen ≤ 1:2 4.EA 4.F - OXIDES: HYDROXIDES WITHOUT VANADIUM OR URANIUM Hydroxides with 4.FB.05 Hydroxides with Hydroxides with OH, Without H2O, 4.FB.10 OH, Without H2O, OH, Without with Corner-Sharing with Chains of H2O, with Tetrahedra Hydroxides with Edge-Sharing Sheets of Edge- 4.FA.05a OH, Without H2O, Octahedra Sharing 4.FA.05b with Corner-Sharing 4.FD.05 Octahedra 4.FA.10 Octahedra 4.FD.10 4.FE.05 4.FC.05 4.FD.15 Brucite Hydroxides with 4.FC.10 4.FD.20 Mg(OH)2 OH, Without H2O, 4.FC.15 4.FD.25 Pyrochroite with Insular 4.FC.20 4.FD.30 Mn(OH)2 Octahedra 4.FC.25 4.FE.10 4.FB. 4.FE.15 343 TABLE 18. Continued 4.F - OXIDES: HYDROXIDES WITHOUT VANADIUM OR URANIUM, CONTINUED Hydroxides with Hydroxides with Chains of Edge- 4.FL.70 OH, Without H2O, OH, Without H2O, Sharing Octahedra 4.FL.75 with Sheets of Unclassified 4.FK.05 4.FL.80 Edge-Sharing 4.FG.05 4.FL.85 Octahedra 4.FG.10 Hydroxides with (Continued) 4.FG.15 H2O ± OH, with Hydroxides with 4.FE.20 Sheets of Edge- H2O ± OH, 4.FE.25 Hydroxides with Sharing Octahedra Unclassified 4.FE.30 H2O ± OH, with 4.FL. 4.FM.15 Quenselite Insular Octahedra 4.FL.05 4.FM.25 PbMnO2(OH) 4.FH.05 4.FL.10 4.FM.30 4.FE.35 Hydrocalumite 4.FM.35 4.FE.40 Hydroxides with Ca2Al(OH)7•2H2O 4.FE.45 H2O ± OH, with 4.FL.15 Hydroxides with Corner-Sharing 4.FL.20 H2O ± OH, with Hydroxides with Octahedra 4.FL.25 Frameworks of OH, Without H2O, 4.FJ.05 4.FL.30 Corner and/or with Various 4.FJ.10 4.FL.35 Face-Sharing Polyhedra 4.FJ.15 4.FL.40 Octahedra 4.FF.05 4.FJ.20 4.FL.45 4.FN.05 4.FL.55 Hydroxides with 4.FL.60 H2O ± OH, with 4.FL.65 4.G - OXIDES: URANYL HYDROXIDES Without Additional with Mainly 4.GB.35 With Additional Cations UO2(O,OH)5 4.GB.40 Cations with 4.GA.05 Pentagonal 4.GB.45 Mainly 4.GA.10 Polyhedra 4.GB.50 UO2(O,OH)6 4.GA.15 4.GB.05 4.GB.55 Hexagonal 4.GB.10 4.GB.60 Polyhedra With Additional 4.GB.15 4.GB.65 4.GC.05 Cations (Potassium, 4.GB.20 4.GB.70 4.GC.10 Calcium, Barium, 4.GB.25 4.GC.15 Lead and Similar) 4.GB.30 344 TABLE 18. Continued 4.H - OXIDES: V [5,6] VANADATES V [> 4] Neso- V [6] Soro- 4.HE.05 Unclassified Vanadates Vanadates Melanovanadite Vanadium 4.HA 4.HC.05 CaV4O10•5H2O Oxides 4.HC.10 4.HE.10 4.HG.05 Uranyl Soro- 4.HC.15 4.HE.15 4.HG.10 Vanadates 4.HE.20 4.HG.15 4.HB.05 Ino-Vanadates 4.HE.25 4.HG.20 4.HB.10 4.HD.05 4.HE.30 4.HG.25 4.HB.15 4.HD.10 4.HE.35 4.HG.30 4.HB.20 4.HD.15 4.HE.40 4.HG.35 4.HB.25 4.HD.20 4.HG.40 4.HB.30 4.HD.25 Tecto- 4.HG.45 4.HB.35 4.HD.30 Vanadates 4.HG.50 4.HB.40 4.HF.05 4.HG.55 Phyllo- 4.HG.60 Vanadates 4.HG.65 4.J - OXIDES: ARSENITES, ANTIMONITES, BISMUTHITES, SULFITES, SELENITES, TELLURITES AND IODATES Arsenites, 4.JA.55 4.JB.45 Anions, with Antimonites, 4.JA.60 Finnemanite H2 O Bismuthites Pb5(AsO3)5Cl 4.JC.05 Without Additional Arsenites, 4.JB.50 4.JC.10 Anions, Without Antimonites, 4.JB.55 4.JC.15 H2 O Bismuthites with 4.JB.60 4.JC.20 4.JA.05 Additional Anions, 4.JB.65 4.JA.10 Without H2O 4.JB.70 Arsenites, 4.JA.15 4.JB.05 4.JB.75 Antimonites, 4.JA.20 4.JB.10 Bismuthites 4.JA.25 4.JB.15 Arsenites, with Additional 4.JA.30 4.JB.20 Antimonites, Anions, with 4.JA.35 4.JB.25 Bismuthites H2 O 4.JA.40 4.JB.30 Without 4.JD.05 4.JA.45 4.JB.35 Additional 4.JD.10 4.JA.50 4.JB.40 4.JD.15 345 TABLE 18. Continued 4.J - OXIDES: ARSENITES, ANTIMONITES, BISMUTHITES, SULFITES, SELENITES, TELLURITES AND IODATES, CONTINUED Sulfites 4.JK.10 4.JL.30 4.JE.05 Selenites Without 4.JK.15 4.JE.10 Additional Anions, 4.JK.20 Tellurites 4.JE.15 with H2O 4.JK.25 Without 4.JE.20 4.JH.05 4.JK.30 Additional 4.JH.10 4.JK.35 Anions, with Selenites Without 4.JH.15 4.JK.40 H2 O Additional Anions, 4.JH.20 4.JK.45 4.JM.05 Without H2O 4.JH.25 4.JK.50 4.JM.10 4.JF.05 4.JK.55 4.JM.15 Selenites with 4.JK.60 4.JM.20 Selenites with Additional Anions, 4.JK.65 Additional Anions, with H2O 4.JK.70 Tellurites with Without H2O 4.JJ.05 4.JK.75 Additional 4.JG. 4.JJ.10 Anions, with 4.JG.05 4.JJ.15 Tellurites with H2 O 4.JG.10 4.JJ.20 Additional Anions, 4.JN.05 4.JG.15 4.JJ.25 Without H2O 4.JN.10 4.JG.20 4.JL.05 4.JN.15 4.JG.25 Tellurites Without 4.JL.10 4.JN.20 4.JG.30 Additional Anions, 4.JL.15 4.JN.25 4.JG.35 Without H2O 4.JL.20 4.JN.30 4.JG.40 4.JK.05 4.JL.25 4.K - OXIDES: IODATES, TRIGONAL (IO3) PYRAMIDS (MOSTLY) Iodates Without Iodates with Iodates Without Iodates with Additional Anions, Additional Anions, Additional Anions, Additional Without H2O Without H2O with H2O Anions, with 4.KA.05 4.KB.05 4.KC.05 H2 O 4.KB.10 4.KC.10 4.KD.05 4.KB.15 4.KD.10 346 TABLE 18. Continued 5.A - CARBONATES (NITRATES): CARBONATES WITHOUT ADDITIONAL ANIONS, WITHOUT H2 O Alkali Carbonates 5.AB.10 Benstonite Shortite 5.AA.05 5.AB.15 (Ba,Sr)6(Ca,Mn)6 Na2Ca2(CO3)3 5.AA.10 5.AB.20 Mg(CO3)13 5.AC.30 5.AA.15 5.AB.25 5.AB.60 Burbankite 5.AA.20 5.AB.30 (Na,Ca)3(Sr, 5.AA.25 5.AB.35 Alkali and Alkali- Ba,Ce)3(CO3)5 5.AA.30 5.AB.40 Earth Carbonates 5.AB.45 5.AC.05 With Rare Earth Alkali-Earth (and 5.AB.50 5.AC.10 Elements Other Metal2+) 5.AB.55 5.AC.15 5.AD.05 Carbonates 5.AC.20 5.AD.15 5.AB.05 5.AC.25 5.AD.20 5.B - CARBONATES (NITRATES): CARBONATES WITH ADDITIONAL ANIONS, WITHOUT H2O With Copper, 5.BB.15 (Ce,La)(CO3)F 5.BE.30 Cobalt, Nickel, 5.BB.20 5.BD.20b 5.BE.35 Zinc, Magnesium 5.BD.20c and Manganese With Alkali-Earth 5.BD.20d With Chlorine, 5.BA.05 Cations Röntgenite-Ce SO4, PO4 and 5.BA.10 5.BC.05 Ca2(Ce,La)3 TeO3 5.BA.15 5.BC.10 (CO3)5F3 5.BF.05 5.BA.20 5.BC.15 5.BD.25 5.BF.10 5.BA.25 5.BD.35 5.BF.15 5.BA.30 With Rare Earth 5.BF.20 Elements With Lead and 5.BF.25 With Alkalies and 5.BD.05 Bismuth 5.BF.30 Similar 5.BD.10 5.BE.05 5.BF.35 5.BB.05 5.BD.15 5.BE.10 5.BF.40 5.BB.10 5.BD.18 5.BE.15 Dawsonite 5.BD.20a 5.BE.20 NaAlCO3(OH)2 Bastnäsite-Ce 5.BE.25 347 TABLE 18. Continued 5.C - CARBONATES (NITRATES): CARBONATES WITHOUT ADDITIONAL ANIONS, WITH H2O With Medium-Sized 5.CB.05 5.CB.40 5.CC.10 Cations 5.CB.10 5.CB.45 5.CC.15 5.CA.05 5.CB.15 5.CB.50 5.CC.20 5.CA.10 5.CB.20 5.CC.25 5.CA.15 5.CB.25 With Rare Earth 5.CC.30 5.CA.20 5.CB.30 Elements 5.CC.35 Pirssonite 5.CC.05 5.CC.40 With Large Cations Na2Ca(CO3)2 Weloganite (Alkali and Alkali- •2H2O Na2Sr3Zr(CO3)6 Earth Carbonates) 5.CB.35 •3H2O 5.D - CARBONATES (NITRATES): CARBONATES WITH ADDITIONAL ANIONS, WITH H2O With Medium- 5.DA.30 5.DB.05 5.DC.10 Sized Cations 5.DA.35 5.DB.10 5.DC.15 5.DA.05 5.DA.40 5.DB.15 5.DC.20 5.DA.10 5.DA.45 5.DB.20 5.DC.25 Artinite 5.DA.50 5.DB.25 5.DC.30 Mg2(CO3)(OH)2 5.DA.55 5.DB.30 5.DC.35 •3H2O 5.DA.15 With Large and With Large 5.DA.20 Medium-Sized Cations 5.DA.25 Cations 5.DC.05 5.E - CARBONATES (NITRATES): URANYL CARBONATES UO2:CO3 > 1:1 UO2:CO3 = 1:1 UO2:CO3 = 1:3 5.ED.35 5.EA.05 5.EB.05 5.ED.05 5.ED.40 5.EA.10 5.EB.10 5.ED.10 5.ED.45 5.EA.15 5.EB.15 5.ED.15 5.ED.50 5.EA.20 5.EB.20 5.ED.20 5.EA.25 Liebigite UO2:CO3 = 1:4 5.EA.30 UO2:CO3 < 1:1 to Ca2(UO2)(CO3)3 5.EE.05 5.EA.35 1:2 •11H2O 5.EE.10 5.EC.05 5.ED.25 5.EC.10 5.ED.30 348 TABLE 18. Continued 5.E - CARBONATES (NITRATES): URANYL CARBONATES, CONTINUED UO2:CO3 = 1:5 With SO4 or SiO4 5.EG.10 5.EF.05 5.EG.05 5.N - CARBONATES (NITRATES): NITRATES Without OH or H2O Niter With OH With OH (and 5.NA.05 KNO3 5.NB.05 Similar) and Nitratine 5.NA.15 H2 O NaNO3 Gwihabaite With H2O 5.ND.05 Nitrobarite (NH4,K)NO3 5.NC.05 5.ND.10 Ba(NO3)2 5.NA.20 5.NC.10 5.ND.15 5.NA.10 5.ND.20 6.A - BORATES: MONOBORATES BO3 Without 6.AB.10 6.AB.65 6.AC.15 Additional Anions, 6.AB.15 6.AB.70 6.AC.20 with Single Triangle Jeremejevite 6.AB.75 6.AC.25 6.AA.05 Al6(BO3)5(F,OH)3 6.AB.80 6.AC.30 6.AA.15 6.AB.20 6.AB.85 6.AC.35 6.AA.35 6.AB.25 6.AC.40 6.AA.40 6.AB.30 B(O,OH)4 Without 6.AC.45 6.AB.35 and with Additional 6.AC.50 BO3 with 6.AB.40 Anions; with Single 6.AC.55 Additional Anions, 6.AB.45 Tetrahedron plus 6.AC.60 with Single Triangle 6.AB.50 OH and Similar 6.AC.65 plus OH and Similar 6.AB.55 6.AC.05 6.AC.70 6.AB.05 6.AB.60 6.AC.10 6.B - BORATES: DIBORATES Neso-Diborates 6.BA.05 Neso-Diborates Pinnoite with Double 6.BA.10 with Double Mg[B2O(OH)6] Triangles 6.BA.15 Tetrahedra 6.BB.10 B2(O,OH)5 and 6.BA.20 B2O(OH)6 Similar 6.BB.05 349 TABLE 18. Continued 6.B - BORATES: DIBORATES, CONTINUED Ino-Diborates with 6.BC.10 Tecto-Diborates Triangles and/or 6.BC.15 with Tetrahedra Tetrahedra 6.BC.20 6.BD.05 6.C - BORATES: TRIBORATES Neso-Triborates 6.CA.35 Ino-Triborates 6.CB.20 6.CA.10 6.CA.40 6.CB.10 6.CB.25 6.CA.15 6.CA.45 Colemanite 6.CA.20 6.CA.50 Ca[B3O4(OH)3] Phyllo- 6.CA.25 6.CA.55 •H2O