Celtic Clothing During the Iron Age- A Very Broad and Generic Approach

‘Celtic’ Clothing (with Greek and Roman Influence) from the Iron Age-a Realistic View Based on What We Know What, When, Where and Why? Documentation and reproduction of period ‘Celtic’ clothing for reenactment purposes is a subject which not only should be approached with caution, but also a difficult and sometimes seemingly impossible task if one aims for historically correct imitation. Based on limited textile finds through out the Celtic empire and coupled with historical commentary and art representations we can generate an educated generalized guess on what the Celtic people may have worn, but then this is only a guess. This representation is further clouded by regional differences both in necessity of certain dress and textile fiber availability. What we do know however is that the Celtic peoples as a whole delighted in color and costume documented not only by textile finds, but other costume finds and backed by historical commentary. In order to begin such a feat we first must understand who were the ‘Celts’. The term ‘Celt’ is derived from the Greek word ‘Keltoi’ and is a general broad term applied to most of the European barbarians from the Middle Danube to the Atlantic. (Cunliffe 9) Julius Caesar, writing from the First Century BC states concerning the Gauls of France, ‘we call (them) Gauls though in their own language they are called Celts’. While the terms Keltoi/Celtae and Gali/Galatae were used interchangeably by early writers the term ‘Celt’ became the prominent label for these people during the Victorian period, a name which today not only is misleading but brings on romantic notions most of which are not even ‘Celtic’ by any historical sense. What these tribes might have shared was possibly similar linguistics, beliefs systems, art and the shared relation of being ‘other’ by Greek and Roman understanding, but in no way were they ever a federation or unit. Indeed, as history is often written by the victorious so to, most of our knowledge of these tribes comes to us from the biased views of Greek and Roman writers who placed these European peoples into an uncivilized and primal group of ‘barbarians’. Other records such as oral traditions recorded hundreds of years after the decline of Celtic society by Christian scribes deemed it necessary to censor and Christianize ancient stories. While we do refer back to such commentary and mythology we must be careful in relying on such observations and placing them broadly on the group as a whole. The ‘Celtic’ tribes can be viewed much like the Native Americans in our own country and as such undoubtedly had many differences between them which certainly included fashion. The ‘Celts’ covered a broad area of Europe and spanned from the eight and seventh centuries (Halstatt C period during the Iron Age) into the Roman expansion into Celtic territories the last half of the first century BC into the first century AD. While the death of ‘Celtic’ culture is sometimes seen during the invasion and rise of the Anglo-Saxon period in the Isles and sometimes even later for those tribes that with stood Roman invasion north of Hadrian’s Wall in Scotland, the decline of Celtic culture in the pure sense fell during the Roman occupation of their territories. It is safe to say what developed after was a blend of other cultures and the Celtic peoples with the exception of possibly Scotland and Ireland which failed to ever see any major change until the Angle and Saxon, if not the Viking, invasions. For our purposes I play with the dates between 1000 BC and 400 AD amassing 1400 years of limited finds to better define possible dress options. I think that if we were to believe that the present knowledge of garments and textiles from this period was a sound 1 indication of dress for this culture it would be much like believing that bell bottoms and tie die clothing were the standard form of dress for the twentieth century. In addition, we do have to acknowledge Greek and Roman influence especially under new light which revels vast trade routes into the Celtic regions from Greece and Asia. Celtic Cloth and Technique- Weaving, Spinning and Dyeing Regardless of what early writers had to say about their barbarian enemies to the North, in regards to Celtic clothing and cloth, they were some of the most sought textiles in trade- an industry that was not only embraced in the British Isles before Roman invasion, but latter would also be exploited by the Romans. By the late 3rd century AD British rugs were known as the best in the world and in the 301 AD Diocletion edict of maximum prices British capes commands high prices. (Wild 133) Such fabrics were marked not only by the beautiful colors and unique weaves but also from the fineness of these textiles. The Hochdorf Chieftain’s burial from Germany dating to the Late Hallstatt period around 530 BC contained some very fine woven fabric of extremely high thread count, possibly 25 to 18 treads of wool per centimeter according to Lise Bender Jorgensen in North European textiles until AD 1000 (Jorgensen 55) which disrupts not only the Roman view that these tribes were primitive but also our modern belief that they wore archaic course and large knit clothing, though archaeological evidence as a whole does not discredit such larger weaves as such examples also exist, but they had the capability of manufacturing fine cloth. Few examples of textiles survive to the modern era and this is in part due to the decaying properties of organic material. The few instances of fabric that have been found in archaeological context have been preserved in conditions that disrupt the decomposition process such as bogs, arid or dry conditions, next to metal or sealed in voids lacking air. In many of these conditions while some textile remains are preserved they rarely survive in their entirety so while we might know a little on the weaving process or manufacture of the fabric we do not have enough evidence the majority of the time to reproduce the garments. Documented types of weaving include warp weight and tubular loom weaving (Figure 1), sprang and finger weaving, and tablet weaving for this period. One of the best know finds of Celtic textiles comes to us from the small commercial center of Hallstatt in upper modern day Austria, (Figures 3, 5-7) a successful salt mining village which lasted during its hey day from about the sixth century BC until the fifth century BC even though a few textile finds do date back to around 1000 BC and a few survive from the La Tene period. Over a hundred pieces of fabric have been found with in the salt mines and related cemetery at Hallstatt but not a single complete garment remains. These textile remnants provide us a good picture of the highly developed ability of weaving from the period which included basic basket weave, cross twills and textiles of different colored interwoven threads which included plaids. (Barth 194) In addition several tablet woven border finds were also discovered at this location. (Figure 16-17 ) The neighboring salt mine of Durrnberg in Hallein dating close to the same period provides us with 19 textile finds. (Jorgensen 107) A lovely number of garments and