Crusades and the Latin East

Royal Consorts and Royal Power

by Stephen Donnachie

Paper given at Bath-Spa University Conference, Kings and Queens: Power, Politics, Personalities and Patronage in Medieval and Early Modern Monarchy April 20th 1212.

This paper seeks to examine the role played by the King Consorts of Jerusalem between the years 1186-1243, and how... more This paper seeks to examine the role played by the King Consorts of Jerusalem between the years 1186-1243, and how they attempted to overcome the situation of declining royal power in the Latin East during this tumultuous and important period in the history of the Crusader States. These individuals have largely been ignored or glossed over in traditional accounts of royal and baronial power in the 12th and 13th centuries. This paper seeks to begin to gill that void, and find a place for them.

Tra Lega Lombarda e pars Ecclesie. L’evoluzione della seconda Lega Lombarda e la leadership dei legati papali negli anni a cavallo della morte di Federico II (1239-1259)

by Gianluca Raccagni

Società e storia, forthcoming

L’autore esamina i mutamenti strutturali della Lega Lombarda dopo la saldatura dell’alleanza col Papato contro... more L’autore esamina i mutamenti strutturali della Lega Lombarda dopo la saldatura dell’alleanza col Papato contro Federico II nel 1239. Alla luce di fonti che sono passate inosservate da questo punto di vista, tra le quali le opere del maestro di retorica Guido Faba, si mostra come, in concomitanza con l’escalation che portò il conflitto con l’imperatore a prendere le forme di una vera e propria crociata nel 1240, da soggetto giuridico dotato di propri organi di governo la Lega si trasformò in un’alleanza multilaterale dedita per lo più a questioni militari e diplomatiche. Allo stesso tempo la Lega si trovò inserita in una più vasta pars ecclesie guidata da una serie di legati papali, che però non assunsero una carica formale all’interno della societas. La Lega tuttavia conservò alcune vestigia di una propria identità all’interno della pars Ecclesie almeno fino al 1252, e sono riscontrabili tracce di attriti tra alcuni dei suoi membri (soprattutto Bologna) e il legato papale. Infine anche la leadership del legato, almeno nelle forme assunte nel 1239, venne meno intorno al 1258-9, sia a causa del fallimento della crociata contro Ezzelino da Romano, che per una precisa politica di disimpegno del Papato.

The author examines the structural changes of the Lombard League after the welding of its alliance with the Papacy against Frederick II in 1239. In the light of overlooked sources such as the works of the Bolognese rhetorician Guido Faba, the paper argues that the escalation that brought the conflict against the emperor to take on the trappings of the crusade in 1240 coincided with the transformation of the League from a corporate body into little more than a multilateral alliance devoted to military and diplomatic matters. Moreover, the League came to be included in a larger pars ecclesie and fell under the leadership of a series of papal legates. The League, however, kept some vestiges of its identity inside the Pars Ecclesie at least until 1252, and there is evidence of frictions with the papal legate, especially from Bologna, while the leadership of the legate, at least in the forms acquired after 1239, came to an end in 1258-9, after the failure of the crusade against Ezzelino da Romano and following a deliberate policy of the Papacy.

The Campaign and Battle of Pelagonia 1259, Domus Byzantinus 17-18 (2009-2010)

by Juho Wilskman

The subject of the article is what the descriptions about the battle and campaign of Pelagonia 1259 between “The... more The subject of the article is what the descriptions about the battle and campaign of Pelagonia 1259 between “The Empire of Nicaea” and the coalition formed by the “The Despotate of Epiros”, The Principality of Achaia and the Kingdom of Sicily could tell us about the late Byzantine warfare. The poor attachment of the people involved to their leaders’ cause seems to have largely defined the campaign of Pelagonia. The cities of Macedonia had no great interest in making sacrifices in order to support the Epirotes against the Nicaeans or the other way around. The most decisive factor in the outcome was that the coalition, laid on weak foundations, collapsed as a result of quarrel. In Nicean army on the other hand the commanders were most likely chosen because of their loyalty to Michael Palaiologos not because of their military expertise.

