Reward

What does being initiated severely into a group do? The role of rewards

by Caroline Kamau

Kamau, C. (2012)

Replicator dynamics in public goods games with reward funds

by Tatsuya Sasaki

Co-authored with Tatsuo Unemi (Soka Univ., Japan); preprint; published in 'Journal of Theoretical Biology', 2011

Which punishment or rewards are most effective at maintaining cooperation in public goods interactions and deterring... more Which punishment or rewards are most effective at maintaining cooperation in public goods interactions and deterring defectors who are willing to freeload on others’ contribution? The sanction system is itself a public good and can cause problematic “second-order free riders” who do not contribute to the provisions of the sanctions and thus may subvert the cooperation supported by sanctioning. Recent studies have shown that public goods games with punishment can lead to a coercion-based regime if participation in the game is optional. Here, we reveal that even with compulsory participation, rewards can maintain cooperation within an infinitely large population. We consider three strategies for players in a standard public goods game: to be a cooperator or a defector in a standard public goods game, or to be a rewarder who contributes to the public good and to a fund that rewards players who contribute during the game. Cooperators do not contribute to the reward fund and are therefore classified as second-order free riders. The replicator dynamics for the three strategies exhibit a rock-scissors-paper cycle, and can be analyzed fully, despite the fact that the expected payoffs are nonlinear. The model does not require repeated interaction, spatial structure, group selection, or reputation. We also discuss a simple method for second-order sanctions, which can lead to a globally stable state where 100% of the population are rewarders.

Replicator dynamics in public goods games with reward funds

by Tatsuya Sasaki

Co-authored with Tatsuo Unemi (Soka Univ., Japan); preprint; published in 'Journal of Theoretical Biology', 2011

Which punishment or rewards are most effective at maintaining cooperation in public goods interactions and deterring... more Which punishment or rewards are most effective at maintaining cooperation in public goods interactions and deterring defectors who are willing to freeload on others’ contribution? The sanction system is itself a public good and can cause problematic “second-order free riders” who do not contribute to the provisions of the sanctions and thus may subvert the cooperation supported by sanctioning. Recent studies have shown that public goods games with punishment can lead to a coercion-based regime if participation in the game is optional. Here, we reveal that even with compulsory participation, rewards can maintain cooperation within an infinitely large population. We consider three strategies for players in a standard public goods game: to be a cooperator or a defector in a standard public goods game, or to be a rewarder who contributes to the public good and to a fund that rewards players who contribute during the game. Cooperators do not contribute to the reward fund and are therefore classified as second-order free riders. The replicator dynamics for the three strategies exhibit a rock-scissors-paper cycle, and can be analyzed fully, despite the fact that the expected payoffs are nonlinear. The model does not require repeated interaction, spatial structure, group selection, or reputation. We also discuss a simple method for second-order sanctions, which can lead to a globally stable state where 100% of the population are rewarders.

The value of genuine and polite smiles.

by Danielle Shore

A rewarding crisis for HR

by Jonathan Trevor

Reward policy is increasingly complex, impossibly technical, focused on too few people, and has serious unintended... more Reward policy is increasingly complex, impossibly technical, focused on too few people, and has serious unintended consequences. We need a new approach to liberate value across the organisation.

Rewarding and Disciplinary Approaches Toward Primary and Secondary School Teachers

by Halil Eksi

Ruhi SARPKAYA
Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice
3 (1) • / May 2003 • 219-225

The aim of this research is to determine the expectations and perceptions of
teachers concerning the rewarding... more The aim of this research is to determine the expectations and perceptions of
teachers concerning the rewarding and discipline approaches for the primary
and secondary school teachers. 1814 teachers working at primary and secondary
schools of Manisa Province formed the population of research, and 452 of them
formed the sample (female 217, male 235). In this research, a Likert type scale
that was developed by the researcher, called Rewarding and Disciplinary Approaches toward Primary
and Secondary School Teachers was used. Some of the valuable findings of the research are
as follow: 1) There is a significant difference between the
perceptions of the teachers about the rate of occurrence of the following
sub-dimensions: evaluation, rewarding and discipline depending on teaching
experience; evaluation, rewarding and discipline depending on the stages of
schools where they work; evaluation and rewarding depending on whether they
have been rewarded or not (p<.05) 2) There is a significant difference between
the perceptions of the teachers about the rate of occurrence of the following
sub-dimensions: discipline and evaluation depending on teaching experience;
evaluation, rewarding and discipline depending on their major fields of study;
rewarding and discipline depending on the types of school they have graduated
from; evaluation and discipline depending on their sexes; evaluation, rewarding
and discipline depending on the levels of schools where they work (p<.05). 3)
Both primary and secondary schoolteachers think that internal rewards are
much more valuable than external ones.