textile remnants have been preserved in bogs through out Europe from the Bronze and Iron Age (Figure 4) which provide us probably the best and more often complete examples of dress from these periods, but it must be noted that only certain types of fabrics are preserved in the peat, many of these are noted in P.V. Glob’s The Bog People Iron-Age Man Preserved. Wool 2 and leather survive in this context but other types of organic plant based textiles do not though with the help of modern testing we can sometimes determine through trace evidence that such items as linen might have been entered into the bogs. Of the evidence we do have we can safely say that the Celts were weaving wool, hemp, linen, possibly ramie, and other types of animal hair which included goat, horse and badger throughout areas of the Celtic lands, but probably these fabrics differed to region and tribe. An interesting example of the use of woven horse hair was discovered in Armoy, country Antrim, England in a peat bog with a cache of objects which date some where between 750 and 600BC. This black horse hair sash is long and narrow being woven from displaced herringbone twill with an elaborate fringe at both ends that terminates in ‘pellets’. (Barber 195) There have been several confirmed silk finds dating as far back as the Hallstatt period and which include the Hochdorf chieftain’s burial which contained ‘a complicated textile of silk woven by ‘combining tabby and twill elements’ (Jorgensen 56) and the Hohmichele burial mounds dating roughly to the same period located close to Heuneburg, Germany. Recent research of the silk woven fabric and embroidery from Hohmichele has has been under scrunity by Johanna Banck-Burgess but according to Dr. Bettina Arnold of the University of Milwaukee, these fibers were in fact silk, but of Mediterranean origin. These fibers differed from Asian silk to the extent that they were shorter due to the Mediterranean process of harvesting the threads early as not to kill the silk worm. The Hochdorf silk was indeed a luxury import traced to Asia, a clear indication to the intricate trade system of the period that defined prestige. (Arnold 2011) Another noted burial find of the princely grave from Altrier located in Luxembourg from the early La Tene period composed of 2/2 twill of wool or possibly ‘silk’. (Jorgensen 105) Two other silk finds date to the Romano- British period are 3/1 compound twill and a tabby in untwisted yarn from Holborough and Colchester in England both of trade origin, Chinese and Roman. (Jorgensen 22) Many historians note possible European connections along the Silk Route dating as far back as 1000 BC by the recent find of the Uruchmi mummies from the Tarim Basin in Central Asia in which Elizabeth Wayland Barber covers the subject thoroughly in her book The Mummies of Urumchi. These mummies from European decent were preserved in the arid dry climate associated with the region and their burials contained a variety of amazingly dyed and woven textiles composed of wool, in part possibly from European sheep. Plaid finds were almost identical to those found in Hallstatt from roughly around the same period so naturally it’s very tempting to associate a relation. (Figure 8) Another suggestive link is associated from half a dozen silk objects discovered in a fifth century tomb in the Kerameikos cemetery of Athens, Greece. (Jorgensen 56) Mainland Europe does have a well documented history of Mediterranean import and export during this period so it is not unreasonable to believe that silk may have found its way into Celtic high class through the Greek and later Roman empires or even possibly through Central Asia west into Europe, but probably not of any large amount and then if possible only rarely. It is more realistic to assume that silk probably was more widely available during the Roman period and later by later connections through the Roman Empire. From the finds of mainland Europe one is amazed by the great wealth of technique and color which we normally would attribute to the wealthy classes but archaeological finds from the Hallstatt period, of which Barber dates 117 documented textiles as far back as 1000 BC during the Bronze Age, notes that the majority of these were found with in the salt mines from abandoned thread bare shreds of fabric. (Barber 188) These finds do not 3 suggest an aristocratic people, but rather a working class who delighted in variety and color. (Figure 3) This undoubtedly might be reflected by Ammianus Marcellinus speaking of the cleanliness of the Gaulish people in History 15.12.2, “And all the Gauls take great pains to always stay clean, especially in the southwestern part of the country. Unlike elsewhere in the world, no man or woman, no matter how poor, is ever seen in dirty or ragged clothes”. Pliny notes that soap was in fact a Gaulish invention. Elizabeth Barbar has amassed a great wealth of documentation on the Hallstatt fabric remnants of which the majority- 75 finds were wool twills, and more rarely linen. The basic 2/2 twill of two weft over-two weft under producing a diagonal rib was used and more complex twills were created by alternating this technique to produce 5 herringbone finds, 4 pointed finds, and 1 lozenge instance. Because of the often tiny samples of fabric it is hard to say if there might not have been more examples of complicated twills with in these finds. More than half of the remaining fabrics were elaborate in other ways including basket weave, half basket weave and faced weaves, and at least 2 examples of float weave. In one documented case basket weave alternates to twill. Of the remaining 33 textile finds 6 have been woven with colored stripes, 4 with shadow stripes (alternating with the spin or ply of yarn), 2 with shadow plaids, and 2 with embroidery. Only 19 remaining finds have no woven or embellished pattern. (Barbar 187-188) From the period, Hallstatt yarns are for the most part of very fine quality with most being less than 0.6 mm in thickness and most Hallstatt textiles are of fine to extra fine quality with more than 10–15 threads per centimeter according to Regina Hofmann-de Keijzer in her compilation Ancient textiles – recent knowledge: a multidisciplinary research project on textile fragments from the prehistoric salt mine of Hallstatt (Keijzer 921) In weaving experiments to reproduce such yarns Keijzer suggests that ‘hand-spun woollen threads showed that the fine yarns in the Hallstatt Period must have been treated with a ‘stiffening’ substance to achieve good weaving results with tablets made of clay, wood or leather’. (Keijzer 922) A variety of colors were achieved for these fabrics which included natural whites and browns from both linen and wool in addition to beautiful dyed colors of copper, red, blue, olive, green, yellow, and black. (Barber 190) Heijl remarks that on each Hallstatt textile researched all contained dyestuff including natural black and brown wools. Blue textiles contained up to five different dyes. Of the different dyes, testing suggests the use of woad blue, possible Polish and or Armenian cochineal with kerms for red, weld yellow, other shades from Tannins (oak bark) and orchil (lichen species). Other dyes could not be identified. The