Dhāraṇī Sūtras Dhāraṇī literature is one of the least-studied streams as dhāraṇīs” (Copp, 2011, 176). This definition seems of Buddhist scriptural traditions. While the mean- to be valid for South Asia as well and, recalling the ing of dhāraṇī is complex and context sensitive, fluidity of the usage of dhāraṇī, mantra, and vidyā, those texts called dhāraṇī scriptures can be defined we find that dhāraṇī texts inevitably belong to a in most cases as works centered on a dhāraṇī larger class of what may be labeled Buddhist spell spell. This diverse body of incantation literature or incantation literature. Simultaneously, there is has existed for some two millennia, and practices no uniform name for pieces of dhāraṇī literature related to it have been popular and widespread up in South Asia: some are called dhāraṇī; others are to the present time. Although several dhāraṇī scrip- called sūtra (exposition), vidyā (spell), kalpa (ritual tures and numerous individual dhāraṇī spells sur- manual), or pratyaṅgirā (countermagic). Often, vive in Central, East, and Southeast Asia in Sanskrit, more than one of the previously mentioned words the present article deals mainly with dhāraṇī litera- are used in a particular title, and sometimes rāja/ ture in its native South Asian contexts. Our sources rājñī (king/queen) is appended to the whole head- have been preserved almost exclusively in Sanskrit ing to express higher rank and authority. Occa- manuscripts, and finds of dhāraṇī inscriptions have sionally, a single text can be referred to by various been rare on the subcontinent. titles – a phenomenon quite common in South Asia. Thus, dhāraṇī literature is a heterogeneous body with respect to titles, and we have to classify The Definitions of Dhāraṇī a wider range of scriptures of various designation under the umbrella of dhāraṇī. Dhāraṇī texts vary Dhāraṇī is an exclusively Buddhist term, the primary in length and degree of compositeness. Such scrip- literary meaning of which is not completely clear. tures stretch from a few dozen lines to several hun- In the extended sense, dhāraṇī has most often been dred, written in prose or prosimetric style and may interpreted as “spell.” However, its semantic range is contain elements such as a frame story, dhāraṇī(s)/ wider than the sphere of incantations, with a further mantra(s)/vidyā(s), narrative(s), list(s) of benefits or principal interpretation as “memory” or “mnemonic other components, and instruction(s) for use. device.” Especially in earlier sources, dhāraṇī was a mnemonics-related term in most cases, a use that appears to have faded away with the course of time. The Language of Dhāraṇīs At least synchronically speaking, dhāraṇī is decid- edly polysemic and context sensitive (Davidson, Dhāraṇī spells are regarded as uttered by the Bud- 2009). In the present literary context, the “spell” dha in the majority of cases. They have a special interpretation of dhāraṇī as used here describes prose language sharing many features with man- a reasonably distinct scriptural body. However, tras. A main difference between the two appears dhāraṇī is often appositional or interchangeable to be quantitative: dhāraṇīs are usually longer than with two other closely related words – mantra and mantras. These incantations are mostly divided vidyā, which also refer to a spell. into smaller sections (pada) that may contain sal- utations, invocations, or supplications; vocatives predominantly in the feminine; short sentences with The Definitions of Dhāraṇī Scripture imperatives; various mantras or mantric formulas; distinctive and intensifying alliterations; exhaus- To determine the scope of dhāraṇī scripture, it tions and augmentations; and further miscellaneous is helpful to look for clarifications in the Chinese sections, which sometimes convey onomatopoeia or context. Here we find that within this category fall musicality (Castro-Sanchez, 2011, 70–75). It is a key “those Buddhist texts that center on the presenta- characteristic of these spells as found in our manu- tion and means to actualize the incantations known script evidence that they are often