Is the enhancement of memory due to reward driven by value or salience?

by Christopher Madan

Introduction to reward processing

by Krishna Prasad Miyapuram

Ph.D. Thesis Chapter, University of Cambridge, 2008

Bijleveld, E., Custers, R, & Aarts, H. (in press). Adaptive reward pursuit: How effort requirements affect unconscious reward responses and conscious reward decisions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General.

by Erik Bijleveld

This paper is accepted for publication, but will be subject to copy editing.

When in pursuit of rewards, humans weigh the value of potential rewards against the amount of effort that is required... more When in pursuit of rewards, humans weigh the value of potential rewards against the amount of effort that is required to attain them. Although previous research has generally conceptualized this process as a deliberate calculation, recent work suggests that rudimentary mechanisms—that operate without conscious intervention—play an important role as well. In this article, we propose that humans can perform a basic integration of reward value and effort requirements without conscious awareness. Furthermore, we propose that conscious awareness of rewards allows for the use of more advanced functions in reward pursuit, which consider the specific course of action that leads to reward attainment. Employing a monetary reward priming paradigm that allows us to dissect the performance effects of rewards (i.e., coins of different value) into conscious and unconscious components, we test this proposal in three experiments. Overall, results indicate that people rely on a simple yet adaptive mechanism that unconsciously conserves effort during reward pursuit, because it makes people more reward sensitive whenever more effort is required of the body. Moreover, consciousness supports a more sophisticated mode of reward pursuit, via which people can strategically conserve effort even further. We discuss these findings in the context of decision making, motivation, and consciousness.

Bijleveld, E., Custers, R., & Aarts, H. (in press). Human reward pursuit: From rudimentary to higher-level functions. Current Directions in Psychological Science.

by Erik Bijleveld

This paper is accepted for publication, but will be subject to copy editing.

Human reward pursuit is often found to be governed by conscious assessments of expected value and required effort.... more Human reward pursuit is often found to be governed by conscious assessments of expected value and required effort. Yet, research also indicates that rewards are initially valuated and processed outside awareness, using rudimentary brain structures. Building on both findings, we propose a new framework for understanding human performance in the service of attaining rewards. In essence, we suggest that people initially process rewards unconsciously, which can boost effort and facilitate performance. Subsequently, people may process rewards more fully, which allows them to make strategic decisions based on task conditions, and to consciously reflect on rewards. Intriguingly, these specific processes associated with full reward processing can cause initial vs. full reward processing to have different effects on performance. In the present article, we address recent research that supports this framework. Finally, we discuss how the present framework may lead to a refined yet broadly applicable understanding of the human pursuit of rewards.

Shedding light on the role of ventral tegmental area dopamine in reward

by Benjamin Thomas Saunders

The Value of Success: Acquiring Gains, Avoiding Losses, and Simply Being Successful

by Andrew Jahn

Emotional imagery: assessing pleasure and arousal in the brain's reward circuitry

by Vincent Costa

Controlled Water Intake: A Method for Objectively Evaluating Thirst and Hydration State In Monkeys by the Measurement of Blood Osmolality

by Kenway Louie

Yamada H, Louie K, Glimcher PW (2010) J Neurosci Methods, in press

Standard methods for behavioral and neurophysiological experiments in the non-human primate rely on controlled water... more Standard methods for behavioral and neurophysiological experiments in the non-human primate rely on controlled water access as a means for motivating subject performance. It is, however, still not clear whether animals are able to regulate their fluid balance appropriately under these experimental settings. Further, the physical state associated with a subject monkey's thirst has not yet been objectively assessed under these conditions. Both of these deficiencies arise from the lack of a method for independently evaluating the hydration state of these subjects during experimental testing. To address these limitations, we measured the blood osmolality, the most widely used hematological index of hydration status, of three rhesus monkeys under conditions of controlled water access while they participated in a standard reinforced behavioral task for fluid rewards. We found that day-to-day hydration levels, as measured by serum osmolality, appears to be well regulated in a narrow range of values (300-320mOsmo/kgH(2)O) by experimental subjects under these conditions: animals work harder and longer to earn more water rewards on a day when they are in a lower hydration state (higher osmolality) than when they are in a higher hydration state (lower osmolality). We also found that osmolality level decreases almost immediately after water intake, within 30min, in a surprisingly linear manner. Osmolality thus seems to provide a fairly precise reflection of the monkeys' hydration state on a timescale of minutes. This evidence suggests that osmolality can be used as a tool for monitoring the hydration level of experimental subjects.