use of mordants could not be successfully supported due to possible contamination from the salt mines and metals the fabric came into contact with the exception of iron-gallic black. (Heijl 923-924) Further documentation of fabric and garments survive through out Europe but not to the large extent of those from the Hallstatt area. Jorgenson mentions other textile finds dating to the Pre-Roman Iron Age and non-Roman Britain in her research in North European Textiles. In addition to some of the varieties of weaves already mentioned evidence supports the use of more complicated weaves such as lozenge and diamond twills. (Figure 2) Three examples of fabric date to the La Tene period from Yorkshire, England one of which is a diamond twill with 7/5 threads per centimeter. (Jorgenson 198-199) Other finds from Scotland include a twill from Kirkcudbrightshire (1st or 2nd century) of diamond repeat 20/14 with 15/11 threads per centimeter, a broken twill repeat 18 in yellow and brown checks with 7/6 threads per centimeter, and several other tabby weaves from the 4 first and second century AD, the finest weave being 16/8 threads per centimeter. From Brandenburg, Germany a broken twill/ diamond repeat ?/18 with 15/12 threads per centimeter. (Jorgenson 227) In some cases these more complicated weaves are considered ‘rare’ but with out a large database of fabrics from the Iron Age it is hard to make such a call concerning the popularity of certain weaves during this period. According to Pliny the Gauls were the inventors of checked fabric and bilberry and hyacinth among other plants were used to dye their clothes. (Dottin 30) High class grave textiles from the same period employ technique upon technique to create elaborate fabrics and garments which combine weave, embroidery and tablet woven borders. (Barber 187-190) Historical finds include embroidery at times combining wool, linen and other textile threads together, something today we would find unrealistic for fear of odd shrinkage. A fine example of this tendency from Hallsatt is of natural ‘white’ linen embroidered in blue and copper colored wools. (Barbar 190) There is additional embroidery evidence for the previously stated silk, but also metallic treads. Such an example survives from the late Hallstatt tumulus of Grafenbuhl at the foot of the Hohenasperg for which a fine woven fabric with gold thread, in a kind of brocade survives. (Mohen 124) Strabo, a Greek writer detailing the dress of the Gauls in Geography 4.4.2, 5 from the first century AD notes, “They wear gold jewelry such as necklaces and bracelets around their arms and wrists, while the upper classes wear dyed clothing decorated with gold”. “There are numerous examples of basic stitching from Hallstatt which was often were used to seem and finish clothing in contrasting and sometimes alternating colors as noted by Dr. Karina Grömer and Ing. Peter Grömer-Mrazek in ‘Textiles from Hallstatt’ under Project: "Clothing and Identities" (Grömer 2008) . This technique produced an embroidery like quality to the fabrics. Heather Rose Jones as part of her Surviving Garments Internet Project has a comprehensive database of historical stitches used in clothes to seem and finish fabrics which include types from Hallstatt. Of the documented types she lists examples of overcast, running, hem, blanket and double blanket stitches were in use during this period. (Jones 2011) One example of whip stitch or button hole stitch of alternating brown and white thread (Figure 7) has been found from Hallstatt on a copper red wool fabric. (Grömer 2008) Hem stitches were employed to finish fabric that was folded either once or twice. Tablet weaving borders, which often were used to ‘frame’ garments and fringe were additionally employed to decorate clothing. A Hallstatt fragment with a tablet border ‘22 cm long, sewn together at its ends and sewn onto a twill fabric’ is possibly the end of a trouser leg or sleeve. (Keijzer 923) A piece of fabric from Skipwith Common, Yorkshire England dating to the La Tene period which included a fringe and crochet like finished border. (Barber 199) Additional elaborate designs were stitched into garments to create decorative patterns. Several examples of elaborate aristocratic costume survive today. One of the most famous remnants of such combined technique was found in the seventh or sixth century burial mound of the Hohmichele princess found in Heuneburg, Germany. Her wool chemise of lightly ribbed half-basket weave with silk stripes takes the warp threads in pairs out of a tablet woven standing border. (Figure 9) This practice seems to be a common weave start method according to Peter Collingwood in his book The Technique of Tablet Weaving. (Collingwood 274) Embroidered on the edges of the gown are a combination of meanders, diamonds, and swastikas in possibly a linen blend, with wool yarn using 5 overcast and stem stitches. Other parts of her apparel were in un-dyed and dyed twills. (Barber189, 190, 203) In addition she had a fancy tablet woven border which probably required 14 cards to manufacture. (Barber 119) The chieftain’s burial at Hochdorf from the same period employs almost identical weaving techniques as that of Hohmichelle (Good 965) This burial contained a wealth of fabric which had been preserved by the wooden lined room that it was discovered in. The tomb’s floor was lined in fabrics and the walls draped in cloth fastened together by fibula. (Frey 93) His death couch was upholstered in leather and fabric and additional pieces of his clothing remained. Of these fabrics a combo of plied and single yarn tabby in either linen or hemp was discovered along with a diamond twill with combined point repeat/displacement. In addition a piece of cloth woven from badger hair was also discovered. (Jorgensen 55-56) His burial contained several elaborate tablet weavings on the wall hangings, clothing, and wrapped around the large crater in his tomb. (Figures 10-15) Lise Knudsen reproduced some of this weaving and states of her work, “The finished band measuring about 1.20 m before the mounting on a twill fabric. (Figures 10-12) The technique is a combination of 3/1 double faced broken twill and ordinary double weave. The width of the band was about 6 cm (98 tablets) and the yarn very fine. After the reconstruction was finished another fragment of the tablet woven border was found and it revealed, that the band was somewhat broader having one edge of warp twined dark threads of different turning direction.” (Knudsen 2012) An amazing feat of tablet weaving was discovered in the Thorsburg votive offering in the Danish peat bog in Schleswig (Figure 38) dating possibly between the first and second century AD. Sewn on to all four edges of a cloak it required 178 tablets to produce in blue and white yarn. (Jorgensen 119) This cloak was part of an offering which included 29 other textiles from the period. Additional weaving included a band of diagonal Wales from his sleeve and another band from the same find required 54 tablets. (Collingwood 14) Creating the Costume- So what do we know of Celtic dress? Women’s dress stereotypically is summed up by the famous, or should I say infamous ‘bog dress’ or ‘peplos’ but luckily for female