Archaeology of Iceland

Geldingurinn á Öndverðarnesi

by Hildur Gestsdóttir

Published in Árbók Hins Íslenzka fornleifafélags 1998: 143-150, 2000.

On July 5th 1962 construction workers unearthed a human skeleton in Skarðsvík north of Öndverðanesskagi in... more On July 5th 1962 construction workers unearthed a human skeleton in Skarðsvík north of Öndverðanesskagi in Breiðavíkurhreppur. Two days later Þorkell Grímson, then archaeologist at the National Museum of Iceland went to investigate the find, which turned out to be a single human burial with elaborate grave goods (including a sword, a spearhead, a shield-boss, a knife and a bone-needle), dated by the typology of the sword and the spearhead to the 10th century. The human remains, which were exceptionally well preserved, were initially studied by professor Jón Steffensen, who concluded that they belonged to a 14 year old boy.

Subsequent studies of the human remains from Öndverðanes have provided a different picture. When the individual is aged using epiphyseal fusion and union of primary ossification centres, the resulting age at death is between 10-12 years old. However, most of the secondary dentition has erupted, with the exception of the third molars of the maxilla, which are partially erupted, ageing the individual at between 19-21 years. In addition the measured living stature is 176,92,7cm, which is almost 10cm taller than the estimated average height (168,8cm) for adult males in that period, as calculated by Jón Steffensen.

The height of the individual suggests that the age given by the dentition is more accurate then that suggested by epiphyseal fusion, suggesting that the discrepancy is caused by some sort of disturbance in the maturation of the skeleton. It is the opinion of the author that this is caused by hypogonadism, reduced, or even the lack of, testosterone, which stimulates the growth of cartilage and maturation of the skeleton. Hypogonadism can be caused by various genetic causes, for example Kleinfelters syndrome, or males born with an extra X-chromosome and anorchia, males born without testicular tissue. It can also be caused by castration at a young age. If the hypogonadism is not treated it results in eunochoidism; above average height, as skeletal growth continues longer than normal as the epiphyses and primary centres of ossification fuse later than normal, but usually very delicate bones. Puberty is not achieved, which means that facial and pubic hair does not grow, the genitalia does not mature and some may develop female breasts (gynaecomastia). In the cases of genetic hypogonadism, in particular Kleinfelters syndrome, sociopathic behaviour, mental deficiency, homosexuality and transvestitism is not uncommon.

A palaeopathological diagnosis of this kind raises many questions, for example, how was an individuals grave goods determined, was it based on his or hers life achievements or heredity, and were men deliberately castrated in Viking age Iceland? The author does not attempt to answer these questions, but merely use the case study as an example as to the possibilities offered by palaeopathological research in archaeological studies.

Mannabein í þúsund ár. Vitnisburður um lífskjör og lifnaðarhætti

by Hildur Gestsdóttir

Published in Árni Björnsson & Hrefna Róbertsdóttir (eds.) Hlutavelta tímans. Menningararfur á Þjóðminjasafni. (Reykjavík: Þjóðminjasafn Íslands) pp. 78-85, 2004.

Mergæxli í fornri beinagrind Frá Hofstöðum í Mývatnssveit

by Hildur Gestsdóttir

Co-autherd with Guðmundur I. Eyjólfsson. Published in Læknablaðið 9: 505-509, 2005.

Archaeological investigations have been ongoing in the cemetery at Hofstaðir in Mývatnssveit since the summer of 1999.... more Archaeological investigations have been ongoing in the cemetery at Hofstaðir in Mývatnssveit since the summer of 1999. To date, the remains of two chapels as well as 78 skeletons have been excavated, dated to between the 11th and 15th century. A skeleton was excavated in the summer of 2003 which showed
pathological changes indicative of a malignant disease. Palaeopathological cases of malignancies are very rare, and it is therefore important to report on each case.Skeleton HST-027 was a female, aged 45-50 years at the time of death. Standard osteological methods were used to determine the sex, age and stature. Macroscopic analysis was carried out on the skeleton and all pathological changes on each bone described. The cranium, ribs, left os coxa and all left long bones were then radiographed to aid in the diagnosis.The analysis showed lytic lesions in all the flat bones, as well as the vertebrae, ribs and the proximal end of the left femur, all changes indicative of
multiple myeloma. Palaeopathologically myeloma and metastatic cancer (then usually due to breast cancer in the case of women) are often difficult to distinguish. However there is no new bone formation surrounding the lesions, which means that metastatic cancer is unlikely to be the cause.Skeleton HST-027 from Hofstaðir is the first published case of malignant disease in celand, and one of the clearer cases of myeloma in an
archaeological specimen, but to date, approximately twenty cases have been reported world-wide.

