Functional Adaptations of the Transcriptome to Mastitis-Causing Pathogens: The Mammary Gland and Beyond
Co-authored with Juan J. Loor and Kasey M. Moyes
Application of microarrays to the study of intramammary infections in recent years has provided a wealth of... more Application of microarrays to the study of intramammary infections in recent years has provided a wealth of fundamental information on the transcriptomics adaptation of tissue/cells to the disease. Due to its heavy toll on productivity and health of the animal, in vivo and in vitro transcriptomics works involving different mastitis-causing pathogens have been conducted on the mammary gland, primarily on livestock species such as cow and sheep, with few studies in non-ruminants. However, the response to an infectious challenge originating in the mammary gland elicits systemic responses in the animal and encompasses tissues such as liver and immune cells in the circulation, with also potential effects on other tissues such as adipose. The susceptibility of the animal to develop mastitis likely is affected by factors beyond the mammary gland, e.g. negative energy balance as it occurs around parturition. Objectives of this review are to discuss the use of systems biology concepts for the holistic study of animal responses to intramammary infection; providing an update of recent work using transcriptomics to study mammary and peripheral tissue (i.e. liver) as well as neutrophils and macrophage responses to mastitis-causing pathogens; discuss the effect of negative energy balance on mastitis predisposition; and analyze the bovine and murine mammary innate-immune responses during lactation and involution using a novel functional analysis approach to uncover potential predisposing factors to mastitis throughout an animal's productive life.
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Download (.pdf) Mastitis and farmer mindset. Towards effective communication strategies to improve udder health management on Dutch Dairy farms
PhD thesis Jolanda Jansen
PhD on effective communication strategies to improve udder health on dairy farms in The Netherlands.
Thesis... more
PhD on effective communication strategies to improve udder health on dairy farms in The Netherlands.
Thesis entitled: 'Mastitis and farmer mindset. Towards effective communication strategies to improve udder health management on Dutch dairy farms.'
Developed campaigns and educational tools contributed to a change in dairy farmers’ knowledge, attitude and behavior and to an improvement of udder health. Results are published in leading scientific journals and are presented on many international conferences.
Copies available on request.
The PhD project was executed at the Communication Science Department, Wageningen University, the Netherlands (WUR). Financed by the Dutch Udder Health Centre (UGCN) in cooperation with the Dutch Dairy Board (NZO), Federation of Farmers’ Organizations (LTO) and the Dutch Animal Health Service Ltd. (GD Deventer).
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Evaluation of two communication strategies to improve udder health management.
Jansen, J., Renes, R.J., Lam, T.J.G.M., 2010. Evaluation of two communication strategies to improve udder health management. Journal of Dairy Science, 93: 604-612
Worldwide, programs to improve udder health are
implemented using communication tools and methods
that... more
Worldwide, programs to improve udder health are
implemented using communication tools and methods
that inform and persuade dairy farmers. This study
evaluated 2 communication strategies used in a mastitis
control program in the Netherlands. To improve farmers’
udder health management, tools such as instruction
cards, treatment plans, checklists and software were
developed following an argument-based comprehensive
“central route.” These tools were used during on-farm
study group meetings for farmers organized by veterinarians
and also during individual veterinarian–farmer
interactions. The second strategy aimed at adopting
a single management practice to increase the use of
milking gloves during milking. This approach followed
a straightforward “peripheral” route that used implicit
persuasion techniques. Results of an online survey of
374 Dutch dairy farmers showed that most farmers were
able and willing to use the educational management
tools to increase udder health on their farms. They
evaluated the tools positively regardless of the mastitis
problems on their farms. This seems to indicate that
the central route of communication is most effective
when farmers are motivated to work on udder health in
general. Results of repeated random telephone surveys
before, during, and after the campaign on the use of
milking gloves showed that the use of gloves increased
from 20.9 to 42.0% of the respondents. Respondents’
opinions about milking gloves also changed favorably,
indicating that a relatively short peripheral campaign
on a single action can have a sustained effect on farmers’
behavior. Both communication strategies seem to
be potentially successful in disseminating knowledge to
a specific target group of farmers and in changing that
group’s behavior. However, to reach as many farmers as
possible, the strategies should be combined. When optimizing
these strategies, both the farmers’ motivation
to work on udder health and the aim of the campaign
should be considered. When aiming to improve general
udder health management, the central route seems to
be effective if farmers are already motivated to optimize
their udder health management. For farmers who are
less motivated to work on udder health, the peripheral
route seems to be most effective when aiming to change
a single management practice. The evaluated communication
strategies are examples of how management
practices to control mastitis can be effectively communicated
to farmers. As such, this study contributes
to optimizing future programs to control and prevent
diseases.