Triborates 6.CA.30 6.CB.15 6.CC.05 6.D - BORATES: TETRABORATES Neso-Tetraborates 6.DA.35 Phyllo-Tetraborates Diomignite 6.DA.10 6.DA.40 6.DC Li2B4O7 6.DA.15 6.DA.60 6.DA.20 Tecto- 6.DA.25 Ino-Tetraborates Tetraborates 6.DA.30 6.DB.05 6.DD.05 6.E - BORATES: PENTABORATES Neso-Pentaborates 6.EB.10 6.EC.10 Tecto- 6.EA.05 6.EB.15 6.EC.15 Pentaborates 6.EA.10 6.EB.20 6.EC.20 6.ED.05 6.EA.15 6.EB.25 6.EC.25 Hilgardite 6.EA.25 6.EC.30 Ca2B5O9Cl Phyllo- 6.EC.35 •H2O Ino-Pentaborates Pentaborates 6.EB.05 6.EC.05 350 TABLE 18. Continued 6.F - BORATES: HEXABORATES Neso-Hexaborates Ino-Hexaborates Phyllo- 6.FA.05 6.FB.05 Hexaborates 6.FA.10 6.FB.10 6.FC.05 6.FA.15 Kaliborite 6.FC.10 6.FA.20 KMg2H[B6O8 6.FC.15 6.FA.25 (OH)5]2(H2O)4 6.FC.20 6.G - BORATES: HEPTABORATES AND OTHER MEGABORATES Tecto-Heptaborates 6.GA.10 6.GB.20 Rhodizite 6.GA.05 6.GA.30 (K,Cs)Al4Be4 Boracite Tecto- (B,Be)12O28 Mg3B7O13Cl Phyllo-Nonaborates Dodecaborates Chambersite and Similar 6.GC.05 Mega- Mn3B7O13Cl 6.GB.05 Londonite Tectoborates Ericaite 6.GB.10 (Cs,K,Rb)Al4Be4 6.GD.05 Fe3B7O13Cl 6.GB.15 (B,Be)12O28 6.GD.10 6.H - BORATES: UNCLASSIFIED BORATES Unclassified 6.HA Borates 7.A - SULFATES (SELENATES, TELLURATES, CHROMATES, MOLYBDATES AND WOLFRAMATES): SULFATES (SELENATES AND SIMILAR) WITHOUT ADDITIONAL ANIONS, WITHOUT H2O With Small Cations With Medium-Sized 7.AC.25 7.AD.20 7.AA and Large Cations 7.AC.30 7.AD.25 7.AC.05 7.AC.35 7.AD.30 With Medium- 7.AC.08 7.AD.35 Sized Cations 7.AC.10 With Only Large Olsacherite 7.AB.05 Langbeinite Cations Pb2(SeO4) 7.AB.10 K2Mg2(SO4)3 7.AD.05 (SO4) 7.AC.15 7.AD.10 7.AD.40 7.AC.20 7.AD.15 351 TABLE 18. Continued 7.B - SULFATES (SELENATES, TELLURATES, CHROMATES, MOLYBDATES AND WOLFRAMATES): SULFATES (SELENATES AND SIMILAR) WITH ADDITIONAL ANIONS, WITHOUT H2O With Small Cations With Medium-Sized Plumbojarosite 7.BC.80 7.BA and Large Cations Pb0.5Fe3(SO4)2 7.BC.05 (OH)6 With Only With Medium- 7.BC.10 7.BC.15 Large Cations Sized Cations Alunite 7.BC.20 7.BD.05 7.BB.05 KAl3(SO4)2(OH)6 7.BC.25 7.BD.10 7.BB.10 Ammoniojarosite 7.BC.30 7.BD.15 7.BB.15 (NH4)Fe3(SO4)2 7.BC.35 7.BD.20 7.BB.20 (OH)6 7.BC.40 7.BD.25 7.BB.25 Argentojarosite 7.BC.45 7.BD.30 7.BB.30 AgFe3(SO4)2 7.BC.50 7.BD.35 7.BB.35 (OH)6 Caledonite 7.BD.40 7.BB.40 Jarosite Pb5Cu2(SO4)3 7.BD.45 7.BB.45 KFe3(SO4)2(OH)6 (CO3)(OH)6 7.BD.50 7.BB.50 Natroalunite 7.BC.55 7.BD.55 7.BB.55 (Na,K)Al3(SO4)2 7.BC.60 7.BD.60 7.BB.60 (OH)6 7.BC.65 7.BD.65 Natrojarosite 7.BC.70 7.BD.70 NaFe3(SO4)2(OH)6 7.BC.75 7.C - SULFATES (SELENATES, TELLURATES, CHROMATES, MOLYBDATES AND WOLFRAMATES): SULFATES (SELENATES AND SIMILAR) WITHOUT ADDITIONAL ANIONS, WITH H2O With Small Cations 7.CB.25 Morenosite 7.CB.70 7.CA 7.CB.30 NiSO4•7H2O 7.CB.75 Retgersite 7.CB.45 7.CB.80 With Only Medium- NiSO4•6H2O 7.CB.50 7.CB.85 Sized Cations 7.CB.35 7.CB.55 Halotrichite 7.CB.05 7.CB.40 Coquimbite FeAl2(SO4)4 7.CB.07 Epsomite Fe1.5Al0.5(SO4)3 •22H2O 7.CB.10 MgSO4•7H2O •9H2O Pickeringite 7.CB.15 Goslarite 7.CB.60 MgAl2(SO4)4 7.CB.20 ZnSO4•7H2O 7.CB.65 •22H2O 352 TABLE 18. Continued 7.C - SULFATES (SELENATES, TELLURATES, CHROMATES, MOLYBDATES AND WOLFRAMATES): SULFATES (SELENATES AND SIMILAR) WITHOUT ADDITIONAL ANIONS, WITH H2O, CONTINUED With Only Medium- NaAl(SO4)2 7.CC.75 7.CD.35 Sized Cations •12H2O 7.CC.80 Syngenite (Continued) 7.CC.25 7.CC.85 K2Ca(SO4)2 7.CB.90 7.CC.30 •H2O 7.CC.35 With Only Large 7.CD.40 With Medium-Sized 7.CC.40 Cations 7.CD.45 and Large Cations 7.CC.45 7.CD.05 7.CD.50 7.CC.05 7.CC.50 7.CD.10 7.CD.55 7.CC.10 7.CC.55 7.CD.15 7.CD.60 7.CC.15 7.CC.60 7.CD.20 7.CD.65 7.CC.20 7.CC.65 7.CD.25 Alum-Na 7.CC.70 7.CD.30 7.D - SULFATES (SELENATES, TELLURATES, CHROMATES, MOLYBDATES AND WOLFRAMATES): SULFATES (SELENATES AND SIMILAR) WITH ADDITIONAL ANIONS, WITH H2 O With Small Cations Cations, with Spangolite 7.DD.85 7.DA Chains of Edge- Cu6Al(SO4)Cl Sharing Octahedra (OH)12•3H2O With Only With Only Medium- 7.DC.05 7.DD.20 Medium-Sized Sized Cations, with 7.DC.10 7.DD.25 Cations, Insular Octahedra 7.DC.15 7.DD.30 Unclassified and Finite Units 7.DC.20 7.DD.35 7.DE.05 7.DB.05 7.DC.25 7.DD.40 7.DE.10 7.DB.10 7.DC.30 7.DD.45 7.DE.15 7.DB.15 7.DD.50 7.DE.20 7.DB.20 With Only Medium- 7.DD.55 7.DE.25 7.DB.25 Sized Cations, with 7.DD.60 7.DE.35 7.DB.30 Sheets of Edge- 7.DD.65 7.DE.40 7.DB.35 Sharing Octahedra 7.DD.70 7.DE.45 7.DD.05 7.DD.75 7.DE.50 With Only 7.DD.10 7.DD.80 7.DE.55 Medium-Sized 7.DD.15 7.DE.60 353 TABLE 18. Continued 7.D - SULFATES (SELENATES, TELLURATES, CHROMATES, MOLYBDATES AND WOLFRAMATES): SULFATES (SELENATES AND SIMILAR) WITH ADDITIONAL ANIONS, WITH H2O, CONTINUED With Only Medium- 7.DF.05 7.DF.65 7.DG.10 Sized Cations, 7.DF.10 7.DF.70 7.DG.15 Unclassified 7.DF.15 7.DF.75 Thaumasite (Continued) 7.DF.20 7.DF.80 Ca3(SO4) 7.DE.62 7.DF.25 7.DF.85 [Si(OH)6] 7.DE.65 7.DF.30 (CO3)•12H2O 7.DE.70 7.DF.35 With Large and 7.DG.20 7.DE.75 7.DF.40 Medium-Sized 7.DG.25 7.DF.45 Cations, with NO3, 7.DG.30 With Large and 7.DF.50 CO3, B(OH)4, SiO4 7.DG.35 Medium-Sized 7.DF.55 and IO3 7.DG.40 Cations 7.DF.60 7.DG.05 7.DG.45 7.E - SULFATES (SELENATES, TELLURATES, CHROMATES, MOLYBDATES AND WOLFRAMATES): URANYL SULFATES Without Cations With Medium- With Medium-Sized 7.EC.15 7.EA.05 Sized Cations and Large Cations 7.EC.20 7.EA.10 7.EB.05 7.EC.05 7.EB.10 7.EC.10 7.F - SULFATES (SELENATES, TELLURATES, CHROMATES, MOLYBDATES AND WOLFRAMATES): CHROMATES With Additional With Additional 7.FB.25 7.FC.20 Anions Oxygen, Vanadium, 7.FA.05 Sulfur and Chlorine With PO4, AsO4 and Dichromates 7.FA.10 7.FB.05 SiO4 7.FD.05 7.FA.15 7.FB.10 7.FC.05 7.FA.20 7.FB.15 7.FC.10 7.FB.20 7.FC.15 354 TABLE 18. Continued 7.G - SULFATES (SELENATES, TELLURATES, CHROMATES, MOLYBDATES AND WOLFRAMATES): MOLYBDATES, WOLFRAMATES AND NIOBATES Without Additional 7.GA.10 7.GB.05 7.GB.30 Anions or H2O 7.GA.15 7.GB.10 7.GB.35 7.GA.05 7.GB.15 7.GB.40 Wulfenite With Additional 7.GB.20 7.GB.45 PbMoO4 Anions and/or H2O 7.GB.25 7.GB.50 7.H - SULFATES (SELENATES, TELLURATES, CHROMATES, MOLYBDATES AND WOLFRAMATES): URANIUM AND URANYL MOLYBDATES AND WOLFRAMATES With Uranium4+ 7.HA.15 7.HB.15 7.HA.05 7.HB.20 7.HA.10 With Uranium6+ 7.HB.25 7.J - SULFATES (SELENATES, TELLURATES, CHROMATES, MOLYBDATES AND WOLFRAMATES): THIOSULFATES Thiosulfates of Pb 7.JA.05 7.JA.10 8.A - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES AND VANADATES: PHOSPHATES AND SIMILAR WITHOUT ADDITIONAL ANIONS, WITHOUT H2O With Small Cations 8.AB.05 8.AC.15 8.AC.65 (Some Also with 8.AB.10 8.AC.18 8.AC.70 Larger Ones) 8.AB.15 8.AC.20 8.AC.75 8.AA.05 8.AB.20 8.AC.25 8.AC.80 Berlinite 8.AB.25 8.AC.30 8.AC.85 AlPO4 8.AB.30 8.AC.35 8.AA.10 8.AB.35 8.AC.40 With Only 8.AA.15 8.AB.40 8.AC.45 Large Cations 8.AA.20 Whitlockite 8.AD.05 8.AA.25 With Medium- Ca9(Mg,Fe)(PO4)6 8.AD.10 8.AA.30 Sized and Large [PO3(OH)] 8.AD.15 Cations 8.AC.50 Archerite With Medium-Sized 8.AC.05 8.AC.55 K(H2PO4) Cations 8.AC.10 8.AC.60 355 TABLE 18. Continued 8.A - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES AND VANADATES: PHOSPHATES AND SIMILAR WITHOUT ADDITIONAL ANIONS, WITHOUT H2O, CONTINUED With Only Large 8.AD.20 Wakefieldite-Nd 8.AD.60 Cations 8.AD.25 NdVO4 8.AD.65 (Continued) 8.AD.30 8.AD.40 8.AD.15 Continued Schultenite 8.AD.45 Biphosphammite Pb(HAsO4) 8.AD.50 NH4(H2PO4) 8.AD.35 8.AD.55 8.B - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES AND VANADATES: PHOSPHATES AND SIMILAR WITH ADDITIONAL ANIONS, WITHOUT H2O With Small and 8.BB.75 With Only Medium- and Medium-Sized 8.BB.80 Sized Cations, (OH Similar):XO4 < Cations 8.BB.85 and Similar):XO4 > 0.5:1 8.BA.05 8.BB.90 2:1 8.BF.05 8.BA.10 8.BE.05 8.BF.10 8.BA.15 With Only Medium- 8.BE.10 8.BF.15 Sized Cations, (OH 8.BE.15 8.BF.20 With Only Medium- and Similar):XO4 > 8.BE.20 Sized Cations, (OH 1:1 and < 2:1 8.BE.25 With Medium- and Similar):XO4 8.BC.05 8.BE.30 Sized and Large about 1:1 8.BC.10 8.BE.35 Cations, (OH 8.BB.05 8.BC.15 8.BE.40 and 8.BB.10 8.BE.45 Similar):XO4 = 8.BB.15 With Only Medium- 8.BE.50 0.5:1 8.BB.20 Sized Cations, (OH 8.BE.55 8.BG.05 8.BB.25 and Similar):XO4 = 8.BE.60 8.BG.10 8.BB.30 2:1 8.BE.65 8.BG.15 8.BB.35 8.BD.05 8.BE.70 8.BB.40 8.BD.10 8.BE.75 With Medium- 8.BB.45 8.BD.15 8.BE.80 Sized and Large 8.BB.50 8.BD.20 8.BE.85 Cations, (OH 8.BB.55 8.BD.25 and 8.BB.60 8.BD.30 With Medium- Similar):XO4 = 8.BB.65 Sized and Large 1:1 8.BB.70 Cations, (OH 8.BH.05 356 TABLE 18. Continued 8.B - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES AND VANADATES: PHOSPHATES AND SIMILAR WITH ADDITIONAL ANIONS, WITHOUT H2O, CONTINUED With Medium-Sized Similar):XO4 = (OH)5•H2O 8.BN.05 and Large Cations, 1.5:1 Crandallite Mimetite (OH and 8.BJ CaAl3(PO4)2•H2O Pb5(AsO4)3Cl Similar):XO4 = 1:1 Goyazite Pyromorphite (Continued) With Medium-Sized SrAl3(PO4)2 Pb5(PO4)3Cl 8.BH.10 and Large Cations, (OH)5•H2O 8.BN.10 Tilasite (OH and 8.BL.13 CaMg(AsO4)F Similar):XO4 = 2:1 8.BL.15 With Only 8.BH.15 and 2.5:1 8.BL.25 Large Cations, 8.BH.20 8.BK.05 (OH and 8.BH.25 8.BK.10 With Medium-Sized Similar):XO4 8.BH.30 8.BK.15 and Large Cations, about 1:1 8.BH.35 8.BK.20 (OH and 8.BO.05 8.BH.40 8.BK.25 Similar):XO4 = 4:1 8.BO.10 8.BH.45 8.BM.05 8.BO.15 8.BH.50 With Medium-Sized 8.BM.10 8.BO.20 8.BH.55 and Large Cations, 8.BM.15 8.BO.25 8.BH.60 (OH and 8.BO.30 8.BH.65 Similar):XO4 = 3:1 With Only 8.BO.35 8.BL.05 Large Cations, 8.BO.40 With Medium-Sized 8.BL.10 (OH and 8.BO.45 and Large Cations, Arsenogoyazite Similar):XO4 = (OH and SrAl3(AsO4)2 0.33:1 8.C - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES AND VANADATES: PHOSPHATES AND SIMILAR WITHOUT ADDITIONAL ANIONS, WITH H2O With Small and 8.CA.30 8.CA.70 8.CB.20 Large/Medium 8.CA.35 8.CB.25 Cations 8.CA.40 With Only Medium- 8.CB.30 8.CA.05 8.CA.45 Sized Cations, 8.CB.35 8.CA.10 8.CA.50 XO4:H2O = 1:1 8.CB.40 8.CA.15 8.CA.55 8.CB.05 8.CB.45 8.CA.20 8.CA.60 8.CB.10 8.CB.50 8.CA.25 8.CA.65 8.CB.15 8.CB.55 357 TABLE 18. Continued 8.C - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES AND VANADATES: PHOSPHATES AND SIMILAR WITHOUT ADDITIONAL ANIONS, WITH H2O, CONTINUED With Only Medium- 8.CE.10 8.CG.05 With Only Sized Cations, 8.CE.15 8.CG.10 Large Cations XO4:H2O = 1:1 8.CE.20 8.CG.15 8.CJ.05 (Continued) 8.CE.25 8.CG.20 8.CJ.10 8.CB.60 8.CE.30 8.CG.25 8.CJ.15 8.CE.35 8.CG.35 8.CJ.20 With Only Medium- 8.CE.40 8.CJ.25 Sized Cations, 8.CE.45 With Large and 8.CJ.30 XO4:H2O = 1:1.5 8.CE.50 Medium-Sized 8.CJ.35 8.CC.05 8.CE.55 Cations, XO4:H2O 8.CJ.40 8.CC.10 8.CE.60 < 1:1 8.CJ.45 8.CC.15 8.CE.65 8.CH.05 8.CJ.50 8.CE.70 8.CH.10 Ardealite With Only Medium- 8.CE.75 8.CH.15 Ca2(HPO4) Sized Cations, 8.CE.80 8.CH.20 (SO4)•4H2O XO4:H2O = 1:2 8.CE.85 8.CH.25 Brushite 8.CD.05 8.CH.30 Ca(HPO4) 8.CD.10 With Large and 8.CH.35 •2H2O 8.CD.15 Medium-Sized 8.CH.40 Pharmacolite 8.CD.20 Cations, XO4:H2O > Struvite Ca(HAsO4) 8.CD.25 1:1 (NH4)Mg(PO4) •2H2O 8.CD.30 8.CF.05 •6H2O 8.CJ.55 8.CF.10 8.CH.45 8.CJ.60 With Only Medium- 8.CH.50 8.CJ.65 Sized Cations, With Large and 8.CH.55 8.CJ.70 XO4:H2O about Medium-Sized 8.CH.60 8.CJ.75 1:2.5 Cations, XO4:H2O = 8.CJ.85 8.CE.05 1:1 8.D - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES AND VANADATES: PHOSPHATES AND SIMILAR, WITH ADDITIONAL ANIONS, WITH H2O With Small (and 8.DA.05 8.DA.20 8.DA.35 Occasionally 8.DA.10 8.DA.25 8.DA.40 Larger) Cations 8.DA.15 8.DA.30 8.DA.45 358 TABLE 18. Continued 8.D - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES AND VANADATES: PHOSPHATES AND SIMILAR, WITH ADDITIONAL ANIONS, WITH H2O, CONTINUED With Small (and 8.DC.17 and Similar):XO4 = Similar):XO4 < Occasionally 8.DC.20 3:1 1:1 Larger) Cations 8.DC.22 8.DE.05 8.DH.05 (Continued) 8.DC.25 8.DE.10 Minyulite 8.DA.50 8.DC.27 8.DE.15 KAl2(PO4)2 8.DC.30 8.DE.20 (OH,F)•4H2O With Only 8.DC.32 8.DE.25 8.DH.10 Medium-Sized 8.DC.35 8.DE.35 8.DH.15 Cations, (OH and 8.DC.37 8.DE.40 8.DH.20 Similar):XO4 < 1:1 8.DC.40 8.DE.45 8.DH.25 8.DB.05 8.DC.45 8.DH.30 8.DB.10 8.DC.47 With Only 8.DH.35 8.DB.15 8.DC.50 Medium-Sized 8.DH.40 8.DB.20 8.DC.52 Cations, (OH and 8.DH.45 8.DB.25 8.DC.55 Similar):XO4 > 3:1 8.DH.50 8.DB.30 8.DC.57 8.DF.05 8.DH.55 8.DB.35 8.DC.60 8.DF.10 8.DH.60 8.DB.40 8.DF.15 8.DB.45 With Only Medium- 8.DF.20 With Large and 8.DB.50 Sized Cations, (OH 8.DF.25 Medium-Sized 8.DB.55 and Similar):XO4 = 8.DF.30 Cations, (OH 8.DB.60 2:1 8.DF.35 and 8.DB.65 8.DD.05 8.DF.40 Similar):XO4 = 8.DB.70 8.DD.10 1:1 8.DB.75 8.DD.15 With Large and 8.DJ.05 8.DD.20 Medium-Sized 8.DJ.10 With Only Medium- Childrenite Cations, (OH and 8.DJ.15 Sized Cations, (OH (Fe,Mn)Al(PO4) Similar):XO4 < 8.DJ.20 and Similar):XO4 = (OH)2•H2O 0.5:1 8.DJ.25 1:1 and < 2:1 Eosphorite 8.DG.05 8.DJ.30 8.DC.05 (Mn,Fe)Al(PO4) 8.DJ.35 8.DC.07 (OH)2•H2O With Large and 8.DJ.40 8.DC.10 Medium-Sized 8.DJ.45 8.DC.12 With Only Medium- Cations, (OH 8.DC.15 Sized Cations, (OH and 359 TABLE 18. Continued 8.D - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES AND VANADATES: PHOSPHATES AND SIMILAR, WITH ADDITIONAL ANIONS, WITH H2O, CONTINUED With Large and With Large and Tyrolite 8.DN.20 Medium-Sized Medium-Sized Ca2Cu9(AsO4)4 Cations, (OH and Cations, (OH and (CO3)(OH)8 With CO3, SO4 Similar):XO4 > 1:1 Similar):XO4::2:1 •11H2O and SiO4 and < 2:1 8.DL.05 8.DM.15 8.DO.05 8.DK. 8.DL.10 8.DM.20 8.DO.10 8.DK.10 8.DL.15 8.DM.25 8.DO.15 Pharmacosiderite 8.DL.20 8.DM.30 8.DO.20 KFe4(AsO4)3 8.DL.25 8.DM.35 8.DO.25 (OH)4•6-7H2O 8.DM.40 8.DO.30 8.DK.12 With Large and 8.DO.40 8.DK.15 Medium-Sized With Only Large 8.DO.45 8.DK.20 Cations, (OH and Cations 8.DK.25 Similar):XO4 > 2:1 8.DN.05 8.DK.30 8.DM.05 8.DN.10 8.DK.35 8.DM.10 8.DN.15 8.E - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES AND VANADATES: URANYL PHOSPHATES AND ARSENATES UO2:XO4 = 1:2 8.EB.15 UO2:XO4 = 3:2 Unclassified 8.EA.05 8.EB.20 8.EC.05 8.ED.05 8.EA.10 8.EB.25 8.EC.10 8.ED.10 8.EA.15 8.EB.30 8.EC.15 8.ED.15 8.EA.20 8.EB.35 8.EC.20 8.EB.40 8.EC.25 UO2:XO4 = 1:1 8.EB.45 8.EC.30 8.EB.05 8.EB.50 8.EC.35 8.EB.10 8.EB.55 8.EC.40 8.F - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES AND VANADATES: POLYPHOSPHATES, POLYARSENATES AND [4]-POLYVANADATES Polyphosphates and Dimers of Corner- 8.FA.05 8.FA.20 Similar, Without Sharing XO4 8.FA.10 8.FA.25 OH and H2O, with Tetrahedra 8.FA.15 360 TABLE 18. Continued 8.F - PHOSPHATES, ARSENATES AND VANADATES: POLYPHOSPHATES, POLYARSENATES AND [4]-POLYVANADATES, CONTINUED Polyphosphates and Polyphosphates and 8.FC.25 Ino-[4]- Similar, with OH Similar, with H2O 8.FC.30 Vanadates Only Only 8.FE.05 8.FB.05 8.FC.05 Polyphosphates and 8.FC.10 Similar, with OH 8.FC.15 and H2O 8.FC.20 8.FD.05 9.A - SILICATES (GERMANATES): NESOSILICATES Nesosilicates Cations in Nesosilicates with (Single) Without Additional Octahedral [6] Additional Anions Coordination Anions, with Coordination (Oxygen, OH, 9.AF.05 Cations in 9.AC.05 Fluorine and H2O), 9.AF.10 Tetrahedral [4] 9.AC.10 with Cations in 9.AF.15 Coordination 9.AC.15 Tetrahedral [4] 9.AF.20 9.AA.05 9.AC.20 Coordination 9.AF.23 9.AA.10 9.AE.05 9.AF.25 Nesosilicates 9.AE.10 9.AF.30 Nesosilicates Without Additional 9.AE.15 9.AF.35 Without Additional Anions, with 9.AE.20 Topaz Anions, with Cations in [6] 9.AE.25 Al2SiO4 Cations in [4] and and/or Greater 9.AE.30 (F,OH)2 Greater Coordination Clinohedrite 9.AF.40 Coordination 9.AD.05 CaZnSiO4•H2O 9.AF.45 9.AB.05 9.AD.10 9.AE.35 9.AF.50 9.AB.10 9.AD.15 9.AE.40 9.AF.55 Larsenite 9.AD.20 9.AE.45 9.AF.60 PbZnSiO4 9.AD.25 9.AE.50 9.AF.65 9.AB.15 9.AD.30 9.AF.70 9.AB.20 9.AD.35 Nesosilicates 9.AF.75 9.AD.40 with Additional 9.AF.80 Nesosilicates Eulytine Anions, with 9.AF.85 Without Additional Bi4(SiO4)3 Cations in [4], 9.AF.90 Anions, with 9.AD.45 [5] and/or [6] 361 TABLE 18. Continued 9.A - SILICATES (GERMANATES): NESOSILICATES, CONTINUED Nesosilicates with 9.AG.70 9.AH.20 Uranyl Neso- Additional Anions, 9.AG.75 9.AH.25 and Polysilicates with Cations in [6] Afwillite 9.AK.05 ± [6] Coordination Ca3(HSiO4)2 Nesosilicates with 9.AK.10 9.AG.05 •2H2O BO3 Triangles 9.AK.15 9.AG.10 9.AG.80 and/or Boron[4], Uranophane 9.AG.15 Bultfonteinite Beryllium[4] Ca(UO2)2 9.AG.20 Ca2(HSiO4)F Tetrahedra, (HSiO4)2 9.AG.25 •H2O Cornersharing with •5H2O 9.AG.30 9.AG.85 SiO4 9.AK.20 9.AG.35 9.AG.90 9.AJ.05 9.AK.25 9.AG.40a 9.AJ.10 9.AK.30 9.AG.40b Nesosilicates with 9.AJ.15 9.AK.35 9.AG.45 CO3, SO4, PO4 and 9.AJ.20 9.AK.40 9.AG.50 Similar 9.AJ.25 9.AG.55 9.AH.05 9.AJ.30 9.AG.60 9.AH.10 9.AJ.35 9.AG.65 9.AH.15 9.AJ.40 9.B - SILICATES (GERMANATES): SOROSILICATES Si2O7 Groups 9.BB.10 9.BC.10 Be4Si2O7(OH)2 Without Non- Gugiaite 9.BC.15 9.BD.10 Tetrahedral Anions, Ca2BeSi2O7 9.BC.20 Hemimorphite with Cations in 9.BB.15 9.BC.25 Zn4Si2O7 Tetrahedral [4] 9.BB.20 9.BC.30 (OH)2•H2O Coordination 9.BC.35 9.BD.15 9.BA Si2O7 Groups Junitoite Without Non- Si2O7 Groups with CaZn2Si2O7 Si2O7 Groups Tetrahedral Additional Anions, •H2O