Limestone

In the southern part of the Entzia Mountain Range (Álava), almost on the border with Urbasa (Navarra), there is a sector with several cavities that did not have biological data and that we found interesting to explore. The largest of these is the Cueva de las Armas, which has several rooms and galleries with 158 m of development. In this cavity we carry out several samplings with the use of attractive baits. The cavity is developed in a unit of massive limestones of Thanetian age (Paleocene, Tertiary marine), that dive gently towards the NE. The groundwater feeds and is part of the aquifer of the central syncline of the Urbasa Mountain Range. Bats, micromammals and at least 21 cave invertebrate taxa live in the cavity (especially beetles), including two troglobites species of ancient origin. The work describes the main features of the cave and its cave ecosystem.

The optimisation of the calcination process in industrial lime kilns is of particular importance because it affects the final quality of the lime, coal consumption, and pollutant emissions. This work investigated the effects of different operating variables of a full-scale rotary kiln on the minimisation of unburned castine and reactivity of produced lime. The L8(27) Plackett-Burman's experimental plan was used for screening the significant variables on the calcination yield and the quality of the lime. Sequentially, Box-Behnken design approach, L15(33), under Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was used to determine the best combination of the variables optimising the calcination of castine. Quadratic models were developed to characterise the influence of selected significant variables, temperature of the smoke chamber (x1  = 400, 500, and 550°C), kiln rotational speed (x2  = 120, 90, and 70 s/revolution) and coal flow rate (x4 = 0.5, 0.7, and 1.0 t/h), on the responses obtained. Under optimised conditions, the lime produced yielded 0.93% of unburned castine and a reactivity of 93.96°C, corresponding to the configuration: x1 = 120, x2 = 0.5, and x3 = 550°C. Analysis of variance was conducted to assess the strength of evidence of the developed models. Good correlation coefficients were obtained for unburned castine (R2 = 0.92, p < 0.031) and reactivity (R2 = 0.96, p < 0.006), indicating that the models developed could be used to estimate castine calcination response.

ABSTRACT

Million tons of plastic-sachets are produced annually. Those plastics-sachets are improperly disposed causing blockage on sewerage or drainage system, this cause flooding that usually experienced in low lying areas in Philippines. Some plastic can be found in some bodies of water.
Moreover, oyster shell was dumped also in dump hill, landfill, and even oceans. (Oyster shell has a big role in aquatic reefs, it is the habitat of small fishes and huge mammals). As oyster dumped is decomposed CO2 that can cause air pollution.
Plastic-sachets and oyster shells can be used as aggregate in creating blocks. The researchers of this study created their self-formulation of materials in creating blocks. Their blocks containing sheared plastic-sachets and crushed oyster shells.
The researcher’s conducted some manual test on their own, like drop test. This test includes the dropping of two specific blocks, involving sheared plastic containing block and sheared plastic with crushed oyster shells containing block. Both  blocks dropped in specific heights, results shows that half of block mixed with crushed oyster shells and sheared plastic broken, but the block containing sheared pure plastic totally shattered.
Overall, the result shows that the created blocks have higher strength (mpa/kn) than a typical commercial blocks.

One of sustainable concrete engineering criteria deals with founded new alternative materials can be used in concrete mixes or structures. The objective of this study is to develop normal strength concrete using local crushed Al-Ma'mora stones and to evaluate the effect of a new coarse aggregate on mechanical and physical properties of produced concrete, also compared with normal (conventional coarse aggregate) concrete mix. In general, a new concrete mix shows higher than strength of normal concrete due to low porosity, particularly, when crushed coarse aggregate is used. However, the compressive strengths of new concrete mix using Al-Ma'mora and conventional (reference) aggregates are improved by 20%, due to texture modification. Also, the flexural strength of this concrete was higher than the reference concrete by 51.7%, and the splitting strength Almaamora stone concrete was higher than the reference concrete by 42.4% .

