Metallography of Ancient Metals

Özet
Manyas Gölü'nün (Bandırma, Balıkesir) güneydoğu kıyısında bulunan Daskyleion'un, yerleşim alanına ek olarak doğu ve güneyinde iki de nekropol alanı bulunmaktadır. Bu nekropol alanları, Daskyleion'un farklı dönemlerine ait çeşitli tip ve büyüklüklerde mezarları barındırmaktadır. Bu mezarlar arasında, Kaya Mezarı II olarak tanımlanan mezar, anakayaya oyulmuş uzun bir dromos ve mezar odasından oluşmaktadır. Mezarda 2014 yılında yapılan kazı çalışmalarında, anakayaya işlenmiş iki kline ile çeşitli tür ve biçimlerde ölü hediyeleri açığa çıkartılmıştır. Çalışmaya konu olan buluntu, bu klinelerden biri üzerine defnedilmiş olan bireye mezar hedi-yesi olarak bırakılmış çelikten yapılmış bir hançerdir. Kınıyla birlikte ve in situ olarak günü-müze kadar korunagelmiş olması, bu hançere Anadolu ve bölge arkeolojisi açısından ender bir buluntu niteliği kazandırmaktadır. Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli Üniversitesi, Tarihi Malzeme Koruma ve Araştırma Laboratuvarı (MAKLAB) bünyesinde arkeometrik yönden incelenen hançer üzerinde XRF, X-ışını radyografi, metalografi, SEM-EDX ve LIPS analizleri yapılmış-tır. Analizlerden elde edilen veriler ışığında, hançerin kimyasal kompozisyonu, üretim süreci ve olası hammadde kaynağı hakkında bilgilere ulaşılmıştır.

Abstract
Dascyleum is located on the southeast coast of Lake Manyas (Bandırma, Balıkesir/TURKEY). In addition to the settlement, Dascyleum has two necropolis areas in the east and south. These necropolis areas contain various types and sizes tombs, from different periods of Dascyleum. Among these tombs, the tomb which is defined as the Rock-cut Tomb II, consists of a long dro-mos and a burial chamber cut into the bedrock. During the excavations at the tomb in 2014, two klines carved into the bedrock with grave goods various types and forms has been revealed. The subject of the study is a dagger made of steel left as a grave good for the individual buried on one of these klines. Owing to the still in its sheath and well preserved in situ, this dagger serves as a rarely encountered archaeological find in terms of Anatolian and regional archeology. On the dagger that archaeometrically examined at the Ankara Hacı Bayram Veli University, Historical Material Conservation and Research Laboratory (MAKLAB), XRF, X-ray radiography, metallography, SEM-EDX and LIPS analyzes were performed. As a result of the data obtained from the analysis, informations about the chemical composition of the dagger, its production process and possible raw material source has been reached.

Данные аналитического исследования (рентгенофлуоресцентный, металлографический анализы, электронная сканирующая микроскопия) изделий из могильников раннеалакульской (петровской) культуры Центрального Казахстана выявили особенности технологии — доминирование окисленной меди наряду с использованием оловянной бронзы для литья орудий и оружия. Становление в Центральном Казахстане самостоятельного металлургического центра, по-видимому, происходило параллельно и синхронно с возникновением центров на Урале — в Мугоджарах и Южном Зауралье на рубеже эпох средней — поздней бронзы. Концентрация раннеалакульских (петровских) памятников непосредственно вблизи рудных месторождений указывает на целенаправленный поиск месторождений меди и олова. Новая модель организации металлообработки с использованием как окисленной меди, так и легированной оловянной бронзы с навыками развитого литейного производства, высокотемпературных режимов обработки давлением фактически закрепляется в регионе до финала позднего бронзового века.