Early in the campaign the Nicaeans made swift winter attack and they also conducted their sieges in aggressive way. These seem to have been quite typical methods of war for Nicaeans. The other methods that Nicaeans used encountering the coalition were more traditionally Byzantine. Apparently they tried to have first a diplomatic solution and find allies (Hungary and Mačva). When the coalition gathered its forces the Nicaeans avoided pitched battles and used harassment, different kind of stratagems and other “indirect” methods of war. The Nicaean army relied heavily on horse-archers, some of them probably natives of the eastern frontier region of the realm, and I find it possible that the army was intentionally customized for the harassment strategy. The late Byzantine military system that relied on the large scale use of mercenaries from different nations made this flexibility possible. The negative side of this system was the potentially poor cohesion of the heterogeneous armies and difficulties to control them. The coalition apparently adopted more aggressive, battle seeking strategy. The main reason for this was probably the difficulty to keep large and expensive army in field for a long time.

According to one description the Nicaeans used battle formation that consisted of several successive cavalry batailles with the infantry behind them. The battle order was very similar to many other Byzantine battle orders that we know from 6th century onwards and the one that the Latins normally used (also in the battle of Pelagonia). Choosing this battle formation probably derived from the assumption that the cavalry would have the active role in the battlefield and the infantry passive. The late Byzantine infantry was often recruited during the campaign and was probably not very effective in open field.

In the conflict between the Epeiros and Nicaea the battle of Pelagonia was above all defensive victory. Despotes Michael held the support of his people and kingdom of Sicily. Nicaea-Byzantium could however achieve territorial gains from The Principality of Achaia, because the ruler of the later was captured.

The Coinage of the Early 13th Century Kingdom of Jerusalem

by Stephen Donnachie

Paper given at Swansea Postgraduate History Forum November 2011.

The paper examines the production of the coinage of the Kingdom of Jerusalem in the early 13th Century. Examining them... more The paper examines the production of the coinage of the Kingdom of Jerusalem in the early 13th Century. Examining them in the context of the economy and politics of the Latin East at that time. Offering new possibilities for the origin of the often debated Amalricus denier.

'Honorius III and the Crusade: Responsive Papal Government versus the Memory of his Predecessors', in Peter Clarke and Charlotte Methuen, eds., Studies in Church History 49 (forthcoming, 2013) [peer-reviewed]

by Thomas W. Smith

"Perfectae fidei et amicitiae vinculo insolubili innodatis". Ritualisierte Freundschaftsformen in der Historia Expeditionis Ierosolymitanae von Albericus Aquensis.

by Stergios Laitsos

Der Aufsatz ist die erweiterte und überbearbeitete bzw. griechischsprachige Form meines Referates beim 12. Symposium des Mediävistenverbandes in Trier 19.-22. März 2007
"Verwandtschaft, Freundschaft, Bruderschaft.
Soziale Lebens- und Kommunikationsformen im Mittelalter".


Forthcoming. In: Kolias / Pitsakis (ed.), Timetikos Tomos Prof. Evangelos Chrysos, IBE/EIE, Athen 2011.

Abstrakt:
„perfectae fidei et amicitiae vinculo insolubili innodatis“ - Typen der Freundschaft in der Historia... more Abstrakt:
„perfectae fidei et amicitiae vinculo insolubili innodatis“ - Typen der Freundschaft in der Historia Expeditionis Hierosolymitanae von Albericus Aquensis