The article deals with limestone vessels (canopic jars and model vessels) coming from the Old Kingdom tombs at Abusir. It focuses on the tool marks left on the vessels' surface and attempts to reconstruct the process of their production and tools used. The research presents several ways of work and points to the fact that there was no single generally accepted method and regularly performed procedure, but several different techniques leading to the final product.

Este volumen es el resultado del trabajo realizado, durante varios años, por el grupo CEIPAC consistente en el estudio del material anfórico hallado en la Colonia Ulpia Traiana (Xanten, Alemania). Se han estudiado más de dieciocho mil fragmentos de ánforas hallados en las excavaciones realizadas en la ciudad a lo largo de casi un siglo, lo que ha permitido definir el comercio de alimentos que se estableció entre una ciudad de la frontera renana y las regiones del Mediterráneo. Junto al análisis del material hallado en la ciudad, se presenta el estado actual de la investigación de cada uno de los tipos anfóricos y se pone a disposición del lector, junto a la información puntual sobre la presencia de un determinado tipo anfórico, una información general que le permite contextualizar mejor los datos obtenidos. La obra tiene dos aspectos diversos: uno, el que se refiere al estudio del lugar concreto de hallazgo de nuestras ánforas, lo que permite ayudar a datar algunos estratos arqueológicos y a estudiar la distribución espacial de las ánforas en la ciudad. El segundo aspecto, más interesante a nivel general, es haber delimitado qué productos vienen de qué zona del Mediterráneo, en qué momento y en qué proporción. En síntesis, podemos concluir que existe una corriente de comercio entre todas las regiones del Mediterráneo y la ciudad de Xanten en época julio-claudia, y que a partir de época Flavia las relaciones comerciales se intensifican y casi se convierten en exclusivas entre Xanten y las provincias romanas de Gallia e Hispania. Lo cual conduce a una discusión sobre el significado de la influencia del estado romano en la distribución de productos alimentarios, sobre todo teniendo en cuenta la población militar de la región. Además, se presentan claves para el estudio de las redes comerciales entre Germania y las provincias mediterráneas, se discute el camino entre el Mediterráneo y la frontera, y se defiende la importancia de la ruta atlántica en contraposición a la vía del Ródano, que, tradicionalmente, se consideraba como la más importante.

Limestone and dolostone are used in industries depending on their physicochemical characteristics. They can be used in construction, agricultural, environmental industries and especially in ironmaking and steelmaking as flux. Dolomite is also used in the production of refractory materials. As the properties of products are significantly affected by physicochemical specifications of limestone or dolomite, the characterisation of those materials is important. This study was initiated to analyse the chemical, decrepitation, and degradation properties of dolomite and limestone samples to determine their suitability as flux. Since the degradation indices were found different for the chemically similar samples, the study was expanded to determine the reason. Complete physicochemical and thermal characterisation was performed via XRF, XRD, TG, FTIR, and thin section microscopic analyses. Although two dolomite samples were mineralogically similar, thermal behaviours were determined different. Microscopic analyses results showed that the crystal structures/sizes affect the thermal behaviour and degradation index of carbonate samples. ARTICLE HISTORY

Limestone which is one of the raw materials for the manufacture of materials and medical devices obtained scattered in almost all provinces in Indonesia. In this paper, the making hydroxyapatite using limestone as the raw material was studied. Synthesis of hydroxyapatite was done using precipitation method. The main material of forming a hydroxyapatite in this study is diammonium hydrogen phosphate and calcination of limestone at 900 0 C for 4 hours that produce calcium oxide (CaO). The pure calcium oxide was observed in order to know the effect of calcium solution addition rate and calcium precursor size. The calcium oxide precursor was prepared with high energy milling (HEM). HEM usage is intended to produce a precursor size of calcium in nano size. Furthermore, the characterization of second phase precursors using x-ray diffraction (XRD), analysis of morphology and element content using scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray (SEM-EDX) and analyzes the size and distribution of particles of calcium resulted from milling using a particle size analyzer (PSA).