Without Non- Anions, with with Cations in 9.BD.20 Tetrahedral Anions, Cations in Tetrahedral [4] and 9.BD.25 with Cations in Octahedral [6] and Greater 9.BD.30 Tetrahedral [4] and Greater Coordination 9.BD.35 Greater Coordination 9.BD.05 Coordination 9.BC.05 Bertrandite 362 TABLE 18. Continued 9.B - SILICATES (GERMANATES): SOROSILICATES, CONTINUED Si2O7 Groups with Innelite 9.BH.15 Additonal Anions, Na2CaBa4Ti3 Sorosilicates with 9.BH.20 with Cations in (Si2O7)2(SO4)2O4 mixed SiO4 and Octahedral [6] and 9.BE.42 Si2O7 Groups, with Sorosilicates Greater 9.BE.45 Cations in with Si3O10, Coordination 9.BE.47 Octahedral [6] and Si4O11 and 9.BE.02 9.BE.50 Greater Similar Groups, 9.BE.05 9.BE.55 Coordination with Cations in 9.BE.07 9.BE.60 9.BG.05 Octahedral [6] 9.BE.10 9.BE.65 9.BG.05a and Greater Suolunite 9.BE.67 9.BG.05b Coordination Ca2(H2Si2O7) 9.BE.70 9.BG.10 9.BJ.05 •H2O 9.BE.72 9.BG.15 9.BJ.10 9.BE.12 9.BE.75 9.BG.20 9.BJ.15 9.BE.15 9.BE.77 9.BG.25 9.BJ.20 Fresnoite 9.BE.80 9.BG.30 9.BJ.25 Ba2Ti(Si2O7)O 9.BE.82 9.BG.35 9.BJ.30 9.BE.17 9.BE.85 9.BG.40 9.BJ.35 9.BE.20 9.BE.87 9.BG.45 9.BJ.40 9.BE.22 9.BE.90 9.BG.50 9.BJ.45 9.BE.23 9.BE.92 9.BG.55 9.BJ.50 9.BE.25 9.BE.95 9.BJ.55 9.BE.27 Sorosilicates with Zunyite Murmanite Sorosilicates with Si3O10, Si4O11 and Al13Si5O20Cl Na2Ti2(Si2O7)O2 mixed SiO4 and Similar Groups, (OH,F)18 •2H2O Si2O7 Groups, with with Cations in 9.BJ.60 9.BE.30 Cations in Tetrahedral [4] and 9.BJ.65 Epistolite Tetrahedral [4] and Greater Na2(Nb,Ti)2 Greater Coordination Unclassified (Si2O7)O2•nH2O Coordination 9.BH.05 Sorosilicates 9.BE.32 9.BF.05 Aminoffite 9.BK 9.BE.35 9.BF.10 Ca3Be(OH)2 9.BE.37 9.BF.15 Si3O10 9.BE.40 9.BF.20 9.BH.10 363 TABLE 18. Continued 9.C - SILICATES (GERMANATES): CYCLOSILICATES [Si3O9]6 Three- Without Insular 9.CH.10 Chromium- Membered Single Complex Ions dravite Rings (Dreier- 9.CE.05 [Si6O18]12 Six- NaMg3Cr6 Einfachringe), 9.CE.10 Membered Single (BO3)3Si6O18 Without Insular 9.CE.15 Rings (Sechser- (OH)4 Complex Ions 9.CE.20 Einfachringe), Dravite 9.CA.05 9.CE.25 Without Insular NaMg3Al6 9.CA.10 9.CE.30a Complex Ions (BO3)3Si6O18 9.CA.15 9.CE.30b 9.CJ.05 (OH)4 9.CA.20 9.CE.30c Beryl Elbaite 9.CA.25 9.CE.30d Be3Al2(Si6O18) Na(Li1.5Al1.5) 9.CA.30 9.CE.30e 9.CJ.10 Al6(BO3)3 9.CE.30f 9.CJ.15a Si6O18(OH)4 [Si3O9]6 Three- 9.CE.30g 9.CJ.15b Feruvite Membered Single 9.CE.30h 9.CJ.15c CaFe3MgAl5 Rings, with Insular 9.CE.45 9.CJ.25 (BO3)3Si6O18 Complex Ions 9.CJ.30 (OH)4 9.CB.05 [Si4O12]8 Four- Dioptase Fluor-dravite 9.CB.10 Membered Single CuSiO3•H2O NaMg3Al6 9.CB.15 Rings, with Insular 9.CJ.35 (BO3)3Si6O18 Complex Ions 9.CJ.40 (OH)3F [Si3O9]6 Branched 9.CF.05 9.CJ.45 Fluor- Three-Membered 9.CF.10 9.CJ.50 liddicoatite Single Rings 9.CF.15 9.CJ.55 Ca(Li2Al)Al6 9.CC 9.CF.20 9.CJ.60 (BO3)3Si6O18 9.CF.25 (OH)3F [Si3O9]6 Three- [Si6O18]12 Six- Fluor-schorl Membered Double [Si4O12]8 Branched Membered Single NaFe3Al6 Rings Four-Membered Rings, with Insular (BO3)3Si6O18 9.CD.05 Single Rings Complex Ions (OH)3F 9.CG.05 9.CK. Foitite [Si4O12]8 Four- 9.CK.05 ([],Na)Fe2Al7 Membered [Si4O12]8 Four- Buergerite (BO3)3Si6O18 Single Rings Membered Double Na(Fe3)Al6(BO3)3 (OH)4 (Vierer- Rings Si6O18O3F Einfachringe), 9.CH.05 364 TABLE 18. Continued 9.C - SILICATES (GERMANATES): CYCLOSILICATES, CONTINUED [Si6O18]12 Six- (OH)3O 9.CL.05 Georgbarsano- Membered Single Schorl vite Rings, with Insular NaFe3Al6(BO3)3 [Si6O18]12 Six- Na12 Complex Ions Si6O18(OH)4 Membered Double (Mn,Sr,REE)3 (Continued) Uvite Rings (Sechser- Ca6Fe3Zr3Nb 9.CK.05 Continued CaMg4Al5 Doppelringe) Si25O76Cl2 Olenite (BO3)3Si6O18 9.CM.05 •H2O NaAl9(BO3)3 (OH)4 (Si6O18)O3(OH) 9.CK.10 [Si8O24]16 Eight- Twelve- Oxy-schorl 9.CK.15 Membered Rings Membered and Na(Fe,Al)3Al6 9.CK.20 9.CN.05 Larger Rings (BO3)3Si6O18 9.CP.05 (OH)3O [Si6O18]12 [Si9O27]18 Nine- 9.CP.10 Povondraite Branched Six- Membered NaMg2Fe7 Membered Single Rings (BO3)3Si6O18 Rings 9.CO.10 9.D - SILICATES (GERMANATES): INOSILICATES Inosilicates with 9.DB.05 9.DC.05 9.DE.20 Two-Periodic 9.DB.10 9.DE.25 Single Chains, 9.DB.15 Inosilicates with Si2O6: Pyroxene 9.DB.17 Two-Periodic Inosilicates with Family 9.DB.20 Double Chains, Two-Periodic 9.DA.05 9.DB.25 Si4O11: Multiple Chains 9.DA.10 9.DB.30 Orthoamphiboles 9.DF.05 9.DA.15 9.DB.35 9.DD.05 9.DF.15 9.DA.20 9.DB.40 9.DF.20 9.DA.25 9.DB.45 Inosilicates with 9.DF.25 9.DA.30 9.DB.50 Two-Periodic Bavenite Double Chains, Ca4Be2Al2 Inosilicates with Inosilicates with Si4O11: Si9O26(OH)2 Two-Periodic Branched Two- Clinoamphiboles 9.DF.30 Single Chains, Periodic Single 9.DE.05 Si2O6: Pyroxene- Chains, Si2O6 plus 9.DE.10 Related Minerals 2SiO3 and Si4O12 9.DE.15 365 TABLE 18. Continued 9.D - SILICATES (GERMANATES): INOSILICATES, CONTINUED Inosilicates with Single Chains, Inosilicates with Inosilicates with Three-Periodic Si4O12 Five-Periodic Single Seven-, Eight-, Single and Multiple 9.DH.05 Chains Ten-, Twelve-, Chains Leucophanite 9.DK.05 and Fourteen- 9.DG.05 NaCaBeSi2O6F 9.DK.10 Periodic Chains 9.DG.07 9.DH.10 9.DK.15 9.DO.05 9.DG.08 9.DH.15 9.DK.20 9.DO.10 9.DG.10 9.DH.20 9.DO.15 9.DG.15 Batisite Inosilicates with 9.DO.20 9.DG.20 BaNa2Ti2 Five-Periodic 9.DO.25 9.DG.25 (Si4O12)O2 Double Chains, 9.DG.30 9.DH.25 Si10O28 Transitional Ino- 9.DG.35 9.DH.30 9.DL.05 Phyllosilicate 9.DG.40 9.DH.35 9.DL.10 Structures 9.DG.45 9.DH.40 9.DP.05 9.DG.50 9.DH.45 Inosilicates with Meliphanite 9.DG.55 9.DH.50 Six-Periodic Single (Ca,Na)2 9.DG.60 9.DH.55 Chains (Be,Al) 9.DG.65 9.DH.60 9.DM.05 [Si2O6(OH,F)] Elpidite 9.DH.65 9.DM.10 9.DP.15 Na2ZrSi6O15 9.DH.70 9.DM.15 9.DP.20 •3H2O 9.DH.75 9.DM.20 Prehnite 9.DG.70 9.DM.25 Ca2Al2Si3O10 9.DG.75 Inosilicates with 9.DM.30 (OH)2 9.DG.80 Four-Periodic 9.DM.35 9.DP.25 9.DG.85 Double and Triple 9.DM.40 9.DP.30 9.DG.90 Chains 9.DP.35 9.DG.92 9.DJ.05 Inosilicates with 9.DP.40 9.DG.95 9.DJ.10 Six-Periodic Double 9.DG.97 9.DJ.15 Chains Modular 9.DJ.20 9.DN.05 Inosilicate- Inosilicates with 9.DJ.25 9.DN.10 Sorosilicate Four-Periodic 9.DJ.30 9.DN.15 Structures 9.DQ.05 366 TABLE 18. Continued 9.E - SILICATES (GERMANATES): PHYLLOSILICATES Single Nets of 9.EC.05 Tetrahedra with 9.EC.10 9.ED.15 Single Nets with Four-, Five-, Six- 9.EC.15 Cronstedtite Six-Membered and Eight- 9.EC.20 Fe3[(SiFe)2O5] Rings, Membered Rings 9.EC.25 (OH)4 Connected by 9.EA.05 9.EC.30 Amesite Metal[4], 9.EA.10 9.EC.35 Mg2Al(AlSiO5) Metal[8], and 9.EA.15 9.EC.40 Berthierine Similar 9.EA.20 9.EC.45 (Fe,Al,Mg)2-3 9.EF.05 9.EA.25 9.EC.50 [(Si,Al)2O5](OH)4 9.EF.10 9.EA.30 Vermiculite 9.ED.20 9.EF.15 9.EA.35 (Mg,Fe,Al)3 9.ED.25 Searlesite 9.EA.40 [(Al,Si)4O10] Na(H2BSi2O7) 9.EA.45 (OH)2•4H2O Single Tetrahedral 9.EF.20 9.EA.50 9.EC.55 Nets of Six- 9.EF.25 9.EA.55 9.EC.60 Membered Rings 9.EF.30 9.EA.60 9.EC.65 Connected by 9.EA.65 9.EC.70 Octahedral Nets or Double Nets 9.EA.70 9.EC.75 Octahedral Bands with Six- 9.EA.75 9.EC.80 9.EE.05 Membered and 9.EA.80 9.EE.10 Larger Rings 9.EA.85 Phyllosilicates with 9.EE.15 9.EG.05 Kaolinite Layers 9.EE.20 9.EG.10 Double Nets with Composed of 9.EE.25 9.EG.15 Four- and Six- Tetrahedral and 9.EE.30 9.EG.20 Membered Rings Octahedral Nets 9.EE.35 9.EG.25 9.EB.05 9.ED.05 9.EE.40 9.EG.30 9.EB.10 Nacrite 9.EE.45 9.EG.35 9.EB.15 Al2(Si2O5)(OH)4 9.EE.50 9.EG.40 9.EB.20 9.ED.10 9.EE.55 9.EG.45 Halloysite-7Å 9.EE.60 9.EG.50 Phyllosilicates with Al2(Si2O5)(OH)4 9.EE.65 9.EG.55 Mica Sheets, Halloysite-10Å 9.EE.70 9.EG.60 Composed of Al2(Si2O5)(OH)4 9.EE.75 9.EG.65 Tetrahedral and •2H2O 9.EE.80 9.EG.70 Octahedral Nets 9.EE.85 9.EG.75 367 TABLE 18. Continued 9.E - SILICATES (GERMANATES): PHYLLOSILICATES, CONTINUED Transitional Na2KLi(Fe,Mn)2 9.EH.20 9.EJ.05 Structures Ti2(Si8O24) Ussingite 9.EJ.10 Between 9.EH.10 Na2AlSi3O8OH Phyllosilicate 9.EH.15 9.EH.25 and Other Sarcolite 9.EH.30 Silicate Units Na2Ca12 9.EH.05 (Ca,K,Fe,Sr,Mg)2 Unclassified Neptunite Al8Si12(P,Si)O52F2 Phyllosilicates 9.F - SILICATES (GERMANATES): TECTOSILICATES WITHOUT ZEOLITIC H2O Tectosilicates 9.FA.40 Cancrinite Na4AlBeSi4O12 Without Additional 9.FA.45 NaxCay(AlSiO4)6 Cl Non-Tetrahedral 9.FA.50 (CO3)•nH2O 9.FB.15 Anions 9.FA.55 9.FB.10 Marialite 9.FA.05 9.FA.60 Helvine Na4(Al3Si9O24) Nepheline 9.FA.65 Mn4 Cl (Na,K)AlSiO4 9.FA.70 (Be3Si3O12)S Meionite 9.FA.10 9.FA.75 Sodalite Ca4Al6Si6O24 9.FA.15 Na8(Al6Si6O24) CO3 9.FA.25 Tectosilicates with Cl2 9.FA.30 Additional Anions Tugtupite 9.FA.35 9.FB.05 9.G - SILICATES (GERMANATES): TECTOSILICATES WITH ZEOLITIC H2O: ZEOLITE FAMILY Zeolites with X5O10 •2H2O Edingtonite Analcime Units: The Fibrous Scolecite BaAl2Si3O10 Na8 Zeolites CaAl2Si3O10 •4H2O (Al8Si16O48) 9.GA.05 •3H2O •8H2O Mesolite 9.GA.10 Chains of Singly 9.GB.10 Na2Ca2Al6Si9O30 Thomsonite-Ca Connected Four- 9.GB.15 •8H2O NaCa2Al5Si5O20 Membered Yugawaralite Natrolite •7H2O Rings CaAl2Si6O16 Na2Al2Si3O10 9.GA.15 9.GB.05 •4H2O 368 TABLE 18. Continued 9.G - SILICATES (GERMANATES): TECTOSILICATES WITH ZEOLITIC H2O: ZEOLITE FAMILY, CONTINUED Chains of Singly 9.GC.20 9.GD.40 9.GF.05 Connected Four- 9.GC.25 9.GD.45 9.GF.10 Membered Rings 9.GC.30 Epistilbite 9.GF.15 (Continued) 9.GC.35 CaAl2Si6O16 9.GF.20 9.GB.20 •5H2O 9.GF.25 9.GB.25 Chains of Six- 9.GD.50 9.GF.30 9.GB.30 Membered Rings: 9.GD.55 9.GF.35 9.GB.35 Tabular Zeolites 9.GF.40 9.GD.05 Chains of X10O20 9.GF.50 Chains of Doubly- Gmelinite-Na Tetrahedra Thornasite Connected Four- (Na2,Ca)Al2Si4O12 9.GE.05 (Na,K)12Th3 Membered Rings •6H2O Heulandite-Ca (Si8O19)4 9.GC.05 9.GD.10 (Ca,Na)2-3Al3 •18H2O Gismondine-Ca 9.GD.15 (Al,Si)2Si13O36 9.GF.55 CaAl2Si2O8•4H2O 9.GD.20 •12H2O 9.GC.10 9.GD.25 9.GE.10 Unclassified Harmotome 9.GD.30 9.GE.15 Zeolites (Ba0.5,Ca0.5,K,Na)5 9.GD.35 9.GE.20 9.GG.05 (Al5Si11O32) Mordenite 9.GG.10 •12H2O (Na2,Ca,K2) Other Rare 9.GC.15 Al2Si10O24•7H2O Zeolites 9.H - SILICATES (GERMANATES): UNCLASSIFIED SILICATES With Alkali and 9.HA.55 With Titanium, Alkali-Earth 9.HA.60 Vanadium and With Cobalt and Elements 9.HA.65 Chromium Nickel 9.HA.05 9.HA.70 9.HB.05 9.HD 9.HA.10 9.HA.75 9.HB.10 9.HA.20 9.HA.80 With Copper 9.HA.25 9.HA.85 With Manganese and Zinc 9.HA.30 9.HA.90 and Iron 9.HE.05 9.HA.40 9.HC.05 9.HE.10 9.HA.50 9.HC.10 369 TABLE 18. Continued 9.H - SILICATES (GERMANATES): UNCLASSIFIED SILICATES, CONTINUED With Niobium, With Rare Earth 9.HH.20 Tantalum and Elements and With Lead 9.HH.25 Zirconium Thorium 9.HH.05 9.HF.05 9.HG.15 9.HH.10 9.HF.10 9.HG.20 9.HH.15 9.J - SILICATES (GERMANATES): GERMANATES Germanates 9.JA 10.A - ORGANIC COMPOUNDS: SALTS OF ORGANIC ACIDS Formates, Acetates Oxalates 10.AB.45 Benzine Salts and Similar 10.AB.05 10.AB.50 10.AC.05 10.AA.05 10.AB.10 10.AB.55 10.AC.10 10.AA.10 10.AB.15 10.AB.60 10.AC.15 10.AA.20 10.AB.20 10.AB.65 10.AA.25 10.AB.25 10.AB.70 Cyanates 10.AA.30 10.AB.30 10.AB.75 10.AD.05 10.AA.35 10.AB.35 10.AB.80 10.AD.10 10.AB.40 10.B - ORGANIC COMPOUNDS: HYDROCARBONS Hydrocarbons C20H34 10.BA.30 10.BA.50 10.BA.05 10.BA.15 10.BA.35 10.BA.10 10.BA.20 10.BA.40 Hartite 10.BA.25 10.BA.45 10.C - ORGANIC COMPOUNDS: MISCELLANEOUS ORGANIC MINERALS Miscellaneous 10.CA.10 10.CA.15 10.CA.30 Organic Minerals Flagstaffite 10.CA.20 10.CA.35 10.CA.05 C10H22O3 10.CA.25 10.CA.40 370 TABLE 18. Continued Notes: The categories and numerical codes are from mindat.org (Ralph and Chau, 2012). The electrical activity of minerals in bold codes can be found in references listed in Tables 15, 16 and 17 in Appendix G, p. 393 through 395. 371  APPENDIX D MINERALS ARRANGED BY SYMMETRY 372 TABLE 19. Minerals Exhibiting Ferro-, Pyro- or Piezoelectricity Arranged by Crystal System, Crystal Class and Overall Symmetry System Class Symmetry Triclinic 1 Polar, Chiral Amesite Epistilbite Hartite Hilgardite Weloganite Triclinic 1 Centrosymmetric Bultfonteinite Epistolite Innelite Melanovanadite Murmanite Ussingite Monoclinic 2 Polar, Chiral Colemanite Epistilbite Halotrichite Hydrocalumite Oxycalciopyrochlore Oxyplumbopyrochlore* Pickeringite Searlesite Uranophane Monoclinic m Polar Afwillite Halloysite-10Å Schultenite Berthierine Nacrite Tilasite Brushite Neptunite Yugawaralite Clinohedrite Pharmacolite Halloysite-7Å Scolecite 373 TABLE 19. Continued System Class Symmetry Monoclinic 2/m Centrosymmetric Artinite Heftetjernite Parkerite Chalcocite Heulandite-Ca Quenselite Creedite Innelite Syngenite Gismondine-Ca Kaliborite Vermiculite Harmotome Muthmannite Orthorhombic 222 Polar, Chiral Edingtonite Epsomite Goslarite Leucophanite Morenosite Olsacherite Orthorhombic mm2 Polar Batisite* Hemimorphite Prehnite Bertrandite Junitoite Russellite Boracite Koechlinite Shortite Bournonite Krennerite Sinoite Caledonite Larsenite Stephanite Chambersite Liebigite Stibiocolumbite Changbaiite Mesolite Stibiotantalite Childrenite Minyulite Stibnite Dyscrasite Mordenite Struvite Enargite Natrolite Suolunite Flagstaffite Pirssonite Orthorhombic mmm Centrosymmetric Analcime Demicheleite-Cl Niter Bavenite Demicheleite-I Perovskite Bismuthinite Elpidite Seligmannite Cervantite Eosphorite Srebrodolskite Chalcostibite Gwihabaite Stibnite Clinocervantite Lakargiite Thomsonite-Ca Dawsonite Lueshite Topaz Demicheleite-Br Mariinskite Tyrolite 374 TABLE 19. Continued System Class Symmetry Tetragonal 4 Polar, Chiral (No Listings) Tetragonal 4 Non-centrosymmetric Meliphanite Tugtupite Tetragonal 4/m Centrosymmetric Aminoffite Analcime Marialite Meionite Pinnoite Sarcolite Wakefieldite-Nd Wulfenite Tetragonal 422 Chiral Paratellurite Retgersite Tetragonal 4mm Polar Barioperovskite Diaboleite Diomignite Fresnoite Macedonite Tetragonal 42m Non-centrosymmetric Archerite Biphosphammite Edingtonite Gallite Gugiaite Roquesite 375 TABLE 19. Continued System Class Symmetry Tetragonal 4/mmm Centrosymmetric Cassiterite Pyrolusite Trigonal 3 Polar, Chiral Jarosite Röntgenite-Ce Trigonal 3 Centrosymmetric Analcime Benstonite Dioptase Trigonal 32 Chiral Berlinite Cinnabar α-Quartz Selenium Tellurium Trigonal 3m Polar Alunite Fluor-dravite Oxy-schorl Ammoniojarosite Fluor-liddicoatite Povondraite Argentojarosite Fluor-schorl Pyrargyrite Buergerite Foitite Schorl Cronstedtite Georgbarsanovite Spangolite Dravite Millerite Uvite Ericaite Natroalunite Whitlockite Elbaite Natrojarosite Feruvite Olenite Trigonal 3m Centrosymmetric Arsenogoyazite Brucite Coquimbite 376 TABLE 19. Continued System Class Symmetry Trigonal 3m Centrosymmetric (Continued) Crandallite Goyazite Nitratine Plumbojarosite Proustite Pyrochroite Thornasite Hexagonal 6 Polar, Chiral Cancrinite Nepheline Zinkenite Hexagonal 6 Non-centrosymmetric (No Listings) Hexagonal 6/m Centrosymmetric Jeremejevite Mimetite Pyromorphite Thaumasite Hexagonal 622 Chiral β-Quartz Hexagonal 6mm Polar Bromellite Iodargyrite Wurtzite Burbankite Moissanite Zincite Cadmoselite Nolanite Greenockite Swedenborgite Hexagonal 6m2 Non-centrosymmetric Bastnäsite-Ce Hexagonal 6/mmm Centrosymmetric Beryl Finnemanite Nickeline Breithauptite Gmelinite-Na Chalcocite Ice 377 TABLE 19. Continued System Class Symmetry Cubic 23 Chiral Langbeinite Sillénite Cubic 43m Non-centrosymmetric Eulytine Rhodizite Tiemannite Helvine Sodalite Zunyite Londonite Sphalerite Pharmacosiderite Stilleite Cubic m3 Centrosymmetric Alum-Na Nitrobarite Cubic 432 Chiral (No Listings) Cubic m3m Centrosymmetric Altaite Analcime Hydroxycalcioroméite Sal Ammoniac Tausonite Notes: The asterisk* denotes minerals whose crystal structure is poorly constrained. References are listed in Table 11 in Appendix G, p. 390. 378  APPENDIX E MINERALS ARRANGED BY PETROLOGIC SETTING 379 TABLE 45. Minerals Listed by Petrologic Setting METEORITES: PRIMARY MINERALS Eskolaite, Daubréelite, Moissanite, Pyrophanite, Pyrrhotite, Sinoite, Tistarite, Wüstite INCLUSION MINERALS Barioperovskite, Diomignite, Macedonite, Moissanite, Perovskite, Stilleite, Wüstite ULTRAMAFIC MINERALS: IGNEOUS INTRUSIVE ROCK Fayalite, Ilmenite, Magnesioferrite, Moissanite, Nickeline, Perovskite, Shortite, Spinel ULTRAMAFIC MINERALS: IGNEOUS EXTRUSIVE ROCK Fayalite ULTRAMAFIC ROCK: SECONDARY MINERALS Maghemite, Suolunite KIMBERLITE MINERALS Bultfonteinite, Moissanite MAFIC MINERALS: IGNEOUS INTRUSIVE ROCK Burbankite, Cadmoindite, Coulsonite, Cuprorhodsite, Ilmenite, Magnetite, Natrolite, Nickeline, Pyrite, Pyrrhotite, Rutile, Scolecite, Spinel MAFIC MINERALS: PEGMATITES Batisite, Coulsonite, Feruvite, Gmelinite, Ilmenite, Innelite, Löllingite, Magnetite, Pyrite, Pyrrhotite MAFIC MINERALS: IGNEOUS EXTRUSIVE Analcime, Bismuthinite, Coquimbite, Coulsonite, Edingtonite, Epistilbite, Gismondine, Gmelinite, Greenockite, Magnesioferrite, Magnetite, Mesolite, Pyrite, Scolecite, Selenium, Spinel, Tellurium, Trevorite, Wüstite, Zincite MAFIC ROCK: SECONDARY MINERALS Analcime, Coquimbite, Demicheleite-Br, Demicheleite-Cl, Demicheleite- I, Fayalite, Greenockite, Harmotome, Heulandite, Jarosite, Maghemite, Marialite, Meionite, Mordenite, Natroalunite, Nisbite, Prehnite, Tellurium, Thomsonite-Ca, Vermiculite, Yugawaralite