Colour and meaning in corporate logos: An empirical study

Colour and meaning in corporate logos: An empirical study Received (in revised form): 15th February, 2008 NIKI HYNES is Lecturer in Marketing at the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow. She has received degrees from the University of London, The University of Edinburgh and Lincoln University in New Zealand. Her present research interests include marketing in high technology firms, market and technological orientation, strategic alliances and corporate identity, and she has published in International Journal of Technology Marketing and International Journal of Technology Management. Keywords Abstract corporate visual identity; Corporate visual identity helps establish and maintain a company’s corporate image, of which the logos; colour; design colour and design of a company’s logo is central. This study examines the triadic relationship between colour, design and the evoked meanings of logos to understand how these contribute to building a consistent corporate image. Results strongly indicate that consumers make clear judgements about the image of a firm from the logo design and have strong opinions about which colours are appropriate for different corporate images. Journal of Brand Management (2009) 16, 545–555. doi:10.1057/bm.2008.5; published online 18 July 2008 INTRODUCTION Colour is sometimes referred to as the The corporate identity of a firm is strate- ‘silent salesperson’ as it exerts persuasive gically important in differentiating com- power at a subliminal level.3 This idea can panies and helps to establish customer be easily illustrated: an image shown in loyalty. Of the elements which help to vivid reds and oranges gives a completely establish this, corporate visual identity different feel and meaning from the same (CVI) includes all visual aspects of the firm image shown in pale blues and greens. This including buildings, products, uniforms of study therefore addresses the need to staff, paperwork and the corporate logo.1,2 examine how people perceive the colour, The corporate logo has various elements design and meaning of logos to examine of design which are important including how these interlink to and affect the iden- the shape, image, style and size, as well as tity of the organisation,4–6 a topic which the colour(s) used. Logos add value by to date has received little attention.7 This stakeholders seeing and remembering the study uses a two-stage experimental design logo (recognition) but to be effective, to capture if consumers are able to match the logo must serve as a signature of logo shapes to particular meanings (words) the company, by clearly linking the and secondly to determine whether shape, design or colour to the organisation respondents when presented with a logo it represents. The most easily recalled and mission statement can identify a logos usually have a unique shape (Nike, colour which best conveys this meaning. Apple, Chanel, Microsoft, etc). Some go Niki Hynes Department of Marketing, further to associate strongly with a par- University of Strathclyde, ticular colour as well—Coca Cola (red), BACKGROUND Glasgow G4 0RQ, UK Chanel (black), McDonalds (golden yellow The logo acts as a badge of identification,8 Tel: + 1 0141 548 3193 E-mail: [email protected] on red). as a mark of quality9 and as a way to © 2009 Palgrave Macmillan 1350-23IX Brand Management Vol. 16, 8, 545–555 www.palgrave-journals.com/bm  HYNES increase a company’s reputation.9,10 In chromodynamics, the ‘temperature’ of addition, if managed correctly, it may colour and direct cultural effects. It is serve to create competitive advantage1 thought that colours may carry emotional and simplify the task of formal corporate and neurophysiological values and may communications.9 The company’s name, affect levels of excitation and cognitive logo, typeface and colour scheme are stimulation.4 The Pantone Company14 typically considered to be the main (www.pantone.com) and others7,15 report components of CVI.4,11,12 that colours have a direct, physiological Van Riel and Van den Ban1 distinguish effect, for example, red can raise blood between the intrinsic properties of logos pressure and appetite, an effect known as (that is the degree of ‘representativeness’ ‘chromodynamics’. This effect is closely of the logo) and extrinsic properties. linked to the ‘temperature classification’ of Extrinsic properties are those originating colours, stemming from nature.15–17 from associations with the company. This Birren18 suggests that the excitation level is easily illustrated in the example of Nike of colour is directly linked to the ‘tem- which in design terms has strong referen- perature’ of the colour, where the warm tial elements—the swoosh