History of lime mortar

Klenby sú oblúkové konštrukcia so vzopätím, ktoré sa používajú ako stropná konštrukcia alebo na preklenutie otvorov v stenách. V dávnejšej minulosti sa zhotovovali klenby murované z kameňa, pálených prípadne nepálených tehál, niekedy zo špeciálnych keramických tvaroviek. V niektorých prípadoch zvyčajne, v iných krajinách sa klenby vytvárali aj liatím či odmazávaním iných konštrukcií, alebo murovaním napríklad z drevených klátikov. Od 19. storočia sa stavajú aj betónové klenby a klenbové statické pôsobenie sa využíva aj v oceľových konštrukciách.

Lime plaster and mortar are pyrotechnological materials that have been employed in constructions since prehistoric times. They may nucleate as calcite and/or aragonite under different environmental settings. In nature, aragonite and calcite form through biogenic and geogenic processes that lead to different degrees of atomic order. The latter is a result of defects in the crystal lattice, which affect the properties of crystals, including their interaction with infrared light. Using Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR) with the KBr pellet method, it is possible to exploit these differences and assess the degree of atomic order of aragonite and calcite crystals and thus their mechanisms of formation. Here we use FTIR to characterize the degree of short-range atomic order of a pyrogenic form of aragonite recently observed in experimental and archaeological lime binders. We show that pyrogenic aragonite has a unique signature that allows its identification in archaeological sediments and lime binders of unknown origin. Based on these results, we developed a new FTIR-based method to assess the integrity and degree of preservation of aragonite and calcite when they occur together in the same material. This method allowed a better assessment of the diagenetic history of an archaeological plaster and finds application in the characterization of present-day conservation materials, such as lime plaster and mortar, where different polymorphs may nucleate and undergo recrystallization processes that can alter the mechanical properties of binders.

During the last decade, laboratory research of different types of ancient Viminacium lime mortars was conducted. It included research of core, bedding, pointing and rendering mortars with or without paintings, originating from the amphitheatre, the small structures beneath its auditorium and the city wall surrounding it, but also from the graves excavated near the Mausoleum central burial structure.  Results of the research have led to a variety of discussions regarding the materials used for mortar preparation in Viminacium, but also about its preparation technology. One of the discussions was connected to the possible hydraulicity of Viminacium mortars.
Keywords: Viminacium, lime mortar, hot lime technology, hydraulicity

Keywords: masonry brick, bedding mortar, Radzyń Chełmiński / Rehden – teutonic castle, applied mineralogy, thermal analysis (DSC-TG)

Słowa kluczowe: cegła formatowa, zaprawa murarska, Radzyń Chełmiński – zamek krzyżacki, mineralogia stosowana, analiza termiczna (DSC-TG)

Research on medieval building materials from Radzyń Chełmiński castle The research concerns technology aspects of chosen historic materials: masonry bricks and bedding mortars. Samples of materials mentioned above come from Radzyń Chełmiński / Rehden Teutonic castle. Following bricks' and mortars' properties were determined: composition, structure and texture. Above-mentioned characterization is a result of examinations carried out in accordance with following methodology:
determination of composition of masonry materials by thermal analysis (DSC-TG) and petrographic analysis. To properly recognize the materials quantitative analysis of were carried out. It was found that the examined materials have similar composition but there are difference in proportions of components. The results show that the majority of mortar samples presents intermediate hydraulic character. Research results can be a contribution for a complex studies of similar groups of architectonic objects and facilitate to compare polish and European medieval masonry workshops.

Burning sea shells to make quicklime once was a great tradition in the North-Atlantic region. In Millstone Park, Hyllestad (W-Norway), we have built two limekilns, reviving old lime burning traditions, involving craftspeople, volunteers and the public. Recently we burnt sea shells!