INTERMEDIATE MINERALS: IGNEOUS INTRUSIVE ROCK Pyrite INTERMEDIATE MINERALS: IGNEOUS EXTRUSIVE ROCK Analcime, Bismuthinite, Cadmoindite, Coulsonite, Halotrichite, Magnetite, Mattagamite, Mesolite, Pickeringite, Pyrite, Sal Ammoniac, Selenium INTERMEDIATE ROCK: SECONDARY MINERALS Heulandite, Jarosite, Natrojarosite, Mordenite, Vermiculite FELSIC MINERALS: IGNEOUS INTRUSIVE ROCK Bastnäsite, Beryl, Cassiterite, Elbaite, Elpidite, Fluor-schorl, Helvine, Hematite, Ilmenite, Magnetite, Mariinskite, Pickeringite, Pyrite, Pyrophanite, Quartz, Rutile, Schorl, Topaz 380 TABLE 45. Continued FELSIC MINERALS: GRANITIC PEGMATITES Bastnäsite-Ce, Bavenite, Beryl, Cassiterite, Childrenite, Coulsonite, Crandallite, Diomignite, Elbaite, Eosphorite, Fayalite, Ferberite, Fluor- dravite, Fluor-liddicoatite, Fluor-schorl, Foitite, Goyazite, Heftetjernite, Helvine, Jeremejevite, Kamiokite, Londonite, Magnetite, Mariinskite, Olenite, Oxycalciopyrochlore, Oxyplumbopyrochlore, Oxy-schorl, Pyrite, Quartz, Rhodizite, Röntgenite-Ce, Rutile, Schorl, Siderite, Stibiocolumbite, Stibiotantalite, Uraninite, Whitlockite FELSIC MINERALS: IGNEOUS EXTRUSIVE ROCK Bertrandite, Bismuthinite, Buergerite, Cadmoindite, Cassiterite, Halotrichite, Hematite, Londonite, Magnetite, Mattagamite, Moissanite, Pyrite, Quartz, Sal Ammoniac, Selenium, Tellurium, Topaz FELSIC ROCK: SECONDARY MINERALS Beryl, Changbaiite, Clinoferrosilite, Eosphorite, Jarosite, Mariinskite, Mordenite, Natroalunite, Natrojarosite, Quartz, Russellite, Tellurium, Vermiculite ALKALIC (SI-POOR) MINERALS: IGNEOUS INTRUSIVE ROCK Bastnäsite-Ce, Beryl, Burbankite, Cancrinite, Coulsonite, Elpidite, Lueshite, Magnesioferrite, Magnetite, Mariinskite, Murmanite, Meliphanite, Nepheline, Pyrite, Rutile, Scolecite, Shortite, Sodalite, Tausonite, Thornasite, Ussingite, Weloganite ALKALIC (SI-POOR) MINERALS: PEGMATITES Bastnäsite-Ce, Bromellite, Coulsonite, Elpidite, Epistolite, Georgbarsanovite, Leucophanite, Macedonite, Magnetite, Murmanite, Nepheline, Oxycalciopyrochlore, Oxyplumbopyrochlore, Perovskite, Pyrite, Röntgenite-Ce, Siderite, Sodalite, Tugtupite, Uraninite, Ussingite ALKALIC (SI-POOR) MINERALS: IGNEOUS EXTRUSIVE ROCK Bromellite, Cadmoindite, Coulsonite, Edingtonite, Gismondine, Magnetite, Natrolite, Nepheline, Pyrite, Selenium, Tellurium ALKALIC (SI-POOR) ROCK: SECONDARY MINERALS Analcime, Demicheleite, Cancrinite, Dawsonite, Harmotome, Jarosite, Murmanite, Natroalunite, Natrojarosite, Nepheline, Prehnite, Searlesite, Sodalite, Tellurium, Thomsonite-Ca, Tugtupite CARBONATITE MINERALS Bastnäsite-Ce, Benstonite, Burbankite, Crandallite, Goyazite, Ilmenite, Magnesioferrite, Oxycalciopyrochlore, Oxyplumbopyrochlore, Perovskite, Shortite, Siderite, Tausonite METAMORPHIC (AND HYDROTHERMAL) ORE MINERALS Altaite, Argentojarosite, Arsenogoyazite, Bastnäsite-Ce, Bismuthinite, Bournonite, Breithauptite, Carrollite, Chalcocite, Chalcostibite, Cinnabar, Clinohedrite, Coulsonite, Cronstedtite, Cuprokalininite, Cuprospinel, Dyscrasite, Enargite, Epistolite, Eskolaite, Eulytine, Ferberite, 381 TABLE 45. Continued METAMORPHIC (AND HYDROTHERMAL) ORE MINERALS, CONTINUED Finnemanite, Franklinite, Gallite, Harmotome, Hauerite, Hematite, Hydroxycalcioroméite, Ilmenite, Indite, Jacobsite, Kalininite, Kamiokite, Karelianite, Krennerite, Krut’aite, Linnaeite, Löllingite, Maghemite, Magnesiocoulsonite, Magnetite, Morenosite, Nickeline, Nisbite, Nolanite, Paratellurite, Parkerite, Penroseite, Proustite, Pyrargyrite, Pyrite, Pyrite (variety: Bravoite), Pyrochroite, Pyrolusite, Pyrophanite, Pyrrhotite, Quartz, Quenselite, Retgersite, Roquesite, Selenium, Siderite, Siegenite, Sphalerite, Stephanite, Stibnite, Stilleite, Tellurium, Thaumasite, Tiemannite, Tilasite, Trevorite, Uraninite, Wakefieldite-Nd, Wurtzite, Zincite, Zinkenite HYDROTHERMAL: LOW-TEMPERATURE MINERALS Artinite, Benstonite, Beryl, Bismuthinite, Brucite, Chalcocite, Chalcostibite, Childrenite, Cinnabar, Clinohedrite, Cronstedtite, Goyazite, Halloysite-7Å, Halloysite-10Å, Hauerite, Jarosite, Mariinskite, Millerite, Minyulite, Morenosite, Muthmannite, Nacrite, Pyrargyrite, Retgersite, Sphalerite, Stibnite, Wurtzite HYDROTHERMAL: MEDIUM-TEMPERATURE MINERALS Benstonite, Beryl, Bismuthinite, Bournonite, Cassiterite, Creedite, Enargite, Jeremejevite, Löllingite, Mariinskite, Mesolite, Sphalerite, Stibnite, Uraninite HYDROTHERMAL: HIGH-TEMPERATURE MINERALS Aminoffite, Bastnäsite-Ce, Bavenite, Berlinite, Bertrandite, Beryl, Bismuthinite, Bromellite, Cassiterite, Coulsonite, Elbaite, Ferberite, Feruvite, Fluor-schorl, Greenockite, Hematite, Hydrocalumite, Magnetite, Mariinskite, Nickeline, Olenite, Povondraite, Pyrrhotite, Quartz, Rutile, Schorl, Sphalerite, Stibnite, Uraninite SECONDARY ORE MINERALS Argentojarosite, Arsenogoyazite, Caledonite, Cervantite, Chalcocite, Clinocervantite, Coquimbite, Cuprospinel, Diaboleite, Dioptase, Dyscrasite, Goslarite, Greenockite, Halotrichite, Hematite, Hemimorphite, Hydroxycalcioroméite, Indite, Iodargyrite, Jacobsite, Jarosite, Junitoite, Koechlinite, Larsenite, Liebigite, Linnaeite, Melanovanadite, Millerite, Mimetite, Morenosite, Muthmannite, Natrojarosite, Nolanite, Olsacherite, Parkerite, Pharmacolite, Pharmacosiderite, Pickeringite, Plumbojarosite, Pyrargyrite, Pyrochroite, Pyrolusite, Pyromorphite, Quenselite, Retgersite, Russellite, Schultenite, Selenium, Sillénite, Spangolite, Tellurium, Tyrolite, Uranophane, Vaesite, Wulfenite, Wüstite, Zincite MAFIC SOURCEROCK: PRIMARY METAMORPHIC MINERALS Eskolaite, Fayalite, Ferberite, Hematite, Ilmenite, Kamiokite, Karelianite, Mariinskite, Neptunite, Pyrite, Pyrophanite, Thaumasite, Thomsonite-Ca, Trevorite, Zincite 382 TABLE 45. Continued MAFIC SOURCEROCK: SECONDARY METAMORPHIC MINERALS Amesite, Artinite, Artinite, Berthierine, Beryl, Brucite, Cronstedtite, Eskolaite, Halloysite-7Å, Halloysite-10Å, Hematite, Jarosite, Junitoite, Marialite, Meionite, Millerite, Nacrite, Natrojarosite, Neptunite, Nolanite, Prehnite, Pyrophanite, Trevorite, Vermiculite, Zincite SI-RICH SOURCEROCK: HIGH-GRADE PRIMARY METAMORPHIC MINERALS Coulsonite, Cuprokalininite, Crandallite, Elbaite, Epistilbite, Ferberite, Fluor-schorl, Fresnoite, Harmotome, Helvine, Ilmenite, Maghemite, Magnetite, Natrolite, Pyrite, Quartz, Rutile, Schorl, Scolecite, Spinel, Topaz SI-RICH SOURCEROCK: CONTACT AND LOW GRADE PRIMARY METAMORPHIC MINERALS Amesite, Cassiterite, Eskolaite, Prehnite, Pyrite, Thaumasite, Thomsonite- Ca SI-RICH SOURCEROCK: SECONDARY METAMORPHIC MINERALS Alunite, Changbaiite, Halloysite-7Å, Halloysite-10Å, Jarosite, Natrojarosite, Pickeringite, Prehnite, Quartz, Vermiculite, Zunyite ALKALIC (SI-POOR) SOURCEROCK: METAMORPHIC MINERALS Coulsonite, Gugiaite, Lueshite, Magnetite, Natrolite, Nepheline, Pyrite, Thomsonite-Ca CARBONATE REGIONAL METAMORPHISM: MINERALS Breithauptite, Brucite, Dravite, Franklinite, Kalininite, Löllingite, Magnesioferrite, Marialite, Meionite, Rutile SKARN AND CARBONATE CONTACT METAMORPHISM: MINERALS Afwillite, Aminoffite, Bastnäsite-Ce, Bavenite, Benstonite, Bromellite, Brucite, Bultfonteinite, Coulsonite, Eskolaite, Gugiaite, Helvine, Hydrocalumite, Lakargiite, Leucophanite, Liebigite, Maghemite, Magnetite, Magnesioferrite, Marialite, Meionite, Perovskite, Roquesite, Sarcolite, Sillénite, Spinel, Srebrodolskite, Swedenborgite METASOMATIC MINERALS Alum-Na, Ammoniojarosite, Berlinite, Chromium-dravite, Dravite, Jarosite, Natrojarosite, Nepheline, Sodalite, Uvite SULFATE-WATER PROCESSES: SECONDARY MINERALS Alum-Na, Alunite, Ammoniojarosite, Cadmoselite, Hauerite, Jarosite, Morenosite, Natroalunite, Natrojarosite, Retgersite, Thaumasite EVAPORITE MINERALS Boracite, Chambersite, Colemanite, Epsomite, Ericaite, Hilgardite, Kaliborite, Langbeinite, Nitratine, Pinnoite, Searlesite, Syngenite AUTHIGENIC PRECIPITATE PROCESSES: MINERALS Analcime, Boracite, Burbankite, Colemanite, Crandallite, Dawsonite, Dravite, Eskolaite, Greenockite, Hematite, Langbeinite, Magnetite, Mordenite, Natroalunite, Nitratine, Pirssonite, Pyrite, Pyrrhotite, Siderite, Sphalerite, Suolunite, Thomsonite-Ca, Wurtzite, Wüstite 383 TABLE 45. Continued MARL AND DOLOSTONE: MINERALS Magnesioferrite, Searlesite, Seligmannite, Shortite, Vaesite MARINE REDUCING SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENT: MINERALS Ammoniojarosite, Berthierine, Cadmoselite, Crandallite, Pyrolusite PLACER DEPOSIT MINERALS Bastnäsite-Ce, Cassiterite, Cuprorhodsite, Elbaite, Eskolaite, Ferberite, Fluor-liddicoatite, Fluor-schorl, Goyazite, Ilmenite, Magnetite, Mariinskite, Moissanite, Oxy-schorl, Quartz, Rutile, Schorl, Spinel, Topaz, Uraninite GLACIAL DEPOSITS Eskolaite, Hydroxycalcioroméite, Karelianite DEPLETED SOIL MINERALS Berthierine, Crandallite, Vermiculite PLANT MATTER PROCESSES: SECONDARY MINERALS Alum-Na, Ammoniojarosite, Flagstaffite, Halotrichite, Hartite, Millerite, Niter, Pickeringite, Sal Ammoniac, Selenium, Sphalerite, Srebrodolskite GUANO MINERALS Archerite, Ardealite, Biphosphammite, Gwihabaite, Lecontite, Niter, Nitratine, Nitrobarite, Sal Ammoniac, Syngenite, Whitlockite MINERALS WITH A MICROBIAL COMPONENT Magnetite, Siderite Notes: Underlined minerals are listed in the scientific literature as exhibiting symmetry- based electrical phenomena. 