Chai, Charas & Changa
Psychedelic Gnosis in Psytrance Gatherings
Giorgia Gaia
Contested Knowledge
University Van Amsterdam
2014/2015
1
Introduction
Leaving this dance floor is like finding the best route out of a metropolis.
Floating on a wave of exhilaration and the aromas of chai, charas and changa,
1
eventually I emerge out of the Temple and disappear into the wider festival.
(St John 2012: 3)
This paper explores the experience of psychedelic gnosis as it occurs for participants during
psychedelic trance festivals, focusing on a triad of material festive techniques that affect
this experience. By psychedelic gnosis, I mean the practice of self‐discovery and re‐
connection with ‘cosmic consciousness’ facilitated by the use of a wide range of psychedelic
techniques and practices, including but not limited to psychoactive compounds, that
facilitate ‘mind manifesting’ (St John and Baldini 2012: 529).
The word ‘psychedelic’ is in fact composed from the Greek words psyche, which means
‘spirit’, ‘soul’ or ‘mind’ and delein, meaning ‘to manifest’ or ‘to open’. After the term was
introduced in 1956 by psychiatrist Humphry Osmond to refer to a certain class of
psychoactive drugs, it rapidly entered alternative and popular culture where it was used to
characterize specific genres of music and experiences generally related to alteration of
consciousness. The term ‘psychedelic trance’ refers to a genre of electronic dance music
that has circulated worldwide since the mid‐1990s, and is connected foremost with an
occultural milieu that has its roots in the late 1960s when Western psychedelic travelers
converged seasonally on the beaches of Anjuna, India. 2
Known as ‘psytrance’ or ‘psy’, it is today a transnational movement whose
participants have moved decisively from all‐night raves in clubs and industrial areas to all‐
1 St John is referring to his experience at Boom festival, a renowned international psytrance festival that takes place in
Portugal every two years. The Temple reference relates to the main stage of the event and is commonly known as the
2
Psychedelic trance is characterized by complex layered melodies that are composed of a bass line, a four‐four‐time kick,
synthesizers, spatial melodic sounds and a tempo generally typically ranging from 140 to 160 BPM.
2
week festivals held in unique open‐air locations, celebrated often upon occasions of
astronomical significance, particularly solstices and equinoxes, and throughout the summer
in regions worldwide. Psytrance festivals are especially popular in Europe, with the number
of attendees ranging from a few hundred to thirty‐five thousand people.3 Requiring that
participants commit to travel far from home, and become intimate with natural elements,
often facing extreme weather conditions, psytrance festivals are reminiscent of religious
pilgrimages. Combining physical and psychological voyages, implemented with the
assistance of a privileged means of mobility (D’Andrea 2007) and the use of psychoactive
substances, annual psytrance gatherings have also been compared to ‘extreme sports’,
where rational consciousness, self‐restraint and inner strength are taken to their limits (St
John 2012: 153). Responding to the individuals’ need of ecstatic and euphoric experiences
(Ott 1996), the numbers of participants appears to increase each year.
Within psytrance, the ‘crisis of the self’ in modern culture has triggered the desire
for individual transformation, aiming at positive human evolution through a process of
radical gnosis. While entheogens4 are considered sacred instruments, used consciously
within this movement to gain higher knowledge of one’s self and of reality, the communion
with others is equally important. The transformative process of self‐discovery is deeply
influenced by the ecstatic use of psychoactive compounds as well as by the sensational
unity experienced as a part of the festival crowd, representing a ‘transnational network of
alternative lifestyles in utopian spaces’ (D’Andrea 2004: 238). Inspired by Graham St John’s
commentary and based on my experience as a participant in this culture, this chapter will
explore chai, charas and changa as recurrent material elements in psytrance gatherings, the
reasons for their circulation, and how they gained such a central position in the process of
psychedelic gnosis. Chai is a mixture of tea and spices typical to India; charas is a particular
3
There were 35,000 participants at Boom Festival in 2014, according to Boom’s official website [This needs a URL]
4
The term entheogen derives from an old Greek word meaning ‘realizing the Divine within’. Carl Ruck, Gordon Wasson and
Jonathan Ott, together with other ethnobotanists, introduced this term in 1979 to indicate sacred plant‐drugs that induces
states of divine inspiration and mystical states, those substances being mainly used in shamanic or religious rites. The term
entheogen was meant to replace other terms such as hallucinogen, used by Aldous Huxley in relation to his experience
with mescaline, or psychedelic, considered to be inappropriate to define those inebriants, given their relationship to
delirium or psychosis. (Ott 1996) The information in this endnote is inaccurate. The first sentence needs to properly
identify etymology – i.e. the root words (and the meaning) combined in entheogen. The final sentence conflates the
meaning of the terms that “entheogen” was invented to overcome.
3
kind of hashish; and changa is a mix of herbs and DMT.5 Each of these elements has a
meaningful backstory and plays an important function in the transformative ritual enacted
during psytrance festivals. In conducting this research, I was particularly intrigued by the
way psychonauts attending psytrance gatherings in the search for new ways to expand their
consciousness have discovered these three conduits to psychedelic gnosis throughout the
festival experience, and how they understood the symbolism and function related to them.
Despite the fact that many participants know chai, charas and changa by name and
have experienced them first hand, a considerable proportion of consumers use these
materials unaware of their origins and history, mostly due to a lack of available information.
This chapter will explain these substances, outlining their historical origins and functions in
relation to the phenomenological process of psychedelic gnosis experienced by participants
at psytrance festivals. I will include first‐hand observations and quotes from interviews I
conducted during fieldwork at Ozora (Hungary) and at Black Moon (Italy) in the summer of
2013 and at Boom Festival (Portugal) in 2014. In‐depth exploration of this material will also
help to distinguish psytrance as a transnational phenomenon and to encourage discussion
on the hybrid nature of this contemporary form of spirituality whose practitioners
experiment with psychedelic compounds at gatherings around the world. Before turning my
attention to these cultural materials, I will briefly explore the history of psychedelic trance
and how the concept of psychedelic gnosis has developed in scholarly discourse.