Debunking the myth of the hard-to-reach farmer: effective communication on udder health
Jansen, J., Steuten, C.D.M., Renes, R.J., Aarts, N., Lam, T.J.G.M. 2010. Debunking the myth of the hard-to-reach farmer: effective communication on udder health. Journal of Dairy Science, 93: 1296-1306
Worldwide, programs to control mastitis are implemented using different strategies to reach farmers. Even though... more
Worldwide, programs to control mastitis are implemented using different strategies to reach farmers. Even though education materials and best practices may be technically optimal, they need to be used to be successful. Thus, effective communication with farmers is essential in order to change their behavior and to improve their farm management. During a Dutch national mastitis control program, a substantial number of farmers seemed to be hard to reach with information on udder health. Consequently, this study was designed to provide insight into the attitude and motivation of such farmers. In the period of October 2007 to July 2008, 24 in-depth, semistructured interviews were conducted with farmers whose veterinarians considered to be difficult to approach with advice on udder health management (8 practices, 3 farmers from each practice). The interviews included questions about the farms and the farmers, their attitude and behavior regarding mastitis, and their information sources and social environment. The results show that so-called hard-to-reach farmers were not always badly informed about udder health and did not always experience problems with mastitis. These ostensibly unreachable farmers were not a homogeneous group, but rather could be divided into 4 categories based on their trust in external information sources regarding mastitis and their orientation toward the outside world: proactivists, do-it-yourselfers, wait-and-see-ers, and reclusive traditionalists. There are ample opportunities to reach hard-to-reach farmers, provided that the communication strategies are tailored to their specific needs. There is especially much to gain in communication with do-it-yourselfers and wait-and-see-ers, but this demands a more proactive role on the part of veterinarians and extension specialists. Different types of farmers need to be approached in different ways and through different channels with information on udder health. Consequently, this study can contribute to the optimization of future programs designed to control and prevent diseases.
What veterinarians need to know about communication to optimise their role as advisors on udder health in dairy herds
The veterinary practitioner is one of the most important advisors for farmers in the field of udder health. He or she... more
The veterinary practitioner is one of the most important advisors for farmers in the field of udder health. He or she has the tools to improve udder health if farmers are motivated to do so. Many farmers think that udder health is important, but this does not always mean that management of mastitis is up to standard. Many veterinarians are of the opinion that they are unable to convince their clients of the possible profits to be gained from investing in management of mastitis. Something is required to bridge this gap. This article, based on data and experiences from The Netherlands, describes the communication issues that can be considered in order to improve the role of the veterinarian as advisor, to achieve better udder health. The outcome is beneficial for both farmers and veterinarians, the former for reasons of economics, welfare and ease of work; the latter because it creates extra, challenging work. It is concluded that the veterinary practitioner is in an ideal situation to advise and motivate farmers to improve udder health but, to do this, the means of communication need to take account of the different learning styles of farmers. The most important aspects of such communication are found to be a pro-active approach, personalisation of messages, providing a realistic frame of reference for the farmer, and use of the farmer's social environment. Importantly, all persons and organisations in a farmer's social environment should articulate the same message.
The effect of a national mastitis control program on the attitudes, knowledge, and behavior of farmers in the Netherlands
Over the years, much effort has been put into implementing
mastitis control programs in herds. To further
mastitis control programs in herds. To further
improve utilization of such programs, there needs to be
an understanding of the attitudes, knowledge, and behavior
of farmers regarding udder health, and the way
this can be influenced by mastitis control programs.