personalized, © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2015 BEB, vol. I Also available online – www.brill 130 Dhāraṇī Sūtras with the donor’s or beneficiary’s name inserted into The Affiliations of Dhāraṇī Literature them at particular points. The language of dhāraṇīs includes both meaningful and meaningless con- The establishment of a conclusive classification for tents. Setting aside seed syllables (bīja), which are at this literature has posed problems since the begin- least lexically plainly unintelligible (āḥ, hrīḥ, phaṭ, ning of modern Buddhist Studies in the 1840s, as etc.), the occurrence of such, apparently meaning- it is not completely straightforward how dhāraṇī less, words (mili mili, culu culu, and the like) has scriptures should be positioned in the history of raised the possibility that some may be connected to South Asian Buddhism. A fundamental difficulty non-Sanskritic traditions, by the influence of which concerns the loose boundaries separating various features of the Dravidian language family entered types of apotropaic cultures, namely, the protective these otherwise linguistically Indo-European Bud- recitation of certain suttas/sūtras, including paritta dhist incantations (Bernhard, 1967). (safeguard), mahāsūtra (great sūtra), svastigāthā (verse of welfare), and rakṣā (protection) (Skilling, 1992), and the employment of specific magical for- The Origins of Dhāraṇī Literature mulas, vidyā, mantra, and dhāraṇī. This situation is further complicated by the prevailing problem The earliest material evidence for the presence of that, in the course of time, the position of such Buddhist spells in South Asia dates to the 1st century practices, especially that of dhāraṇīs, appears to ce; Gandharan manuscript fragments of an incanta- have been fluid, as they were adopted by different tion (vidyā) expounded by the nāga king Manasvin streams of Buddhism. Such variations seem to be have been recently discovered (Strauch, 2014). There reflected in a number of dhāraṇī manuscript colo- are a number of further, seemingly early sources phons, which sometimes do refer to Mahāyāna and that may help to cast more light on the beginnings of in a few instances also have tantric allusions (Hidas, Buddhist spell practice and literature: references to 2012, 77–87). It is noteworthy that except in colo- the employment of mantras are present, for exam- phons, Mahāyāna is rarely mentioned, and there is ple, in various Vinayas, and dhāraṇīs are included little that could be described as Mahāyāna in many in the Lotus Sūtra (Saddharmapuṇḍarīka) and the of these scriptures. From a general point of view, it Śārdūlakarṇāvadāna (Davidson, 2009, 2014a). Prob- appears then that the use of texts and formulas for ably the earliest dhāraṇī text in Chinese translation magical-ritualistic purposes has been present in a comes from the late 2nd century (Harrison & Cob- wide variety of Buddhist texts. With the exception lin, 1999). While we can only speculate about the of the Theravāda, which does not embrace explicit period before the 1st century ce, the rise of dhāraṇī magical means at least at the canonical level, there literature cannot be separated from another closely is evidence for the use of incantations in some main- related phenomenon within Buddhism, namely, stream schools: Sarvāstivāda, Mūlasarvāstivāda, providing both spiritual and worldly protection Dharmaguptaka, and Mahāsāṃghika (Skilling, 1992). (Skt. paritrā; Pal. paritta; or Skt. rakṣā; Pal. rakkhā) Actual dhāraṇīs, however, appear to have risen to by various means. Pali paritta collections have been preeminence in a Mahāyāna context. Dhāraṇīs in use up to the present time in Theravāda lands, and gained further palpable popularity within tantric texts of other mainstream Buddhist schools related Buddhism, and were later classified by theorists to magical practices are also likely to have once in the kriyātantra (ritual tantra) category (Dalton, been grouped together, as there are references to a 2005), although this assignment is to a certain extent Dhāraṇīpiṭaka or Mantrapiṭaka of the Dharmagup- artificial and automatic. It seems that dhāraṇī prac- takas and Mahāsāṃghikas, and a Vidyādharapiṭaka tices contributed to the rise of Tantrism and that they of the Mahāsāṃghikas in some sources (Skilling, represent the earliest form of esoteric Buddhism. 