From Anjuna to Boom Festival
The social experiments of traveller expatriates in Anjuna and the surrounding beaches of
Goa, India, from the late 1960s laid the foundations for the dance music movement that
came to be called Goa trance, a phenomenon that evolved into psychedelic trance and
expanded to Europe, Israel, Japan, North America, Australia and South Africa by the late
1990s, and subsequently to Central and South America (St John 2014). Psyculture was
shaped on the shores of Goa where a large hippy community had settled after the
5
DMT (N,N‐dimethyltryptamine) is a naturally occurring tryptamine found in many plants worldwide and is created in
small amounts by the human body during metabolism. DMT‐containing plants are commonly used in several South
American shamanic practices, and is one of the main active constituents of the drink ayahuasca.
4
disillusions of the failed ‘60s love revolution, the prohibitionist and conservative policies of
US governments and the threat of a nuclear war. The movement gained force as
spontaneous beach dance jams evolved in the 1970s into regular full moon gatherings with
concerts and live bands. Meanwhile, ‘Goa’ was established as a seasonal society comprised
of privileged ‘freak’ refugees seeking liberation from the ‘structures of oppression’ they
experienced in their native countries (St John 2014). Incorporating the views of
counterculture idols such as Aldous Huxley, Timothy Leary and Terence McKenna, this ‘freak
ethnoscape’ (D’Andrea 2004: 240) created space for a new psychedelic tradition, an
idealistic continuation of the ‘psychedelic revolution’ fueled by the circulation of LSD in the
1960s (Partridge 2004). Confirming that the ‘hippie ethic’ was in renaissance, the Goa
experiment was not simply a wistful imitation of the past but the beginning of a new
musical and transnational cultural movement with spiritual significance. With the dawn of
the 1980s, pilgrims to Goa arrived from the Western underground club scene bringing new
musical equipment and fusing new styles of electronic music trying to translate in sound
what came to be identified as the Goa ‘state of mind’ (see Elliot 2010). Post‐hippie and post‐
punk freaks continued to gather at the Indian paradise, arriving from different corners of
the world, to enjoy music, drugs and freedom in a sheltered environment, enabled by
priviledge in a post‐colonial context.
By 1995, dance music experiments in Goa had been converted into the Goatrance genre,
subsequently psychedelic trance, which has fragmented into many subgenres (i.e. dark,
progressive, hi‐tech, full‐on, forest, etc). Since the mid‐1990s, while the Indian seasonal full
moon parties remained, legal and illegal events inspired by the same movement, or
sometimes organized by the same seasonal Goa travelers, have spread around the world.
The powerful combination of electronic sound media, psychoactive compounds and
Internet communication gave birth to a transnational phenomenon comprised of
‘heterotopian religio‐spiritual enclaves in a highly optimized, and yet rarely consensual,
techno‐mystical movement’ (St John and Baldini 2012: 522). In 1997, the first edition of
Portugal’s Boom Festival signaled the beginning of a new era in this movement, where
psychedelic trance festivals, inheriting the seasonal sensibility of the Goa experience,
became the Western mirror of the Eastern psychedelia. International gathering are an arena
for enacting a ‘parascientific and psyspiritual syncretisms’ (D’Andrea 2004) where
5
participants delighted with the condensed and evolved Goa experience, are transported in
the surreal and temporary festival atmosphere, fulfilled by exotic commodities and esoteric
philosophies. Characterized by a self‐identified “tribal” sensibility, psytrancers are
‘neonomads’ are idealistically inspired by the easthetic and cultural cliché of traditional
natives lores (D’Andrea 2004). Though developing distinct musical and aesthetic traits in
each country and region in which it takes hold, psychedelic trance culture recently emerged
as a global movement promoting an optimistic and conscious lifestyle and new experiences
of the sacred, as Baldini would argue resembling the mystical rites of antiquity (Baldini
2010). While psytrance musical production is still mainly independent from the mainstream
music industry, festival organizations are commercial, requiring official permits, admission
fees, management and event‐staff, contracted artists, security guards and rules of conduct
(St John 2014). This circumstance has fueled debate concerning the advancement of the
movement and its countercultural origins, raising questions about the typical designation of
the festival territory as a “Temporary Autonomous Zone” (Bey 1991).
Psychedelic Gnosis
The use of psychoactive substances is typical within psychedelic trance culture. From its
early stages in Goa, LSD became a favored facilitator of religious and mystical experiences.
When Albert Hoffman discovered the effects of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) on April 16th
1943, a synthetic chemical derived from alkaloids that are produced by the ergot fungus
that grows on rye, he planted the seed for a big cultural phenomenon to spread all over
Europe and U.S., which took the name of psychedelic revolution.
While psytrance fans self‐identify as direct descendants of the first psychedelic
revolutionaries, the revolutionary features of the counterculture had largely been
abandoned by the late 1970s. “Evolution” may prove a better term, as its connotations suit
the ethical and spiritual pursuits of contemporary psyculture.
As briefly mentioned in the introduction, the term ‘psychedelic’ is popularly
understood to relate to alterations of consciousness caused by psychoactive substances,
including those substances later identified as ‘entheogenic’ (Ott 1996). However, for the
purpose of this essay, the realm of psychedelia covers a wider cultural framework related
not only to the use of entheogens, but to musical subcultures, physical or metaphysical
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experiences (spontaneous or externally induced), and cultural milieus (Partridge 2004).
Since the common action of a ‘psychedelic’ intervention is the opening or manifestating of
mind, ‘psychedelic’ therefore regards all transformations of consciousness that are possible
in individuals or social groups.
