Income Distribution

Looking at the current studies in the field of energy economy; it is seen that the relationship between the electricity consumption (that presents a bundle of information about everyday life conditions and quality) and income inequality (which gives a comprehensive idea about the socioeconomic aspects of the economic atmosphere) began to be questioned frequently. In the studies conducted, it is seen that the relationship between two variables has been observed however it has not been clarified whether this relationship has changed according to country groups. In this study, the relationship between household annual electricity consumption and the Standardized World Income Inequality Database (SWIID) data has investigated for the countries selected from underdeveloped, developing and developed countries, with Maki (2012) cointegration test and Granger (1969) causality tests. After that the results are compared according to country groups. According to the results, two variables are highly related in level, trnd and/or regime to each other and this relationship can be different according to country groups. Casuality test results shows that there is only unidirect relationship form income inequality to household electricity consumption in least developed countries. In line with this result; In order to be effective in terms of socioeconomic aspects of income and energy policies, it is considered to be useful to determine characteristics of relationship between these variables.

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Enerji ekonomisi kapsamındaki güncel çalışmalara bakıldığında; gündelik yaşam koşulları ve kalitesi hakkında bilgi demeti sunan elektrik tüketimi verisi ile sosyoekonomik açıdan genel iktisadi atmosfer hakkında kapsamlı fikir veren gelir dağılımı arasındaki ilişkinin sorgulanmaya başlandığı görülmektedir. Yapılan çalışmalarda iki değişken arasındaki ilişkiye rastlanıldığı görülürken bu ilişkinin ülke gruplarına göre değişip değişmediği konusu aydınlatılmamıştır. Bu çalışmada az gelişmiş, gelişmekte olan ve gelişmiş ülkelerden seçilen ülkelerin hane halkı yıllık elektrik tüketimi verisiyle ve Standartlaştırılmış Dünya Gelir Eşitsizliği Veri Tabanı (SWIID) verileri arasındaki ilişki ekonometrik olarak Maki (2012) eşbütünleşme testi ve Granger (1969) nedensellik testiyle incelenmekte, sonuçlar ülke gruplarına göre karşılaştırılmaktadır. Elde edilen sonuca göre iki değişken birbiriyle düzeyde, trendde ve rejimde büyük oranda ilişkilidir ve bu durum ülkelerin gelişmişlik düzeyine göre farklılaşabilmektedir. Nedenellik ilişkileri ise az gelişmiş ülkeler için geçerlidir ve gelir dağılımından hane halkı elektrik tüketimine doğrudur. Bu sonuçlar doğrultusunda; enerji ve gelir dağılımı politikalarının sosyoekonomik açıdan etkili olabilmesi iki değişken arasındaki etkileşime ve bu etkileşimin karakteristiğine bakılması gerektiği düşünülmektedir.

بررسی نقش سیاست های رانتی بر توزیع درآمد بر اساس قومیت، مذهب  و موقعیت جغرافیایی در آیران 
Download PDF: https://sbfdergi.ankara.edu.tr/dergi/pdf/75/1/6---1644---Mustafa-Kadir-Dogan.pdf

Özet:
Bu araştırmada İran'ın illeri etnik kökenlerine (Fars-etnik azınlık), mezheplerine (Şii-Sünni) ve coğrafi konumlarına (merkez-sınır) göre ikili kümelere bölünerek kümelerdeki farklı kesimler arasındaki eşitsizliği etkileyen etmenler incelenmiştir. Bu doğrultuda yapay eğim değişkenleri içeren modeller, illerin 2000-2015 yıllarına ait verileri kullanılarak tahmin edilmiştir. Elde edilen sonuçlara göre, büyüme oranını, düşük resmi kur için ayrılan kaynaklar etkilemezken, ekonomik serbestlik olumlu yönde, enflasyon oranı ve bütçe politikası olumsuz yönde etkilemektedir. Ayrıca, bütçe politikasının Fars ve Şii kesimleri gelir dağılımı açısından diğerlerine göre daha olumsuz etkileyerek gelir eşitsizliğini azalttığı belirlenmiştir. Petrol ve doğalgaz gelirlerindeki artışın ise tüm kesimlerin refah seviyelerinin artmasına yol açmakla birlikte, ayrıcalıklı olan Fars ve Şii kesimlerin refah seviyelerini diğerlerine göre daha fazla yükselttiği ve dolayısıyla ayrıcalıklı grupların kaynaklardan daha fazla pay alacağı savının doğrulandığı gözlenmiştir. Ayrıca, elde edilen sonuçlar İran'da büyüme ile başlangıç gelir düzeyi arasındaki ters yönlü ilişkiyi ortaya koyarak, neoklasik büyüme modellerinin öngörülerini doğrulamaktadır.