1992, 114–115), although recent research suggests that The classification of dhāraṇī scriptures as sūtra or these may have been imaginary containers (David- tantra is much varied and sometimes controversial son, 2014b). The ancient roots of dhāraṇīs are still within Tibetan and Chinese textual systems, show- obscure; their emergence may partly be connected ing that the positioning of these scriptures was prob- to indigenous mantric lore that found its way first to lematic in earlier times as well. the Atharvaveda and then to both early Brahmanic and Buddhist spell literatures.  Dhāraṇī Sūtras 131 Dhāraṇī Manuscripts The second group consists of scriptures that do incorporate one or more dhāraṇī spells but are not Dhāraṇī scriptures survive in manuscript form in centered on them. Such texts include the Gaṇḍavyūha, South Asia, though most remain unpublished. The Kāraṇḍavyūha, Karuṇāpuṇḍarīka, Laṅkāvatāra, birchbark, palm-leaf, and paper codices originate Mañjuśriyamūlakalpa, Prajñāpāramitā literature, almost exclusively from the northern parts of the Śārdūlakarṇāvadāna, Saddharmapuṇḍarīka, Sarva- subcontinent, most being preserved in Nepal. On durgatipariśodhana, Sarvatathāgatatattvasaṃgraha, the basis of catalogues, their number can be esti- and Suvarṇabhāsottama. In some cases, such as mated to be over 1,300. The most common single cat- chapter 21 of the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka or chapter egory, of more than 300, transmits the Pañcarakṣā 9 of the Laṅkāvatāra, it is not clear whether the (Five Protections) collection, and numerous codi- dhāraṇī sections have been part of these scriptures ces contain the Dhāraṇīsaṃgraha (Dhāraṇī Collec- from the earliest times or are later additions. tion) and Saptavāra (Seven Days) compendiums. Texts centered on a dhāraṇī spell may be consi- Among individual texts the Aparimitāyuḥsūtra, dered actual dhāraṇī scriptures. These focus on a Grahamātṛkādhāraṇī, Sitātapatrā/Mahāpratyaṅgirā specific incantation, its origins, benefits, and ways of and Vasudhārādhāraṇī prominently outnumber employment. However, since there is considerable all others. fluidity regarding the use of the terms vidyā, mantra, and dhāraṇī, the name of this group could perhaps be extended to “spell scriptures.” Such scriptures Dhāraṇī Scriptures include the Amoghapāśa, Aparimitāyus, Bodhigar- bhālaṅkāralakṣa, Dhvajāgrakeyūra, Ekādaśamukha, The calculation of the number of dhāraṇī scrip- Gaṇapati, Grahamātṛkā, Hayagrīva, Hiraṇyavatī, Mahā- tures in South Asia is not without difficulties, as the maṇivipulavimāna, Mahāmantrānusāriṇī, Mahā- number of surviving individual dhāraṇīs is several māyūrī, Mahāpratisarā, Mahāsāhasrapramardanī, times greater than those dhāraṇīs with a specific Mahāśītavatī, Mārīcī, Megha, Mekhalā, Nārāya- associated scripture. It is not known whether these ṇaparipṛcchā/Mahāmāyāvijayavāhinī, Parṇaśavarī/ spells have actually circulated without such scrip- Prajñāpāramitā, Ratnaketu, Ṣaṇmukhī, Sarvata- tures, or whether these texts have been lost in the thāgatādhiṣṭhāna, Sitātapatrā/Mahāpratyaṅgirā, original language in the course of time. A thorough Uṣṇīṣavijayā, Vajravidāraṇī, and Vasudhārā. It comparison of surviving manuscripts with Chinese should be noted that some of these actual dhāraṇī and Tibetan translations would throw more light on scriptures – namely the Bodhigarbhālaṅkāralakṣa, this question. The Mañjuśriyamūlakalpa refers to Ekādaśamukha, Gaṇapati, Uṣṇīṣavijayā, and a fabulous “many-hundred-thousand-ten-million” Vajravidāraṇī – are available at the moment only in dhāraṇīs, but there is solid evidence for the a concise form in South Asia, containing the essence existence of more than 350 incantations in the (hṛdaya) of a longer text, said by tradition to have Dhāraṇīsaṃgraha collections. What may be called existed at some time in the (perhaps mythical) past. “actual” dhāraṇī scriptures amount to a much There are also texts that bear most