Psytrance possesses interrelated preoccupations with the dissolution of ‘rational
consciousness,’ immersion in ‘cosmic consciousness,’and advancement or ‘evolution’ of
‘consciousness.’ St John and Baldini have outlined three modes of transit in the
transformative process of the alteration of consciousness: (1) a state of ecstatic
entrancement, potentiated by dance and the use of entheogens, where participants are
disconnected from voluntary modes of subjectivity and experience a dissolution of their
self‐consciousness; (2) the experience of a transpersonal state of mind drives the
participants to re‐connect with the dispossessed Gaian or Universal heritage and ‘cosmic
consciousness’, through a process of gnosis; (3) the psychonaut is now aware of his/her true
spiritual potential and his/her consciousness is evolved and renewed (St John and Baldini
2012: 524).
The second mode of consciousness transition is relevant to the concerns of this
chapter, as it represents the temporary liminal space where the ecstatic experience induced
by various techniques of shattering and reshaping identities (D’Andrea 2004) potentially re‐
connect the individual to the unitary nature of being and to a deep subjective and
experiential knowledge. In this phenomenological discovery of the self and the universe, a
gnosis (meaning knowledge in Greek) is obtained by the altered subject in the most
spontaneous and at the same time mysterious way. Contrasted with knowledge obtained
through reason or faith, the knowledge obtained by gnosis is strictly personal, non verifiable
and non communicable (Hanegraaff 2008: 139), while nevertheless life‐changing and of the
outmost significance to those who have received it. Thus the psychedelic gnosis consists of a
subjective and experiential opening of the mind towards the inner knowledge of our divine
nature, beyond science and rationality, often facilitated by the use of entheogens and
neoshamanic techniques (McKenna 1991). Through the process of psychedelic gnosis, the
‘very nature of our souls allows us direct access to the supreme, eternal substance of Being’
(Hanegraaff 2012: 406).
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In psyculture, the initialization and sustaining of certain ‘techniques of ecstasy’ (Eliade 1951)
is understood to be ‘self‐shamanising’, encouraging the psychonaut as pseudo‐scientist and
recalling McKenna’s idea of the shaman as a self‐sufficient anarchist. Inspired by the Do‐It‐
Yourself ethos of the entheogen movement, ‘self‐shamanising’ is the ability acquired by
users to be ‘their own clients and their own healers’ (Tramacchi 2006: 34).
The Power of Spices
Chai is Hindi for tea, deriving from the Chinese cha, which evolved into the British tea.
Although a tautology, the term ‘chai tea’ is popularly used to indicate spiced tea, also known
as masala chai, with masala being a combination of spices used in Indian cuisine. In addition
to spices and leaves of Camellia sinensis plant (i.e. tea leaves), traditional chai recipe
includes milk and preferably dark unrefined sugar. There is, however, nothing generic about
chai, in fact, recipes vary and are passed down through family lineages.
An apocryphal legend has it that a king’s chef concocted a recipe in a quest to create
a healing beverage, mixing the luxurious spices from his kitchen. Presence of tea plants is
attested in India since the first century A.D., although it became so popular consistently
later. “In less then two centuries (since the early 1800’s) India has become the largest
producer of tea in the world. Drinking tea there now is almost akin to breathing” (Rosen
2009: 10). The East India Company (EIC), founded by Queen Elizabeth I in 1600, played an
important role in the introduction of tea as a beverage in India, the Great Britain’s larger
colony until 1947. For centuries, EIC traded tea produced in China, but Queen Victoria
decided that growing tea ‘at home’ (i.e. in the colonies) would be more convenient than
trading with the Chinese. In 1823, Major Robert Bruce ‘discovered’ native tea trees in the
region known as Burmese Assam (Rosen 1999: 14). Today, the production of Indian tea is
divided into three regions with related tastes: Assam is located in the North East of India, it
is characterized by a smooth and hearty black tea with a strong flavor, the most diffused
and inexpensive; Darjeeling, also located in the North at the border with Nepal, is defined as
the ‘champagne of tea’, delicately and flowery perfumed; Nilgiri, the third choice tea with
fragrant and strong taste is produced in Southern India (Pettigrew 2001).
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All the variety of teas may be used to make chai, however Assam black tea is the
most appropriate given its strong taste, and it is less expensive and easily available.
Throughout India, chai is drunk mostly in the North, where charas is also produced, being as
popular there as Coca Cola is in the United States. Since the beginning of 19th century, the
practice of drinking chai spread to all parts of South Asia and far into the West, where its
popularity continues to grow today.
In Goa, the island where the psytrance movement found its origin, hippie freaks
used to drink chai already from the 1960s, before importing the taste into the Western
scene. The global psytrance gatherings became the cradle of chai tea’s consumption and
diffusion outside of India. Participants describe this sophisticated drink as having a unique
taste as well as a relaxing and clarifying effect. A chai tent called ‘Shiva Place’, or other
analogous tents present in every respectable psytrance event, is often the answer to all
needs. Usually located near the main stage of summer festivals, Shiva Place is an old circus
tent with an oriental fashioned chill‐out area, serving tasteful chai teas, coffee, fruit juices
and ‘energy balls’ made of chocolate and nutritious seeds. Chai tents, such as Shiva Place,
are social hubs with an important connecting role for the festival crowds, places where to
meet international psychonauts, where to exchange mysterious goods and underground
psychedelic knowledge, while having a rest before re‐start tripping with renewed energy.
My respondents report ‘chai break’ as an indispensable relaxing moment to support bodies
and physical needs, during challenging gnosis experiences.