El yacimiento arqueo-antropológico de La Magdalena, en el término municipal de Alcalá de Henares (España), está compuesto por varias necrópolis de diferentes cronologías y por diversos complejos de producción de época Romana. Durante la intervención arqueológica, se documentaron diferentes estructuras de carácter industrial. Estas estructuras fueron edificadas con diferentes tipos de mortero de cal, desde los cimientos - opus caementicium - hasta la cubrición definitiva - opus signinum. Todas ellas siguen las mismas pautas de construcción romana, empleando, entre otras, cal, arena, y áridos cerámicos de ladrillos triturados conocidos como cocciopesto. En la observación macroscópica de las muestras, se observaron diversos fragmentos de huesos de animales de pequeñas-medianas dimensiones, en cantidades más pequeñas pero mezclados con los áridos. Estos fragmentos aparecen en las capas exteriores e intermedias de los revestimientos de mortero. En este trabajo se presentan los resultados de la caracterización macroscópica de los morteros y una propuesta metodológica de estudio de este tipo de residuo material, basada en la arqueometría y centrada en la proporción de fragmentos de hueso con respecto al peso total de las muestras, su representatividad con respecto a las capas constructivas y la probable relación entre la presencia de huesos en la mezcla con la funcionalidad de las estructuras industriales de La Magdalena.

The objective of this paper is to describe the samples of historical mortar that have been collected and processed during six years of research work. The samples are part of a doctoral thesis that analyzed mainly Roman lime mortars with siliceous and ceramics aggregates. However, throughout this process, other mortars of different types and chronologies were also sampled, in order to compare the results obtained by means of macroscopic techniques and polarized optical microscopy. The extraction was carried out with the authorization of the archaeological directors of archaeological sites and monuments. The treatment of mortars was made by a machine disc-cutter, and developed both in the Materials Laboratory of the ETSAM (UPM) and in the facilities of the Istituto per la Conservazione e la Valorizzazione dei Beni Culturali, belonging to the Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche in Florence ( Italy), as well as in the archaeology laboratory of Trébede Patrimonio y Cultura S.L. As a result, a catalogue of samples has been obtained, consisting of mortars ranging from the Cupper Age to the Modern Period. Although a methodology based on macroscopy has been established, serving as a model in future works analyzing the historical mortars from a physical perspective. It also proposes a sequence of work that favours the
knowledge of this building material, allowing the access of professionals of architectural restoration to the original material, which moreover, became an archaeological and architectural component for the knowledge of the historical constructive techniques.

Resumen: Este artículo tiene como objetivo, por un lado, la descripción de las muestras de argamasas históricas que han sido recogidas y procesadas a lo largo de seis años de trabajo de investigación. Las muestras forman parte de una tesis doctoral que analizaba principalmente morteros romanos de cal con áridos silíceos y cerámicos. Sin embargo, a lo largo de este proceso se muestrearon también otras argamasas de diferentes tipologías y cronologías, con la finalidad de cotejar los resultados obtenidos por medio de técnicas macroscópicas y microscopía óptica polarizada. La extracción se
realizó con la autorización de los directores arqueólogos de una veintena de yacimientos arqueológicos y monumentos. El tratamiento de las argamasas por medio de cortes con máquina se desarrolló tanto en el Laboratorio de Materiales de la ETSAM (UPM) como en las instalaciones del Istituto per la Conservazione e la Valorizzazione
dei Beni Culturali, perteneciente al Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche en Florencia (Italia), así como en el laboratorio de arqueología de la empresa Trébede Patrimonio y Cultura S.L. Como consecuencia, no solo se ha obtenido un muestrario muy completo formado por morteros
que abarcan desde el calcolítico hasta época moderna, sino que se ha afianzado una metodología basada en la macroscopía, que puede servir como precedente para futuros trabajos que analicen las argamasas históricas desde una perspectiva física. Asimismo propone una secuencia de trabajo que favorece el conocimiento de este elemento constructivo, y permite el acceso de los futuros profesionales de la restauración arquitectónica a un material original, de carácter arqueológico y arquitectónico fundamental para el conocimiento de las técnicas constructivas históricas.