characteris- smaller number – about 30 survive in South Asia. tics of an actual dhāraṇī scripture but do not contain Before enumerating actual dhāraṇī scriptures, spells. Such texts include the Bhaiṣajyagurusūtra and two further closely related groups should be men- the Śrīmahādevīvyākaraṇa. Instead of an incanta- tioned. The first consists of texts that refer to dhāraṇī tion, these scriptures incorporate various sorts of enu- but do not include a dhāraṇī spell. These scriptures merations like vows or praises, which seem to have usually mention dhāraṇī in the context of mnemon- functions similar to those of the spells – namely it is ics as part of the bodhisattva practice, and it is here claimed that their recitation, usually along with the that we have the highest degree of fluidity regard- whole scripture, brings about desired effects. ing the meaning of this word. Such texts include the Some texts titled dhāraṇī do not bear the char- Daśabhūmika, Lalitavistara, Prajñāpāramitā litera- acteristics of an actual dhāraṇī scripture. These ture, Rāṣṭrapālaparipṛcchā, Samādhirāja, Sukhāvatī- include the Avikalpapraveśadhāraṇī/Nirvikalpa- vyūha, and Vimalakīrtinirdeśa. In these scriptures, praveśadhāraṇī and the unpublished Bhīmasena- dhāraṇī does not seem to occur as an incantation dhāraṇī (e.g. Cambridge Ms. Add. 1359). but rather as a means of remembrance, understand- Lastly, another group of texts consists of ancil- ing, and contemplation (Braarvig, 1985). lary works connected to various dhāraṇī traditions. 132 Dhāraṇī Sūtras These include texts called vidhi (manual), stotra ied and deposited in a caitya and to be worshipped (praise), and sādhana (worship). Many of these thereafter. The Mahāśītavatī is taught by the lord works are related to the phase in South Asian Bud- to Rāhula in Rājagṛha. It provides protection from dhism in which these spells had already been deified graha demons and all sorts of further dangers. This (see below). scripture includes a dhāraṇī, lists of benefits, and instructions for use. The Mārīcīdhāraṇī is revealed by the Buddha to an assembly of monks in Śrāvastī. A Brief Description of Dhāraṇī It expounds the dhāraṇī of the goddess Mārīcī, Scriptures including an enumeration of dangers from which protection is provided. The Ratnaketuparivarta or The settings and key characters of dhāraṇī scrip- Mahāsaṃnipātaratnaketudhāraṇīsūtra is taught by tures vary considerably from mundane to celestial the lord in Rājagṛha. It is a long and complex scrip- and show the striking comprehensiveness of this ture that consists of many chapters and includes genre. There are several pieces of dhāraṇī literature various spells and astrological references. It is com- in which the place of teaching is a historical North posed around a story of Māra’s resistance against the Indian city and the protagonists are prominent Tathāgata. The Vasudhārādhāraṇī is expounded by followers of the Buddha. The Gaṇapatihṛdaya the Buddha in Kauśāmbī. A layman called Sucandra is taught by the Buddha to his closest disciple requests a sermon from the lord so that beings may Ānanda in Rājagṛha. Beside the spell essence become prosperous. Then the Buddha teaches this (hṛdaya), this text contains details of benefits and dhāraṇī along with enumerations of benefits and ritual instructions. The Mahāmantrānusāriṇīsūtra ritual instructions for use. Having received this spell, has come down to us in manuscripts preserving Sucandra turns wealthy. This scripture concludes two different places of teaching: one in Vaiśālī and with a conversation between the lord and Ānanda. the other in Rājagṛha. The lord gives instructions to It is notable that manuscripts of this text were Ānanda to go to Vaiśālī hit by a devastating earth- preserved in a Jaina library as well (Jaini, 1968). quake and storm and save the city from the result- In another set of dhāraṇī scriptures the place ing calamities by the recitation of various spells of teaching or the main characters and in many and verses. The Mahāsāhasrapramardanasūtra cases both of these belong to celestial spheres. The is taught by the lord in Rājagṛha. This scripture is Aparimitāyuḥsūtra