representing colours including red, yellow and orange movement; this has a low representative- may mentally stimulate and can create ness but high extrinsic values making the excitement or even anger.4 The cool col- distinctive logo. The power of extrinsic ours are thought to have a calming effect properties is high; the degree of realism in due to their relatively low excitation level the design is inversely related to the ability and are often associated with restfulness, to attribute additional meanings4 but little nurturing and peace. This idea of a tem- research has examined whether illustrative perature of colour is used commonly in or abstract designs are more appropriate the popular press and in interior design; to particular organisations. however, the theory of chromodynamics Logo colour is also very important due has been heavily criticised because it is to its mnemonic quality in the areas of difficult to distinguish between cultural recognition and recall.4,13 Colour may and natural associations of colours. For play a role in imparting information, example, red may raise blood pressure creating lasting identity and suggesting because it is the colour of blood, and it imagery and symbolic value.4,13 Dowling8 may also serve as an appetite-stimulant as notes that colour is often an afterthought, it is a common colour in existing foods.17 left to the designer’s or corporate man- Culture can also affect the meaning of ager’s whim and is often decided upon colour. Examples of this effect are, for without any consideration of its psycho- example street/road signs which need to logical and strategic uses. Although the convey messages clearly in less time than importance of colour in CVI has received it would take to read and digest a descrip- little or no academic attention, there is tion of its meaning.17 In this context, substantial research outside the marketing some, but not all colours have precise and field which shows the importance of direct connotations (eg red means stop and colour in recognition and recall and more green means go), which may serve as evi- importantly, the idea that colour being dence to support Dowling’s8 earlier claim used to elicit different emotional responses.9 of faster recognition through colour than Three main schools of complementary shape or form. Instant recognition through thought exist on the meaning of colours: colour can potentially be very useful in 546 © 2009 Palgrave Macmillan 1350-23IX Brand Management Vol. 16, 8, 545–555  COLOUR AND MEANING IN CORPORATE LOGOS commercial applications such as product eight different colours and asked to select packaging, where consumers speeding down which colour best suits the logo. The ten supermarket aisles rely on colour to distin- words used to describe each logo were guish between brands.3 In addition, despite derived from the research on colour theory some limited and well-known cultural and associated with the eight colours. This differences in colour (red for good luck in experimental study therefore tested two China, etc), there are more commonalities elements of the meaning—design—colour in colour meaning across cultures than triadic relationship of logos. differences supporting chromodynamics Respondents were selected in two theory, or through nature. Some firms use waves of data collection. The first was a the power of colour in their design, for random street intercept in Scotland. In the example, the appetite-stimulating red of second wave of data collection, an online McDonalds or the environmentally friendly survey was run with a selection of online green of BP. As Fraser and Banks17 (p. 12) MBA students. In each case, respondents state, ‘it is no coincidence that the strongest were pre-qualified by checking for colour use of colour is often found where someone blindness, age (between 18 and 60) and is trying to sell you something’. In summary, for cultural background—all had lived or logos are one of the most powerful elements worked in the UK for a number of years. in establishing a CVI. Colour and design are The use of an online survey brings advan- two of the major aspects of the logo’s char- tages in terms of randomising the repre- acteristics and the importance of selecting sentation of words and colours, but also both an appropriate design and an appro- has associated problems with portrayal of priate colour both for the design and for the colour images. The colours were delib- the company image is therefore very high, erately scrambled to avoid the deduction yet one which has received little academic of any meaningful order (such as from attention. warm to cold) and to ensure equal chance of each colour to be chosen. Eight dif- ferent colours were selected for use in this METHODOLOGY study including