Reward value-based gain control: divisive normalization in parietal cortex

by Kenway Louie

Louie K, Grattan L, Glimcher PW (2011) J Neurosci 31(29): 10627-10639

The representation of value is a critical component of decision making. Rational choice theory assumes that options... more The representation of value is a critical component of decision making. Rational choice theory assumes that options are assigned absolute values, independent of the value or existence of other alternatives. However, context-dependent choice behavior in both animals and humans violates this assumption, suggesting that biological decision processes rely on comparative evaluation. Here we show that neurons in the monkey lateral intraparietal cortex encode a relative form of saccadic value, explicitly dependent on the values of the other available alternatives. Analogous to extra-classical receptive field effects in visual cortex, this relative representation incorporates target values outside the response field and is observed in both stimulus-driven activity and baseline firing rates. This context-dependent modulation is precisely described by divisive normalization, indicating that this standard form of sensory gain control may be a general mechanism of cortical computation. Such normalization in decision circuits effectively implements an adaptive gain control for value coding and provides a possible mechanistic basis for behavioral context-dependent violations of rationality.

Developing an Instrument to Assess Information Technology Staff Motivation

by Fernando Belfo

BELFO, F. e R.D. SOUSA (2011).

M.M. Cruz-Cunha et al (Eds.): CENTERIS 2011, Communications in Computer and Information Science, 2011, Volume 220, Part 2, 230-239, 2011. Springer-Verlarg Berlim Heidelberg.

Motivation is a key factor that influences individual effort, which, in turn, affects individual and organizational... more Motivation is a key factor that influences individual effort, which, in turn, affects individual and organizational performance. Nevertheless, motivation at work depends on the organizational rewards and incentives, according to individual goals. This paper reports on the development of an instrument designed to measure the motivation of Information Technology people at their workplace. Psychology theories and work addressing intrinsic and extrinsic motivation have been studied. Some motivation instruments were reviewed and analyzed. Specificities and special characteristics regarding IT workers were evidenced and combined with other more general motivation factors. The instrument has been developed according to the five dimensions of the Worldatwork framework, resulting in a set of 30 scale items addressing 23 variables. Besides measuring the IT motivation levels, the tool may also help any organization to understand the weaknesses and strengths regarding incentive policies, and therefore, assist on the definition of new ones.

Gender Differences in the Motivational Processing of Facial Beauty

by Nina Mazar

Co-authored with Boaz Levy, Dan Ariely, Won Chi, Scott Lukas, and Igor Elman, published in "Learning and Motivation", 2008, 39 (2), 136-145.

Named 3rd in “Top 25 Hottest Articles” in that journal.

Gender may be involved in the motivational processing of facial beauty. This study applied a behavioral probe, known... more Gender may be involved in the motivational processing of facial beauty. This study applied a behavioral probe, known to activate brain motivational regions, to healthy heterosexual subjects. Matched samples of men and women were administered two tasks: (a) key pressing to change the viewing time of average or beautiful female or male facial images, and (b) rating the attractiveness of these images. Men expended more effort (via the key-press task) to extend the viewing time of the beautiful female faces. Women displayed similarly increased effort for beautiful male and female images, but the magnitude of this effort was substantially lower than that of men for beautiful females. Heterosexual facial attractiveness ratings were comparable in both groups. These findings demonstrate heterosexual specificity of facial motivational targets for men, but not for women. Moreover, heightened drive for the pursuit of heterosexual beauty in the face of regular valuational assessments, displayed by men, suggests a gender-specific incentive sensitization phenomenon.

Chronic exposure to nicotine is associated with reduced reward-related activity in the striatum but not the midbrain

by Emma Jane Rose

Emma Jane Rose, PhD.1,* Thomas J. Ross, PhD.1, Betty Jo Salmeron, M.D. 1, Mary Lee, M.D. 1, Diaa M. Shakleya, PhD.2, Marilyn Huestis, PhD.2, and Elliot A. Stein, PhD.1. Biological Psychiatry, 71(3), 206-213

Background: The reinforcing effects of nicotine are mediated by brain regions that also support temporal difference... more Background: The reinforcing effects of nicotine are mediated by brain regions that also support temporal difference error (TDE) processing, yet the impact of nicotine on TDE is undetermined.
Methods: Dependent smokers (N=21) and matched controls (N=21) were trained to associate a juice reward with a visual cue in a classical conditioning paradigm. Subjects subsequently underwent fMRI sessions in which they were exposed to trials where they either received juice as temporally predicted or where the juice was withheld (negative TDE) and later received unexpectedly (positive TDE). Subjects were scanned in two sessions that were identical except that smokers had a transdermal nicotine (21mg) or placebo patch placed before scanning. Analysis focused on regions along the trajectory of mesocorticolimbic (MCL) and nigrostriatal (NS) dopaminergic pathways.
Results: There was a reduction in TDE-related function in smokers in the striatum, which did not differ as a function of patch manipulation, but was predicted by the duration (years) of smoking. Activation in midbrain regions was not impacted by group or drug condition.
Conclusions: These data suggest a differential effect of smoking status on the neural substrates of reward in distinct dopaminergic pathway regions, which may be partially attributable to chronic nicotine exposure. The failure of transdermal nicotine to alter reward-related functional processes either within smokers or between smokers and controls implies that acute nicotine patch administration is insufficient to modify reward processing, which has been linked to abstinence-induced anhedonia in smokers and may play a critical role in smoking relapse.