I like the effect chai tea has on me. It seems to me to be very smoothing to the stomach and
also relaxing. When you're in the dancefloor dancing or tripping for a while and you’re thirsty
and you’re tired and you're a bit busted ... it's good to find a place to sit down and talk and get
a chai. It's like taking a coffee though in a party. Chai is the ritual to get some extra energy and
feel stronger. It also has a long lasting warming effect when it's cold, not only because the
drink is served hot but mostly thanks to the spices contained in it. (Interview with Rob, Italy,
33 years old, August 2014)
Chai’s powerful healing properties are said to derive from several blends of spices it
contains, commonly used in Indian cuisine and in ancient Ayurvedic medicine. Cardamom is
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native to the evergreen forests of India, and is used as a treatment for mouth ulcers,
digestive problems, and even depression. It is also a useful detoxifier, thanks to its diuretic
properties. Cinnamon derives from an essential oil found in the bark of cinnamon trees and
has a long history of use in Ayurvedic home remedies. It improves digestion and absorption,
and it removes toxins from the body. As a blood thinner, cinnamon can also prevents heart
attacks. Cloves are originally from Southeast Asia and are good for chills, lethargy or
depression and it is also used to treat neuromuscular degenerative disorder. Finally ginger,
also coming from Asia, has many curative uses: stimulate circulation, is a natural antiseptic
and prevents vomiting. Other spices can be added to chai, such as fennel, pepper, nutmeg,
licorice root, star anise, saffron, allspice and vanilla, each one with curative effects (Rosen
1999: 89).
‘It’s all about being in the body and out of your head’ explained a habitual
attendee. This attention to the body and one’s well‐being is typical of the psytrance milieu,
perhaps more than other EDM events. This is made evident in the Healing Area, zones
typically dedicated to yoga, meditation, breath work, conscious nutrition and other
techniques that enable ‘a wholeness of being, facilitating an evolved consciousness or Self’
(St John and Baldini 2012: 543).
Chai’s exotic ingredients and healing properties influence the imagination of
consumers, who sometimes attribute to chai supernatural powers. Participants defined chai
tea as the ‘drink of the gods’ or ‘an ancient holy Indian beverage’. In the views of spiritual
oriented individuals ‘the ancients have been recruited in the quest for consciousness
evolution’ and their mysteries delved in order to gain wisdom, authentication and
affirmation (St John 2013: 175).
This being said, the majority of people who attend psytrance gatherings,
independently of their origin, social status and age, interpret drinking chai tea as the sacred
healing ritual gesture borrowed from the India’s Oriental mystic tradition. Tribal
psychonauts, taking a pause from their intense psychedelic experiences, describe drinking
chai tea as a powerful healing tool to bring energy levels back into equilibrium, allowing
them to continue their spiritual mission. During the process of psychedelic gnosis, while
experiencing liminal states characterized by multiplicitous and liquid identities (Maffesoli
1996), psytrancers become temporary members of a neotribal community with its own
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symbols and uses, where every individual acquires new faculties and is able to be his/her
personal shaman or healer. Drinking chai tea, as a symbolic healing, warming and reviving
beverage, is among the most significant ‘self‐shamanising’ practices necessary for sustaining
what I call psychedelic gnosis.
Sacred Hashish
In the academic field of altered states of consciousness (ASC) it is not uncommon to find
scholars affirming that our species seems to have a natural attraction to consciousness
altering experiences. In Hashish Robert C. Clarke suggests that ‘humans probably discovered
the psychoactive effect of Cannabis by eating the resins that accumulated on their hands as
they collected ripe Cannabis seeds for food’ (2010: 62). Clarke assumes that after the
connection between ingestion of the resin and alteration of consciousness was made,
humans started to gather cannabis intentionally. Equally spontaneous it was the process of
making hashish:
There are two non‐chemical methods for collecting cannabis resin to manufacture hashish:
the resin glands containing psychoactive THC can be rubbed off living plants by hand, or they
can be collected by sieving after the plant has been harvested and dried. Though labor
intensive, hand‐rubbing requires no tools other than the fingers and palms of the hands and
was doubtless the first method of making hashish. (Clarke 2010: 62)
Apart from being the most natural way to produce hashish, hand‐rubbing is also the method
most suitable for humid climates, where drying the plants is very difficult. For this reason in
the Himalayan Foothills of Nepal, India and Kashmir, characterized by a rainy climate in
summer and fall, ancient hand‐rubbed hashish manufacture persists to this day (Clarke
2010). Hashish that is produced in this area according to these ancient techniques is called
charas, a word composed of the two Indian words ‘char’ and ‘ras’, literally meaning ‘four’
and ‘tastes’, which in the local traditions of the North of India refers to god, earth, plants
and man. Hindu people who live in this region believe that cannabis plants exist thanks to
Shiva, an important Hindu divinity. According to one of the myths regarding the origin of
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Cannabis, when Shiva arrived at his sixteenth reincarnation he had lost his love Parvati,
another divinity, who rejected him. Distraught by the loss, Shiva tore a seed from his thigh
and threw it in the surrounding mountains, thus giving rise to the spontaneous growth of
Cannabis plants. Until his death Shiva devoted himself to the consumption of charas, which
helped him forget the pain of his lost love (Rätsch 1991; Clarke 2010).
In the Vedic mythological realm charas is intimately related with Shiva, ‘he smokes
it, he is perpetually intoxicated by it, he is the Lord of Charas’ (Hartsuiker 1993: 137). Indian
Sadhus,6 the word meaning ‘holy man’ in Sanskrit, regularly smoke ceremonial chillums7 at
Hindu devotional meetings such as Bhajans chants8 or the more famous Khumb Mela9 to
symbolize their devotional fellowship to Shiva. Sadhus have different sects, being Shavai,
ascetics devoted to Shiva, and Vaishnava, renouncers devoted to Vishnu and his
incarnations, the two primary ones.