Die folgende kleine Studie untersucht die ritualisierte Formen der Freundschaft in der Historia Expeditionis Hierosolymitanae des Albericus Aquensis aus der Zeit des ersten Kreuzzuges. Im Mittelpunkt des Beitrags steht die Untersuchung und Analyse einerseits der amicitia zwischen dem oströmischen Kaiser und den Anführern der Kreuzfahrer und andererseits die Freundschaftsbindungen zwischen den Kreuzfahrern selbst. Es wird hier untersucht und analysiert das Entstehen von Freundschaftsbündnissen und -Bindungen im Kontext mit dem Kreuzzugsgedanken, den Notwendigkeiten und Prioritäten der oströmischen Außenpolitik und den daher hergestellten Machtkonstellationen. Da ist es sehr wohl daran zu erinnern, dass es sich hier nicht um zwischenstaatliche Freundschaften handelt. Dilectio, fides, fidelitas, foedus und honor verbanden sowohl die confratres in Christo als auch ihren Führungspersonen mit dem Kaiser Alexios I Komnenos. Zugleich bildeten diese Freundschaftstypen Kommunikationsformen zwischen den vielfältigen Teilen der hochmittelalterlichen Christenheit. Es bedeutet, dass in ihre ritualisierte Formen, Inhalte, Funktionen und den Beschlussverlauf selbst die pragmatischen und ideologischen Verhältnisse bzw. die Einstellungen und die Interessen der Mitbeteiligten sich widerspiegeln. Die Studie zeigt durch die narrative motive des Rituals den dynamischen Charakter und Inhalt der amicitia Bindungen bzw. Verhältnissen.

St. Sabas: The Inevitable War?

by Stephen Donnachie

Given at International Medieval Congress Leeds 2011

This paper examines the War of St. Sabas, a dispute between Genoa and Venice between 1256-1258, that started as a... more This paper examines the War of St. Sabas, a dispute between Genoa and Venice between 1256-1258, that started as a dispute over territory in the city of Acre, and soon spiraled out of control to draw in much of the Latin East into a divisive civil war. This paper examines the three seperate trends that gew during the later 12th and early 13th Centuries across the Eastern Mediterranean that made a war, such as St. Sabas an increasingly likely scenario. Firstly the rise of Italian commerce in the Eastern Mediterranean and its increasingly combative natrue. Secondly the rise of Acre and its importance as a major emporium of that trade. Finally the factionalised and broken Kingdom of Jerusalem as it had come to exist after its refounding following the Third Crusade.

Aimery de Lusignan and the Return of Royal Orthodoxy

by Stephen Donnachie

Given at the Swansea Postgraduate History Forum Summer Symposiums, Deviance and Orthodoxy, 2011.

The paper examines the decline of royal power in the Kingdom of Jerusalem from the reign of  Baldwin IV onwards.... more The paper examines the decline of royal power in the Kingdom of Jerusalem from the reign of  Baldwin IV onwards. How Aimery de Lusignan, King of Jerusalem and Cyprus 1197-1205 attempted by the introduction of the law codes known as the Livre au Roi, to re-establish royal orthodoxy. The Livre aou Roi has been misinterpreted, it was not a successful reintroduction of roayl authority, but rather a compromise between crown and the independently minded baronage.

Forms of Lay Association with the Order of the Temple

by Jochen Schenk

published in Journal of Medieval History, 34:1 (2008), 70–103

Nomadic Violence in the First Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Military Orders

by Jochen Schenk

published in Reading Medieval Studies, 36 (2010), 35–55 published in Reading Medieval Studies, 36 (2010), 35–55

Alice of Antioch and the Rebellion against Fulk of Anjou

by Adriana R. de Almeida

Published in Medievalista, No 5 (2008).

‘Coins at Vadum Jacob: New Evidence on the Circulation of Money in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem during the second half of the 12th century.’

by Robert Kool

CRUSADES  2002 Volume 1: 73-88.

'A Deposit of 12th Century Medieval Seals at Caesarea: Evidence of the Cathedral Archive of St Peter.'

by Robert Kool

In Laudem Hierosolymitani: Studies in Crusades and Medieval Culture in Honour of Benjamin Z. Kedar, edited by Iris Shagrir, Ronnie Ellenblum and Jonathan Riley-Smith, 2007, Ashgate, Pp. 181-190.