reinactors it is not limited to this costume alone. The bog dress is an enduring style which is not just reflected in Greek fashion but holds its popularity based on several Celtic Iron Age finds as well. Its endurance is supported by the Princess Zweeloo’s gown found in Drenthe, Netherlands which dates later, and outside the parameters of our time period, to 450 AD. (Figure 19) Yet, its origins lie much earlier and possibly to the Greeks. Recent archaeological evidence, supported by a wealth of imported Mediterranean trade items, suggest a strong Greek influence with the early Continental Celts. This may have influenced dress as well. Artistic pieces from the early Iron Age may support this. The Greek statue the Ludovisi or the ‘Suicidal Gaul’, which commemorates the victory of Attalus I over the Gauls of Galatia around 230-220 BC, demonstrates the undeniable use of the dress. (Figure 18) In it a Gaulic warrior has just killed his wife who hangs limply from his grasp while he heroically plunges his short sword into his neck. He wears only the classic rectangular cloak, but she is fully clothed in a bog dress. The delima we are faced understanding the impact trade with the Greeks had on the mainland Celts brings into question if her clothing reflects Greek female standards superimposed on a suggested Celtic woman or an understanding of classic female dress. Another questionable find is that of the Gundestrup 6 Cauldron discovered in Denmark which dates to the first century BCE. The stylized images of two women seem to wear a bog dress with possibly a long sleeve shirt or leine underneath. (Figure 20) The manufacture of this cauldron has been argued to be of Greek craftsmanship however the very Celtic themes on the piece suggest a knowledge or kinship between the peoples if this fact is true. (Bergquist 107) The most famous noted bog dress is the Huldremose dress discovered in a bog close to that of woman’s burial from Huldre Fen, Djursland Denmark which dates to the earliest phase of the Iron age between the dates of 160 BC and 340 AD. (Figure 21 and 26) The dress woven of wool from a single circular piece of cloth was composed on a tubular loom (Figure 1) which measures five feet seven inches in length and nine feet in circumference. (Glob 131) Part of the length of fabric was fold outward at the shoulders and pinned to create a rather bib or cloak. Other female garments found from Huldre Fen which were worn by the entered woman included a skirt, three cloaks and a scarf. (Figure 22-26) Modern testing suggests some type of tunic or top composed of linen was probably worn, but did not survive. The skirt manufactured from natural colored wool in a lovely plaid of golden and dark brown. “The skit was gathered at one side during the natural weaving process, at the exact point where there are now remains of leather laces, so that its ultimate function as a skirt was in mind even as the cloth was being woven.” (Glob 129) These leather laces acted as a drawstring in the woven waist band of the skirt. The skirt was seemed up the front using a double blanket stitch. (Figure 25) The National Museum of Denmark’s website has probably the best descriptions of these finds. They note that her outer skin cape was sewn of several dark brown sheep skins with a light skin collar. This was worn with the wool facing out. Under this cloak she wore a second skin cloak composed of 11 small dark lambskins. This was well worn and had 22 patches, one of which was not a repair but a pocket completely sewn into the cloak. This pocket contained a bone comb, a thin blue hair band, and a leather cord all of which were enclosed in a bladder suggesting possibly some type of talisman. Under these two cloaks she wore a plaid scarf wrapped around her neck and fastened under her left arm with a bird bone pin. (Figure 23) (National Museum of Denmark- The Woman of Huldremose) Another surviving example of a bog dress like top was found in the Loenne Hede burial located in Varde, Denmark. (Figure 27-29) This burial dates to the end of the first century AD. She was entered in a complete matching outfit which was dyed using woad blue and some other unidentified source of red. (Figure 28) Ida Demont from the University of Copenhagen has composed an informative article on The Poor People from Loenne Hede which includes information on this burial and other burial textiles of this period. She explains that the burial contained a blue top of 2/2 twill with a band of red and blue tubular selvedge at the collar. It has been suggested that this top was sewn as a rather short peplos as indicated by bronze pins holding the neckline together. A silver fibula was found on her chest which probably was used to pin the top and give it more shape. Her blue skirt was composed of the same twill with a blue and red waist band in tabby weave. This skirt was possibly manufactured as a wrap skirt which had a tablet woven band sewn down the front edge also of red and blue. (Figure 29) This was held together by a bronze needle. She wore what appeared to be a plaid tabby weave rectangular cloak composed of red and blue matching the other two garments. Her hair was wrapped in a dark brown undyed wool with stripes of alternating 2/2 twill and weft faced half basket weave. (Demont 86) 7  We have already discussed the finds of Hohmichelle which included a chemise or leine whose elaborate remnants were discovered in the princess’ burial. (Figure 8) Another find in this style was discovered in one of sixth Romano-Gaulish graves from Les Martres de Veyre in France which possibly dates to the first of second century AD. (Figure 30-36) The extraordinary preservation of the garments and other organic items are attributed to the presence of natural carbonic acid gas in the soil of the area. Louisa Gidney B.A. Hons. From the Durham University has a wonderful argument for the use of leines, long tunics or ‘Gaullic Coats’ in her article The Romano-Gaulish Woman's Garments from Les Martres de Veyre: A Possible Reconstruction. Based on the finds she suggested that this type of dress is a more realistic alternative for women living in areas of wet and boggy conditions then bog dresses. (Gidney 2010) The body in Tomb D had a wonderfully preserved example of a Leine. Aug Audollent in Les Tombes des Martres-de-Veyre gives the measurements for this tunic as 1.25m in height, and 1.7m across the arms with the sleeves measuring 40 centimeters long. Manufactured from one piece of cloth with a slit cut to accommodate the neck line. Sleeves were sewn into the body at slight angles and a center fold of tucked material was used to shorten the leine from possibly ankle length to just below the knee. (Figure 31) This fold shows that it widens at the sides and is short on the front and back. Some form of woven scarf or sash was found on the body which measured 4.3m in length which included the fringes and was 12cm wide. (Figure 32) It has not been suggested how this piece would have been worn. There is an alternating band of two other colors, possibly a brown and tan that appears either woven or embroidered into the piece close to the ends. In addition to these garments Tomb D had an unusual set of knee high hose or socks manufactured from 