Commonly, it is said that there is lack of communication among scientists, conservators, restorers, project managers and architects. But sometimes this communication flows, and we can find enormous benefits from and for all the participating agents. This is the case we present in this work, in which technical agents in charge of the restoration of a building, asked for some scientific advice to perform the restoration of a heritage building. The results were successful and fantastic for both of them, in terms of one part asking for consultation and the other answering to the demands and resolving real problems. This is the case of a marvellous Renaissance building (Medinaceli Dukes palace, 15th-16th centuries) in the central area of Spain (Cogolludo, Guadalajara). Focused on the restoration project, we were asked for consultancy on how to solve matters like the assessment of the already fixed in project cleaning method for the stone façades, the efficacy and durability methods for some conservation products to be applied, the presence or not of a patina on the stone; the viability of using some restoration mortars, and the origin of some efflorescences that came out just after placed in the building a restoration rendering mortar. Responses to these matters were answered by performing tests both in the lab and on site in the building. The efficiency and effects on stone of the blasting cleaning method was assessed by first analysing the nature and thickness of the surface deposits to be removed (SEM-EDS analyses); secondly, roughness and colour measurements were performed, and thirdly, SEM-EDS analyses were carried out again to determine whether the cleaning method was able to remove part of the surface deposits, completely, or even part of the stone substrate. Some conservation products were tested on stone specimens, both their efficacy and their durability, concluding that it was better not to apply any of them. A patina was found on the stone façade under SEM, probably applied for colouring and homogenizing purpose, and below it and on the stone, an acrylic film was analysed. It was in good state, and its removal could be worse and more dangerous to the substrate than leaving it. Two restoration mortars were tested to characterize them and to determine their durability, the results showing that one of them was much better than the other. Finally, a restoration render was analysed and we found, by analysing it and the raw materials used for its preparation, that one of them, a marketed cement, had a very high content on sulfates, responsible for the efflorescences (sulphate compounds) that appeared just after the render was placed in the building, this resulting on stopping using this product in the restoration project. Consequently, conservation science should be considered as not only useful but essential for cultural heritage conservation, besides it is cost-saving, because failed interventions are much more expensive in the short, medium and long term.

Stone artifacts are a pivotal reference feature in prehistory and a criterion for defining the cultural stages of the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods.
In historical times, the stone is the basic raw material in fortifications, architecture, sculpture and industrial applications. The evolution of the contribution of the stone to the above applications is described from the Minoan era, cradle of the Greek technology, to the Byzantine period.
Particular emphasis is given to rare prestigious rocks, such as the krokeatis lithos (lapis lakedaemonius), the Milos obsidian, the red marble of Mani, the red porphyrite of Egypt and the Aswan granite, stones of widespread utilization in the Mediterranean.
The application of various types of limestone in the Archaic monuments in the Helladic region is described, the gradual replacement of limestone by marbles, the marble provenance and their behaviour in weathering and atmospheric pollution. The weak points of the Pentelic marble and the supremacy the Parian Lithos are cross-examined, based on the weathering deterioration of the Parthenon and the Temple of Hephaestus sculptures under identical environmental conditions.
The marble symbolism in Roman and Byzantine times are also noted. The architectural decoration with marble monoliths from distant quarries scattered all over the Roman Empire, often in inhospitable areas, was considered as one of the greatest technical achievements of the time. Red porphyrite, on the other hand, is par excellence an imperial symbol for the Romans, but also for the Byzantine emperors. The adjective Porphyrogennetos is connected to the birth chamber of the Queen-children in the palace of Constantinople, whose floor and walls were lined with porphyry slabs.
The construction of stone arches and vaults, a great development encountered in Greece in defensive walls and Macedonian tombs in the late classical times, is also briefly mentioned.
Finally, the progress since the middle of the last century of the scientific study of the quality, conservation and the provenance of marbles and the contribution of Greek researchers are also summarized.