Changes in Crusader Warfare 1097-1291

by Christopher Webber

Slingshot 253 pp 2-7

This article describes the changes in Crusader arms, equipment, and tactis during their sojourn in the Holy Land This article describes the changes in Crusader arms, equipment, and tactis during their sojourn in the Holy Land

"Medieval Mythbusters" -- DEBUNKING SIX MYTHS OF THE TWELFTH-CENTURY CRUSADES

by Dana Cushing

2010
Presented to the Texas Medieval Association (sponsored session) at the

45th International Medieval Congress, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo MI, USA

While examining the Atlantic-Andalusian Crusades of the 12th century, today I want to address SEVEN myths within... more While examining the Atlantic-Andalusian Crusades of the 12th century, today I want to address SEVEN myths within medieval history that can be disproven by evidence from that conflict:
1. Pirenne’s theory of a land-based, N/S axis for medieval trade after the rise of Islam, was incorrect.
2. That you cannot sail West through the Straits of Gibraltar
3.    That Muslims of any stripe rarely sailed or had any nautical leanings whatsoever. 
4.    The pop-culture perception of Crusaders as a bunch of brave and righteous and slightly bloodthirsty souls sailing off the map where “here be dragons”
5. The Crusaders mostly taxied through the Atlantic.  The real naval action was in the Mediterranean.
6.    “personalities”-- We need to recognize this bias and consciously shift away from personalities (kings, popes) much as military historians recognized their ‘battle’ bias and consciously shifted away it.
7.    "eurocentrism" -- We need to shift away from European languages and sources in order to understand accurately the Crusades.

These myths we must overcome if we are to develop a more accurate understanding of maritime and Crusades histories generally.

The Genealogical Origins of Early Crusading Nobility

by Dana Cushing

The Plantagenet Connection, v .8 n. 2 (Autumn 2000)

Please contact the author for the genealogical diagrams, which could not be uploaded to Academia.edu

In medieval times the family or gens was paramount. It was not only the basic unit of feudal society, but it was also... more In medieval times the family or gens was paramount. It was not only the basic unit of feudal society, but it was also the individual's chief means of obtaining land and exercising military power. While a significant amount of work is extant regarding the domains and campaigns of specific families, very little has been done to investigate the role of the family or heritage within a greater social context, such as a Crusade. Today I shall be speaking from the perspective of a military historian exploring the nascent European and Eastern Latin nobility in the era of the early Crusades. I hope to untangle some of the genealogical branches that one will encounter in studying the military leaders of the First through Third Crusades, for clearly the noble Crusaders do not magically appear in situ as the chronicles might lead one to expect. As well as I might, since some sources conflict, it is my intention to show how the ruling families of Europe descended and expanded from tenth-century Europe into the thirteenth-century Latin East. My intention is to provide, through genealogy, a path that will put the key players into the places and events described by the chroniclers.

L’espace violé. Etude sur la transformation des églises en écuries par les musulmans durant les croisades, 1095-1291 (Maîtrise d’histoire médiévale).

by Misgav Har-Peled

In seventeen western sources from the 12th and 13th centuries we find the accusation that the Muslims transformed... more In seventeen western sources from the 12th and 13th centuries we find the accusation that the Muslims transformed churches into stables. In several instances, the main reason given for the First Crusade was the transformation of Holy Sepulcher into a stable. More imaginary than real, the accusation raises the question about the role of animality and purity in thought concerning the Crusades. The negative transformation of a holy space into a space for animals is understood as a reversal of Christ's nativity, when a stable became a sacred space. Understood in its totality, the dialectics of the spatial transformation move from the animal to the sacred and vis versa. Thus, if the Nativity is the model solution to the problem of animality and purity, the other serves as the model of infraction. This dialectic is manifested and reinforced in three periods: the Mythical time of the birth of God, the feast of the Nativity, and that of that of the Crusade. The first is the order established in mythical times: the second is the ritual strengthening of that order, while the third period is the transgression of the order in the historical moment of the Crisis. To be act of purification, the Crusade requires a previous profanation. It is proposed that the dialectics of pollution and purification are also present in Muslim sources, to the extent that we can speak about a “dialogue of pollution and purification” between the two opponents.

(Johannes Preiser-Kapeller - Ekaterini Mitsiou) Hierarchies and fractals: Ecclesiastical revenues as indicator for the distribution of relative demographic potential within the cities and regions of the Late Byzantine Empire in the early 14th century

by Johannes Preiser-Kapeller

published in: Byzantina Symmeikta 20 (2010) p. 245-308.