384  APPENDIX F LIST AND SOURCES OF SUPPLIES FOR PREPARING SAMPLES 385 TABLE 5. List of Supplies for Preparing Samples and Retail Contact Information Equipment Make and Model Cost Retail Outlet Alumina Suspension 0.05 Micron $40 South Bay Product #AS0005-16 Technology 16 oz. Colloidal Silica Type SBT $25 South Bay 16 oz. Technology Diamond Blade Diameter: 7” $200 UKAM Industrial Arbor: 5/8” Superhard Tools Thickness: 0.025” Diamond Suspension 3 Micron $120 South Bay MicroDi Poly Technology Product #DSP030-16 16 oz. Digital Angle Gauge Unbranded $12 Harbor Freight Tools Digital Caliper Cen Tech $10 Harbor Freight Tools Digital Thickness Gauge Accuracy: 0.1 mm Item #66319 Digital Caliper Pittsburgh $18 Harbor Freight Tools 4” Digital Caliper Accuracy: 0.0254 mm (0.001”) Model #47256 Electron Backscatter HKL Guest Oxford Instruments Diffraction (EBSD) $45/hr Heat Gun Drill Master $25 Harbor Freight Tools Model #96289 Lapping and South Bay Technology Guest South Bay Polishing Machine Model #920 $75 Technology Melamine-Coated Unbranded $8 Home Depot, Lowe’s Particle Board 386 TABLE 5. Continued Equipment Make and Model Cost Retail Outlet Mini Cut-Off Saw Drill Master $25 Harbor Freight Tools Model #42307 Polishing Cloth Rayon $40 South Bay (for Lapper) Diameter: 20 cm (8”) Technology Product #PRA08A-10 Scanning Electron FEI Guest FEI Microscope (SEM) Quanta 3D FEG Dual Beam SEM $45/hr with FIB Silicon Carbide 50.0 Micron (240 Grit) $20 South Bay Powder 1 lb. Technology 600 Grit $12 Michael’s Lapidary & 1 lb. Gift Shop 1200 Grit $8 Michael’s Lapidary & 4 oz. Gift Shop Steel Plate Length: 4 ½” n/a Scrap Width: 4 ½” Thickness: ¼” Table Saw Chicago Electric Power Tools $200 Harbor Freight Tools 1.5 HP Bridge Tile Saw with Stand Model #97360 Teflon® Rod Unbranded $11 ebay Teflon® Sheet Unbranded $15 ebay Thermocouple K-Type $20 Omega Engineering Thermocouple Connector $75 Omega Engineering UTC-USB Notes: Retail contact information is listed on the following page, in Table 6. Prices are rounded off (or approximate values) from 2012. 387 TABLE 6. Retail Contact Information for Supplies Listed in Table 5 ebay Omega Engineering, Inc. http://www.ebay.com/ One Omega Drive, Box 4047 Stamford, CT 06907-0047 Harbor Freight Tools (203) 359-1660 http://www.harborfreight.com/ http://www.omega.com/ Home Depot South Bay Technology http://www.homedepot.com/ 1120 Via Callejon Lowe’s San Clemente, CA 92673 http://www.lowes.com/ www.southbaytech.com Michael’s Lapidary & Gift Shop UKAM Industrial Superhard Tools 2406 North Glassell St. Valencia, CA Orange, CA 92865 http://www.ukam.com/ (714) 998-7209 Notes: Web addresses are current as of 2012. 388  APPENDIX G SOURCES OF MINERAL DATA FOR THE TABLES 389 TABLE 11. References for Crystal Structure Data in the List of Minerals in Table 4, Page 193 Reference Minerals Akizuki et al., 1979 Topaz Armbruster and Gunter, 2001 Analcime, Edingtonite, Epistilbite, Gismondine-Ca, Gmelinite-Na, Goyazite, Harmotome, Heulandite- Ca, Mesolite, Mordenite, Scolecite, Thomsonite-Ca, Yugawaralite Badreddine et al., 2002 Vermiculite Bahfenne and Frost, 2010 Finnemanite Baranov et al., 2001 Parkerite Barnett et al., 2000 Thaumasite Barthelmy, 2012 Minerals not Otherwise Listed Bell et al., 2010 Cinnabar Belokoneva et al., 2002 Dioptase Belovitskaya et al., 2000 Burbankite Bindi and Cipriani, 2004 Muthmannite Birnstock, 1967 Nitrobarite Breitinger et al., 2006 Crandallite, Goyazite Burns and Hawthore, 1994 Kaliborite Cámara et al., 2008 Murmanite Capitani et al., 2007 Moissanite Curry and Jones, 1971 Brushite Frost and Bouzaid, 2007 Dawsonite Frost et al., 2009 Artinite Frost et al., 2013a Arsenogoyazite Frost et al., 2013b Creedite Gilberg, 1981 Sal Ammoniac Goreaud and Raveau, 1980 Crandallite Grice and Hawthorne, 1989 Leucophanite Gritsenko and Spiridonov, 2005 Nickeline Hashimoto and Matsumoto, 1998 Pyromorphite Hawthorne et al., 2000 Alum-Na Heller, 1970 Pinnoite Hellwege and Hellwege, 1970a Hematite, Siderite, Srebrodolskite, Wüstite Hellwege and Hellwege, 1970b Ferberite Hellwege and Hellwege, 1978 Clinoferrosilite, Eskolaite, Fayalite, Franklinite, Kalininite, Kamiokite, Xieite, Zincochromite Hewitt, 1948 Breithauptite 390 TABLE 11. Continued Reference Minerals Hibbs et al., 2000 Wulfenite Hoyos et al., 1993 Eosphorite Huminicki and Hawthorne, 2002a Amnoffite Huminicki and Hawthorne, 2002b Brushite Johnson and Rossman, 2004 Ussingite Kloprogge et al., 2002 Syngenite Konnert and Evans, 1987 Melanovanadite Krivovichev, et al., 2006 Tyrolite Krogh-Moe, 1967 Pinnoite Libowitzky and Beran, 2006 Beryl Lussier and Hawthorne, 2011 Bavenite Majzlan et al., 2010 Coquimbite Malik and Jeffery, 1976 Afwillite Manseau et al., 2002 Quenselite Maras and Paris, 1987 Sarcolite Matsumoto, 1998 Pyromorphite McIver, 1963 Bultfonteinite Nowotny and Heger, 1983 Nitrobarite Parise et al., 1998 Pyrochroite Pepinsky et al., 1956 Alum-Na Peterson et al., 1979 Brucite Pramana et al., 2008 Finnemanite Ralph and Chau, 2012 Minerals not Otherwise Listed Rastsvetaeva, 2009 Georgbarsanovite Rodellas et al., 1983 Jeremejevite Rodríguez-Blanco et al., 2007 Pharmacolite Rouse, 1971 Quenselite Ruiz-Salvador et al., 2000 Heulandite-Ca Scheetz and White, 1977 Benstonite Sherriff et al., 2000 Meionite Shiozaki et al., 2002a Barioperovskite, Lakargiite, Lueshite, Macedonite, Perovskite, Tausonite Shiozaki et al., 2002b Cervantite, Chambersite, Changbaiite, Clinocervantite, Diomignite, Ericaite, Heftetjernite, Mariinskite, Oxycalciopyrochlore, Oxyplumbopyrochlore, Russellite, Stibiotantalite, Uraninite, Wakefieldite-Nd 391 TABLE 11. Continued Reference Minerals Shiozaki et al., 2004 Archerite, Biphosphammite, Demicheleite-Br, Demicheleite-I, Gwihabaite, Niter, Nitratine, Proustite, Pyrargyrite, Schultenite Shiozaki et al., 2005 Stibnite Sokolova and Hawthorne, 2004 Epistolite Sokolova et al., 1996 Marialite Sokolova et al., 2011 Innelite Sowa et al., 2004 Millerite Szymanski, J.T., 1985 Plumbojarosite Takeuchi and Haga, 1969 Seligmannite Tančić et al., 2010 Beryl Uvarova et al., 2003 Batisite Venetopoulos and Rentzeperis, 1976 Clinohedrite Wijn, 1988 Cuprokalininite, Cuprorhodsite, Daubréelite, Hauerite, Krut’aite, Linnaeite, Nickeline, Pyrrhotite, Vaesite Wijn, 1991a Cuprospinel, Jacobsite, Karelianite, Maghemite, Magnesioferrite, Magnetite, Trevorite Wijn, 1994 Ilmenite Wolfram Alpha, 2012 Minerals not Otherwise Listed Wu Ziuling et al., 1998 Röntgenite-Ce Xiaodong Zhang et al., 2011 Nolanite Yaping Li et al., 2000 Thornasite Yongshan Dai et al., 1991 Mimetite Yunxiang Ni et al., 1993 Röntgenite-Ce Yuodvershis et al., 1969 Bismuthinite Zubkova et al., 2011 Elpidite Zuo et al., 1990 Magnetite Notes: Data sources that are part of the Landolt-Börnstein Database in SpringerMaterials are underlined, for ease in distinguishing these (Springer, 2012). Wolframalpha.com does a meta-search of five sites: webmineral.com, minerals.net, mineralatlas.com, mindat.org, and the United States Geological Survey (USGS) mineral resources on-line spatial data website. 