LOCATION

16S 10E Sec. 06 SBM 32.80451000010 -115.97944000000

The Wedge deposit is near the center of S1/2, Sec. 6, T.16S, R.10E, SBM, Painted Gorge quadrangle (7 1/2 minutes), eastern tip of the Coyote Mountains, about 0.5 mile southeast of Painted Gorge, 4.8 miles N 12 degrees east of Ocotillo. f (Morton, 1977, p. 69).

OWNERSHIP

The deposit was operated by the Pine Tree Portland Cement Company, c/o H. W. Soule, Box 306, Vista, Calif (Morton, 1977, p. 69).

DEVELOPMENT

In 1969 there was little or no production. The deposit was developed by small open cuts (Morton, 1977, p. 69).

GEOLOGY

At the Wedge deposit, several small roof pendants of limestone are surrounded by a coarsely grained hybrid rock of granitic composition. The beds strike N 65 degrees east and dip 45 degrees northwest The principal mass, which is on top of a prominent east-trending ridge, contains thinly bedded white and gray limestone containing small amounts of very fine-grained graphite. The pendant extends about 600 feet along the strike. One grab sample contained 53.2 percent CaO and 1.6 percent MgO (Morton, 1977, p. 69).

Morton’s map (1977) shows the Wedge deposit in the Undivided pre-Tertiary Metamorphic rock (IPm) unit south of an east-west trending fault. North of the fault is Miocene Alverson Andesite (Mva).

Dibblee, (2008g) mapped the Wedge deposit as northeast-southwest elongated bodies of Paleozoic or older marble (ml) within a matrix of gneiss or gneissoid granite (gn-ms).

This study presents five different lithotypes of limestone containing stylolites and commonly used as dimension stones in Egypt, Hungary and Israel. All the studied limestones are generally hard, dense, with high degree of cementation and have high strength and low porosity. Stylolites are small tooth-like irregular surfaces most often developed on the carbonate-rich stones. Insoluble particles, i.e., organic matter, oxides and clays are usually incorporated within the stylolitic planes. The presence of stylolites and their filling materials generally has a large effect on the physical and mechanical properties of the host stones. The main aim of this study is to evaluate the damage mechanism of different stylolitic limestones and to understand the role of the clay in the deterioration of these stones. Hundred cube samples (2 cm) of all the studied limestones were subjected to 500 thermal cycles (10–70°C) and 20 cube samples (3 cm) of a grey Israeli limestone with high open porosity were subjected to multiple wet/dry cycles. The changes in mass, strength, and ultrasound Vp velocity, were measured to fol- low any damage that happened due to cycling. The thermal cycling was proved to be an effective deterioration mechanism of both Egyptian and Hungarian lithotypes. The response of Israel grey lithotype to the wet/dry cycling was clearly shown by the splitting of the tested samples through the stylolite planes and the sharp decrease of their strength. Keywords Stone decay, Stylolites, Clays, Limestone, Thermal cycles,· Wet/dry cycles

PREVIOUS NAMES:

Coyote Mountain limestone, Coyote Mountain Marble, Creole group, Columbia Cement Company

The Coyote Mountain limestone deposits are sometimes grouped with those of the Fish Mountains.

LOCATION

15S 9E Sec. 36 SBM 32.81336999960 -115.99723000000  (Southern Pacific)  (MRDS, 2011)
16S 9E Sec. 02 SBM 32.80476999970 -116.01113000100 (Coyote Mountain) (MRDS, 2011)

Merrill (1916) said that the chief deposits of limestone and marble in Imperial County were in Coyote Mountain, T. 15 S., R. 10 E. (Merrill, 1916, p. 733-736).

Tucker (1926) said the chief deposits of this material in Imperial County are in the Coyote Mountains, T. 15 S., R. 10 E., and the Fish Mountains in Sec 1 7 and 12, T 14 S., R. 9 E., S. B. B. and M. (Tucker, 1926, p. 275).

