Human Trafficking and SMuggling

Después de la caída del régimen del coronel Gadafi en 2011, el Estado libio (o lo que queda de él) ha perdido el control de sus confines meridionales y de las zonas costeras del norte. Este descontrol favorece el tráfico ilícito de migrantes subsaharianos y la trata de personas por el territorio de Libia con rumbo a la UE a través del Mediterráneo central meridional. Para frenar este fenómeno, el Consejo de la UE adoptó la Decisión (PESC) 2015/778 que instituye la operación EUNAVFOR MED-Sophia. Esta, sin embargo, está paralizada en una fase que le impide realizar sus objetivos originarios, debido a la ausencia del consentimiento libio o, en alternativa, de una resolución del Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU para su ampliación a las fases sucesivas. Para desbloquearla, se propone desempolvar la ya olvidada noción de responsabilidad de proteger que, respaldada por la teoría de las autorizaciones retroactivas del Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU, permitiría seguir con la operación Sophia dentro del marco jurídico del Derecho internacional vigente.

According to mainstream media and political discourse, human smugglers are among the cruellest figures of our time, individuals who prey on migrants’ need for assistance. Motivated by the circulation of this pejorative view in media and political discourse, I carried out ethnographic research with Syrian refugees and smugglers in Turkey, Greece, Jordan, and Lebanon with the ultimate goal of documenting what being a smuggler entails for the very actors of this unfolding drama. Fieldwork showed me how human smuggling was rooted in patterns of cooperation and support. And yet, most if not all my interlocutors, including the “smugglers” themselves, spoke of smuggling in negative terms. What I argue in this paper is that the smuggler, a category functional to the security apparatus, is not only manufactured within law enforcement circles and mainstream media, but even by those very people who are discriminated or targeted by states’ migration policies.

Artikel ini membahas kebijakan selektif keimigrasian dalam menanggulangi masalah Penyelundupan Manusia (People Smuggling). People smuggling merupakan kejahatan lintas Negara yang menempatkan imigran gelap dan pengungsi asal asia selatan dan timur tengah sebagai komoditi untuk mendapatkan keuntungan materiil, Besarnya potensi terjadinya kejahatan transnasional di Indonesia ini merupakan suatu masalah yang perlu mendapat perhatian. Dengan demikian perlu diadakan suatu kajian terhadap masalah-masalah yang terkait dengan kejahatan lintas negara yang melanda Indonesia.

Kata Kunci : Penyelundupan Manusia, Kebijakan Selektif Keimigrasian, Hukum Keimigrasian

En nuestro país las acciones de lucha contra la trata de personas son insuficientes. Los retos son enormes y enfrentan dualidad conceptual de las personas encargadas en cumplirlos: por un lado, existen especialistas que tienen un amplio dominio sobre el tema y que llevan trabajando muchos años en él; y por otro, muchas personas no tienen los conocimientos mínimos de este tema. Todo esto se traduce en enormes tropiezos en la coordinación de las instituciones públicas y
privadas para establecer acciones que fomenten su erradicación. Este artículo pretende visibilizar las razones por las que en México los resultados en los avances de la lucha contra la trata de personas son lentos, así como los retos actuales que enfrenta nuestro país para contar con indicadores adecuados que midan de manera constante los avances (o retrocesos) a mediano y a largo plazo.

The chapter describes the process that led to the adoption of the UN Trafficking Protocol as an instrument of transnational criminal law and comments on its most debated aspects, including the adoption of the first definition of trafficking in persons in an international treaty, the thin line separating trafficking in persons from the smuggling of migrants and the scarce measures aimed at protecting victims. The problematic aspects, loopholes, and lack of effectiveness and consistency in the UN Trafficking Protocol are discussed.

The reality of the widening category of irregular warfare and the raising
quantity of radical units all around the world arrived in an unprecedented pace in the 21st century’s security environment. The decisions on designating and labeling „terrorist groups” were always surrounded with terminological debates, diverse state interests, and different perception of security. Thereby handling and countering their attacks and secondary
destabilizing effects are hardly-cooperative among larger alliances. Of course, we might not exclude the good examples of international peacekeeping and countermeasures, such as it is happening in the case of ISIS, Al-Qaeda, Al-Shabaab or other specific organizations. But in
some cases, the methods of engagement, the continuously shaping security environment, shifts in ideology or other factors should influence the classification of a „terrorist group”, which might be questioned by individuals, ethnic groups, states or the international community itself.
This was the situation with the Polisario Front group as well, which in some cases was labeled as terrorist organization, while other papers mentioned it as a separatist group or an organized crime unit. However, in the eyes of the world, the Front still is the legitimate representative of
the Sahrawi’s people and a liberating organization responsible for its people. In this analysis, my main aim is to concentrate on these accusations against the Polisario Front, and its actual activity and connections with organized crime groups and highlight the facts, which exclude the Polisario Front from being a terrorist organization
Keywords: Polisario Front, terrorist group, organized crime group, liberation movement, legal representative of Sahrawis, International law, Morocco, Mauritania, SADR, AQIM.