blue, red, yellow, green, In order to overcome some of the difficul- purple, and orange, pink and brown. ties in separating the associations between corporate identity, logo design and colour, an experimental and exploratory method- RESULTS ology was used. It is impossible to show a The results are described below; each of logo without using colour since black and the eight logos is presented followed white have associated meanings. Therefore, by the words chosen by respondents to this experimental study took a two-stage represent the meaning of the logo. The approach where respondents were asked mission statement given to respondents to firstly to select three words from a given create a company image is then presented, list which best described the company followed by a summary of preferred colour depicted by a black and white logo ficti- choice for this combination of words tious and unknown logo. They were then and logo design. The final column shows given a description of a fictitious company significant correlations between colours for each logo (which incorporated three and words, and the direction of this of the words used on the list already asso- correlation. Words supported by colour ciated with the logo), shown the logo in theory are shown in italics. © 2009 Palgrave Macmillan 1350-23IX Brand Management Vol. 16, 8, 545–555 547  HYNES House of respondents chose either brown or blue. The choice of colour may have been com- Total % Colour plicated by the fact that most houses have correlation some degree of brown colour on them. House is a representative logo for which respondents had clear ideas about the meaning of the design, which matched Homely 272 82.2 Brown ( − ) well to the colour choice. The match Dependable 133 40.2 Blue ( − ), Green (+), between mission statement and colour Orange (+) Warm 144 43.5 Red (+), Blue ( − ) choice is also broadly present (blue being Trustworthy 112 33.8 the ‘correct answer’ and the second most Reliable 89 26.9 Green (+) commonly chosen colour) but with brown Thoughtful 46 13.9 Red (+) Imaginative 43 13.0 Red (+) as a logical choice for both desired Healthy 34 10.3 meaning and inferred meaning. For this Dynamic 25 7.6 representative design, yellow (refreshing), Refreshing 19 5.7 Yellow (+) green (reliable) and red (warm) were significantly related to meanings predicted The representative nature of this logo is by colour theory, but not selected as the echoed in the selected words: ‘homely’, ‘warm’ best colour for this company’s logo. and ‘dependable’. ‘Trustworthy’ and ‘reliable’ also scored highly. These are all words asso- Globe ciated with earthy colours such as brown or Total % Colour blue. The meaning of this representative logo correlations is therefore a useful metaphor for a company’s identity where it seeks to establish itself as a dependable warm builder. It would not suit more innovative or commercial builders. Protective 196 59.2 Mission: ‘This company is a long estab- Stability 192 58.0 Pink ( − ) lished house-builder who wants to be Reliable 127 38.4 Red (+), Purple (+) Imaginative 108 32.6 Yellow (+) seen as dependable, trustworthy and reli- Renewal 109 32.9 Orange (+) able. Which colour best suits the logo for Thoughtful 89 26.9 this organisation?’ Playful 46 13.9 Yellow (+) Healthy 23 6.9 Passionate 20 6.0 Total Homely 10 3.0 Brown 138 Blue 82 This representative logo apparently had Green 63 two groups of meanings: ‘protective’ and Orange 21 Red 16 ‘stability’ being chosen by over half of all Pink 0 respondents. The second grouping included Purple 8 ‘reliable’, ‘imaginative’ and ‘renewal’. This Yellow 2 was an implicitly representative logo Total 330 showing a globe with stars, which are arguably stylised from a flag—but without The company’s description used words any particular inherent meaning. associated with blue and/or brown, and Mission: ‘This is a logo of a governmental the overwhelming majority (65 per cent) aid organisation that aims to provide shelter 548 © 2009 Palgrave Macmillan 1350-23IX Brand Management Vol. 16, 8, 545–555  COLOUR AND MEANING IN CORPORATE LOGOS and temporary housing to disaster relief Respondents overwhelmingly chose victims. They want to be seen as being the word ‘passionate’ to describe this protective, homely and stable. Which implicitly representative logo followed colour best suits the logo for this organisa- by ‘playful’ and ‘exciting’. ‘Passion’ and tion?’ ‘excitement’ are usually associated with red, although ‘playful’ is more commonly associated with yellow or orange. Total Mission: ‘This is the logo for an orchestra. It is passionate about performing at the Blue 168 Green 63 highest quality, and to be seen as a Brown 31 dynamic, exciting provider of classical Red 25 music. Which colour best suits the logo Orange 18 Purple 14 for this orchestra?’ Yellow 8 Pink 3 Total 330 Total Purple 94 The description of the company used Red 73 words normally associated with brown while Blue 54 Brown 46 respondents overwhelmingly selected blue Orange 29 (more than 50 per cent). The words chosen Green 16 for the design of this logo were also over- Pink 9 Yellow 9 whelmingly blue-associated: ‘protective’ and ‘stable’ suggesting a strong link between Total 330 meaning, design and colour but inconsistent with the given mission statement. Purple was the most commonly chosen colour, followed by red. Red closely Stylised heart/double clef matched the selected words although the world ‘regal’ is the one most com- Words Total % Colour monly associated with purple and this was correlation chosen by one-third of all respondents. Purple is rarely seen in nature and for many centuries purple dye was restricted in its use—in Elizabethan times it could only be legally worn by Royalty, and as far back as Roman times only the Passionate 237 71.8 most powerful emperors wore purple. Playful 166 50.3 Purple (+) Exciting 136 41.2 Orange ( − ), Purple Perhaps because of this it is seen as luxu- (+), Brown ( − ) rious and it is now commonly used in Imaginative 90 27.3 Cadbury chocolate advertisements which Regal 75 22.7 may have changed its associations Dynamic 69 20.9 Purple (+) explaining the correlations between purple Energetic 65 19.7 Blue (+), Brown ( − ) Refreshing 39 11.8 Pink (+) and ‘dynamic’, ‘exciting’ and ‘playful’ Protective 32 9.7 which are not supported by traditional Reliable 19 5.8 colour theory. © 2009 Palgrave Macmillan 1350-23IX Brand Management Vol. 16, 8, 545–555 549  HYNES Bunny opposite relationship predicted by theory. Green is associated with the predicted Total % Colour correlation meanings when used in this logo, while (only sig. values reported) no other colours match their expected meaning in this logo. Fun 245 74.2 Imaginative 143 43.3 Energetic 109 33.0 Pink ( − ) Kite Refreshing 112 33.9 Green (+) Homely 91 27.6 Purple (+), Green (+) Words Total % Colour Cheap 75 22.7 correlation Dynamic 69 20.9 Sensual 59 17.9 Reliable 30 9.1 Green (+) Healthy 30 9.1 Purple (+) This logo has few intrinsic qualities Happy 254 77.0 Yellow (+), Purple ( − ) although is likely to be associated with Cheerful 219 66.4 Red ( − ), Yellow (+) children or clothing due to the words Energetic 124 37.6 Green ( − ), Yellow (+) Healthy 98 29.7 Blue ( − ), Yellow (+) included. Over 74 per cent of all respond- Exciting 70 21.2 ents chose the word ‘fun’, followed by a Refreshing 67 20.3 Green ( − ), Yellow (+) range of other words including ‘imagina- Homely 45 13.6 Imaginative 45 13.6 tive’, ‘energetic’, ‘refreshing’. Fun is usually Dependable 23 7.0 Blue ( − ) associated with orange and yellows, as is Stability 13 3.9 imaginative and energetic. Mission: ‘This company sells children’s Respondents overwhelmingly chose two cotton clothes. It wants to be seen as fun and words to describe the meaning of this logo: to be worn by energetic, healthy people. Which ‘happy’ and ‘cheerful’, with ‘energetic’ as a colour best suits the logo for this company?’ third choice. These colours would normally be associated with yellow or orange. Yellow Total was positively correlated with ‘happy’ and Pink 117 ‘cheerful’, consistent with colour theory. Yellow 86 Mission: ‘This is the logo of a preschool Orange 49 nursery which wants to be seen as ener- Red 46 getic, cheerful and friendly place to leave Brown 16 Green 10 your children. Which colour best suits the Purple 5 logo for this preschool?’ Blue 1 Total Total 330 Yellow 76 Green 50 The bunny logo was designed to com- Purple 47 municate pink, associated with health and Pink 46 Red 37 energy giving. These characteristics are also Orange 36 associated with yellow and clearly most Blue 34 respondents chose pink for this logo, with Brown 4 yellow as second choice. Surprising pink Total 330 and ‘energetic’ correlate negatively—the 550 © 2009 Palgrave Macmillan 1350-23IX Brand Management Vol. 16, 8, 545–555  COLOUR AND MEANING IN CORPORATE LOGOS The colour distribution for this Total logo was much wider than the other logos although the most commonly Red 88 Orange 56 chosen colour was yellow, consistent Purple 48 with both the desired meaning in the Blue 38 mission statement and the inferred Green 37 Yellow 35 colour from the respondents. Given that Pink 23 the kite is nonrepresentative of the Brown 2 company, it is surprising that the colour/ Total 327 meaning/design links were very clearly linked. The ‘radio’ label was described with words normally associated with orange, yet the respondents were less able to select the Headphones correct colour from the description and Total % Colour most opted for red, with