Abstract:
This study examines the underlying factors of inequality between Persian and non-Persian, Shia and Sunni, and border and non-border province groups in Iran. To this end, data of provinces covering 2000-2015 period were used to estimate the models with slope dummies. According to the results, resources allocated to reevaluate domestic currency has no effect on growth rate, while growth rate is negatively affected by economic freedom and positively affected by inflation rate and budget policy. Furthermore, it has been determined that budget policy affects the Persian and Shia groups more negatively in terms of income distribution than others, reducing income inequality. While the increase in oil and natural gas revenues leads to rise in welfare levels of all groups, the privileged Persian and Shia groups increase their welfare levels more than the others, confirming the assertion that privileged groups receive more shares from the resources. In addition, the results confirm the predictions of neoclassical growth models, revealing the inverse relationship between growth and initial income level in Iran.

The use of improved high yielding crop varieties is an important avenue for reducing hunger and food insecurity in developing countries. Using cross-sectional data obtained from a survey conducted during 2013 crop season, we performed a probit model (plot-level analysis) to determine the probability of adopting new improved rice varieties (NIRVs) by smallholder farmers particularly from two main agro-ecological regions (hills and tropical plain terai regions) of Central Nepal. The results revealed that education, extension services and seed access play significant roles in adoption decisions. Additionally, farm and field characteristic variables such as farm size, endowment of favorable land type (e.g. lowlands), and animal power (e.g. oxen) are the key factors influencing the probability of adopting NIRVs. The results showed that technology specific variables (e.g. yield potential and acceptability) are significant for explaining adoption behavior, implying that it is important to take farmers' preferences to varietal characteristics into consideration in the design of a research and development program. Given the significant role played by extension and access related variables, increased emphasis on information dissemination, field demonstration, and farmers' participatory research and training programs to popularize new rice varieties and enhance their adoption rate are required. This also suggests that policy intervention should be made on improving the educational status of farming households, and developing programs on varietal package of rice seed which offer farmers a variety of choices among the appropriate pools of germplasm. Such programs ultimately help farmers develop more profit-oriented behavior which are necessary to enhance adoption rate, production and food security in the long run.

In 1839, the Imperial Edict of Gülhane was declared to erase the impacts of the administrative and financial crises following the Ottoman Regression period. In this sense, the taxation system of the state was changed and it was aimed to overcome the financial crisis. Temettüat (profits tax) registers started to be kept after the Imperial Edict of Gülhane are the records that keep the taxes on micro-scale of the socioeconomic status of the households in the region provides detailed information; real estate, land, zoological and profit in a single book record. The subject of the study consists of the income distribution and relative poverty in the light of the information in the dividend books of Kalkaniz District, Bdzirgdn Karyesi and Ortaköy Karyesi of Anduğ District that were connected to Niğde Sanjak, Karaman Province. As a result of the calculations, Gini Coefficient was 0.3477 and relative poverty rate was 24% in these districts. In this context, taxation practices are found to be triggering income distribution inequality and yielding regressive consequences.