In 1926, Tucker said this about the Columbia Cement Company holdings:

This company controls 8000 acres of limestone, marble and clay  deposits, situated in the Coyote Mountains, in T. 15 S. and 16 S., R. 9  and 10 E., S. B. B and M., 6.5 miles northwest of Coyote Wells, on the  main line of the San Diego and Arizona Railroad. Elevation 800 to  2300 feet.  Since the publication of Report XVII of the State Mineralogist, the  Columbia Cement Company has acquired control of the holdings of  the Southern California Marble Company, Golden State Mining and  Marble Company, the Schrader and Moore and other minor holdings  in this area (Tucker, 1926, p. 276). 

In 1926, Tucker said the chief deposits of marble are in the Coyote Mountains, T. 15 S.,R. 10 E., S. B. B. and M. This mountain is largely formed of crystalline limestone but not all of it is fit for marble. Here valuable deposits within 6 miles of the San Diego and Arizona Railroad are owned andcontrolled by the Columbia Cement Company, of Los Angeles. This company has opened up a number of deposits, each deposit being of different grade and color. Several have the grade and texture of famous imported marbles (Tucker, 1926,  p. 238, CDMG Bulletin 38, p. 107)

In 1926, Tucker said this about the Creole Marble Group:

The Creole Group consists of four claims covering an outcrop of marble about 4500 feet long and averaging 600 feet in width, located in the NE1/4 of Sec. 36, T. 15 S., R. 9 E., S. B. B. and M. (Tucker, 1926, p. 276).

Sampson and Tucker (1942) stated that this mine was formerly known as the Coyote Mountain Limestone mine.  The Southern California Development Company marble deposit is on 80 acres in sec. 1, T. 16 S., R. 9 E. and sec. 36, T. 15 S., R. 9 E., S.B., 6 miles north of the point where the state highway crosses the San Diego and Arizona Railroad (3 miles west of Coyote Wells) (Sampson and Tucker, 1942, p. 137).

Logan (1947) wrote that this mine was on 80 acres (4 claims) in Sections. 25 and NE1/4 Sec. 36, T. 15 S., R. 9 E., S.B.M. (Logan, 1947, p. 241-242).

Here is Morton’s 1977 description of the location for the mine:

The Coyote Mountain Limestone Mine is mostly in Secs. S/2 21, Sec. 22; SW1/4 Sec. 25, Sec. 26, E1/2 Sec. 27, Sec. 35, Sec 36, T.15S, R.9E; and Sections. NW1/4 Sec. 1, N1/2 Sec. 2, T.16S, R.9E, SBM, Carrizo Mountain and Painted Gorge quadrangles (7.5 minutes), on and near Carrizo Mountain, 5 miles due north of Ocotillo, in the eastern Coyote Mountains about 26 miles west of El Centre Pine Tree Cement Company (Morton, 1977, p. 67).
The Coyote Mountain Limestone deposit consists of medium to coarse grained, crystalline, light-gray limestone occurring in a metasedimentary sequence of Paleozoic (?) age. In this area these rocks include limestone, dolomitic limestone, biotite schist, and quartzite. The lithologic sequence is difficult to determine because of the complexity of folding, faulting, and apparent rapid facies changes. Tentative data, however, indicate three units(1)a lower(?) unit comprising about 4000 feet of thickly interbedded limestone, quartzite, and biotite schist; (2) a middle unit comprised of about 2000 feet of limestone and dolomitic limestone; and (3) an upper(?) unit of an undetermined thickness of schist containing minor interbeds of carbonate rocks. The lower unit is exposed in a large northwest- trending mass that is nearly 4 miles long and  0.7 mile wide which lies just north of Carrizo Mountain (see Morton, 1977, fig. 8). The bedding strikes generally N 30-50 degrees W and dips 60 degrees SW to vertical, but local contortion and faulting is common. Individual members of limestone within the unit are generally less than 100 feet thick with the exception of one body at the southeastern-most end of the mass (Creole quarry). Exposed there is a 500-foot stratigraphic thickness which extends northwestward about 3400 feet. Twenty-one samples taken across the strike of this body averaged 51 percent CaO (see Morton, 1977, table 11). The middle unit adjoins the lower unit on its south end in an irregularly shaped northwest-trending mass 2 miles long and 0.5 mile wide, a southwest-trending arm, 14 mile wide, extends from it 0.5 mile to the head of Painted Gorge. Bedding in the arm is in general parallel to its trend, although local contortions are common; dips of the beds are quite steep both northwesterly and southeasterly because of overturned beds. Bedding in the main body of the middle unit is generally parallel to the lower unit, but most beds dip steeply northeast rather than southwest. Reversal of the dip is abrupt at the contact between the lower and middle units, and is probably caused by a fault which lies nearly along the strike. Although most of the middle unit is limestone the composition varies somewhat from one member to the next. (See Morton, 1977, fig. 8, table 11). The upper or schist unit crops out south of Carrizo Mountain and northwest of the southwest arm of the middle member. Neither the structure nor the distribution of this unit was studied. Unconformably overlying the Paleozoic(?) sequence are several erosional remnants of Tertiary coquina limestone of the Imperial Formation. These beds weather a grayish-yellow and are composed predominantly of shell debris. Most of the beds are less than 20 feet in thickness and cover as much as 40 acres in extent. On fresh surface the material is very light-gray, dense, and fine-grained. A random sample of the material indicates a calcium oxide content of 51.67 percent (see Morton, 1977, table 11). Three localities on this property appear to show the most promise for development of cement grade limestone: (1) the peak at the head of Painted Gorge (Hill 2007), (2) Carrizo Mountain, and (3) the Creole deposit (Morton, 1977, p. 76-68).

В статье описаны некоторые особенности израильских известняков мелового возраста — иерусалимского
камня, которые характеризуют процессы, происходящие в породе после ее образования. Зубчатые извилис
тые линии, зафиксированные тонкой глинистой прокладкой, — стилолитовые швы — возникают при раство
рении вещества под боковым давлением, либо под весом вышележащих отложений. Стилолитовые швы перво
го типа примерно параллельны наслоению, второго — секут слоистость под тем или иным углом, что позво
ляет определить направление стресса. На примере пустотки в теле бывшей раковины рассмотрены вторичные
процессы. Из насыщенных бикарбонатом кальция вод образуются мелкие кристаллики кальцита, которые
в виде щетки инкрустируют внутренние поверхности нижней и верхней створок. В сохранившейся полости
формируются микросталактит и микросталагмит.

Revised and significantly enhanced from the 2012 publication by the same author.
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Absence of cut stone from Cypriot monuments lends itself to a legend that the British took stone and used it ‘in the Suez Canal’ - a story appearing on websites, in tourist literature, in academic footnote and archives. This article wrings substance from the legend, taking several approaches: archival searches in Cyprus and France, site visits in Cyprus and Egypt, personal interview and investigation of Cypriot archaeology and art history literatures. So far, there is no direct proof of Cypriot stone inside the Suez Canal or used in the structures that accompany it, but there is plenty of evidence for it.  Stone poaching and export from Cyprus, although ignominious, are a curious source of pride in Cypriot lore and this perspective adds a new dimension to formal understandings of stone reuse. Looking at the timing and material consumption of the Suez Canal project compared to local deficits in stone, this work shows the breadth of stone export generally headed to Port Saïd during the late Ottoman and British Colonial periods, and looks at the nature of Cypriot export including the agents of, and motivating forces behind it as well as efforts to stop or regulate the trade. Competition - between those who would preserve Cypriot monuments, and others who used them as quarries - reveals different perspectives on the value of stone, on the idea of heritage and identity, and the ways these notions change over time.