Charas is smoked by Shavais and Vaishnavas to facilitate meditation techniques
and it is commonly used in the temples dedicated to Shiva in the north of India. Although
the substance is officially banned by the Indian state since the 1980’s, its use, rooted in the
local religious traditions, is widespread. Shavais Sadhus are known as the best hashish
hand‐rubbers, devoting themselves to god Shiva, and therefore to consumption of charas.
Collecting charas in the traditional way is a long process that requires perseverance and
dedication; experienced collectors can rub between 10 and 25 grams of high‐quality resin in
one long day of work10. For this reason charas is a highly valued type of hashish, which is
often very expensive and not available internationally. Psytrancers revere charas as the best
quality of hashish it is possible to find, and the substance is of central importance for
6
Sadhus are Hindu mystics, the word means spiritual searchers, they are the indian equivalent to Sufi malang(s) or
dervishes (Clarke 2010: 109).
7
A chillum is a straight conical pipe traditionally made of clay and used since at least the eighteenth century by Sadhus.
8
Bhajan refers to traditional Hindu devotional songs.
9
Kumbh Mela is a mass pilgrimage of Hindu religious tradition. It is a gathering of about 100 million people to bath in a
sacred river. (Maclean 2008)
10
Hand‐rubbing is the most traditional way to collect charas. Other ways have been experienced such as using specific
leather clothes while moving through the ripe fields in specific period to collect the resin, or eventually naked, as Clarke
reports being a ‘romantic hippie folktale’ (Clarke 2010: 27). Nowadays there are also mechanical ways to collect charas, but
it is not comparable to the hand‐rubbed one.
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psyculture in general. This centrality of charas has historic and symbolic motivations as well
as practical and physical ones.
Charas has been present on psychedelic trance dancefloors since the beginning of
the movement itself; it was ‘discovered’ by hippies in the 1960’s and soon made its way to
the full moon party on Anjuna beaches, in Goa. Traditionally used by mystics and higher
castes of the Indian society, charas became popular in Western culture in the mid 1960’s
when young travellers, guided by counter‐cultural romantic dreams of an enchanted East,
arrived in Goa seeking for spiritual enlightenment and good quality hashish. The route
traversed by these ‘mystical smokers’ became widely known as the Hippie Hashish Trail.
This exotic smokers’ pathway was mapped and exported to the West by the hippies, but it
originated as a conglomeration of Sufi pilgrimage routes, hashish being a crucial part of
many mystical Sufi traditions; thus ‘the hippies found Sufi fakirs who would relate fantastic
tales of their cultural past while sharing their hashish’ (Clarke 2010: 97). The route went
through Balkh, an ancient city in Afghanistan, Chitral, hidden in the mountains of Pakistan,
and Manali, a northern Indian city traditionally known for being the home of Shiva. By 1969
the route was well known to the majority of the hippy travellers, and India was the spiritual
focus of this pilgrimage. One of the most important psytrance record labels today is called
Parvati Records; as well as being an Indian deity, Parvati is one of the two most famous
valleys where charas may be collected (the other being Kulu Valley near Manali). Experts say
that the charas produced in Parvati Valley is the best in the world.
The centrality of charas to the psytrance movement can further be seen in the
relationship Goa Gil, a forefather of the psytrance movement and mystagogue (McAteer
2002), has with the compound. Goa Gil is a 63 year old DJ born in California who has lived
on the Indian island of Goa since the 1970s, where he grew famous organizing the first full
moon parties that helped create and spread the psytrance phenomenon. Gil continues to
perform annual rituals worldwide, declaring his intention to temporary destroy the dancers’
egos and transport them into the 21st century recreation of ancient tribal rituals to ‘become
One in the Divine Ectasy of union with the Cosmic Spirit’ (Gil 2001). For more than thirty‐five
years Gil performed trance dance rituals in which he selected music for 24 or 48 hours
continuously. Defined also ‘an anomalous stalwart of Shaivite mysticism’ (St John and
Baldini 2012: 531), Gil is known to be a Sadhu of the Juna Akhara monastic order. Devoted
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to Shiva, the Lord of the Dance, Gil is a regular charas smoker. During his long‐lasting
performances he is often seen smoking chillum behind his altar‐like console, to honor the
deity and maintain high concentration in his meditative attitude towards DJ‐ing. Gil affirmed
that for him DJ‐ing is like doing yoga, and that smoking charas is an irreplaceable support
(Gil 2001). Practically, charas does have physical implications:
Even low quality Himalayan hashish is better than most other kinds. The really good hashish
produces by far the quickest spiritual blast‐off. Its bouquet is sweet and pungent, but its bite
will roast the inside of your lungs like a flash fire. It also scorches your mind: time and again
you realize that it is easy to take too much when only half a puff is needed. One deep puff of
first quality hashish makes you feel bodiless yet supersensual. (Cherniak 1979)
Being composed of the most psychoactive resin glands of Cannabis plants, charas has an
effect that could be reported as ‘high’ rather than ‘stoned’, a typical effect instead of
hashish in general. For all the reasons outlined until now, psytrancers included charas in the
realm of the ‘sacred’ substances to be combined with other psychedelic compounds
throughout the enlightening process of gnosis. Participants at psytrance events
demonstrated a strong knowledge of the substance and its features:
The problem of charas is that it is difficult to find of good quality but when this happens ... it's
beautiful! We smoke it in the chillum and so it is always a pleasure, because it gives you more
energy than a normal joint and it is more like a ritual. You have to pass it between friends or
even people who you do not know, creates certain energy flows even in the dancefloor. Then
those few people who have the true charas always have an amazing story to tell about how
they got it, as it is extremely difficult to get. It's a mysterious thing how it gives you the effect
that only charas does... and all those psychonauts who understand its sacred function, they
also think that there must be a spiritual reason for it.