Until now the source material has made it impossible to reconstruct the distribution of economic power and population... more Until now the source material has made it impossible to reconstruct the distribution of economic power and population within the Late Byzantine Empire on a larger scale. Our new analysis of a list of contributions from 33 bishoprics to the Patriarchate of Constantinople from 1324 connects these figures with the economic performance of the respective town and its hinterland; we also demonstrate that the distribution of contributions shows characteristics which are typical for settlement hierarchies and therefore can be used to create the first model for the distribution of demographic and
economic potential in the Byzantine Empire at this time.

(E. Mitsiou - J. Preiser-Kapeller) Übertritte zur byzantinisch-orthodoxen Kirche in den Urkunden des Patriarchatsregisters von Konstantinopel (Conversions to the Byzantine Church in the Documents of the Register of the Patriarchate of Constantinople)

by Johannes Preiser-Kapeller

published in: Sylloge Diplomatico-Palaeographica I, ed. Ch. Gastgeber - O. Kresten. Vienna 2010, p. 233–288.

Systematic analysis of all documents on the conversion of Latin Christians to Orthodoxy in the Register of the... more Systematic analysis of all documents on the conversion of Latin Christians to Orthodoxy in the Register of the Patriarchate of Constantinople (between 1315 and 1402 CE)

“Animalité, pureté et croisade. Etude sur la transformation des églises en étables par les Musulmans durant les croisades, XIIe-XIIIe siècles.”

by Misgav Har-Peled

“Animalité, pureté et croisade. Etude sur la transformation des églises en étables par les Musulmans durant les croisades, XIIe-XIIIe siècles.”  Cahiers de civilisation Médiévale 52 (2009): 113-136.

In seventeen western sources from the 12th and 13th centuries we find the accusation that the Muslims transformed... more In seventeen western sources from the 12th and 13th centuries we find the accusation that the Muslims transformed churches into stables. In several instances, the principle reason given for the First Crusade was the transformation of Holy Sepulcher into a stable. More imaginary than real, the accusation raises the question about the role of animality and purity in the thought concerning the Crusades. The negative transformation of a holy space into a space for animals is understood as a reversal of Christ's nativity, when a stable became a sacred space. Understood in its totality, the dialectics of the spatial transformation move from the animal to the sacred and vis versa Thus, if the Nativity is the model solution to the problem of animality and purity, the other serves as the model of infraction. This dialectic is manifested and reinforced in three periods: the Mythical time of the birth of God, the holiday of the Nativity, and that of that of the Crusade. The first is the order established in mythical times, while the second is the historical moment of the Crisis. As an act of purification, the Crusade requires a previous profanation. It is proposed that the dialectics of pollution and purification are also present in Muslim sources, to the extant that we can speak about a “dialogue of pollution and purification” between the two adversaries.

Dans dix-sept sources occidentales des XIIe et XIIIe s., les musulmans se voient accusés de transformer des églises en étables. Dans certains cas, la raison principale donnée à la première croisade est la transformation du Saint-Sépulcre en étable. Plus imaginaire que réelle, l’accusation suscite un questionnement sur la place de l’animalité et de la pureté dans la pensée de la croisade. La transformation négative de l’espace sacré en un espace animal est interprétée comme un renversement de la Nativité du Christ, épisode durant lequel une étable devient un lieu saint. Le schéma dialectique de transformation de l’espace, de l’animal au sacré et vice-versa, doit être appréhendé dans sa totalité : si la Nativité est un modèle de résolution du problème de l’animalité et de la pureté, la transformation de l’église en étable constitue un modèle d’infraction. Ce schéma se manifeste, et se renforce, dans trois temporalités différentes : le temps mythique de la naissance de Dieu, celui de la fête de la Nativité et celui de la croisade. L’un est l’ordre établi du temps du mythe ; le second est le renforcement rituel de cet ordre ; le troisième est la transgression de l’ordre dans la temporalité historique de la crise. La croisade, pour être un acte de purification, exige une situation de profanation. L’hypothèse est ici proposée que la dialectique de pollution et de purification se manifeste également dans les sources musulmanes, si bien qu’on peut parler d’un « dialogue de pollution et purification » entre les deux adversaires.