This study aimed to explore the effect of a national
mastitis control program on Dutch farmers’ attitudes,
knowledge, and behavior regarding mastitis. A total
of 378 dairy farmers completed a survey on attitudes,
knowledge, and behavior regarding mastitis before the
start of a national mastitis control program in 2004,
and 204 completed a similar survey in the final year
of the program (2009). Although the average annual
bulk milk somatic cell count (BMSCC) remained the
same, the farmers’ self-reported attitudes, knowledge,
and behavior changed significantly. The problem level
of BMSCC decreased from 285,000 cells/mL in 2004 to
271,000 cells/mL in 2009. More farmers perceived that
they had sufficient knowledge about the prevention of
mastitis (34% in 2004 vs. 53% in 2009) and they more
often perceived that they knew the cause of a mastitis
problem (25% in 2004 vs. 37% in 2009). The use of
gloves for milking increased from 15 to 46%, the use of
a standardized mastitis treatment protocol increased
from 7 to 34%, and freestalls were cleaned more often
(2.28 vs. 2.51 times/d) in 2009 compared with 2004.
Most changes in attitudes, knowledge, and behavior did
not differ between groups of dairy farmers whose herds
had an initially low (≤162,000 cells/mL), medium
(163,000 to 205,000 cells/mL), or high (>206,000 cells/
mL) BMSCC. The high BMSCC group significantly
decreased their annual BMSCC level by 15,000 cells/
mL. Regression analysis showed that the decrease in
BMSCC was associated with a change in farmers’ perceptions
(e.g., increased perceived knowledge about the
effect of the milking machine on mastitis) and with a
change in certain management practices (e.g., disinfecting
all teats after milking). The results showed that a
national mastitis control program affected the attitudes,
knowledge, and behavior of farmers regarding mastitis
and could contribute to udder health improvement in
the long term.
Explaining mastitis incidence: The influence of farmers’ attitudes and behaviour
Jansen, J., Van den Borne, B.H.P., Renes, R.J., Van Schaik, G., Lam, T.J.G.M., Leeuwis, C., 2009. Explaining mastitis incidence: The influence of farmers’ attitudes and behaviour. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 92: 210-223.
When mastitis incidence increases, either infection pressure has increased or cows’ resistance has decreased. This... more
When mastitis incidence increases, either infection pressure has increased or cows’ resistance has decreased. This usually indicates that farm management is not optimal. Numerous quantitative studies have demonstrated the effect of management practices on mastitis. In most of these studies, the identified risk factors could explain only part of the variance in mastitis incidence on farms. Several studies suggest that the unexplained variance is caused by farmers’ attitudes towards different aspects of mastitis treatment and preventive behaviour. This study aims to determine, to quantify and to specify the extent to which farmers’ attitudes, over and above farmers’ behaviour, are factors that explain the variation in mastitis incidence, measured in terms of the quantifiable effect of management factors.
An extensive survey on self-reported attitudes, behaviour and mastitis incidence was conducted on 336 Dutch dairy farms. Results of multiple linear regression analyses show that farmers’ self-reported behaviour and attitudes together explain 48%, 31% and 23% of the variation within, respectively, the average farm bulk milk somatic cell count (BMSCC), the clinical mastitis incidence and the combined clinical and subclinical mastitis incidence. Both behaviour and attitudes explain part of the variance. However, most of the variance in all three dependant measures is explained solely by the attitude variables.
The variation in BMSCC value is best explained by (1) farmers’ normative frame of reference about mastitis, (2) farmers’ perceptions about the control of mastitis and (3) the perceived effect of a BMSCC penalty level. The variation in clinical mastitis is best explained by farmers’ perceptions about mastitis control. The variation in the combined clinical and subclinical mastitis incidence rate is best explained by the perceived effect of a BMSCC penalty level and the frequency of contact with others.
The results of this study show that farmers’ attitudes are a better measure than farmers’ self-reported behaviour to explain and predict differences in mastitis incidence between farms. Consequently, future research and animal health promotion programs should take into account not only farmers’ behaviour, but also farmers’ attitudes. This study provides a first empirical investigation into the social processes applicable to mastitis incidence and is therefore considered a good starting point for future research to further investigate the causal effect of attitude change on farmers’ behaviour and animal health.