(Interview with Francesco, Italy, 32 years old, August 2014)
Alongside drinking chai, smoking charas can be included in the self‐shamanising practices
and ritual gestures typical to psyculture. Walking around psytrance festivals, it is frequent to
find groups of people sitting or standing in a circle while smoking charas with an instrument
14
called chillum. Because of their simple design chillums are thought to be of ancient origins.
They take the form of a straight tapered tube, with a small stone loosely fitted in the
bottom of the bowl‐end to keep burning embers from being inhaled. Chillums are shaped
much the same as the simple pipes Native Americans used for smoking tobacco. Some
ceremonial chillum are very ornate. Chillum pipes are used heavily by hashish smokers
throughout the southern foothills of the Himalayas, particularly Kashmir, North India, and
Nepal (Clarke 2010: 273). This is the traditional Indian way to smoke charas, and the ritual
rules associated with the instrument are respected by psytrancers. The chillum must be
passed to the person sitting on the right side of the smoker; before inhaling, the smoker
should touch the chillum to their forehead and say the words ‘Bum Shiva’ or ‘Alakh!’,
honoring the deity as the Sadhus do, ‘each person usually inhaling deeply the smoke until
dazed before passing it on’ (Chopra 1957: 14). While acting ritually in a way similar to Hindu
religious authorities, tribal psychonauts potentiate with this gesture the spontaneous
communitas (Turner 1969: 132) existing during the festival experience, where participants
share liminal social and psychological states enhancing the sense of sacred hidden in many
repetitive acts.
Entheogenic Sacrament
In addition to chai and charas, the smoking of the psychoactive herbal blend changa
has been prevalent at psytrance events in more recent times. Erowid attests to its first
public appearance in the psytrance scene at Boom Festival in 2008, where one buyer was
wrongly informed that changa is a legal blend of four herbs said to be in the ‘family of DMT
and Salvia’.11 However, in most countries, changa cannot be considered legal, and none of
its ingredients are from Salvia divinorum. Consumers seem to have a very superficial
knowledge of the substance despite its use being widespread in the psytrance scene.
Often called ಫsmokable ayahuascaಬ, changa is a smoking mixture consisting of a
synergistic blend of herbs, those that contain DMT and MAO‐inhibitors as active ingredients.
Changa is unique in its combination of DMT with extracts or vine or leaves from the
11
Jon Hanna. “Got Changa?”. Erowid. erowid.org/chemicals/dmt/dmt_article1.shtml (Accessed January 2015)
15
Banisteriopsis Caapi, also referred to as ayahuasca vine, that acts as a ಫmonoamine oxidase
inhibitorಬ12 (MAOi). Although it is often used as such in particular events or outdoor
festivals, changa cannot rightly be described as a recreational or hedonistic drug, for its
effects are unpredictable, with experiences ranging from slightly frightening to absolute
ecstatic. Its effects are widely depicted as a journey into the mystery of life and divinity, or
as a leap in the profoundness of oneಬs psyche.
Hidden in the pages of the journal Entheogenesis Australis, an Australian
psychonaut and writer Julian Palmer claims to have invented the smoking mixture in 200313.
In the article published in 2011, Palmer explains how he first came to produce changa,
providing details concerning its composition. The ratio he suggests, maintaining that ಫeach
herb used in changa has its potency increased by a factor of 10ಬ (Palmer, 2014, p. 185), is
30% ayahuasca vine and/or leaf, 20% Mullein, 20% Passionflower, 20% Peppermint, 5%
Calendula and 5% Blue Lotus, ಯboth added after combining the DMT in order to preserve
their colour and textureರ. Palmer argues that ಯto make a whole bunch of herbs look good is
hard workರ (Personal Communication, June, 2015).
Nowadays, there are no fixed rules as for the use of specific ingredients within the
changa mixture. The presence of DMT and MAOi is the only guideline, and thus recipes vary
widely. Making changa is a creative process, which individuals often approach after
extensive online research or firsthand experimentation. Each creator experiments with
different varieties of smokeable herbs to create personalized blends for each particular
occasion. This creativity is a response to the Do‐It‐Yourself (DIY) ethos of the entheogenic
virtual community.
12
The most common MAO inhibitors used in changa blends are Banisteriopsis Caapi vine and Peganum Harmala, know as
Syrian Rue, both of which containg harmala alkaloids such as harmine and harmaline. When the Colombian pharmacist
Rafael Zerda Bayon isolated the constituent of yagè, the Tucanoan name for ayahuasca,, he gave it the name telepatina.
Telepathine was originally thought to be the active chemical constituent of Banisteriopsis Caapi. This name was given after
observing the effects of the brew on indigenous users, such as the ability to see future events, to encounter ancestral
spirits and to have telepathic communication among tribal members. Nowadays telepathine is known as harmine or MAO
inhibiting beta‐carboline (Callaway et al. 2005).
13
Palmer had already introduced the history of the blend in an anonymous form on a DMTnexus thread in 2010, under the
pseudonym chocobeastie.
16
During psychedelic experiments, which he calls ‘DMT initiation experiences’, Palmer
realized that smoking pure crystal DMT was unpleasant for the majority of people, because
of the intensity of the experience and the strange taste produced by the substance.
Together with friends he began experimenting with new ways of smoking DMT, aware of its
powerful potential.
We were always very impressed with the power of DMT to expand people’s paradigm
and create authentic awe in people regarding the awesomeness of life itself. People often said
the experience was life changing, and quite often a very big reference in people’s lives for
everything they did. (Palmer 2011: 98)
As Palmer reports, consumers appreciated the compound because it was similar to
DMT but much gentler, it is easier to handle than pure crystal DMT and it is smoked in joints
or pipettes. Moreover, changa allows people to smoke DMT at a ‘sub‐breakthrough’ level. In
this state one does not travel out of the body or enter into another dimension, such
experiences being typical when one smokes pure DMT. The invented name ‘changa’ came to
Palmer’s mind during an Ayahuasca session; he claims he liked its colloquial and earthy
tone, being paradoxical if compared to the ‘the spacey and exotic nature of the places it
could allow you access to’ (2011: 99).