Abnormal responses to monetary outcomes in cortex, but not in the basal ganglia, in schizophrenia.

by Emma Jane Rose

Waltz JA, Schweitzer JB, Ross TJ, Kurup PK, Salmeron BJ, Rose EJ, Gold JM, Stein EA.
Neuropsychopharmacology. 2010 Nov;35(12):2427-39. Epub 2010 Aug 18.

Psychosis has been associated with aberrant brain activity concurrent with both the anticipation and integration of... more Psychosis has been associated with aberrant brain activity concurrent with both the anticipation and integration of monetary outcomes. The extent to which abnormal reward-related neural signals can be observed in chronic, medicated patients with schizophrenia (SZ), however, is not clear. In an fMRI study involving 17 chronic outpatients with SZ and 17 matched controls, we used a monetary incentive delay (MID) task, in which different-colored shapes predicted gains, losses, or neutral outcomes. Subjects needed to respond to a target within a time window in order to receive the indicated gain or avoid the indicated loss. Group differences in blood-oxygen-level-dependent responses to cues and outcomes were assessed through voxel-wise whole-brain analyses and regions-of-interest analyses in the neostriatum and prefrontal cortex (PFC). Significant group by outcome valence interactions were observed in the medial and lateral PFC, lateral temporal cortex, and amygdalae, such that controls, but not patients, showed greater activation for gains, relative to losses. In the striatum, neural activity was modulated by outcome magnitude in both groups. Additionally, we found that ratings of negative symptoms in patients correlated with sensitivity to obtained losses in medial PFC, obtained gains in lateral PFC, and anticipated gains in left ventral striatum. Sensitivity to obtained gains in lateral PFC also correlated with positive symptom scores in patients. Our findings of systematic relationships between clinical symptoms and neural responses to stimuli associated with rewards and punishments offer promise that reward-related neural responses may provide sensitive probes of the effectiveness of treatments for negative symptoms.

Patients with schizophrenia have a reduced neural response to both unpredictable and predictable primary reinforcers.

by Emma Jane Rose

Waltz JA, Schweitzer JB, Gold JM, Kurup PK, Ross TJ, Salmeron BJ, Rose EJ, McClure SM, Stein EA.
Neuropsychopharmacology. 2009 May;34(6):1567-77. Epub 2008 Dec 3.

One prevalent theory of learning states that dopamine neurons signal mismatches between expected and actual outcomes,... more One prevalent theory of learning states that dopamine neurons signal mismatches between expected and actual outcomes, called temporal difference errors (TDEs). Evidence indicates that dopamine system dysfunction is involved in negative symptoms of schizophrenia (SZ), including avolition and anhedonia. As such, we predicted that brain responses to TDEs in dopamine midbrain nuclei and target areas would be abnormal in SZ. A total of 18 clinically stable patients with chronic SZ and 18 controls participated in an fMRI study, which used a passive conditioning task. In the task, the delivery of a small amount of juice followed a light stimulus by exactly 6 s on approximately 75% of 78 total trials, and was further delayed by 4-7 s on the remaining trials. The delayed juice delivery was designed to elicit the two types of TDE signals, associated with the recognition that a reward was omitted at the expected time, and delivered at an unexpected time. Main effects of TDE valence and group differences in the positive-negative TDE contrast (unexpected juice deliveries-juice omissions) were assessed through whole-brain and regions of interest (ROI) analyses. Main effects of TDE valence were observed for the entire sample in the midbrain, left putamen, left cerebellum, and primary gustatory cortex, bilaterally. Whole-brain analyses revealed group differences in the positive-negative TDE contrast in the right putamen and left precentral gyrus, whereas ROI analyses revealed additional group differences in the midbrain, insula, and parietal operculum, on the right, the putamen and cerebellum, on the left, and the frontal operculum, bilaterally. Further, these group differences were generally driven by attenuated responses in patients to positive TDEs (unexpected juice deliveries), whereas responses to negative TDEs (unexpected juice omissions) were largely intact. Patients also showed reductions in responses to juice deliveries on standard trials, and more blunted reinforcer responses in the left putamen corresponded to higher ratings of avolition. These results provide evidence that SZ patients show abnormal brain responses associated with the processing of a primary reinforcer, which may be a source of motivational deficits.