Macroeconomic strategies for poverty reduction, such as the SAP and GPRSs were not adequately successful. A micro-economic focus is therefore proposed as a contemporary approach towards poverty reduction. The fact that the informal economy employs more than eighty percent of Ghana's working population suggests that improving the socioeconomic conditions of informal operators would mean reducing poverty for the majority of the working population. This study aimed at examining how incomes generated in the informal economy reflect in the socioeconomic well-being of informal garage operators and exploring the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of informal garage enterprises that can help improve the socioeconomic conditions of the operators. A descriptive study design was adopted by the study. Interview schedule and interview guide were used to collect primary data. The study found that most informal garage operators contributed the majority of their household income. The opportunities available for the enterprises included high access to market and supplies. High competition, high job insecurity, and inadequate support from local government were some identified threats. The study recommends garage operators to develop a common fund for infrastructural improvement of the cluster. It also recommended collaborative support of local government authorities and NGOs. _____________________________________________________________________________________

Descreve-se a experiência vivenciada por uma equipe de professores na implementação de um projeto de extensão em empreendedorismo para criar bases ao desenvolvimento local. O curso está sendo ofertado na microrregião de Floriano, Piauí (Brasil), uma região que tem sua economia baseada no comércio e serviços. A capacitação tem como objetivo qualificar jovens nos conteúdos relativos ao Empreendedorismo, como forma de ampliar as possibilidades de geração de emprego e renda e inclusão social por meio do trabalho. As metodologias utilizadas foram: pesquisa bibliográfica, gestão participativa de projetos entre a equipe executora, formação expositivo-dialogada aos alunos. Das 50 vagas, apenas 14 foram preenchidas pela comunidade regional. Os autores atribuem a baixa procura aos seguintes fatores: a) necessidade maior de conscientização em comunidades situadas em regiões de extrema pobreza quanto à oportunidade de melhoria da qualidade de vida e geração de emprego e renda por meio da educação e do empreendedorismo com resultados práticos e a médio e longo prazo; b) a cultura do Piauí onde se observa baixos níveis de inovação e empreendedorismo; c) a cultura local ser fortemente dependente de assistência do governo federal, principalmente quanto ao programa bolsa família. Palavras chave: Empreendedorismo. Desenvolvimento local. Geração de emprego e renda. Extrema pobreza. Capacitação de recursos humanos. Gestão de projetos. Área temática: h) Trabalho. 1. INTRODUÇÃO Este artigo relata a contextualização de uma região localizada no nordeste brasileiro, especificamente a microrregião de Floriano-PI, uma região que enfrenta dificuldades dos mais diversos tipos. O Governo Federal do Brasil, por meio de leis aprovadas, criou o programa de apoio aos planos de reestruturação e expansão das universidades federais-REUNI, que visa a implantação de campus de Universidades Federais no interior dos estados brasileiros como medida de ampliar o acesso ao ensino superior aos alunos do interior e também fazendo com que não haja concentração de pessoas nas grandes cidades e capitais. Este artigo tem como objetivo descrever a experiência vivenciada por uma equipe de professores na implementação de um projeto de extensão em empreendedorismo para criar bases ao desenvolvimento local em uma região de extrema pobreza.

In this research paper, we have tried to probe the effect or reflections of wage discrimination on poverty. It is found that the differences in the wage determination process in the public and private sectors may result in earning differentials across socio-religious groups.  Many of the research community have been given data about discrimination in the labour market. In this particular paper, we have given the results of data interpretation for wage discrimination and its direct or indirect relation with poverty. The analysis has been presented for mainly three types of work; regular, casual and self-employed work. For the query of wage discrimination and its effect on poverty, we had divided the households into two parts, the first type of households whose household’s MPCE is below the poverty line and second whose household’s MPCE is higher the poverty line. The findings of the study make clear that the average daily wage for all type work of lower caste is less than the upper caste. The results also show that the poor household has found higher in lower caste in comparison to upper caste. The differences in the average wage-earning among the social groups for the same types of work may be the case of discrimination and poverty. The result argued to policymakers that they should frame an appropriate plan to address this issue and work for indiscrimination in the labour market and job creation in the rural areas.

This article examines highly paid academics-or top earners-employed across universities in ten European countries based on large-scale international survey data regarding the academic profession. It examines the relationships between salaries and academic behaviors and productivity, as well as the predictors of becoming an academic top earner. While, in the Anglo-Saxon countries, the university research mission typically pays off at an individual level, in Continental Europe, it pays off only in combination with administrative and related duties. Seeking future financial rewards solely through research does not seem to be a viable strategy in Europe, but seeking satisfaction in research through solving research puzzles is also becoming difficult, with the growing emphasis on the 'relevance' and 'applicability' of fundable research. Thus, both the traditional 'in-vestment motivation' and 'consumption motivation' to perform research decrease, creating severe policy implications. The primary data come from 8,466 usable cases.