Changa is a curious cultural phenomenon, which has its roots in the Australian
psychedelic milieu. Terence McKenna had visited Byron Bay, Australia, in 1997, in order to
lecture to the psychedelic community based there. During this lecture McKenna encouraged
the locals to recognise the ಫgolden wattleಬ, Australiaಬs national floral emblem, as a
representation of the Acacia tree, and a key source of DMT. However this came as little
surprise to many who attended this lecture, for Australiaಬs psychedelic characters were
already well aware of the national plantಬs secrets (St John, 2015b). In 1990 an anonymous
chemist at the University of Sydney had extracted DMT from locally sourced Acacia
Maidenii, and in 1993 Nen had identified Acacia Obtusifolia as another potential source of
the molecule, calling it a ಫprofound and rare gift from the bushಬ (in St John, 2015b). These
discoveries gave Australian psychonauts familiarity with DMT, which is one of the most
17
easily available psychedelic compounds in the country ‐ particularly because of the ferocious
guarding of the Australian borders against international importations.
Palmer argues that the psytrance scene played a major role in the worldwide
popularization of the smoking mixture, as my observation also confirmed.
Psytrance is a global scene, the people within that scene travel around a lot. That
scene brings together a lot of different individuals from a lot of different countries. Anyone
can end up at an outdoor doof party in the forest, "door is open", itಬs not a closed scene. I
think that scene had the right mobility to allow this new thing to take over and move around
the world as rapidly as it has. This has nothing to do with the music, just like "what's the
Grateful Dead got to do with LSD?ಬಬ. It was just that the Grateful Dead were touring around
America and that's where people would go, and that's where people go buy LSD. Changa
could not really take off in the techno scene; you cannot really smoke it indoors. The
psytrance scene is outdoors. I have smoked Changa indoors and, basically, hundreds of
people are going to be smelling and asking, "Who's burning the plastic furniture?" (J. Palmer,
Personal Communication, June, 2015)
In this light, changa can be considered as one of the most significant innovations in
the ‘technology of sacred’ available for tribal psychonauts and their process of psychedelic
gnosis. For the psytrancer, there can be little doubt that changa should be considered the
ultimate aid in the mystical journey undertaken.
Changa can give a turbo to your psychedelic effects especially if you're on LSD …
nowadays the mental states that can be achieved on the dancefloors are much more extreme
than ten years ago.
(Interview with Carol, Germany, 35 years old, August 2013)
Very much distant from the reptile‐like entities Strassman’s volunteer patients were
encountering (Strassman 2001), changa hallucinations are recorded as being lighter and
more artistically oriented: geometric patterns, fractals, distortion and the sharpening of
reality are common effects. Generally, the hallucinations caused by any compound
containing DMT are sources of inspiration for what is known as Visionary Art (Grey 2000),
18
upon which tradition the decorations and artistic work found at psytrance gatherings, are
built. Visionary art intends to transcend the physical world and show a wider vision of
awareness, including spiritual or mystical themes based in such experiences. Erik Davis
defines it as “art that resonates with visionary experiences, those undeniably powerful
eruptions of numinous and multidimensional perception that suggest other orders of
reality” (2006). During the 2013 Ozora festival Alex Grey, probably the most famous
visionary artist in the world, and his wife Allyson painted visionary art live on the main stage
throughout the day and night, while DJs played and participants danced ecstatically,
admiring the painting through their psychoactive visions.
Attendees also reported that changa has powerful healing effects, working by
balancing energies and relaxing the body, something which Palmer also claims. Other
participants suggested that the compound should not be considered dangerous because it is
not addictive14. In the psychedelic trance scene, changa is respectfully used as an
entheogenic sacrament which is able in a short time and through a relatively simple act to
‘awaken the divine within’15, leading towards a better understanding of consciousness and
reality. Compounds which contain DMT, understood to be, like ayahuasca16, entheogenic
sacraments, are able to provide the user with a gnostic re‐introduction into a ‘meaningful
universe of spiritual truth’ while emphasizing natural personal freedom and spiritual
autonomy as opposed to social manipulation and mental domination (Hanegraaff 2012:
408).
Changa is also symbolically interpreted in psyculture as the substance that puts the
consumer in a shamanic state, where alteration of consciousness is acquired with the intent
of interacting with ‘other worlds’ for beneficial purposes. After Terence McKenna’s
popularization of DMT and its Amazonian experiments (McKenna 1975; 1993), the
14
DMT in general is not considered an addictive drug like cocaine, heroin, or alcohol because it does not produce the same
compulsive drug‐seeking behavior. However, like addictive drugs, it produces greater tolerance in some users who take the
drug repeatedly.
15
Also the title of an interesting documentary “Entheogenesis: Awakening the Divine Within” (2007).
16
Changa has often been referred to as the Western ‘evolution of ayahuasca’ (Dorge, 2010), and ‘smokeable ayahuasca’
(Palmer, 2010), however this attribution is problematic. The combination of Banisteriopsis Caapi, also known as the
ayahuasca vine, with DMT in Palmer’s recipe resembles the composition of the traditional brew; however Mirante (2010)
argues that calling changa ‘an evolution of ayahuasca’ neglects the continuing indigenous use of the ayahuasca brew, and
is needlessly appropriative of this cultural tradition (also see St John 2015b).
19
psychoactive practices of native inhabitants of Central and South Americas have attracted
the attention of many spiritual seekers over the West. Within psyculture, shamanic
practices of indigenous people are symbolically central in developing an entheogenic
consciousness, much in the same way as ancient tea recipes and traditional hash production
methods are.