2/2 twill undyed wool and constructed from a tub of fabric sewn up the back of the leg and heel with a slight cut curve on the front to the ankle to accommodate a D shaped piece of fabric which wrapped around the toes and was seemed under the instep. (Figure 34) These were topped with a fringe and while no type of drawstring or garters were found, it is probable that they once had such to keep them up as suggested by missing treads in the weave under the fringe. In addition another set of what appears to be woven wool slippers are also attributed to this grave. (Figure 33) These are manufactured from a sole and a one piece upper cut to cross at the ankle for what we can only assume was some type of fastening but no evidence for any type of tie or buckle was found. The upper portions of these slippers appear unhemmed which leads one to believe that these pieces were unfinished. The final addition to her outfit included a finely made set of leather hob nail shoes. (Figure 35-36) There is no evidence thus far to suggest that women wore trews, or brecae as there are called, like their men. Historical commentary notes Celtic women joining their men in battle and pants are an invention of necessity, especially for horse back riding for which the Romans would later adapt. We can assume that it is feasible that women might have worn tunics and trews in some cases and in some areas. Cassius Dio states of the great Icini warrior queen Boudicca, “She wore a tunic of diverse colours over which a thick mantle was fastened by a brooch.” (Ellis 153) In addition to the complete lack of surviving textiles we can also assume that had the women worn pants they undoubtedly would not be buried in them. From the evidence found concerning the variety of women’s clothing from the Iron Age we can assume that several different types of clothing could be worn. Bog dresses and 8 long tunic like leines are known to have existed. Alternative dress included possibly both tunics and short peplos like tops which could have been worn with known examples of wrap and tube like skirts or possibly pants. Rectangular and leather cloaks were worn with shawls and hair wraps. Leather shoes could have been worn with wool socks of some sort. It is even more difficult to document men’s attire during this period by an even larger lack of garment finds. Simplified warrior renderings on Celtic art may help to generate a better picture but sadly many Greek and Roman renderings are often void of any type of clothing. We can assume that trousers and tunics probably were the norm, but some art suggest the use of possibly longer tunics or leines. The best preserved set of clothing, previously noted, was that of the Thorsberg votive offerings. This unusual deposit consisted of trousers, tunic and a cloak of very fine manufacture. (Figure 37-39) The fitted trousers are remarkable for their footed legs and belt loops, two clothing designs seemingly modern. The design and type of cloth, Jorgensen suggests might be Germanic as it reflects similar cloth finds from rich graves in Scandinavia as Germanic men, which included the Danes, served as mercenaries in the Roman army. (Jorgensen 135-136) His tunic is made of two different weaves of cloth. The main body a solid color with fitted arms with what appears to be a 2/1 lozenge. These sleeves have slits probably to accommodate the hands when putting on the tunic as the sleeves appear rather tight. Heather Rose Jones notes that the side seems are finished by taking a stitch form the wrong side of the garment and then twisted the ends of the thread together to produce a tie. (Jones 2011) These ties are then knotted together to fasten the shirt. The blue and white plaid cloak or mantle is large, bordered in the previously mentioned tablet border on all four edges and adorn with fringe on two. (Figure 38) There are several comments by historical sources that also allude to men’s dress in Celtic society. Second century BC Greek Latin poet Lucilius states in Nonius De compendiosa doctrina 227.33 possibly the Celtiberians of Spain, “They were a beautiful sight with colorful cloaks and pants and huge torques on their necks”. Diodorus Siculus states in his work (5.30) of Gaulish clothing, “The clothing of the Gauls is striking. They wear long shirts dyed in various colors and pants which they call bracae. They also wear striped cloaks fastened at the neck, thick in winter and light in the summer. These are also decorated with patterns of tightly packed square…Some of them wear a gold or silver plaited belt around their long shirts.” Our best source of documentation of men’s clothing is that found in art from the regions. Tight or fitted trews are often portrayed though there are some statues that represent pants of loose fitting as well. It has also been suggested, especially to art where pants are portrayed with stylized stripes, that they may be a form of tablet woven leg bindings that could have acted like socks and protected pants. A pair of leg wraps are dated to the Roman period and were found in Søgård Mose II at Viborg, Denmark. These were manufactured from a piece of cloth wrapped around the shin and attached by a cord which kept them from sliding down the leg. These have only been found in connection with men. (Figure 40) Tunics in most cases are long, at least past the rear when belted but often just above the knee. One statue, dated to the first century BCE in Neuvy-en-Sullias, France, features a man thought to be a priest wearing a long tunic like gown, probably a leine which hits below his knees. (Figure 41) It has three quarter length sleeves and is trimmed in possibly tablet border. A bronze scabbard dating from tomb 994 from Hallstatt features men ridding 9 horse back. (Figure 42) The wear stripped tight fitting trews and possible sleeveless tunics in plaid . Another sword from Hallstatt dating to the 4th century BC shows the same type of fitted pants with stripes. Their shirts are unusual in which they portray possibly a side split tunic or possibly one longer in the back than front. This brings in mind the construction of the Thorsborg Tunic with its ties allowing for the opening of the sides. These appear to have sleeves and are belted. A famous Celtic bronze statute with glass paste eyes from Saint-Maur-en-Chaussee, Oise in France dates to the first century BC. (Figure 43) Once again the fitted trews are present with a short sleeve tunic. It appears that he may have a breast plate over his tunic, but it is hard to say for sure. One of the most quizzical suggestions of clothing for men is that found on the Gundestrup Cauldron thought to date to the 1st century BC discovered in a bog in Gundestrup, Denmark. (Figure 43-45) The warriors featured on the caldron wear both short and long sleeve tunics some of which appear tucked or short while others thigh length. These have a rather chevron or herringbone twill look to them, a fine detail embossed into the metal. Additionally pants and shorts feature this same design. It is very unusual to find any suggestion of shorts during this period, but their use would seem a necessity in warmer weather and in some work situations. It is argued that the cauldron may be an import or that Mediterranean