orange as the correlation second highest ranked colour. Feet Fun 225 68.2 Playful 178 53.9 Red (+) Total % Colour Happy 123 37.3 Green (+), correlation Pink ( − ) (only sig. Imaginative 112 33.9 values Cheap 100 30.3 Red (+) reported) Exciting 74 22.4 Refreshing 44 13.3 Reliable 35 10.6 Yellow (+) Stability 191 57.7 Stability 29 8.8 Contemplative 143 43.2 Sensual 15 4.5 Red ( − ), Visionary 122 36.9 Red ( − ), Orange (+) Green (+) Trustworthy 120 36.3 Pink ( − ) Truthful 100 30.2 Brown (+) Imaginative 66 19.9 Yellow ( − ) Respondents overwhelmingly chose Energetic 62 18.7 Green (+) the word ‘fun’ to describe this logo with Renewal 53 16.0 Purple (+), Green (+) ‘playful’ and ‘happy’ also highly ranked. Happy 27 8.2 Brown (+) These words are consistent with the colours Cheerful 21 6.3 orange or yellow. The colour-meaning correlations for this logo are all ‘incorrect’ More than half the respondents chose yet the meanings and colour choices the word ‘stability’ to describe this logo, are fairly consistent, suggesting that respon- with the words ‘contemplative’, ‘visionary’ dents did not make the predicted connec- and ‘trustworthy’ and ‘truthful’ in a second tion between the colours in this implicit tier. It would seem that the words on the illustrative logo. logo have inspired these choices since a Mission: ‘This is the logo of a local radio pair of footprints is unlikely to evoke such station which wants to be seen as fun, thoughts. ‘Stability’ and ‘trustworthiness’ playful and bringing happiness to its are traditionally associated with blue or listeners. Which logo best suits the logo brown while ‘vision’ and ‘contemplative’ for this radio station?’ are usually associated with purple. © 2009 Palgrave Macmillan 1350-23IX Brand Management Vol. 16, 8, 545–555 551  HYNES Mission: ‘This is the logo of a religious Prosperity 131 39.6 Orange ( − ) organisation which aims to promote strong Protective 116 35.0 Blue (+), visionary values of truth, justice and Trustworthy 87 26.3 Purple (+) Regal 72 21.8 human rights. Which colour best suits the Fun 44 13.3 Red ( − ), Blue (+), logo for this charity?’ Purple (+) Friendly 24 7.3 Warm 13 3.9 Total Brown 134 Blue 51 Half the respondents chose the words Green 46 ‘prestigious’ and ‘security’ for this abstract Orange 27 Purple 22 corporate looking logo with ‘dynamic’, Yellow 22 ‘prosperity’ and ‘protective’ also chosen. This Red 18 suggests a strong meaning conveyed by the Pink 6 simple abstract design consistent with a Total 330 company wanting to evoke values desirable by a financial institution. The feet logo contains the words ‘justice’ Mission: ‘This is the logo of a bank which and ‘charity’ although the font was small. wants to be seen as prestigious. They aim to Nearly half of all respondents chose provide a place where your money will brown with blue being the second choice. be secure and your investments grow to The word religious was inserted into make you prosperous. Which colour best the mission statement to attempt to get suits the logo for this bank?’ respondents to choose purple which would have been consistent with the values of Total visionary and contemplation. In this logo there appears to be a conflict between Blue 159 Red 54 the brown/blue connotations of stability Brown 35 and trust and the connection with con- Green 31 templative and visionary. This logo seems Yellow 18 Orange 16 to have a design consistent with its Purple 14 meaning but inconsistent with the pre- Pink 2 ferred logo colour associated through Total colour theory. The wavy lines of the bank’s logo were Abstract described using colours normally associ- ated with green which has also tradition- ally been associated with money; however, Total % Colour correlation nearly three quarters of all respondents selected the colour blue as being the most appropriate. This is consistent with blue Prestigious 167 50.5 Green ( − ) being a ‘corporate’ colour. This abstract Security 164 49.5 logo was clearly identified as a corporate, Dynamic 155 46.8 Blue (+), Yellow possibly financial-type logo and strongly ( − ), Brown ( − ) associated with corporate blue. 552 © 2009 Palgrave Macmillan 1350-23IX Brand Management Vol. 16, 8, 545–555  COLOUR AND MEANING IN CORPORATE LOGOS SUMMARY OF RESULTS Logo Associated Colour chosen Words given Colour Colour words by respondent in mission associated meaning (brackets statement with mission associations theory-driven statement correctly colour) made Homely Blue/Brown (blue) Dependable Blue Green, Red Dependable Trustworthy Warm Reliable Yellow, Pink Protective Blue/Brown (blue or Protective Brown/Blue Stability brown) Homely Reliable Stable Green Fun Yellow (yellow or Fun Pink/yellow Imaginative pink) Energetic Energetic Healthy Happy Yellow (yellow) Energetic