Practically, changa is often interpreted as the most powerful vehicle for the practice
of ‘self‐shamanising’ towards the goal of psychedelic gnosis. Many participants reported
that after smoking changa their psychedelic experience speeded up and found new, deeper
insights. Smoking changa enhances the feeling of liminality and the perception of the sacred
in nature and lived reality. This entheogenic sacrament, with its esoteric features, seems to
give users extremely personal experiences, which although difficult to be communicated
and articulated, still are interpreted as being of the outmost personal importance.
Conclusions
Transpersonal psychologist Stanislav Grof suggests that the absence of passage rites in
contemporary Western social structure is responsible for much of the pathology in our
culture (Grof 2000), which sees young innovators creating their own rituals. Psychedelic
trance festivals are an attempt to fill the void left by the advanced stages of disenchantment
in the West, where experience of the numinous is growing obsolete, creating a place for
those interested in experiencing the sanctity of the senses and the spirituality of life (Heelas
and Woodhead 2005). Searching and experimenting with new ‘techniques of ecstasy’,
participants demand a transformative act in order to transcend mundane reality and
experience the sacred manifest in nature. Attendees at psytrance festivals tend to endorse a
relativist philosophy formed from diverse cosmological and popular culture sources, using
symbols, associations and narratives of power to populate their transformative space. As
suggested by Christopher Partridge in his Re‐Enchantment of the West, while not a form of
organized religion, with churches and sects, psytrance is a ‘cultic spirituality’ that
participates in a network of shared interests, values and commitments (Partridge 2004: 63).
20
In this light, the tryptique idiomatic title Chai, Charas and Changa, reminiscent of the
famous Indian hymn ‘Chai, Chillum, Chapati’17 sung by tourists in the Parvati valley,
represents three reinvented ‘techniques of ecstasy’ which are used to sustain the liminal
process of psychedelic gnosis enacted during psytrance festivals, frequently used in
combination with LSD. They are technologies that act upon the body, spirit and mind and
their historic and symbolic backgrounds reveal much about the structures of influence that
underlie the psytrance movement.
Chai, the traditional spicy Indian tea, is a sacramental healing beverage. It is used to
support and nourish the body during the psychedelic gnosis experience. It draws symbolic
meaning from its ancient origins and practical functionality thanks to chai’s powerful
curative effects as taught by Ayurvedic wisdom, showing the Indian cultural legacies present
in the psytrance phenomenon.
Charas, a precious hand‐made type of hashish collected in the foothills of the
Himalayas, works on body and mind by enhancing sensual perceptions and meditative
faculties. Ritually smoked using an ancient instrument called chillum, charas is a heritage of
the 1960’s hippies’ earlier discoveries. Symbolically connected to Shiva, the Lord of the
Dance, it is the consecrated tool used to activate and develop a consciousness shift.
Changa is a newly constructed name for a powerful psychoactive substance with a
far more ancient history. Composed of the same active ingredients as Ayahuasca, it is a
smokable compound with strong psychedelic effects that speeds up the process of gnosis.
Containing the ‘spirit molecule’ it is the facilitator for what are often perceived to be
paradigm shattering experiences and is strongly associated with the visionary artistic
current that has appeared within the movement. Changa is also the symbolic link psyculture
claims with the native cultures of South America, by which the self‐shamanic aspect of the
practice is idealistically inspired.
An experiential attitude is a common feature of psytrance spirituality. This takes the
form of a focus on transformative actions that are seen as liberating for the body, mind and
17
There are several songs titled ‘Chai, Chillum, Chapati’. However the original one to which I refere here is ‘Chai Chillum
Chapati’ by Lawrence Glaister.
21
spirit. This liberation is necessary if one is to enter the ‘transpersonal state’ necessary to
accomplish the process of psychedelic gnosis. It is in order to accomplish this that the
psytrance festival becomes a ritual of transformation, widely seen as a tool to promote
human evolution. Central to understanding the psytrance festival phenomenon is that
personal gnosis cannot be experienced without a group to sustain it. This is why the lack of a
shared ritual dimension in the modern world can be so degrading; this is what drives
thousands people, pilgrims of all ages, to psytrance festivals all over the West. A festival
provides the safe environment which is necessary if one is to use neoshamanic practices in
order to achieve gnosis, for such practices often involve the use of psychoactive substances
which are condemned as hedonistic and dangerous by mainstream Western society.
Psychedelic trance festivals are thus unique social and cultural phenomena, for they provide
an arena of entheogenic awareness and empathic reconnection with the Gaian mind. An
‘archaic revival’ reminiscent of cosmotheistic and esoteric worldviews, viewed in opposition
to monotheism and rationalism, where participants are able to ‘access the supreme, eternal
substance of Being’ (Hanegraaff 2012: 406) through ecstatic states of mind while
simultaneously understanding their own divine nature. Often swept aside as another
example of modern counter‐culture, the syncretic cultic milieu that runs through
psychedelic trance gatherings should instead be interpreted as an example of entheogenic
esotericism, as elaborated by Hanegraaff, in which psychoactive substances are used in
order to gain spiritual insights into the true nature of reality and of the self. Gateways to
numinous experiences, largely forgotten in today’s world, the psytrance festival is an
‘hyperdimensional’ realm where the individual is set free from cultural programming and
has the chance to face the darkest parts of his or herself, resulting in the re‐evaluation of
social positions and structures. Old shamanic techniques are revived and new entheogenic
sacraments are shaped in order to assist the completion of this process. Many aspects of
psyculture still require serious study, for evidence shows that the majority of attendees at
psytrance festivals experience unique and life‐changing experiences, chai, charas and
changa taking the place of more traditional religious sacraments, and opening an avenue for
authentic spiritual experience in an increasingly secular world.
22
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