The study is proposed to examine the impact of income level of individuals on poverty in Pakistan. The research focuses on exploring the spending behavior of people and how it affects with change in income level. This is a cross sectional study. The time series secondary data ranges from 1987-2013 extracted from the World Bank data bank inflation and consumer price manual is taken for research analysis. The data further analyzed and interpreted by using multiple variable regression model with Stata 12. The findings reveal mixed responses of individuals towards spending level. The poverty headcount ratio @ $1.90 a day has the most significant impact of various income share consumption exercised by overall population of Pakistan.

Based on considerations concerning justice, average and minimum wages as well as unemployment aid are determined. The derived guidelines refer to net product and reflect 'reasonable' proportions between the income categories. Thus, deviations from the suggested principles may be classified as inappropriate.

Il PIL dell’Italia è oggi ancora sotto i livelli del 2007. La crisi finanziaria, in origine divampata negli Stati Uniti, in Italia è durata più a lungo e con effetti più intensi, amplificata dalla crisi di fiducia sul debito pubblico. Ma i problemi dell’Italia non sono iniziati e non sono circoscritti all’ultimo decennio. Già prima della crisi la sua velocità di crociera era ridotta ai minimi storici. Laddove il cinquantennio post bellico aveva visto l’Italia avvicinarsi ai livelli di benessere sociale dei paesi più ricchi, l’ultimo quarto di secolo ha sancito un’inversione di tendenza. La stagnazione italiana si era già avviata in concomitanza con una fase di forte sviluppo dell’economia mondiale, in cui numerosi paesi, la Cina ne è il caso più emblematico e rilevante, emergevano da una condizione di ritardo e le nuove tecnologie si imponevano a livello globale.
Quali le ragioni di tale arretramento? Vi sono legami tra quanto avvenuto nel decennio della lunga crisi e il periodo precedente? Che ruolo hanno giocato i vincoli discesi dal mutato contesto (l’ingresso nell’euro, l’emergere di nuovi e importanti competitori, l’avvento delle nuove tecnologie dell’informazione e delle comunicazioni, la finanziarizzazione dell’economia) e quanto hanno pesato invece i tradizionali tratti strutturali della società italiana? Il libro risponde a questi quesiti e si interroga sul “che fare” per ridare forza alla speranza di una ripresa della crescita e del benessere nel nostro paese.
La I parte del libro descrive i principali andamenti economici e sociali nell’ultimo ventennio, inserendo le peculiari vicende italiane nel quadro dei principali mutamenti intervenuti nell’economia mondiale e nel contesto in cui l’Italia è inserita: le speranze e i timori della fase attuale di sviluppo tecnologico (un mondo popolato da app e robot), la globalizzazione dei mercati e l’emergere di nuove potenze economiche, l’ascesa (e il declino?) della finanza e i vincoli discendenti dall’appartenenza all’area dell’euro. La II parte descrive le politiche economiche e sociali del decennio della crisi, evidenziandone i dilemmi (tra le urgenze dell'oggi e le sfide di più lungo periodo) e i limiti, con tentativi di riforma spesso estemporanei e privi di continuità. Si discutono gli indirizzi delle politiche fiscale e bancaria, nonché i principali interventi di riforma, nel mercato del lavoro, nel sistema educativo, nelle pubbliche amministrazioni, nel funzionamento della giustizia, negli investimenti infrastrutturali, nella regolamentazione dei mercati e nelle politiche industriali. La III parte, infine, si interroga sui fattori sottostanti il rigetto politico di tali misure, sancito dalle elezioni del 2018, e descrive l’esperienza del cd governo del cambiamento, caduto nell’estate del 2019. Il capitolo conclusivo espone quindi un “decalogo” di suggerimenti per il rilancio del paese.