392 TABLE 15. References for Ferroelectric, Antiferroelectric and Paraelectric Minerals Included in Table 7, Page 88, and Table 12, Page 317 Reference Minerals Bhide and Damle, 1960 Pyrolusite Bieniulis et al., 1987 Chalcocite Buch et al., 1998 Ice Dengel et al., 1964 Ice Deshpande and Bhide, 1961 Cassiterite Grigas et al., 1976 Chalcostibite Hellwege and Hellwege, 1970a Srebrodolskite Howe and Whitworth, 1989 Ice Kuhs et al., 1987 Ice Lines and Glass, 1977 Altaite Nelson, 1993 Boracite, Pyrargyrite, Sillénite Parkhomenko, 1971 Hydroxycalcioroméite Pepinsky et al., 1956 Alum-Na Shiozaki et al., 2002a Barioperovskite, Lakargiite, Lueshite, Macedonite, Perovskite, Tausonite Shiozaki et al., 2002b Boracite, Cervantite, Chambersite, Changbaiite, Clinocervantite, Diomignite, Ericaite, Heftetjernite, Koechlinite, Mariinskite, Oxycalciopyrochlore, Oxyplumbopyrochlore, Russellite, Stibiotantalite, Wakefieldite-Nd Shiozaki et al., 2004 Archerite, Biphosphammite, Demicheleite-Br, Demicheleite-I, Gwihabaite, Niter, Nitratine, Proustite, Pyrargyrite, Schultenite Shiozaki et al., 2005 Stibnite Yuodvershis et al. 1969 Bismuthinite Notes: Data sources that are part of the Landolt-Börnstein Database in SpringerMaterials are underlined, for ease in distinguishing these (Springer, 2012). 393 TABLE 16. References for Pyroelectric Minerals Included in Table 8, Page 89 and Table 13, Page 320 Reference Minerals Bond, 1943 Iodargyrite Hawkins et al., 1995 Tourmaline Nelson, 1993 Bournonite, Cancrinite, Fresnoite, Greenockite, Schorl, Stephanite, Tourmaline, Wurtzite Mirgorodsky et al., 1989 Sinoite Parkhomenko, 1971 Amesite, Ammoniojarosite, Ardealite, Argentojarosite, Arsenogoyazite, Artinite, Benstonite, Berthierine, Beryl, Breithauptite, Brucite, Bultfonteinite, Cadmoselite, Childrenite, Colemanite, Coquimbite, Crandallite, Creedite, Cronstedtite, Dawsonite, Diaboleite, Dyscrasite, Elpidite, Enargite, Eosphorite, Epistolite, Finnemanite, Georgbarsanovite, Goyazite, Halloysite-7Å, Halloysite-10Å, Halotrichite, Harmotome, Hartite, Heulandite-Ca, Innelite, Kaliborite, Krennerite, Liebigite, Marialite, Meionite, Melanovanadite, Meliphanite, Millerite, Minyulite, Moissanite, Mordenite, Murmanite, Muthmannite, Nacrite, Natrojarosite, Natrolite, Nepheline, Nickeline, Nolanite, Parkerite, Pharmacolite, Pickeringite, Pinnoite, Plumbojarosite, Prehnite, Pyrochroite, Pyromorphite, Pyrrhotite (hexagonal), Quenselite, Röntgenite-Ce, Sarcolite, Seligmannite, Swedenborgite, Syngenite, Thaumasite, Thomsonite-Ca, Tyrolite, Uranophane, Ussingite, Vermiculite, Wulfenite, Zinkenite Ralph and Chau, 2012 Chromium-dravite, Feruvite, Fluor-dravite, Fluor- liddicoatite, Fluor-schorl, Foitite, Natroalunite, Olenite, Oxy-schorl, Povondraite, Sinoite Shannon, 2011 Afwillite, Alunite, Batisite, Bertrandite, Bromellite, Brushite, Buergerite, Burbankite, Caledonite, Clinohedrite, Dravite, Elbaite, Epistilbite, Flagstaffite, Hemimorphite, Hilgardite, Hydrocalumite, Innelite, Jarosite, Junitoite, Larsenite, Mesolite, Neptunite, Pirssonite, Schorl, 394 TABLE 16. Continued Reference Minerals Shannon, 2011 (Continued) Scolecite, Searlesite, Shortite, Spangolite, Stibiocolumbite, Struvite, Suolunite, Tilasite, Uvite, Weloganite, Whitlockite, Yugawaralite Notes: Iodargyrite is listed in Bond (1943) as exhibiting piezoelectricity, but is pyroelectric as well, since it belongs to a polar crystal class. Data sources that are part of the Landolt-Börnstein Database in SpringerMaterials are underlined, for ease in distinguishing these (Springer, 2012). TABLE 17. References for Piezoelectric Minerals Included in Table 9, Page 90 and Table 14, Page 328 Reference Minerals Barthelmy, 2012 Gallite Bond, 1943 Tiemannite, Topaz, Zunyite Cady, 1946 Topaz Nelson, 1993 Analcime, Berlinite, Cinnabar, Epsomite, Eulytine, Goslarite, Langbeinite, Paratellurite, Quartz, Sphalerite Parkhomenko, 1971 Morenosite, Retgersite, Sal Ammoniac, Selenium, Sodalite, Stilleite, Tellurium, Zincite Ralph and Chau, 2012 Roquesite Shannon, 2011 Aminoffite, Analcime, Bastnäsite-Ce, Bavenite, Dioptase, Edingtonite, Gismondine-Ca, Gmelinite- Na, Gugiaite, Helvine, Jeremejevite, Leucophanite, Londonite, Mimetite, Nitrobarite, Olsacherite, Pharmacosiderite, Quartz, Rhodizite, Thornasite, Tugtupite Notes: Data sources that are part of the Landolt-Börnstein Database in SpringerMaterials are underlined, for ease in distinguishing these (Springer, 2012). 395 TABLE 27. References for Ferroelectric Data (from Minerals) Included in Tables 22 through 24, Pages 293 through 294 Reference Minerals Bhide and Damle, 1960 Pyrolusite Grigas et al., 1976 Chalcostibite Nelson, 1993 Boracite Shiozaki et al., 2002a Barioperovskite, Lueshite, Macedonite, Tausonite Shiozaki et al., 2002b Boracite, Heftetjernite, Oxyplumbopyrochlore, Stibiotantalite, Wakefieldite-Nd Shiozaki et al., 2004 Archerite, Demicheleite-Br, Demicheleite-I, Gwihabaite, Niter, Nitratine Notes: Data sources that are part of the Landolt-Börnstein Database in SpringerMaterials are underlined, for ease in distinguishing these (Springer, 2012). TABLE 28. References for Pyroelectric Data (from Minerals) Included in Table 25, Page 295 Reference Minerals Hawkins et al., 1995 Tourmaline Nelson, 1993 Boracite, Fresnoite, Greenockite, Tourmaline, Wurtzite Parkhomenko, 1971 Cadmoselite Shiozaki et al., 2002a Macedonite Shiozaki et al., 2002b Boracite, Chambersite, Diomignite Shiozaki et al., 2004 Proustite Notes: Data sources that are part of the Landolt-Börnstein Database in SpringerMaterials are underlined, for ease in distinguishing these (Springer, 2012). 396 TABLE 29. References for Thermoelectric Data (from Minerals) Included in Table 26, Page 296 Reference Minerals Hellwege and Hellwege, 1970b Cuprospinel, Magnetite Hellwege and Hellwege, 1978 Kalininite Shiozaki et al., 2002a Cadmoindite, Carrollite, Lueshite, Macedonite Wijn, 1988 Cuprokalininite, Cuprorhodsite, Daubréelite, Indite, Linnaeite, Siegenite Wijn, 1991a Coulsonite, Jacobsite, Magnesiocoulsonite, Trevorite Notes: Data sources that are part of the Landolt-Börnstein Database in SpringerMaterials are underlined, for ease in distinguishing these (Springer, 2012). TABLE 37. References for Piezoelectric Data (from Minerals) Included in Tables 30 through 36, Pages 297 through 305 Reference Minerals Bhide and Damle, 1960 Pyrolusite Hellwege et al., 1990 Barioperovskite Nelson, 1993 Analcime, Berlinite, Boracite, Bournonite, Cancrinite, Cinnabar, Epsomite, Eulytine, Fresnoite, Greenockite, Langbeinite, Magnetite, Paratellurite, Proustite, Pyrargyrite, Quartz, Schorl, Sillénite, Sphalerite, Stibiotantalite, Tourmaline, Wurtzite Parkhomenko, 1971 Bromellite, Cadmoselite, Ice, Morenosite, Nepheline, Retgersite, Sal Ammoniac, Selenium, Sodalite, Stilleite, Tellurium, Zincite Shiozaki et al., 2002a Macedonite, Tausonite Shiozaki et al., 2002b Changbaiite, Diomignite, Russellite Shiozaki et al., 2004 Archerite, Biphosphammite Notes: Data sources that are part of the Landolt-Börnstein Database in SpringerMaterials are underlined, for ease in distinguishing these (Springer, 2012). 397 TABLE 40. References for Dielectric Data (from Minerals) Included in Table 38, Page 306, and Table 39, Page 311 Reference Minerals Hellwege and Hellwege, 1970b Cuprospinel Hellwege and Hellwege, 1978 Spinel Hellwege et al., 1990 Barioperovskite Nelson, 1993 Berlinite, Boracite, Bournonite, Cancrinite, Cinnabar, Colemanite, Epsomite, Eulytine, Fresnoite, Greenockite, Koechlinite, Langbeinite, Lecontite, Natrolite, Paratellurite, Proustite, Pyrargyrite, Quartz, Schorl, Sillénite, Sphalerite, Stephanite, Stibiotantalite, Stibnite, Tourmaline, Wurtzite Parkhomenko, 1971 Cadmoselite, Retgersite, Stilleite, Zincite Shiozaki et al., 2002a Lakargiite, Lueshite, Macedonite, Perovskite, Tausonite Shiozaki et al., 2002b Cervantite, Chambersite, Changbaiite, Clinocervantite, Diomignite, Ericaite, Heftetjernite, Koechlinite, Oxycalciopyrochlore, Oxyplumbopyrochlore, Russellite, Rutile, Stibiotantalite, Wakefieldite-Nd Shiozaki et al., 2004 Archerite, Biphosphammite, Nitratine, Schultenite Wijn, 1991a Franklinite, Magnesioferrite, Trevorite Notes: Data sources that are part of the Landolt-Börnstein Database in SpringerMaterials are underlined, for ease in distinguishing these (Springer, 2012). 398 REFERENCES 399  REFERENCES Abdel Aal, G.Z., Atekwana, E.A., Rossbach, S., and Werkema, D.D., 2010, Sensitivity of geolelectrical measurements to the presence of bacteria in porous media: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 115, G03017, doi: 10.1029/2009JG001279. 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