Excavations at Hólskirkja, Bolungarvík

by Hildur Gestsdóttir

Co-authored with Garðar Guðmundsson, Gavin Lucas & Sigríður Þorgeirsdóttir. Published in Archaeologica Islandica 4: 81-102, 2005

Fifteen burials and a minimum number of 22 individuals, dating from the late 18th to early 20th centuries, were... more Fifteen burials and a minimum number of 22 individuals, dating from the late 18th to early 20th centuries, were excavated during renovation work at the church in Bolungarvík in the summer of 2003. This article presents the results of the analysis on the skeletal remains and grave furniture, with a broader discussion of burial rites in Iceland in the later post-medieval period.

The First Settlers of Iceland: An Isotopic Approach to Colonisation

by Hildur Gestsdóttir

Co-authored with T.D. Price. Published in Antiquity 80: 130-144, 2006

The colonisation of the North Atlantic from the eighth century AD was the earliest expansion of European populations... more The colonisation of the North Atlantic from the eighth century AD was the earliest expansion of European populations to the west. Norse and Celtic voyagers are recorded as reaching and settling
in Iceland, Greenland and easternmost North America between c. AD 750 and 1000, but the date of these events and the homeland of the colonists are subjects of some debate. In this project, the birthplaces of 90 early burials from Iceland were sought using strontium isotope analysis. At least nine, and probably thirteen, of these individuals can be distinguished as migrants to Iceland from other places. In addition, there are clear differences to be seen in the diets of the local Icelandic peoples, ranging from largely terrestrial to largely marine consumption.

Reservoirs and radiocarbon: 14C dating problems in Mývatnssveit, Northern Iceland

by Hildur Gestsdóttir

Co-authored with Ascough, PL, Cook, GT, Church MJ, Dugmore AJ, McGovern TH, Dunbar E, Einarsson Á & Friðriksson A. Published in  Radiocarbon 49: 947-961, 2007.

This paper examines 2 potential sources of the radiocarbon offset between human and terrestrial mammal (horse) bones... more This paper examines 2 potential sources of the radiocarbon offset between human and terrestrial mammal (horse) bones recovered from Norse (~AD 870–1000) pagan graves in Mývatnssveit, north Iceland. These are the marine and freshwater 14C reservoir effects that may be incorporated into human bones from dietary sources. The size of the marine 14C reservoir effect (MRE) during the Norse period was investigated by measurement of multiple paired samples (terrestrial mammal and marine mollusk shell) at 2 archaeological sites in Mývatnssveit and 1 site on the north Icelandic coast. These produced 3 new ∆R values for the north coast of Iceland, indicating a ∆R of 106 ± 10 14C yr at AD 868–985, and of 144 ± 28 14Cyr at AD 1280–1400. These values are statistically comparable and give an overall weighted mean ∆R of 111 ± 10 14C yr.  The freshwater reservoir effect was similarly quantified using freshwater fish bones from a site in Mývatnssveit. These show an offset of between 1285 and 1830 14C yr, where the fish are depleted in 14C relative to the terrestrial mammals. This is attributed to the input of geothermally derived CO2 into the groundwater and subsequently into Lake Mývatn. We conclude the following: i) some of the Norse inhabitants of Mývatnssveit incorporated non-terrestrial resources into their diet that may be
identified from the stable isotope composition of their bone collagen; ii) the MRE off the north Icelandic coast during the
Norse period fits a spatial gradient of wider North Atlantic MRE values with increasing values to the northwest; and iii) it is
important to consider the effect that geothermal activity could have on the 14C activity of samples influenced by groundwater
at Icelandic archaeological sites.

Temporal and spatial variations in freshwater 14C reservoir effects: Lake Mývatn, Northern Iceland

by Hildur Gestsdóttir

Co-authored with Ascough, PL, Cook GT, Church MJ, Dunbar E, Einarsson, Á, McGovern, TH, Dugmore, AJ, Perdikaris, S, Hastie & H, Friðriksson, A Published in’ Radiocarbon 58: 1098-1112, 2010.