Yellow Yellow Cheerful Cheerful Friendly Passionate Purple (red) Passionate Red Purple, Playful Dynamic Brown Exciting Exciting Fun Red (orange) Fun Orange None Playful Playful Happy Happiness Stability Green/Purple Visionary Purple Pink, Red Contemplative (green/purple) Truth Justice Prestigious Blue Prestigious Green Yellow, Security (Green/Red) Secure Orange, Dynamic Grow Brown, Blue In summary, there was a very close match given or the words chosen by the respond- in terms of the words associated with the ents. This suggests that abstract logos have logo by the respondents and the ‘mission strong associations with meaning, but that statements’ of the organisation suggesting a these meanings are not necessarily reflected close match in design and meaning. In in the associated colour choices that con- overall terms there was a clear choice of the sumers see as appropriate. Implicitly illustra- cool or hot colour consistent with the tive logos (those logos which show a known colour theory although individual colours image but out of context such as the kite/ were often confused: red was chosen in place bunny/globe and feet) show a much closer of orange, or blue in place of brown. The link between colour and meaning, and the abstract logo and the feet logo did not show more representative the logo selected—the a close colour match to either the meaning closer the links between the expected © 2009 Palgrave Macmillan 1350-23IX Brand Management Vol. 16, 8, 545–555 553  HYNES meaning of colour and the colour chosen choices. Black, white and grey carry strong being seen as inferring those qualities on connotations and associations and are very the firm through its logo. effective in communicating certain corpo- rate identities. Future studies could ask respondents to select from a wider range of colours including tones and shades of DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS the main colours, or include in-depth The corporate identity of a firm should qualitative work. The relationship between reflect its values, mission statement, strategy mission statement and colour was not and characteristics,6 and the logo design tested in this study but could be incorpo- and colour can be a vital aid in this.5,9 The rated into future research by providing a results from this study strongly support the statement of corporate identity with no communicative value of colour in expressing logo and asking the respondent which that corporate identity, with certain colour best represents this corporation and attributes clearly associated with particular its identity. The range of colours chosen logo colours. In broad terms these match for each logo illustrates the inseparability the attributes published on colour theory. between the meaning of a colour and the At a basic level, the implied ‘temperature’ shape, or design of the logo for which it was always sustained—for example in the is used. For example, bright-green tree headphones logo, the respondents chose leaves may be associated with health and red, whereas the closest match in colour vitality, but the same colour on human theory to meaning would be orange, these skin suggests opposite connotations.17 two are both ‘hot’ colours. This implies that Special consideration is therefore due to matching the temperature of the logo the synchronisation of colour with the colour is essential to creating a consistent other logo elements: symbol, name and message. The results confirm that where typeface. representative logos are suggested, the Finally, this study has shown that the meaning derived from colour is confirmed dynamics of the triangle of meaning- and respondents have clear ideas about suit- colour-corporate identity are complex able colours. Companies wishing to ‘shock’ and difficult to separate. It is therefore consumers or challenge these preconceived imperative for the success of CVI com- ideas can do so by choosing unusual munication that existing meanings and colours—the house in purple or orange associations of colour, are incorporated for example. An organisation that selects a with design of shape and style, and not colour inappropriate to its overall image left as an afterthought. will send conflicting signals to its audience and would need to make extra efforts to reinforce their corporate identity, while a References colour chosen to support corporate image (1) Van Riel, C. and Van den Ban, A. (2001) ‘The will aid visual recognition and ultimately added value of corporate logos: An empirical create competitive advantage. Both the design study’, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 35, No. 3/4, pp. 428–440. (shape) and the colour of corporate logos (2) Green, D. and Loveluck, V. 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