smiths may have traveled to the area for work. While the religious theme of the work is very Celtic in nature, could this be a Greek piece? If so, this may cloud the possibility of shorts as a form of dress but I would argue for their necessity and probably their lack of use in the Mediterranean during this period. To sum up possible types of male costume we can surmise, based on both archaeological and artistic renderings, that rear to thigh length tunics with and with out sleeves and leines are likely. Rectangular cloaks, tight and loose fitting trews and possibly shorts in addition. Some type of legging bindings or socks could have been used. Shoes are one of the most documented garment finds of the Iron Age from locations through out Celtic empire. These survive in part because of the nature of leather. I won’t go into depth concerning specific finds though I must note that there is little to no documentation for boots regardless of the necessity or availability of boot like footwear in the Roman Empire. Only one suggestion noted by Alfred Haffner in his article The Princely Tombs of the Celts in the Middle Rhineland have I found concerning the Barrow burial 6, 475-250 BC, in the Bescheid area near Treveri in Germany. He states, “The leather boots had decorated bronze buttons and small iron fasteners”. (Haffner 188) When BBC produced “Surviving the Iron Age”, a reality TV series that placed 17 intrepid volunteers for six weeks into an Iron Age Welsh settlement. They discovered that the leather gillie or slippers, reproduced based on historical finds, were not suitable for the cold and muddy conditions of the area and they reverted to goulashes to keep their feet dry and stop trench foot. This brings one to reflect back on the wool sock and ‘slipper’ finds from Les Martres de Veyre. (Figures 33 and 34) In addition, one of the other tombs from this location produced a set of wedge shoes whose stacked wood soles only remain. (Figure 46) It is feasible that the design may have been fashion or possibly to raise one out of the mud or hot bath floors, a possible Roman design. An amazing set of socks were discovered in Aurine Alps, not far from Hallstatt along an Iron Age trade route pass, and have a radiocarbon date of between 8th and 5th centuries BC. (Figure 47) The under leggings were a tabby weave of soft, natural grey to brown goats' hair. About 62 cm long and 16 cm wide with a circumference of more than 34 cms and slightly cone shaped with a flap that 10 may have been tucked into the shoes. The second set of outer leggings were of a coarser goats hair of herringbone twill in similar colors to the first with a little brown red. About 55 cm long, 16 cm wide with a circumference of 34 cm. These have several patches and thin cords which secure the stocking to the heel and big toe. Inner slipper like shoes of thin wool 2/2 twill were manufactured from 10 separate pieces assembled together. Two patches were sewn into the inside of the slippers to strengthen the soles while another two patches were added to protect the pointed toe and heels. (Bichler 2005) The Romans stationed in Southern Scotland found the conditions inhospitable to their Mediterranean footwear. This is supported by a letter to a Roman soldier at Vindolanda, along Hadrian’s Wall in Southern Scotland for which it states, “have sent(?) you...pairs of socks from Sattua, two pairs of sandals and two pairs of underpants, two pairs of sandals....” (Tab. Vindol. II.346) Additionally, a bronze alloy handle from a razor in the form of a sandaled Roman foot with an obvious thick wool sock was found at this same location. (Figure 48) Indeed, just such a child’s sock was found at Vindolanda which is the only garment which survives in its entirety. (Figure 49) One Celtic answer we do know of that answers probably both warmth and comfort was that of a leather shoe stuffed with grass from Hallstatt. Almost all examples of Celtic shoes are manufactured rather as leather slippers. Many of these are designed using one piece of leather placed under the sole of the foot and folded, sewn, or gathered around the toes and heel incasing the foot. In some cases the leather has been cut much like Scottish Ghillies which produce a rather ornamental look. Other times they reflect Roman leather sandals for which undoubtedly at times reveal Roman influence. Other types of garments should also be noted such as bags and hats. These are in rare form but do exist. A number of preserved hats have been found in Hallstatt. Two of these, one a child’s cap the other an adult cap found in the salt mines, resemble toboggans manufactured from lambskin. (Figure 51) Similar leather caps have been found in the Iron Age Tulland Bog burial which had ties (Figure 52) and in one of the burials from Les Martres de Veyre (Figure 53) another leather fitted cap was discovered. In addition Hallstatt has several beret style caps of brown and black sheep skin, with the fleece facing out. A rather odd shaped hat from the Hallstatt period is manufactured from sheep skin in a dome shape which leaves the fleece around the bottom edge. (Figure 54) The skin has been dyed blue with black wool trim. A fine example of the Celtic flair for hates was found in the Hochdorf Chiefian’s burial which featured the remains of a coolie like incised birch bark hat. (Figure 55) This style of hat is represented in a grave statue from Hirschlanden, near Stuttgart from the 5th Century BC which is a short distance from where the Hocdorf tomb was discovered. (Figure 56) Several different types of bags exist but the majority of these were discovered at Hallstatt others only remain in pieces and are only notable for the fact they once were probably bags of some sort. Included in these were several salt miners’ leather knapsacks from the salt mine at Halllstatt which date to the 10th-9th BC and measure 90 cm in length. (Figure 57) These were manufactured from cow hide with the knap facing out in conical shapes with flat bottoms. The upper lips of the bags were reinforced by weaving leather cording horizontally and two willow poles on either side of the bag. These had one strap which probably fit around the fore head or possibly across the chest for securing and a wooden rod handle attached to it for hauling. Another hauling sack from the mines which 11 dates to the same period was manufactured from a complete sheep’s skin. (Figure 58) The last bag from this period is a lovely knap sack with a folding flap. (Figure 51) 12  Figure 1- Two types of looms employed during the Iron Age in Europe, the warp weight and tublar looms. (National Museum of Denmark ‘looms’) Figure 2-Weave types from Iron Age Europe. (Jorgensen 12) A. tabby, B. half basket, C. basket, D. ½ twill, E. ½ Rippenkoper, F. 2/1 Chevron Twill, G. 2/1 Lozenge or diamond twill, H 2/2 Diagonal twill, I 2/2 chevron twill, J. 2/2 Herringbone or broken twill, K. 2/2 lozenge twill, L. 2/2 diamond twill 13  Figure 3- A variety of textiles found at Hallstatt 10th-9th BCE. (Grömer Figure 2) Figure 4- Danish bog textiles from the Iron age. These have been stained by the tannin in the soil. (National Museum of Denmark, ‘bog textiles’) 14  Figure Figure 7- Hallstatt 6- A piecetextile of original find green showing plaid wool detailfrom of whip Hallsatt, stitchAustria embroidery. and its reproduction (Grömer Figure presently 1) housed at the Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria. (Larsen 2006) Figure Figure 9-Reconstruction of designs on 8- Reproduction the bottom of plaid of a woman’s twill discovered at Qizilchoqa, garment done in silk on wool from the Hallstatt tomb VI at Hohmichele. 