Peer Reviewed Articles in http://www.sci-cult.com/files/
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1. CONSERVATION STUDY AND TREATMENT OF SELECTED DECORATED SHAWL IN APPLIED ART MUSEUM, CAIRO, EGYPT
Enas Abo El Enen Amin
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.813010

2. ANALYTICAL STUDY AND CONSERVATION PROCESSES OF SCRIBE BOX FROM OLD KINGDOM
Mohamed Moustafa, Medhat Abd allah , Ramy Magdy , Ahmed Abdrabou, Islam Shaheen , Hussein M. Kamal
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.840011

3. THE PRESENCE OF CEMENT MORTARS IN THE ADDED CHAMBERS OF EL SAKAKENY PALACE: A CASE STUDY
Kholod K.Salama, Mona F.Ali , Abubakr M.Moussa
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.813134

4. THREE AMPHORA STAMPS FROM TYMNOS (BOZBURUN, TURKEY): A CASE STUDY REGARDING PROVENANCE.
Deniz OĞUZ-KIRCA
DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.813172

During archaeological excavations in 2014 a unique find consisted of four barrel of lime putty was made. Likely they were placed in the ground around year 1800 and forgotten after a fire devastated the town in 1806. The consistency of the lime putty was such that it was still possible to activate and use the lime for mortar. Through archival research its probable origin could be found. Through technical and chemical analyses the properties of the lime could be defined. By making mortars in a small scale the workability of the lime putty could be described. It showed how traditional sub-hydraulic or moderate hydraulic lime act after a long time of storage, giving us new insight into how it might have been possible to make extremely fat, lime-rich mortars. Combing the experience from this experimental work with results from analysis of historical mortars of extremely fat lime mortars from other areas in Sweden it can be highlighted how the lime have been slaked, stored and mixed and whether the lime have been used as hydraulic lime or simply lean lime where the lime lumps of hydraulic character are acting as aggregate.

As a part of the city wall in Visby fell down in 2012 a research project started to reconstruct the damaged parts. It was quite obvious that the rebuilding should be done with authentic local materials and traditional building techniques. As we presented the research project we became aware that using local authentic lime mortar was easily done on Gotland but not elsewhere. Why? Well, the traditional lime production started in 1100th century and never stopped. The knowledge about burning, slaking and storing lime in the Gotlandic way is known since old and never was lost or had to be fully reconstructed. This paper is about the
lime burning tradition on Gotland and the tradition of making air lime as back in the days.

This thesis aims to characterise a series of lime mortar samples removed from Stirling Castle, Scotland. Additional limestone samples were collected from potential quarry sites identified through archival analysis.  An additional sample from Falkland Palace was selected for use due to its constrained source material locations.

The samples were petrographically analysed using macro analysis, polarised light microscopy, point counting and XRD analysis. Chemical analysis was performed on the plaster and limestone samples
using ICP-MS and LA-ICP-MS.

The aims of the analyses were to determine the provenance of the original source limestone and aggregate used to create the plasters, and to determine the age of the samples. The archival investigation allowed a preliminary provenance determination to be made, which was further
investigated through the use of the petrographic and chemical analysis.
It was found that the binder in the lime plasters from Stirling Castle’s Palace Block were sourced within a five mile radius of the Castle, from a nodular limestone and a nearby outcrop of Murrayshall limestone. The outcrop of limestone was exposed along the Bannock Burn and was used from a West to East direction. Once the source became exhausted, the nodular limestone was employed. The aggregates were determined to be locally sourced from the River Forth.

The samples were all found to represent a range of dates from the late 17 th Century to the early 19 th Century, representing the period of alteration performed to allow the Castle to host a garrison.
The analysis also showed how the source of limestone altered over time and allowed for a sphere of influence to be determined based on the distances from which the material needed to produce the
lime mortar, was sourced.

This thesis will contribute new knowledge to the lack of data that exists in regards to the study of provenance using binder characterisation and isotopic analysis, in particular the use of LA-ICP-MS and ICP-MS. As such a new methodology for the examination of lime mortars by ICP-MS has been developed. Additionally this thesis will address a lack of knowledge that exists in regard to the materials used in the construction of Stirling Castle and the social implication implied by the results.

It took us about six months: Building a cylindrical, intermittent limekiln of the classic Roman/Medieval type with local materials only – stone rubble and clay. In June this year (2017), we built the firing chamber, filled the kiln with 2.5 tons of local marble and started burning. A week, night and day, with much of the local community involved. Here’s an article about the project – the first of its kind in Norway. The quicklime (burnt marble) will be tested at Selja medieval monastery and other restoration projects in Norway. Big thanks to all, 30-40 volunteers and paid people and support from the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage! The project was carried out by The Norwegian Millstone Centre/The Museums in Sogn og Fjordane County.