Lake Mývatn is an interior highland lake in northern Iceland that forms a unique ecosystem of international scientific... more Lake Mývatn is an interior highland lake in northern Iceland that forms a unique ecosystem of international scientific importance and is surrounded by a landscape rich in archaeological and paleoenvironmental sites. A significant freshwater reservoir effect (FRE) has been identified in carbon from the lake at some Viking (about AD 870–1000) archaeological sites in the wider region (Mývatnssveit). Previous accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) measurements indicated this FRE was about 1500–1900 14C yr. Here, we present the results of a study using stable isotope and 14C measurements to quantify the Mývatn FRE for both the Viking and modern periods. This work has identified a temporally variable FRE that is greatly in excess of previous assessments. New, paired samples of contemporaneous bone from terrestrial herbivores and omnivores (including humans) from Viking sites demonstrate at least some omnivore diets incorporated sufficient freshwater resources to result in a herbivore-omnivore age offset of up to 400 14C yr. Modern samples of benthic detritus, aquatic plants, zooplankton, invertebrates, and freshwater fish indicate an FRE in excess of 5000 14C yr in some species. Likely geothermal mechanisms for this large FRE are discussed, along with implications for both chronological reconstruction and integrated investigation of stable and radioactive isotopes.

Radiocarbon reservoir effects in human bone collagen from northern Iceland

by Hildur Gestsdóttir

co-authored with Philippa L. Ascough, Mike J. Church, Gordon T. Cook, Elaine Dunbar, Thomas H. McGovern, Andrew J. Dugmore, Adolf Friðriksson & Kevin J. Edwards.
Published in Journal of Archaeological Science, 2012

Human bone collagen from a series of Icelandic human pagan graves was radiocarbon (14C) dated to aid understanding of... more Human bone collagen from a series of Icelandic human pagan graves was radiocarbon (14C) dated to aid understanding of early settlement (landnám) chronologies in northern Iceland. These individuals potentially consumed marine protein. The 14C age of samples containing marine carbon requires a correction for the marine 14C reservoir effect. The proportion of non-terrestrial sample carbon was quantified via measurement of carbon stable isotopes (δ13C) using a simple mixing model, based on δ13C measurements of archaeofaunal samples. Non-terrestrial carbon was also quantified in six pig bones from the archaeofaunal dataset. Assuming all non-terrestrial carbon in human and pig bone collagen was marine-derived, calibrated age ranges calculated using a mixed IntCal09/Marine09 calibration curve were consistent with an early settlement date close to landnám, but several samples returned pre-landnám age ranges. Measurements of nitrogen stable isotopes (δ15N) strongly suggest that many of the human bone collagen samples contain freshwater diet-derived carbon. Icelandic freshwater systems frequently display large freshwater 14C reservoir effects, of the order of 10,000 14C years, and we suggest that the presence of freshwater carbon is responsible for the anomalously early ages within our dataset. In pig samples, the majority of non-terrestrial carbon is freshwater in origin, but in human samples the proportion of freshwater carbon is within the error of the marine component (±10%). This presents a major obstacle to assessing temporal patterns in the ages of human remains from sampled graves, although the majority of grave ages are within the same, broad, calibrated range.

Radiocarbon reservoir effects in human bone collagen from northern Iceland

by Philippa Ascough

Published in Journal of Archaeological Science, 2012

Human bone collagen from a series of Icelandic human pagan graves was radiocarbon (14C) dated to aid understanding of... more Human bone collagen from a series of Icelandic human pagan graves was radiocarbon (14C) dated to aid understanding of early settlement (landnám) chronologies in northern Iceland. These individuals potentially consumed marine protein. The 14C age of samples containing marine carbon requires a correction for the marine 14C reservoir effect. The proportion of non-terrestrial sample carbon was quantified via measurement of carbon stable isotopes (δ13C) using a simple mixing model, based on δ13C measurements of archaeofaunal samples. Non-terrestrial carbon was also quantified in six pig bones from the archaeofaunal dataset. Assuming all non-terrestrial carbon in human and pig bone collagen was marine-derived, calibrated age ranges calculated using a mixed IntCal09/Marine09 calibration curve were consistent with an early settlement date close to landnám, but several samples returned pre-landnám age ranges. Measurements of nitrogen stable isotopes (δ15N) strongly suggest that many of the human bone collagen samples contain freshwater diet-derived carbon. Icelandic freshwater systems frequently display large freshwater 14C reservoir effects, of the order of 10,000 14C years, and we suggest that the presence of freshwater carbon is responsible for the anomalously early ages within our dataset. In pig samples, the majority of non-terrestrial carbon is freshwater in origin, but in human samples the proportion of freshwater carbon is within the error of the marine component (± 10%). This presents a major obstacle to assessing temporal patterns in the ages of human remains from sampled graves, although the majority of grave ages are within the same, broad, calibrated range.