6th century BC. (Barber China Figure 7.3) 5- from the Woolen burials cloth with of Urumchi. brown 1200-700 stripes, BCE. (Barber from the 13b) ancient salt mine at Hallstatt 10th-9th BCE housed presently at the Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria. (Lessing Photo Archive 07-01-01/26 HALLSTATT CULTURE TEXTILES) Figure 10 and 11- Examples of reproductions of tablet woven borders found on the fabric draped across the caldron in the Hochdorf tomb. This band has been recreated by Lise Ræder Knudsen. (Knudsen photos 1 nd 2) Figure 13- Reconstruction of one of the Hochdorf Textiles. (Celtic Art and 15 the Figure 12 -Original textile fragments from the cauldron in theCulture Hochdorf burial. Johanna Banck tablet weaves Eberdingen- reconstruction for the Hochdorf Museum and the finished piece lies drapped Hochdorf as it did in prehistory. (Keten Museum Burial: Hochdorf Banck Foto rechts) Textile)Reconstruction  Figure 14- Bands (detail) by Marijke van Figure 15- Details of a reproduction piece of Epen, recreated from pictures of the famous tablet woven border based on the wall bands finds from the Celtic chieftain burial of in the Hochdorf chieftain’s burial. Piece by Hochdorf. (Epen Photo 4) Lise Ræder Knudsen. (Knudsen Photo 3) Figure 16- Original tablet woven ribbons or borders from Figure 17- Sketch of one Hallstatt tablet Hallstatt. Presently at the National Museum in Vienna. ribbon as shown on the left. (3000 Years (Gromer Plate 15) of colour ‘slide prsentation’) 16 Figure 18- The Roman copy of the Suicidal or Figure 19- Reproduction of the Princess of Ludovisi Gaul from the victory monument erected by Zweeloo’s dress from Drents Museum in the Attalus I at Pergamum soon after 230 B.C. (Attalus Netherlands. 5th century AD. (Encyclopedie Suicidal Gaul) Drenthe Online- Gewaad van de Prinses van Zweelo) Figure 20- Female images off of the Gundestrup Cauldron found in Denmark from 1st BCE presently at the National Museum in Denmark. (Lessing 09-01-03/ 7) 17 Figure 21- Huldremose Woman’s bog Figure 22- Huldremose skirt, cloaks Figure 23- The Huldremose dress now housed at the National and scarf presently housed at the Woman’s scarf. (Glob 25A) Museum of Denmark. 2nd century BC. National Museum of Denmark. (Archaeology Magazine Huldremose (National Museum of Denmark Woman) ‘Kvinden fra Huldremose’) Figure 24- Huldremose Woman’s skirt. (National Figure 25- Detail of double blanket stitch used on Museum of Denmark ‘Det ternede skørt fra Huldremose Woman’s skirt. (photo unknown) Huldremosekvinden’) 18  Figure 27- Reproduction of the Figure 26- Reproductions of the Huldremose finds. (The Tolland Loenne Hede costume. (Kelticos, Man ‘clothes worn by Huldremose woman’) Iron Age Card Weaving) Figure 29- Reproduction of the Figure 28- remanents of the original Vertical tablet border on the Loenne Hede find. (National Loenne Hede skirt. (Brikvævning, Museum of Denmark ‘Loenee Tablet Borders) Hede) 19  Figure 30- Tunic and stockings from Les Figure 31- photo of the tunic from Martres de Veyre which Martres de Veyre in France. (Gidney Fig 1) shows the ‘fold’ or tuck in the garment. (Audollent fig 1) Figure 32- Close up of belt sash on tunic found at Figure 33- wool slippers found at Martres de Veyre. Martres de Veyre. (Fuller figure 8) (Fuller ‘Second century woolen slippers’) 20  Figure 34- One of the stockings from Martres de Figures 35 and 36- finely made hob nail shoes found in Veyre. (Fuller figure 11) Martres de Veyre. (Fuller figures 13 and 14) Figure 37- reproduction of the Thorsberg costume presentlyFigure on 38- Thorsberg cloak reproduction presently housed at the National Museum of exhibit at the National Museum of Denmark. (Kelticos, Thorsberg Cloak) Denmark. (Photo unknown) 21  Figure 39- The original Thorsberg trews and tunic from Figure 40- Leg wraps from the Roman period the National Museum of Denmark. (National Museum of found at Søgård Mose II at Viborg, Denmark Denmark ‘Thorsborg’) from the Skive Museum, Denmark. (National Museum of Denmark ‘benviklers’) Figure 41- Statue of a man wearing a ‘sagum’ or ‘lein’ from Neuvy-en-Sullias which is presently at Figure 42- Hallstat bronze scabbard. Detail, from the Musée Historique et Archeologique, Orleans, tomb 994, Hallstatt burial site, Austria. France. 1st BCE. (Lessing 07-01-03/34) 22 (Scholars Resource XIR-182595) Figure 43- Statue of a warrior deity, embossed sheet bronze, eyes of glass paste; from St.Maure en-Chaussee, Oise, France. (Lessing 06-02-02/61) Figure 44 and 45 – Stylized male warriors from the Gundestrup Cauldron found in Denmark from 1st BCE presently at the National Museum in Denmark. (Lessing 09-01-03/2209-01-03/18) 23  Figure 47- Socks found Aurine Alps, not far Figure 46- Wedge shoes from with wool Hallstatt. fragments Presntly found at on display at the Martres de Veyre (Fuller South Inventory Tyrol Museum9878-23-36). of Archaeology, Italy. (South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology ‘The clothing finds from Rieserferner’) Figure 49- A child’s sock found at Vindolanda, Handrian’s Wall, Scotland. Presently at the Roman Army Museum at Vindolanda. (Vindolanda Tablets on Line ‘A child's woollen sock’) Figure 50- Leather shoe made from one Figure 48- Bronze handle of a Roman razor foundpiece of at Vindolanda, leather,At the Hadrian’s Wall, Scotland. Figure 52- Tollund Figure manArmy Roman 51- Leatherbog body from with Museum, knap sack andtheTobogan skin cap 220- 40BCE. Presently Vindolanda. like cap from at theancient kept (BBC Silkeborg News Hallstatt. 8 razor -3rd BCE. Museum, Denmark. (Science picture) Presently Photosaltmine at HallstattLibrary Museum. E439/0015) (Lessing 07-02-03/53) at Hallstatt from 8th-3rd BCE. Presently at the National History Museum Figure 53- Cap from Les Martres de Veyre. (Photo Unknown) 24  Figure 54- Cap discovered at Hallstatt presently at the Museum of Natural History, Vienna. (National Museum of History ‘Leather Cap from Hallstatt’) Figure 55- The Hochdorf Chieftain’s birch bark hat. (Photo unknown) Figure 56- Celtic warrior statue found at Hirschlanden, Germany about 5 kms from the Hochdorf chieftian’s burial. (Barbarians on the Greek Periphery ‘Hirschlanden Warrior’) Figure 57- Hallstatt Salt pack. On display at the 25 Hallstatt Museum, Austria. (Lessing 07-01- 01/22) Works Cited: Figure 58- Sheep skin salt pack from Hallstatt presently displayed at the 3000 Years of Hallstatt Museum, Austria. (Lessing colour- From Tradition to Art and 07-01-01/21) Innovation. 