contains the spell of Aparimi- another account of the alleviation of calamities in tāyus Buddha, and it is taught by the lord to the Vaiśālī. Besides the Buddha, the main characters are bodhisattva Mañjuśrī in Śrāvastī. Those who recite, the guardian deities of the directions called the Four copy, or worship this text are granted longev- Great Kings who offer protection. This text consists ity and will be reborn in Aparimitāyus’ buddha of dhāraṇīs, verses, various lists of deities, yakṣas field. It is also stated that they will be reborn in and mountains, enumerations of benefits, and a Amitābha’s blissful Sukhāvatī land. Further ben- number of ritual instructions in its latter part. The efits include reverence by various buddhas and the Mahāmāyūrīvidyārājñī is expounded by the Buddha attainment of the highest perfect awakening. The in Śrāvastī, where Ānanda requests him to provide Ekādaśamukhahṛdaya is expounded by the bod- help for a monk suffering from a snakebite. What hisattva Avalokiteśvara in the presence of the lord follows is an extensive teaching including various in Śrāvastī. This spell provides ten main benefits spells, long lists of malevolent beings, yakṣas, nāgas, and various further ones. There are some mantras herbs, rivers, mountains, constellations, ṛṣis, poi- listed connected to a ritual to be performed. The sons, trees, and ritual instructions at the end. The Mahāpratisarāmahāvidyārājñī consists of two parts Mekhalādhāraṇī is taught by the lord to Ānanda (kalpa), and it is taught by the Buddha to the great in Kapilavastu after his son Rāhula informs him god Brahmā on Mount Vajrameru. In an earlier ver- about being disturbed by malevolent rākṣasīs. This sion of this scripture the place of teaching is likely fragmentary scripture contains some spells, refer- to have been the Gṛdhrakūṭa near Rājagṛha. The ences to benefits, and brief ritual instructions. The first and main part includes separate dhāraṇī and Bodhigarbhālaṅkāralakṣadhāraṇī is likely to be an mantrapada sections, nine narratives, enumerations extract of a longer version in its surviving form. It of benefits, and ritual instructions for the prepara- appears to have been explicated by the Buddha to tion of an amulet. The second part includes lists Ānanda and consists of a spell section followed by a of further benefits, another dhāraṇī, and ritual list of benefits. The dhāraṇī is prescribed to be cop- instructions for healing and protection. The  Dhāraṇī Sūtras 133 Amoghapāśahṛdayadhāraṇī contains the first part scripture includes a description of benefits and a of the voluminous Amoghapāśakalparāja. The spell section. Sometimes dhāraṇīs are taught to the setting is Mount Potalaka, where the bodhisat- highest-ranking gods. The Dhvajāgrakeyūradhāraṇī tva Avalokiteśvara requests permission from the is expounded by the Buddha in the abode of the Buddha to recite this spell. As it is stated in Trāyastriṃśat gods. Their chief, Śakra requests a various references, including 28 blessings, this sermon from the lord after having been defeated incantation provides general protection and all sorts by the asuras. Following the dhāraṇī, references of benefits. After the dhāraṇī essence (hṛdaya), a to benefits and instructions for use are given. The number of ritual instructions are given. In the Nārāyaṇaparipṛcchā or Mahāmāyāvijayavāhinī- Sarvatathāgatādhiṣṭhānavyūhasūtra, the place of dhāraṇī is taught by the Buddha on Mount teaching is again Mount Potalaka, where the lord Svarṇaśṛṅga in the mansion of Vaiśravaṇa. The emi- dwells with an assembly of bhikṣus, bodhisattvas, nent deity Nārāyaṇa requests a sermon from the and other beings. The bodhisattva Mañjuśrī asks lord so that beings may become invincible in battle. Avalokiteśvara to request a sermon from the Buddha Then the Buddha gives a dhāraṇī along with instruc- for the benefit of all beings. This scripture includes tions for use, including the visualization of the a number of dhāraṇīs and mantrapadas along personified “Queen of Spells” (vidyārājñī). The with instructions for use and lists of benefits. The Sarvatathāgatoṣṇīṣasitātapatrāparājitāpratyaṅg Ṣaṇmukhīdhāraṇī