Human smuggling is a complex process. Made up of actions both organized and chaotic, it compels migrants to deal with different structures and agents of power, among them smugglers, the state(s), and migrants’ own social networks. The current literature on human smuggling provides a detailed analysis of the different phases of this process, within which discussion of the structure and operation of this “business” can be situated. However, only minimal attention has been paid to migrants’ agency in the smuggling process. Engaging with recent perspectives in migration studies, which emphasize the need to conceptualize human smuggling by focusing on the interdependencies between the different actors involved, the analysis developed in this article aims to explore the different phases of the human smuggling process by focusing on the multilayered relations between smugglers and undocumented people. Drawing upon qualitative ethnographic fieldwork conducted with migrants on the Turkish-Iranian border, the article examines how the physical and socio- political conditions of border crossing affect people’s ways of thinking, behavior, and engagement with different structures of power. In doing so, the article attempts to further our understanding of how smuggled migrants mobilize their agency in such a way as to manipulate and challenge the system, as well as of how this process transforms migrants’ capacity to simultaneously recognize and unsettle state bordering practices.
Keywords: human smuggling; Turkey; Iranian migrants; border crossing experience

La sempre maggior presenza di donne nelle diverse configurazioni dei processi migratori non è ancora accompagnata da una più grande attenzione alle loro problematiche specifiche e alle dinamiche che caratterizzano i loro movimenti migratori.
L’articolo analizza la dimensione femminile nella migrazione irregolare, nella tratta e nel traffico di esseri umani come tentativo per superare la visione neutra rispetto al genere che ha prevalso nel tempo e che non fa emergere le particolarità dell’esperienza femminile. Le considerazioni esposte nel testo mettono in luce la necessità di una maggior equità verso le donne e richiamano l’esigenza di adottare l’approccio di genere sia per l’analisi dei fenomeni migratori che per la loro trattazione.

There are five main chapters of the analysis. The first chapter outlines the unprecedented migration pressure on Europe including political, economic, demographic, social, etc. factors. The second chapter gives an account of both Western and Russian de-radicalization efforts, providing a broad understanding of what de-radicalization is. It starts from crisis zones in the Middle East, North Africa and Afghanistan, followed by Western handling of the migration process itself prior to migrant settlement in Europe. The third chapter provides a list of fundamental questions unasked and unanswered by the European political elites. The fourth chapter will analyze some scenarios depending on European policy changes. The fifth chapter will provide recommendations for European policy makers to handle the migration crisis and minimize the damage already done to the European way of life, where de-radicalization and reintegration play a key role.
Keywords: migration crisis, culture, Europe, policy

This this study focuses on drawing a line that links States’ liability under humanitarian law for the violation of the human rights of migrants to a correspondent criminal responsibility of non-state actors (i.e. public officers and ministers) for those violations, whose seriousness can configure international crimes under the ICC Statute.
By starting with referring the main reports that count and describe the deaths which generally occur either in the Mediterranean and in Libya's irregular detention centers, I underline, by starting from the circumstances of those deaths, the  related possible criminal conducts by both state and non-state actors.
After that, the paper attempts to describe the criminal offense through the crosschecking of the elements of the crime against humanity (article 7 of the ICC Statute) with migrants' deaths.
Finally, if those committed against migrants in Libya can be qualified as crime against humanity, has the International Criminal Court jurisdiction over it?
What could be done, from the international arena, to guarantee an effective protection of migrants' fundamental rights, since the ICC couldn't prevent those crimes, persecute the perpetrators and protect their victims by itself? The paper concludes by suggesting a cross-fertilization between the International Criminal Court and the International Court of Justice, in order to reach non-state entities (the smugglers and the Libyan armed forces) together with state actors (Libya as the main responsible, Italy for aiding and abetting those crimes) , and, last but not least, the European Court of Human rights, in order to protect or at least, compensate the victims.

Interviews with return migrants in Puebla, Mexico before and after the massive border build-up of the mid-2000s reveal how increased border enforcement entailed greater risks of arrest and potentiated the violence migrants experienced at the hands of smugglers and criminals, reducing circular migration. Dispossessed of physical security and psychological well-being, illegal mobile bodies create value for multiple accumulation processes: at the point of production as vulnerable workers, as well as commodities for trafficking organizations and private detention centers. The violence inflicted on undocumented border crossers disciplines them for the more exploitative labor relations of temporary worker programs.

Esta obra está estruturada em quatro partes inter-relacionadas que identifica e analisa o atual regime internacional sobre o Tráfico de pessoas. Na primeira parte se realiza uma análise descritiva da evolução legislativa, doutrinal e jurisprudencial do conceito de tráfico relacionado ao conceito de escravidão. Ou seja, a origem do tráfico como resultado do comércio de seres humanos. No segundo capítulo, é efetuada uma abordagem no contexto do “pânico moral” contra o trabalho sexual onde se criminaliza a atividade e se relaciona equivocadamente o tráfico à prostituição. Na terceira etapa é realizado uma análise conceitual do Tráfico, no marco do crime transnacional organizado, separando de outras categorias insertas no contexto de mobilidade humana. Na quarta parte, é realizada uma abordagem sobre o enfrentamento ao Tráfico de Pessoas desde uma análise regional tanto no marco europeu (Conselho de Europa e União Europeia), como no contexto americano (Organização dos Estados Americanos e MERCOSUL), com a finalidade de verificar se houve contribuição regional sobre a matéria que comutasse na proteção aos direitos humanos das vítimas de Tráfico.

ABSTRACT During autumn 2008, the Silicon Strip Tracker was operated with the full CMS experiment in a comprehensive test, in the presence of the 3.8 T magnetic field produced by the CMS superconducting solenoid. Cosmic ray muons were detected in the muon chambers and used to trigger the readout of all CMS sub-detectors. About 15 million events with a muon in the tracker were collected. The efficiency of hit and track reconstruction were measured to be higher than 99% and consistent with expectations from Monte Carlo simulation. This article details the commissioning and performance of the Silicon Strip Tracker with cosmic ray muons.