Anpassung und Krisenbewusstsein als Überlebensstrategien: das Beispiel Island im Mittelalter und in der Neuzeit

by Natascha Mehler

published in: Falko Daim / Detlef Gronenborn / Rainer Schreg (eds.), Strategien zum Überleben. Umweltkrisen und ihre Bewältigung. RGZM Tagungen 11 (Mainz 2012) pp. 255-265.

Assimilation and sense of crisis as survival strategies: the example of Iceland in the Middle Ages and post-medieval... more Assimilation and sense of crisis as survival strategies: the example of Iceland in the Middle Ages and post-medieval period.

The Viking Age colonists of the late 9th century found only little arable land on the volcanic and glacial island of Iceland.
Over time, factors such as the clearing of the original birch forests, extensive grazing of sheep, erosion, climate deterioration and natural disasters led to a continuing decline of living conditions. Historical, archaeological, climatological
and environmental research over the last decades has shown, however, that Icelanders found ways of handling these
difficult conditions. From the High Middle Ages onwards, settlements and ports were transferred, diet was customized,
special craft techniques developed, and a series of regulations was set up such as the handling of fuel. This created a
sustainable economy, which ultimately allowed for a permanent settlement of Iceland.

Kirkjur og kirkjugarðar

by Hildur Gestsdóttir

Co-authored with Orri Vésteinsson.
Published in Birna Lárusdóttir (ed.) 'Mannvist. Sýnisbók íslenskra fornleifa.' (Reykjavík: Bókaútgáfan Opna), pp 72-99.

Íslenskar fornleifar eru yfirleitt ekki rismiklar eða áberandi. Þær eru þvert á móti lágstemmdar í einfaldleika sínum,... more Íslenskar fornleifar eru yfirleitt ekki rismiklar eða áberandi. Þær eru þvert á móti lágstemmdar í einfaldleika sínum, falla oft vel inn í landslagið og eru hluti af því. Sumar mannvirkjaleifar eru þó mjög greinilegar og sjást langt að, veggir úr torfi og grjóti enn stæðilegir og undir þeim grænir og gróskumiklir hólar, þrungnir áburði eftir aldalöng umsvif fólks og skepnubeit. Aðrar fornleifar getur verið vandasamt að koma auga á og þarf stundum að hafa sig allan við, hvessa augun og halla undir flatt, klifra upp á hól til að fá nýtt sjónarhorn eða jafnvel bíða eftir að kvöldsólin baði landið með geislum sínum og töfri fram skugga og drætti úr fortíðinni.

‘Iceland’s medieval coastal market places: Dögurðarnes in its economic, social and political context’ in Jan Brendalsmo, Terje Gansum and Finn-Einar Eliassen (eds), Strandsteder, utvikinglingssteder og Småbyer i vikingtid, middelalder og tidlig nytid (ca. 800-ca.1800) (Oslo, 2010), pp. 213-29.

by Chris Callow

‘Putting women in their place? Gender and landscape in Landnámabók’, Viking and Medieval Scandinavia 7 (2011)

by Chris Callow

‘First steps towards an archaeology of children in Iceland’, Archaeologia Islandica 5 (2006), 55-74.

by Chris Callow

Sögur af beinagrindum.

by Hildur Gestsdóttir

Published in Árbók Hins Íslenzka fornleifafélags 2008-2009: 123-142, 2009.