is taught by the lord to an assem- irāmahāvidyārājñī is expounded by the lord in the bly of bodhisattvas above the prominent celestial abode of the Trāyastriṃśat gods. This scripture Śuddhāvāsa world realm. This scripture consists of includes spell sections, enumerations of benefits, a list of benefits, a dhāraṇī, and brief instructions and instructions for use. for use. A central benefit of the employment of this Finally, a couple of dhāraṇīs survive with- spell is promised to be the attainment of the highest out a setting or with no context specified. perfect awakening. The Uṣṇīṣavijayādhāraṇī has been The Parṇaśavarīdhāraṇī is identical to the published from a Nepalese manuscript that contains Prajñāpāramitādhāraṇī. The Hayagrīvavidyā is only the dhāraṇī section. On the basis of unpub- given without a frame story. It contains a spell lished Sanskrit witnesses this teaching is given by and instructions for use. Only the latter portion Amitāyus to Avalokiteśvara in the land of Sukhāvatī. of the Hiraṇyavatīdhāraṇī remains. The preserved There is a case when the dhāraṇī is revealed to folio with the colophon contains ritual instructions mythical beings in their own dwelling place. The for the recollection of this spell which results in the Meghasūtra is taught by the Buddha in the man- appeasement of malevolent beings and the estab- sion of two nāga kings, Nanda and Upananda, to an lishment of safeguard by various bodhisattvas and assembly including hundreds of nāgas. After wor- deities. The Mahāmaṇivipulavimānaviśvasupratiṣṭhita- ship, a nāga king requests a sermon from the lord guhyaparamarahasyakalparājadhāraṇī survives only so that the troubles of these mythical serpent beings in fragmentary form. The preserved folios contain may subside and they may provide enough precipi- ritual instructions including the use of mantras and tation. Then the Buddha teaches them the practice brief references to various benefits. of friendliness and gives two dhāraṇīs and a list of names of tathāgatas to be recited. Following these sections, ritual instructions for rainmaking are dis- Dhāraṇī Collections closed. In a few instances dhāraṇī scriptures are infused Some dhāraṇī scriptures and numerous dhāraṇī with some vajra flavor. In the Grahamātṛkādhāraṇī, spells were incorporated into collections over the the lord stays in Aḍakavatī, the mythical capital of centuries. There are three influential compendi- yakṣas, with a great assembly. When the powerful ums in South Asia: Pañcarakṣā, Saptavāra, and deity Vajrapāṇi requests a sermon from the Bud- Dhāraṇīsaṃgraha. dha so that beings can be protected from graha The Pañcarakṣā (Five Protections) consists of the demons, the lord teaches a maṇḍala ritual to Mahāpratisarā, Mahāmāyūrī, Mahāsāhasrapramardanī, worship the grahas, and a dhāraṇī is given thereafter. Mahāmantrānusāriṇī, and Mahāśītavatī. The earli- The Vajravidāraṇānāmadhāraṇīhṛdayopahṛdaya- est evidence for texts grouped together as gzungs mūlasūtra is taught by Vajrapāṇi in the presence chen po lnga la (Five Great Dhāraṇī) comes from of the Buddha among the people called vajras. This the Tibetan Ldan dkar ma and ’Phang thang ma 134 Dhāraṇī Sūtras catalogues around 800 ce, but this compendium is Sādhanamālā or Niṣpannayogāvalī. Simultaneously, somewhat different from the surviving Sanskrit col- it appears that in the course of time, various deities lection, which is preserved in manuscripts dating started to have dhāraṇīs related to them as recorded back to the 11th century (Skilling, 1992). in various dhāraṇī collections. These include such The Saptavāra (Seven Days) incorporates the important figures as Akṣobhya, Amitābha, Hevajra, Vasudhārā, Vajravidāraṇā, Gaṇapatihṛdaya, Uṣṇīṣa- Mahākāla, Maitreya, Mañjuśrī, Ratnasambhava, vijayā, Parṇaśavarī/Prajñāpāramitā, Mārīcī, and Tārā, Vajravārāhī, and Vajrayoginī. Grahamātṛkā. This collection associates each dhāraṇī with a specific day of the week, a tradition going back to at least the 16th century in Nepal (Büh- Dhāraṇī Practice and Benefits nemann, 2014). The number of magical texts included in the The ritual instruction parts of dhāraṇī scriptures (Bṛhad)dhāraṇīsaṃgrahas ([Great] Dhāraṇī Col- outline the employment of spells in various ways. lections) varies considerably, from a couple of The main objective of the use of dhāraṇīs appears pieces to more than 350. There seems to be a core to be the establishment of protection, and this of circa 150 texts present in all the longer compen- seems to be brought about primarily by recitation. dia, however, their sequence is not completely Protection is promised from all sorts of conceivable fixed. The earliest witness of this tradition dates threats: humans, nonhumans, vetālas, kākhorda back to around the 13th century (Cambridge Ms. sorcery, demons, poison, weapons, sickness, fever, Add. 1680.8) and probably reflects a more ancient possession, epidemics, weakness, snakebite, spells, practice. Beside incantations from scriptures men- magical bonds, wizardry, fire, water, obstacles, great tioned so far, titles in the Dhāraṇīsaṃgrahas dangers, calamities, drought, floods, thunderbolt, include the Abhayaṃkarī, Cintāmaṇi, Cundā, Ekajatā, dispute, bad dreams, bad rebirth, bad omens, bad Hemāṅgā, Jambhala, Jāṅgulī, Jātismarā, Karṇajāpā, constellations, physical defects, sorrow, the evil Kurukullā, Mūlavidyā, Nīlakaṇṭha, Ṣaḍakṣarī, eye, royal power and punishment, thieves, robbers, Śākyamuni, Sahasrāvartā, Sarvapāpadahanī, armies, war, famine, earthquake, meteors, untimely Sarvarogapraśamanī, Siddhinikā, Trailokyavijayā, death, insects, worms, wild animals, the loss of vital and Vajracarcikā spells. This collection has not yet fluid, and so forth. Numerous dhāraṇīs promise been published, but a list of texts present in various purification from bad actions and sins committed in manuscripts is printed in S. Matsunami (1965, 287– the past. At the same time, positively speaking one 349) and the formation of this genre is discussed in is also promised fertility, the birth of a son, rebirth R.M. Davidson (2014b). as a male, recollection of former lives, prosperity, respect, happiness, beauty, fearlessness, longevity, full consciousness, good rebirth, the protection of The Deification of Dhāraṇī Scriptures the state, good crops, gain of supernatural powers, and so on. Diverse uses refer to the preparation of an Several dhāraṇī scriptures became personified or amulet, the mounting of the dhāraṇī on a flagstaff, deified over the centuries. This process appears to the preparation of an enchanted and knotted thread have happened usually after the emergence of a or five-colored twine, the copying of the text along certain scripture, although there are cases when ref- with inserting the donor’s name and then turning it erences to a divine being are already present in the into a book and keeping it as an apotropaic object, root text in its surviving form (e.g. Mārīcīdhāraṇī). the use of a caitya image or an image of a deity, In the majority of cases, the deity associated with the performance of worship, the preparation of a a dhāraṇī text is female, although it appears that maṇḍala, and the application of herbal ointments. some of them were male initially. The origins of Dhāraṇī practices primarily aim at worldly goals; such personifications may be linked to those femi- occasionally, however, higher objectives including nine vocatives in the dhāraṇī spells that address the understanding of all phenomena (dharma) or various female entities with a wide range of epithets. the attainment of awakening are also referred to. After deification, an intricate system of iconography Certain dhāraṇī practices have some moral ambi- emerged depicting these deities, and the worship of guity: harming others (i.e. the enemy) by the use of many of them is described in collections such as the spells are mentioned in several sources.  