This sub-theme addresses critical queries related to the role of higher education in mitigating/promoting socio-economic inequalities, at a historical time where the legitimacy of modern institutions, including science, is being questioned. In order to address these and related issues, we appeal to organizational scholars working within and across disciplinary fields and resorting to a multiplicity of methodologies. We are particularly keen to receive papers that build on methodological and conceptual/theoretical perspectives that are both novel and critical, and that have the potential for providing a bold framework for re-adjusting our scholarly gaze insofar the role played by science and higher education in more just, equitable and responsible societies.

The outcomes of the neoliberal experiences have paved the way for increasing literature on income distribution. Most of the studies in this tide provide significant and abundant evidence confirming worsening income distribution. However, very few studies use a class-based framework. The basic aim of this study is to examine the effects of changing public transfer policy of government (2002-2010) in Turkey on the intra-and inter-class income distribution. In this context, this study employs the Household Budget Surveys which have been annually conducted since 2002. The dataset from each survey covers three sub-datasets: individual level, households level and consumption datasets. First, using individual level data set, we determine the class status of each individual. Then, using this information, the class identities of households are derived. The theoretical background of this derivation process is mostly Marxian, however it incorporates Weberian themes. The results show that rapid and massive increase in the size of the labouring classes and parallel erosion in the ranks of peasantry and petite bourgeoisie have significant effects upon income distribution. Consequently, a Gini decomposition technique is used to analyze the change in inter and intra-class income distribution. In the first half of the period, the Gini coefficient decreased while it rose in the second half. The decomposition technique is also employed to find out the impacts of the new welfare regime upon both inter-and intra-class income distribution. This new welfare regime rests upon selective, infrequent and discretionary provisioning of public transfers. In this context, it is the negation of former welfare regime which has been dismantled by insistent and consecutive neoliberal reforms. The former welfare regime had risen over the non-selective, constitutionally guaranteed and rule-based public transfer mechanism. Moreover, in the period under scrutiny, the share and level of private transfers especially to the lower echelons of society has been increasing. The main sources of these transfers are private and autonomous foundations and charity organizations. However, official figures and the balance sheets of these organizations show that most of the income for these foundations and organizations are also transfers from central government budget. Therefore, it is not untenable to accept these transfers as also public transfers. The results of our analysis show that the new welfare regime arising over the selective public transfer mechanism has been used to limit the rise in inequality between social classes. Moreover, especially for the labouring classes and peasantry, public transfers have an equalizing effect.

In this paper, we outline (i) why σ‐convergence may not accompany β‐convergence, (ii) discuss evidence of β‐convergence in the United States, and (iii) use U.S. county‐level data containing over 3,000 cross‐sectional observations to demonstrate that σ‐convergence cannot be detected at the county level across the United States, or within the large majority of the individual U.S. states considered separately. Indeed, in many cases statistically significant σ‐divergence is found.

With the assistance of donors, the Government of Afghanistan has started to enact a wide-range of policy actions aiming to provide Afghan women with equal access to resources and opportunities for participation in the country’s economy. However, the implementation of these women-centred policies remains weak and leaves women to fight alone against daily challenges due to the lack of their equal acceptance in society. The paper aims to shed light on some of the many issues that can only be addressed if peace is achieved. Overall, the paper is focused on Afghan women employability and entrepreneurship opportunities for engagement in economic development. Authors argue that in the context of Afghanistan, women’s economic empowerment requires better policymaking, which can in turn improve the level of policy implementation in different parts of the country. The paper highlights the need for rethinking government economic policies with an emphasis on the essential components of women’s economic empowerment such as security and innovative opportunities for women’s participation in national and local economic development.

Inspired by the idea of promoting equality opportunities across individuals can enhance economic growth through the allocation of human resource based on their best use, we examine the extent of inter-generational social mobility in Northern region of Malaysia. Using both descriptive and Ordinary Least Square (OLS) estimation, we analyze the possibility of income and occupation change of the poor households in rural areas. The findings demonstrate that both level of education and type of occupation reflect a significant improvement of inter-generational social mobility. Interestingly, the findings also indicate that social mobility in Malaysia is relatively higher than in other countries where more space and equal opportunities are enjoyed by all walks of life in the nation.