2nd International Symposium on Hallstatt Textiles. Last updated January, 6, 2012. http://3000yearsofcolour.nhm-wien.ac.at/ Archaeology Magazine-Online, ‘Bodies of the Bogs’, Clothing and Hair Styles of the Bog People, Posted December 10, 1997-Last updated May 2010. www.archaeology.org/online/features/bog/clothing1.html Arnold, Dr. Bettina, Professor of Anthropology University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee on Septermber 22, 2011, personal communication. Audollent, Aug. “Les Tombes des Martres-de-Veyre” Man, Vol. 21 (Nov., 1921), pp. 161- 164. Banck-Burgess, Johanna, Hochdorf IV: Die Textilfunde, (Germany, Konrad Theiss,1999) pp. 80-82. BBC News, ‘Roman conquerors had woolly socks’, Last updated May 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/4563337.stm Barbarians on the Greek Periphery? Sites, Hirschlanden, Last updated 1997. www2.iath.virginia.edu/Barbarians/Sites/Hirschlanden/Hirschlanden.html Barber, Elizabeth The Mummies of Urumchi, (Great Britain: Macmillan Publishers, 2000) Prehistoric Textiles, (United States: Princeton University Press, 1991) Barth, Fritz Exkart, “Prahistorisches Schuhwerk Aus Ded Salzbergbauen Hallstatt Und Durrnberg/Hallein.”, Feastschrift zum 50jahrigen Besthen des Institutes fur Ur- und Fruhgeschichte der Leopold-Franzens-Universitat Innsbruck, UPA Bonn (1992) pp. 25-35. Bergquist, Anders and Timothy Taylor, “The origins of the Gundestrup Cauldron”, from Celts from Antiquity, ed. Gillian Carr and Simon Stoddart. (Cambridge: Antiquity Papers Ltd. 2002) 26 Bichler, Et, “Hallstatt Textiles: technical analysis, scientific investigation and experiment on Iron Age textiles" (United Kingdom: 2005) Brikvævning, last updated 2012. www.lodal.net/Vajd/Brikvaevning.htm Celtic Art and Culture, Images, Image Search. Last update 1998. http://www.unc.edu/celtic/ Collingwood, Peter, The Techniques of Tablet Weaving, (United States: Faber and Faber Limited, 1982) Cunliffe, Barry, The Celts- A Very Short Introduction, (United Kingdom: Oxford Universtiy Press, 2003) Demant, Ida, “The Poor People from Lonne Hede- Presentation of First Century Graves with Preserved Textiles” from Rast-Eicher, A.and R. Windler Nesat XI Archaeological Textilefund- Arcaheological Textiles S. Last update 2011. www.ku- dk.academia.edu/idademant Dottin, Georges, The Civilization of the Celts, (New York: Crescent Books, 1970) Ellis, Peter Berresford, The Ancient World of the Celts, (Great Britain: Constable and Company Limited, 1998) Encyclopedie Drenthe Online, Prinses van Zweeloo, Last update unknown. www.encyclopediedrenthe.nl/Prinses%20van%20Zweeloo# Epen, Marijke van. Tablet Weavers Gallery 26, Tablet Weaving Exhibition in Breda, The Netherlands, Spring 2001. www.weavershand.com Firstbrook, Peter, Surviving the Iron Age, (Great Britain: BBC Books, 2003) Freeman, Philip, War, Women, and Druids- Eyewitness Reports and Early Accounts of the Ancient Celts, (United States:University of Texas Press, 2002) Frey, Otto Hermann, “Celtic Princes in the Sixth Century B.C.” from The Celts, ed. Venceslas Kruta et al. (United States: Rizzoli International Publishing Inc, 1991) Fuller, Michael and Neathery Fuller, Virtual Museum of Medieval Archaeology, Second century Roman textiles and leather shoes and Second century Roman glass and wooden artifacts on display in the Musée d'archéologie Bargoin in Clermont, France Images uploaded November 8, 2008. http://users.stlcc.edu/mfuller/sca/sca.html Gidney B.A. Hons., Louisa, “The Romano-Gaulish Woman's Garments from Les Martres de Veyre: A Possible Reconstruction.”, Last update January 1, 2010, http://www.rentapeasant.co.uk/romanogaulish.html. 27 Good, Irene. “On the Question of Silk in Pre-Han Eurasia” Antiquity, Vol 69 (1995) 959- 68. Glob, P.V., The Bog People- Iron Age Man Preserved, (United States: Cornell University Press, 1969) Grömer, Dr. Karina and Peter Grömer-Mrazek, Dress ID- Project: "Clothing and Identities" – Textiles from Hallstatt, Last updated February,13, 2008. http://dressid.nhm-wien.ac.at/textile_e.html Gromer, Karina, “Tablet-woven Ribbons from the prehistoric Salt-mines at Hallstatt, Austria - results of some experiments” from Hallstatt textiles: technical analysis, scientific investigation and experiment on Iron Age textiles ed. Peter Bichler, (Oxford: Archaeopress 2005) Haffner, Alfred, “The Princely Tombs of the Celts in the Middle Rhineland” from The Celts, ed. Venceslas Kruta et al. (United States: Rizzoli International Publishing Inc, 1991) Hartl, Anne and Regina Hofmann Keijzer, “Imitating Ancient Dyeing Methods From Hallstatt Period- Dyeing Experiments in Weld, Indigo and Oak Bark.” From Hallstatt Textiles- Technical Analysis, Scientific Investigation and Experiment on Iron Age Textiles, ed. Peter Bichler, (Great Britian: Archaeopress, 2005) Kelticos, Ancient crafts: Working with Textiles. www.Kelticos.org Thorsberg Cloak. Last updated July 27, 2010. Iron Age Card Weaving. Last updated April 14, 2006. Keijzer, Regina Hofmann-de and Anna Hartl, “Ancient textiles – recent knowledge: a multidisciplinary research project on textile fragments from the prehistoric salt mine of Hallstatt”, 14th Triennial Meeting The Hague Preprints, Vol II (2005) pp. 920-926. Knudsen, Lise Ræder. Tablet Weaving by Lise Ræder Knudsen, Reconstructions, Hochdorf. Last updated February 6, 2012. http://www.tabletweaving.dk/ Jones, A.H.M., “The Cloth Industry under the Roman Empire,” The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 13, No. 2 (1960), pp. 183-192. Jones, Heather Rose. “Archaeological Sewing” Last update January 2, 2011, http://www.heatherrosejones.com. Jorgensen, Lise Bender, North European Textiles until AD 1000, (Denmark: Aarhus University Press, 1992) 28 Kelten Museum Hochdorf, Das Kelten Musem, Das Museum. Last updated 2012. ww.keltenmuseum.de Larsen, Diana. Flickr ‘dianapeluce’, Photo taken April 27, 2006. http://www.flickr.com/photos/25169202@N00/155935245/in/photostream/ Lessing Photo Archive, searchable museum collections database, last update unknown. www.lessing-photo.com Mohen, Jean-Pierre, “The Princely Tombs of Burgundy” from The Celts, ed. Venceslas Kruta et al. (United States: Rizzoli International Publishing Inc, 1991) Museum of Natural History, Vienna- Department of Prehistory, Highlights of Our Collection, Iron Age. Last update January 14, 1998. http://winserion.org/NHM/Prehist/Homepage_PA_E.html National Museum of Denmark, The Exhibition- Early Iron Age, The woman from Huldremose. Last update unknown. http://oldtiden.natmus.dk/moeder_med_danmarks_oldtid/language/uk/ Ryder, Michael L., “Skin and Wool Remains from Hallstatt” from Circaea 10 (1993) pp. 69-78. Scholars Resource, Collection Search, Figurine of a man wearing a sagum from Neuvy-en- Sullias, Last update unknown. www.scholarsresource.com/ Science Photo Library, Bog Bodies, last updated 2012. http://www.sciencephoto.com/ Smith, Andrew. Attalus-Greek & Latin authors on the web. Last update unknown. http://attalus.org/index.html South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology, Exhibitions , Permanent exhibition: Archaeology in South Tyrol, The Iron Age,Clothing finds from Rieserferner. http://www.iceman.it/en Tollund Man- A Face from Prehistoric Denmark, Clothes and Fashion -at the Time of the Tollund Man. Last updated 2004. http://www.tollundman.dk/toej.asp Vindolanda Tablets on Line, Exhibition, People. Last update unknown. http://vindolanda.csad.ox.ac.uk/exhibition/Sock.shtml Wild, J.P. “Soft Finished Textiles in Roman Britain” The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 17, No. 1 (May, 1967), pp. 133-135. 29