Dhāraṇī Sūtras 135 Dhāraṇīs Beyond South Asia Bibliography Both individual dhāraṇīs and complete dhāraṇī Primary Sources scriptures gained remarkable influence in Buddhist Amoghapāśahṛdayadhāraṇī: “The Amoghapāśahṛdaya lands of Asia from the early centuries of the Com- Dhāraṇī: The Early Sanskrit Manuscript of the Reiunji mon Era onwards. The incantations were usually Critically Edited and Translated,” ed. R.O. Meisezahl, MonN 17, 1962, 265–328. adopted in the original Sanskrit, often transcribed Amoghapāśakalparāja: Transcribed Sanskrit Text of the phonetically into Chinese or Tibetan characters Amoghapāśakalparāja, ed. Mikkyō Seiten Kenkyūkai, 7 vols., for example, and in East Asia many times the Indic TDSBKN 20–23, 26, 32, 33, 1998–2011. Siddham script was used to represent the mantric Aparimitāyuḥsūtra: “The Aparimitāyuḥ Sūtra: The Old Kho- syllables. The sūtras themselves were translated tanese Version together with the Sanskrit Text and the into local languages, sometimes rewritten and Tibetan Translation,” ed. S. Konow, in: A.F.R. Hoernle, ed., transformed. Starting perhaps with Central Asia, Manuscript Remains of Buddhist Literature Found in East- ern Turkestan, Oxford, 1916, 289–329. dhāraṇīs spread over almost all regions in the course Avikalpapraveśadhāraṇī/Nirvikalpapraveśadhāraṇī: “Nirvikalpa- of centuries and have remained in use up to the praveśadhāraṇī: Sanskrit Text and Japanese Translation,” present in several places. The popularity of certain ed. K. Matsuda, BDKK 3, 1996, 89-113. dhāraṇī texts beyond South Asia most likely reflects Bhaiṣajyagurusūtra: Gilgit Manuscripts, vol. I, ed. N. Dutt, ancient Indian preferences as well – although this Srinagar, 1939. is at times difficult to determine because of the Bodhigarbhālaṅkāralakṣadhāraṇī: “The Bodhigarbhālaṅkāra- scarcity of evidence regarding native contexts. The lakṣa and Vimaloṣṇīṣa Dhāraṇī in Indian Inscriptions: Two Sources for the Practice of Buddhism in Medieval use of incantations generally follows instructions India,” ed. G. Schopen, WZKS 29, 1985, 119–149. present in the Sanskrit sources, with a main focus Dhvajāgrakeyūradhāraṇī: “The Āryadhvajāgrakeyūrā nāma on recitation for various benefits, outlined earlier in dhāriṇī: Diplomatic Edition of MS Tucci 3.2.16,” ed. this article. Some peculiar ritual uses, however, per- P. Giunta, in: F. Sferra, ed., Sanskrit Texts from Giuseppe haps partly of local origins, include the employment Tucci’s Collection, Rome, 2008, 187–194. of dhāraṇīs at funerary rites (Copp, 2014) and raising Ekādaśamukhahṛdaya: Gilgit Manuscripts, vol. I, ed. N. Dutt, dhāraṇī pillars made of stone (Kuo, 2014). Srinagar, 1939. Gaṇapatihṛdaya: Kleinere Dhāraṇī Texte, ed. Y. Iwamoto, Kyoto, 1937b. Grahamātṛkādhāraṇī: “Āryagrahamātṛkā Nāma Dhāraṇī,” Further Reading Dhīḥ 39, 2005, 171–176. Hayagrīvavidyā: Gilgit Manuscripts, vol. I, ed. N. Dutt, Most of the primary sources referred to are avail- Srinagar, 1939. able online in the Göttingen Register of Electronic Hiraṇyavatīdhāraṇī: “The Gilgit Manuscripts. An Ancient Texts in Indian Languages (GRETIL) and the Digital Buddhist Library in Modern Research,” ed. O. von Hinüber, in: P. Harrison & J.-U. Hartmann, eds., From Birch Sanskrit Buddhist Canon (DSBC). Recent relevant Bark to Digital Data: Recent Advances in Buddhist Manu- studies, unmentioned above, include those by R.D. script Research, Wien, 2014, 79–135. McBride (2005), U. Pagel (2007), P. Copp (2008), Mahāmaṇivipulavimānaviśvasupratiṣṭhitaguhyaparamara- J. Silk (2008), K. Shinohara (2010; 2012; 2014a; 2014b), hasyakalparājadhāraṇī: “A Text on Esoteric Iconography C.D. Orzech et al. (2011), G. Schopen (2012), G. Hidas from the Gilgit Manuscripts,” ed. H. Matsumura, MZ 2, (2013; 2014) and A. Griffiths (2014). The majority of 1983, 71–79. these works cover areas outside South Asia. Numer- Mahāmantrānusāriṇīsūtra: Mahāsūtras: Great Discourses of the Buddha, vol. I: Texts, ed. P. Skilling, Oxford, 1994. ous references to previous research are given by R.M. Mahāmāyūrīvidyārājñī: Ārya-Mahā-Māyūrī Vidyā-Rājñī, ed. Davidson (2009) and P.M. Castro-Sanchez (2011), S. Takubo, Tokyo, 1972. and a descriptive overview of publications dealing Mahāpratisarāmahāvidyārājñī: Mahāpratisarā-Mahāvidyā- with this topic across Asia is provided online by rājñī, The Great Amulet, Great Queen of Spells: Introduc- P. Copp (2010). The iconography of several dhāraṇī tion, Critical Editions and Annotated Translation, ed. deities has been discussed recently, for example, by G. 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