Nous étudions dans cet ouvrage les archers dans l'armée romaine. Nous établissons leur visage de la fin de la République romaine jusqu'à Trajan à travers les sources littéraires, épigraphiques et archéologiques. Nous examinons par la suite l'efficacité de leurs armes et tentons de montrer qu'elles peuvent refléter un véritable travail technique grâce à une étude métallographique, complétée par des analyses physico-chimiques, du mobilier de pointes de flèche découvert au Puy d'Issolud (Lot), l'antique Uxellodunum: l'objectif principal étant la caractérisation, pour ces armes, des structures métallurgiques, des distributions, des morphologies et compositions des phases et des constituants présents. Il est dès lors possible d'imaginer les différents protocoles d'élaboration et les traitements thermo-mécaniques développés par les forgerons pour leur mise en forme et d'apporter de nouveaux éléments à l'histoire des techniques de la forge en relation avec l'armée romaine et plus particulièrement avec les corps et l'armement des archers.

Archaeology can contribute greatly to our understanding of past metalworking. The main goal of this thesis is to provide new information on Estonian metalworking between the 7th–17th centuries, based on archaeological sources. During this period there were political changes and technological developments that impacted Estonian society. The most important event was the 13th century crusade, after which Estonia was brought into Christian Europe. Western craftsmen started to settle into Estonia with the founding of new towns, bringing new techniques and tools as they came. My main contribution is the study of metalworking sites and the analysis of their production waste. Smithies, forges, iron blooms and bars are all investigated to gain a better understanding of ferrous metalworking. Local iron production and the scattered locations of smithies retained the pre-crusade workshop layout up until the 14th century. The 14th–17th century smithy site of Käku was studied in detail and the excavations between 2007–2014 revealed the remains of four consecutive smithies and thousands of finds. The smithy of Käku more resembles the 14th century urban smithies at Haapsalu, than the 13th–14th century rural smithy of Paatsa, which indicates a convergence of rural and urban smithing traditions by the 14th–15th centuries. Metallographic analysis of iron blooms and bars from the smithy site of Käku provides insight into how the smiths processed bloomery iron and how steel tools were reused. The non-ferrous metalwork is studied via crucibles and casting moulds. The residue they contained was analysed with a portable spectrometer (pXRF) and a scanning electron microscope (SEM-EDS). The results show that in the 7th to early 13th centuries the casting of silver and tin took place at hill forts and strongholds. Silver residues were detected in 27% of the crucibles, which suggests that silver casting was common. After the crusade, the towns became the main centres for the casting and crafting that previously was undertaken in the fortified centres. Foreign craftsmen introduced imported crucibles that were more durable at high temperatures than crucibles made from local clay. A few of the studied crucibles had residues of pure gold, which indicates a higher level of specialist goldsmithing, compared to the work of pre-crusade craftsmen.

The use of metallography allowed to reveal a great technological variability of iron and steel artifacts from the Old Russian rural settlements of Yakovlevskoe 3 and Nalutskoe 1 near Uglich. The new data differs from that obtained for the collection of the Grekhov Ruchei settlement in the 1950’s. Iron objects from Yakovlevskoe 3 and Nalutskoe 1 were produced both with and without forge welding. Most items are made of steel with varying carbon content and ball iron. Heat treatment (thermohardening, etc.) was used relatively seldom; it is combined with built-up welding. More than 20% of forged products found at Yakovlevskoe 3 and Nalutskoe 1 are made of scrap metals. A number of objects show deviations from the optimal technology (thermal overload, bad choice of raw materials). The available evidence gives grounds to think that a part of forged items found at rural settlements of the Uglich area were produced in unspecialized workshops with low operating culture.

The paper offers results of an analysis of spurs with terminals arms bent inside made from copper alloys (so-called Technotype I). These artefacts are divided into a few variants based on the differences in the height of the arch. In former archaeological literature, spurs with the lowest arch were considered as the earliest ones. The analysis of the topography and chronology of finds, combined with results of examinations of the chemical composition of alloys suggests that spurs of Variants A and B-C are not evolutionary links, but two different groups of specimens, with the same chronology but separate territory of use and different chemical composition.