This paper presents the results of the analysis of chronic infections and infectious diseases in a total of 142... more This paper presents the results of the analysis of chronic infections and infectious diseases in a total of 142 skeletons from four separate skeletal populations from Christian cemeteries in Iceland. These are the 11th-12th century cemetery at Skeljastaðir in Þjórsárdalur (54); the 11th-14th century cemetery at Hofstaðir in Mývatnssveit (51) and a combined group from the cemeteries in Viðey in Kollafjörður and the old cemetery in Reykjavík (37), all skeletons dating to the 18th-19th century. The results showed that six of the 54 individuals from Skeljastaðir had infections; one case of non-specific osteomyelitis, one case of non-specific lung infection, three cases of tuberculosis and one case of poliomyelitis. Three of the 51 individuals were affected in the Hofstaðir collection, in all cases non-specific lung infections. Nine of the 37 individuals from the Reykjavík collections had infections, five had non-specific lung infections, three had diagnosable tuberculosis and one had syphilis. Although non-specific infections are discussed, the focus is on specific infections, i.e. infectious diseases which are spread by one person infecting another, and how to interpret them in skeletal populations in light of The osteological paradox, as published by Wood et al (1992). The osteological paradox deals with the paradoxical issues involved in using an archaeological skeletal collection, a group of dead individuals, to draw up a picture of the living society to which these individuals belonged. In the discussion it is demonstrated that by keeping in mind the points highlighted in the osteological paradox, that although analysis of infectious diseases within a population might provide information about the health of individuals, it will not necessarily shed light on general health within the population as a whole. On the other hand it can provide information about other features of the society which the cemeteries served, in the collections used here it was for example demonstrated that infectious disease within a group may be reflecting the size and density of the society, and may even be evidence of a temporary change in health, an epidemic. As such, the high prevalence of infectious diseases in the 18th-19th century Reykajvík populations reflects the beginning of urbanisation in Reykjavík during that period, when the number and density of people living in the area becomes large enough for urban diseases like tuberculosis and syphilis to become endemic. Because of the low population density in Þjórsárdalur during the 11th-12th century, when the Skeljastaðir cemetery was in use, the high prevalence rates of tuberculosis in the population is unlikely to reflect the prevalence of the disease for the entire period during which the cemetery was in use. What it most likely represents is a temporary situation, a tuberculosis epidemic in the valley.

Chapter 18. Iceland

by Hildur Gestsdóttir

Co-authored with Guðný Zoëga. Published in The Routledge Handbook of Archaeological Human Remains and Legislation. An international guide to laws and practice in the excavation and treatment of archaeological human remains
Edited by Nicholas Marquez Grant, Linda Fibiger. pp 203-8. Due 9th March 2011

Methodologies and legislative frameworks regarding the archaeological excavation, retrieval, analysis, curation and... more Methodologies and legislative frameworks regarding the archaeological excavation, retrieval, analysis, curation and potential reburial of human skeletal remains differ throughout the world. As work forces have become increasingly mobile and international research collaborations are steadily increasing, the need for a more comprehensive understanding of different national research traditions, methodologies and legislative structures within the academic and commercial sector of physical anthropology has arisen. The Routledge Handbook of Archaeological Human Remains and Legislation provides comprehensive information on the excavation of archaeological human remains and the law through 62 individual country contributions from Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, South America and Australasia.

More specifically, the volume discusses the following:

-What is the current situation (including a brief history) of physical anthropology in the country?
-What happens on discovering human remains (who is notified, etc.)?
-What is the current legislation regarding the excavation of archaeological human skeletal remains? Is a license needed to excavate human remains? Is there any specific legislation regarding excavation in churchyards? Any specific legislation regarding war graves?
-Are physical anthropologists involved in the excavation process?
-Where is the cut-off point between forensic and archaeological human remains (e.g. 100 years, 50 years, 25 years…)?
-Can human remains be transported abroad for research purposes?
-What methods of anthropological analysis are mostly used in the country? Are there any methods created in that country which are population-specific?
-Are their particular ethical issues that need to be considered when excavating human remains, such as religious groups or tribal groups?
-In addition, an overview of landmark anthropological studies and important collections are provided where appropriate.

The entries are contained by an introductory chapter by the editors which establish the objectives and structure of the book, setting it within a wider archaeological framework, and a conclusion which explores the current European and world-wide trends and perspectives in the study of archaeological human remains. The Routledge Handbook of Archaeological Human Remains and Legislation makes a timely, much-needed contribution to the field of physical anthropology and is unique as it combines information on the excavation of human remains and the legislation that guides it, alongside information on the current state of physical anthropology across several continents. It is an indispensible tool for archaeologists involved in the excavation of human remains around the world

Archaeologica Islandica 2011_The Icelandic Whetstone Material - An Overview of Recent Research

by Sigrid Cecilie Juel Hansen

Trbojevic, N., Mooney, D.E., & Bell, A.J. 2012. 'A Firewood Experiment at Eiríksstaðir: A Step Towards Quantifying the Use of Firewood for Daily Household Needs in Viking Age Iceland'. Archaeologia Islandica 9:29-40.

by Dawn Elise Mooney

Mooney, D.E. 2011. 'Botanical Remains from a Sample Column through the Farm Mound'. In Milek, K. (Ed). 'Vatnsfjörður 2011: Framvinduskýrslur/Interim Report'. Reykjavík: Fornleifastofnun Íslandsþ

by Dawn Elise Mooney

Speaking Viking: The Role of History, Language Purity and Tourism in the creation of Icelandic National Identity

by Jen Hughes

draft only